Geography case studies

Earth hazards
Earthquakes

Sichuan quake 2008 (china) (BRIC)

• The earthquake happened along the Longmen Shan fault under Sichuan province of
China. The Indian plate exerted a push to the north onto the Eurasian Plate.
(convergent margin)
• 7.9 on the Richter scale
• Although the focus point was deeper than 10 km below surface, the tremors were
felt in several other countries, including India and Russia
• Aftershocks were reported to be equal to or greater than a 6 on Richter scale

Immediate responses
· 20 helicopters were assigned to rescue and relief effects immediately after the disaster
· Troops parachuted in or hiked to reach survivors
· Rescuing survivors trapped in collapsed buildings was a priority
· Survivors needed food, water and tents to shelter people from the spring rains. 3.3 million
New tents were ordered.

Primary effects

• 69,197 dead, 374,176 injured, and 18,222 missing.

• It also resulted in around 4.8 million- 11 million homeless
• 10,000 died because of the collapse of about 7,000 schools and dorms
• The government did give mothers about $8,800 and a guarantee for a pension in
exchange for silence about the matter.
• 80% of buildings collapsed in rural areas such as Beichuan county due to poorer
building standards
• 5 million buildings collapsed
• The people there were pretty highly vulnerable because it is a very populated area.
This was what caused most deaths- the “shoddy” construction of buildings,
especially schools
Secondary effects

• Further effects included a train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailing in the Gansu
province, which caught fire after the earthquake destroyed/distorted the rails. The
rescue troops, who were supposed to help the victims, were delayed because of
highway destruction. All highways into Wenchuan were completely destroyed.

• Since the highways broke down, the effective lines of communication were broken.
While they were quickly aided, it is believed that the construction was so poor
because of local corruption
• Much of the worst damage occurred in mountain towns that were subsequently cut
off from the rest of the country when roads were destroyed in landslides. This made
it extremely difficult to locate people in need and deliver food and medical
assistance
• The Sichuan earthquake caused huge landslides across the affected region. Some
of these landslides fell into riverbeds and dammed the water - forming what are
called "quake lakes." Quake lakes are extremely dangerous for two reasons: first,
because the lake they create behind the landslide will severely flood nearby cities
and farmland, and secondly because the landslide dam will usually fail after
damming up a large amount of water, sending a huge wave of water downstream
that will destroy anything in its path.

Management

• Cash grants were distributed to around 63,000 rural households who fulfilled the
selection criteria in Mianzhu County, Sichuan. Each household received the
equivalent of 450 USD or 1500 USD to help them to reconstruct earthquake
damaged homes and housing related needs. this is equivalent to about six years’
worth of pre-earthquake disposable income for the average farmer
• The government began an ambitious reconstruction project to build about 5 million
houses across the 3 provinces within 2 years
• The government offered building subsidies (equivalent to 1500 USD) for homes and
loans that were first interest-free and then low-interest. However these were
substantially less than the cost of a house.
• Aid donations specifically money – over £100 million were raised by the Red Cross
One million temporary small were built to house the homeless
The Chinese government pledged a $10 million rebuilding funds and banks wrote off
debts by survivors who did not
• The government did give mothers about $8,800 and a guarantee for a pension in
exchange for silence about the matter.
 Haiti 2010

Facts
• On 12th January, an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale struck close to
Haiti's capital Port-au-Prince
• The earthquake occurred at a destructive plate margin between the Caribbean and
North American Plates, along a major fault line. (convergent plate boundary)
• The earthquakes focus was 13km underground, and the epicentre was just 25km
from Port-au-Prince
• Haiti has suffered a large number of serious aftershocks after the main earthquake
• $7.8 billion
•
Primary effects

• About 220,000 people were killed and 300,000 injured

• The main port was badly damaged, along with many roads that were blocked by
fallen buildings and smashed vehicles
• Eight hospitals or health centres in Port-au-Prince collapsed or were badly damaged.
Many government buildings were also destroyed
• About 100,000 houses were destroyed and 200,000 damaged in Port-au-Prince and
the surrounding area. Around 1.3 million Haitians were displaced (left homeless)
•
Secondary effects

• Over 2 million Haitiabs were left without food and water. Looting became a serious
problem
• The destruction of many government buildings hindered the government's efforts to
control Haiti, and the police force collapsed
• The damage to the port and main roads meant that critical aid supplies for
immediate help and longer-term reconstruction were prevented from arriving or
being distributed effectively
• Displaced people moved into tents and temporary shelters, and there were concerns
about outbreaks of disease. By November 2010, there were outbreaks of Cholera
• There were frequent power cuts
• The many dead bodies in the streets, and under the rubble, created a health hazard
in the heat. So many had to be buried in mass graves
•
Short-term responses

• The main port and roads were badly damaged, crucial aid (such as medical supplies
and food) was slow to arrive and be distributed. The airport couldn't handle the
number of planes trying to fly in and unload aid
 • American engineers and diving teams were used to clear the worst debris and get
the port working again, so that waiting ships could unload aid
• The USA sent ships, helicopters, 10,000 troops, search and rescue teams and $100
million in aid
• The UN sent troops and police and set up a Food Aid Cluster to feed 2 million people
• Bottled waste and water purification tablets were supplied to survivors
• Field hospitals were set up and helicopters flew wounded people to nearby countries
• The Haitian government moved 235,000 people from Port-au-Prince to less damaged
cities
•
Long-term responses

• Haiti is dependent on overseas aid to help it recover

• New homes would need to be built to a higher standard, costing billions of dollars
• Large-scale investment would be needed to bring Haiti's road, electricity, water and
telephone systems up to standard, and to rebuild the port

Tectonic Hazards LEDC – Kashmir Earthquake – Pakistan

• Cause
o 7.6 on the Richter scale.
o Kashmir is on the border of India and Pakistan where the Indian Plate is crashing into
the Eurasian Plate, a collision zone.
o On 8th October stress got too much and a mass of rock slid upwards and set off an
earthquake.
• Effects
o 79 000 dead, 100 000 injured.
o 3.3 million Homes destroyed.
o Buildings weren’t built strongly so the effects were worsened.
o Disease (especially diarrhoea) spread from contaminated water.
o Respiratory infections like pneumonia affected many.
o In urban areas many people lost their jobs because of damage or destroyed
buildings.
o Overall cost of the damage is likely to be $5billion.
• Management
o Red Cross distributed blankets, kitchen sets and medical supplies.
o Helicopters flew injured or ill people out of the effected zone.
o Tents given out by charities
o Military hospitals opened for civilians.
o Red Cross re-established water supplies.
o Army built homes to help people survive the winter.
o Tighter building laws to try and avoid such devastating effects again.
Boxing Day Tsunami

On the 26th of December 2004 there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1 which
triggered a Tsunami. The earthquake was caused when the Australian plate was subducted
under the Burma plate. The epicentre was approximately 160km offshore in the Indian
Ocean, and the focus was 30km below sea level. The sea floor overlying the thrust fault was
uplifted, displacing several billion tonnes of seawater which generated waves.
Impact of the Tsunami: A number of countries experienced damage, including Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Kenya and South Africa. 229,866 people were lost,
including 186,983 dead and 42,883 missing. Drinking and water supplies were
contaminated. Tourism was hit badly because people avoided the area. Ecosystems were
damaged such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests and coastal wetlands. In Sri Lanka more
than 60% of fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure were destroyed in its coastal regions,
this fishing industry was a major economic activity in Sri Lanka.

Management and responses: The Indian Ocean did not have any tsunami warning systems.
The main response was to deal with the aftermath. Humanitarian and government agencies
provided sanitation facilities and fresh drink water to contain the spread of diseases such as
cholera. The rapid burning and burial of bodies also helped to reduce the spread of diseases.
The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by
the tsunami. $7 billion was promised in aid for damaged regions and charities were given
considerable donations from the public, for example, the British public gave £330 million.
One outcome of the 2004 Tsunami was the beginning of greater international cooperation
to find a way to help predict similar events in the region - The Indian Ocean Tsunami
Warning System.

The Gujarat earthquake

The Gujarat earthquake (L.E.D.C) measured 7.9 on the Richter scale.

Impact of the earthquake:
• Shockwaves were experienced over the border of Pakistan.
• Buildings were unable to withstand tremors.
• Death toll was just under 20,000.
• More than 160,000 people were seriously injured.
• Over 1 million became homeless.
• Approximately 345,000 dwellings were destroyed.
• In Bhuj all 4 hospitals were destroyed.
• Overall cost of the earthquake was estimated at $4-5 billion.
• Loss of 20,000 cattle, this was an enormous impact because Gujarat is dependent upon
agriculture.

Management and responses: The Indian government sent 5,000 troops into the area along
with 40 military aircraft and 3 naval vessels. (Two of which acted as floating hospitals).
Military personnel transported medical aid, food, tents, and communication equipment by
air to the worst affected areas. Rescue teams were sent from all over the world in an
attempt to save people trapped beneath the falling buildings. Disinfectant was sprayed on
the collapsed buildings to prevent the spread of disease from rotting bodies.

Christchurch (2011)

On the 22nd of February 2011 Christchurch in New Zealand (M.E.D.C) suffered an

earthquake with a magnitude of 6.3.
Effects: 181 people were killed. Around 2,500 people were injured. Approximately 2,000
people were displaced. 80% of the city had no electricity. Roads and bridges were severely
damaged. Recovery and reconstruction costs are expected to cost at least NZ $15 billion. All
airports in the country were shut down and flights immediately put on hold after the
earthquake. Water supplies and sewage disposal was badly disrupted. About 10,000 houses
and nearly 1,000 commercial buildings were demolished.

Volcanos

Heimaey, Iceland 1973 Eruption (Ledc)

Facts
• The Icelandic island of Heimaey erupted on its eastern side creating a fissure running
north east to the shore.
• The eruptions started without warning and produced a 200 meter high volcano from
the lava and tephra expulsion
• It had a population of around 5,300— the highest populated island outside of
Iceland. The islands main revenue comes from its fishing fleets
• The eruption began close to 1,100 yards from the center of the town of
Vestmannaeyjar
• The eruption lasted a period of 5 months
• The cost of damages totaled tens of millions of dollars

Primary effects

• A volcanic fissure opened along the east end of Heimaey. It spanned about 1.25
miles. During the first few hours of the eruption, lava fountained out of the fissure
up to 150 meters high along the 2 Kilometer vent
• After the first few days a 110 yard high cinder cone volcano had formed from lava
and tephra
 • In a matter of minutes nearly a mile-long fissure opened . . . Lava immediately began
to well out of it, and glowing cinders squirted into the air. The Eruption Continues
Within the first few hours of the eruption,
• Ash and tephra during the first few days carried on strong winds resulted in nearly
400 homes being destroyed
• Additional submarine volcanic activity extended the north eastern coastline by 2
square Kilometers and damaged a power cable and water pipeline cutting off water
and power from the mainland

Secondary effects

• With lava still flowing toward the town of Vestmannaeyjar in early February, the
islands fishing port became threatened. Lava flow speed averaged 3 to 9 yards a day
• One man died from toxic fumes.

Short term responses

The population of Heaney was able to evacuate so quickly due to evacuation plans already
in place. Due to the quick evacuation of the island no one was killed in the eruption

Long term responses

• Efforts to Slow the Lava Efforts to cool the flowing lava to slow its journey to the
harbor began on February 6. When the successes of early efforts were apparent,
efforts increased. Pipes were laid over active lava flow toward the flow front
pumping sea water at a rate of 100 liters’ per second per pump with 32 pumps used.
In the end, the lava flow was stopped just 100 meters short of the harbor entrance
• The lava cooling effort cost a total of $1,447,742

Mount St Helens Case Study (1980)

Facts

• Mount St Helens erupted on the 18th May 1980 in Washington State USA. It
is part of the Cascade Range Mountains

• Mount St. Helens is a volcano which lies near to a destructive plate boundary
where the small Juan de Fuca Plate is being subducted underneath the North
American Plate (convergent margin)
• The trigger stimulus was a magnitude 5 earthquake underneath Mount St.
Helens on the 18th of May
•
Primary effects

• This caused a bulge on the North face of the volcano to become unstable and
collapse as an avalanche
• The volcano then went to erupt ash and produce pyroclastic flows – currents of hot
gas and ash

• 400 metres was blown off the top of the mountain and a one mile horse shoe-
shaped crater was left that was 500m deep.
• 􀂃 Every plant and animal within 25km north of the volcano was killed –
approximately 7000 animals died.
• 􀂃 Every tree within 30km of the volcano was flattened.
• 􀂃 The water produced from melting ice and snow on top of the volcano create
mudflows, which choked rivers and killed all fish and water life. Spirit Lake was filled
with mud. 12 million salmon died.
• 􀂃 The eruption also destroyed 250 homes, 47 bridges, and 15 miles of railways and
185 miles of highway.
•

Secondary effects

• 57 people died - most of whom were outside of the evacuated zones.

• Ash clogged up car engines and farm machinery. The cost of ash damaged to farmers
crops and machinery totalled £100 million.
• 15cm of ash fell causing traffic chaos and airline flights to be cancelled.
• The timber industry in the area was destroyed by the flattening of trees which
significantly damaged them.
• Telephone lines and electricity supplies were knocked out.
• Tourists no long visited the area causing a reduction in the local economy.
Short term responses

Short term aid involved rescuing stranded people, providing shelter for those who have lost
their homes, giving medical supplies to those who were injured. The authorities were able
to mobilise many people and much equipment quickly to help in these operations. The aid
operation rescued 198 people. Unfortunately, the landscape had changed so much that
maps were no longer accurate, this slowed down the rescue efforts.

Long term responses

Long term aid involved returning the area to what it was like before the eruption and it took
a very long time.
• A million tonnes of ash were removed from roads, buildings and airports. Removing
the ash cost over $1million in the town of Yakima and it took ten weeks.
• Millions of trees were replanted because there was a huge loss of timber which
would cost $300million.
 • Compensation was given to farmers because what they produced on their farms was
destroyed by being covered by ash. This would cost about $70million.
• New tourist facilities were built because there were less tourists, meetings and
conferences in the area after the eruption. It was important to get these people back
as they input a lot of money into the economy.
• A channel was dredged to remove logs and levees were rebuilt to reduce floods
which could happen in the future. This is because the Columbia River shipping
channel was closed. This caused the port of Portland $3million per month in lost
trade.
• A new highway was built and major repairs were undertaken because 250km of
roads and 25km of railways were damaged, costing $7million.
• Money was given to rebuild houses after 200 homes were destroyed.
• Money was given to redevelop the salmon hatcheries after 12 million baby salmon
were killed.

Prediction

•
• There were warnings that a major eruption would eventually happen….
• From March onwards in 1980 there had been minor earthquakes which were
recorded and monitored using seismographs. The increased in size and
frequency, indicated that the volcano was preparing to erupt.
• Small ash and steam eruptions during the 2 months prior to the eruption
indicated increased volcanic activity too.
• A bulge on the north side of the volcano indicated that magma was moving up
into the magma chamber. Tilt meters were used to monitor the changing size
and shape of the mountain which would suggest volcanic activity is about to
happen.
• The authorities used past eruptions to identify danger zone and evacuated
residents from these areas, however some refused to leave and scientists stayed
to study the volcano.
• Emergency Helicopters and aeroplanes were on hand in case an eruption
occurred.
• The scientists were not able accurately when Mount St. Helens would erupt and
so people were reluctant to leave their homes for a long period of time.
• The experts did not predict that the eruption blast would occur on the north side
of the volcano. As a result the exclusion zones set up were in the wrong place
and so 90% of the people that died were outside the exclusion zone in what were
thought to be safe areas.

Mount Etna, Sicily

Mount Etna is located in Sicily, an M.E.D.C. Since 2001 it has erupted every year. Mount
Etna is a decade volcano; this means that it deserves particular study due to a history of
destructive eruptions nearby populated areas). As a result Mount Etna is a well monitored
and actively managed volcano.
Nature of the eruption: Mount Etna is a composite volcano that typically erupts basaltic
lava. Basaltic lava has low viscosity and consequently travels significant distances.
Impact of the eruption: During the 2002 eruptions the tourist station at Piano Provenzana
and part of the tourist station around Rifugio Sapienza were destroyed. The airport located
in Sicily's second city, Catania, was forced to close. The tourist industry was further
damaged because visitors decided to stay away due to safety concerns. There was an
estimated 77 deaths.

Management and responses: The Italian government pledged immediate financial

assistance of more than $8 million and tax breaks for villagers. None of the towns of Etna
were damaged. The Italian army used heavy earth moving equipment to block and divert
the lava flows.
Mount Etna has been monitored by the I.N.G.V for 20 years with a permanent network of
remote sensors. Geochemical monitoring programmes test gas/fluid emissions to help
predict and warn of dangerous gas emissions

Chaiten, Chile.

On Friday the 2nd of May 2008 Chaiten volcano in the south east of Chile erupted. The
volcano is situated above a subduction zone where the Pacific Ocean plate is being
subducted under the South American continental plate. Chile is an L.E.D.C country.
Nature of the eruption: Lava was rhyolitic in nature. Ash fell and blocked the roads. The
ertriggered thunderstorms and a polar storm. The heavy eruption also

Impact of the eruption:

• Lahars cut communications in some areas and made access difficult.
• Ash falls blocked rives and contaminated ground water supplies.
• 90% of the town of Chaiten flooded.
• Only one death.
• Some farm animals were killed by the suffocating ash.
• 80-90% of Chaiten was damaged and 20-30% completely destroyed.
• Regional airports occasionally closed due to ash.
• Several dozen international flights were cancelled due to the eruption e.g. Argentina.

Management: The length of time it had lain dormant meant that it was not actively
monitored. The remote location of Chaiten and the relatively low population density meant
that management was not priority. The immediate response was to evacuate the more than
4,000 people from the town of Chaiten. Emergency measures were put in place, such as,
residents were told not to drink water as the reservoirs were covered in a layer of ash. The
Chilean government also ordered a 50 km exclusion zone around the town. Chilean officials
distributed fresh water and protective masks. The government issues a monthly disaster
stipend of the equivalent of between $1,200 to $2,200 per month per family. The key
development of this eruption was the involvement of the Volcano Disaster Assistance
Program (VDAP) to aid monitoring and prediction of subsequent eruptions

Mass movements

Aberfam (wales) 1996

Impacts

Social

• Landslide caused a school to be buried under rubble

• School was destroyed
• 116 children died
• 28 adults died
• Infrastructure damaged – inaccessible village
• 20 houses ruined

Environmental

• Damage to the local ecosystem – biodiversity/food chain

• Sheep farms affected – soil lost fertility
• 140,00 tons of debris

Economic

• Farms destroyed – negative multiplier effect

• High cost of removal of debris
• A disaster fund was created for bereaved families – total of £1,750,000.
• £50 of this fund was given to each family
• Farm destroyed – damaging local businesses
• The disaster fund paid £150,000 for the removal of the remaining tips (Coal Board
refused to accept responsibility)

Physical factors

• Prolonged rainfall – reduced cohesive forces – lubricates the surface (layer of clay
underneath) – reduced friction between layers.
• Stream flowed underneath layer
• Steep slope
Human factors

• Added weight to slope– spoil heaps

• Deforestation – reduces cohesion/resisting force and allows more infiltration
• Undercutting – destabilized the slope – transport/road

Management

• New rules and regulations – spoil heaps are smaller

• Lead to the mines and quarrying act (1969)

Bolivia, Lake Titakia (ledc), 8th December 1992– located in Andes

• Warn wet climate

• Deforest trees for farmland – soil was washed away – loss of industry – infertile
soil – forced into illegal mining
• Gold rush – mining companies invested into the region
• Undercutting to make it easier to find gold
• Heavy rainfall – mass movement occurred

Physical factors

• Steep slope/angle – driving forces greater than resisting forces

• High rainfall
• Tremors in the region – destabilized the slope – cohesive forces reduced

Human factors

• Undercutting – very little resisting forces

• No impact study done
• Deforestation

Impact

• 1,200 died
• Mercury waste disposed into river systems
• Inaccessible – difficult to get into the region/ survivors out
• Lack of rescue services
• Uneducated locals
• Regulations were not enforced
Ecosystems and environments are open systems
Stores Biomass, litter, humus, soil
Flows Leaf fall, death, decomposition
Inputs Water, sunlight, minerals (from weathering, littering, decomposition etc.)
Outputs Leeching, erosion, eutrophication, evapo-transpiration

Ecosystems
Ecosystems

Ecosystems – brief summary

Various factors interact to create distinctive environments
Physical Microclimate – precipitation, temperature, humidity, wind, sunshine hours
Relief – slope angle, roughness
Rock type – minerals, pH, structure, porosity
Drainage – drainage vs. waterlogged
Soil – structure, texture, minerals, pH
Biotic – plants and animals
Human Agriculture – chemicals, adding species (control), drainage, irrigation, clearance
Settlement – microclimate, drainage
Industry – buildings, pollution
Pollution – noise, visual (landfill sites), air or water quality
Conservation – parks, afforestation, nature reserves
Human activity poses a range of threats to and creates impacts on physical environments
Planned Agriculture – deforestation, over-grazing, drainage of wetlands, waterlogging
Mining and quarrying – deforestation, subsidence, dust
Construction – noise, dust
Settlement – removes natural vegetation and course of nature, changes drainage
Forestry – strips land, reduces precipitation, increases run off and erosion
Transport –fumes pollute, noise, barriers created = wildlife affected
Unplanned Fire – removes moisture from air, destroys habitats, increase in carbon emissions
Disease – can reduce or wipe out species
Disruption to food chain or nutrient cycle – change in species or weather conditions
Floods – increased erosion, waterlogging and deposition
Pollution – acid rain, global warming
Impacts Short term – migration of species, changes in food chain, increase or decrease in
 species population
Long term – extinction of species, adaption, change in nutrient supply
Why do the impacts vary over time and location?
Time Level of development
Short term vs. long term
Changes in technology
Changes in population
Location Development differs
Technology differs
Population number and types differs
Income and wealth differs
Culture differs
Political attitude differs
Types of environmental management to ensure sustainability
Government National Parks
Site of special scientific investigation (SSSI) – over 4000 in England (covering approx.
8% of area)
Areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONB)
National nature reserves – over 200 in England (covering approx. 1% of area)
Special areas of conservation and special protection areas (EU designation)
Local Local nature reserves, parks
authorities
Planning – land use zoning, green belts
Private Charities e.g. National Trust, RSPB
Individual landowners, farmers, etc.
Corporate Large companies e.g. salt marshes near power stations or refineries

• Project Rainforest corridor – fact file

• The problem
• Sir Lanka is classified as a biodiversity hotspot as is one of the 25 diverse with over 700
types of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles with also over 3000 types of plants
so it is one of the threatened areas of the world. Only 6% of Sri Lanka’s primary
rainforest remain and 60% of the total rainforest is left the remaining patches are small
and scattered about the country; this puts a huge strain on the animal populations
which live in these areas as they only have small habitats to live in. Many species have
gone extinct such as 17 species of frogs have gone extinct due to this.
• What is it?
• This is where The Rainforest Conservation Fund and Rainforest Rescue International
are hoping to protect and increase habitat, conservation areas. So stop the animals
which live in the Sri Lanka rainforest from going extinct due to dwindling amount of
habitat.
• How they going to achieve these?
• They hope to achieve it by creating a rainforest corridor linking two rainforest reserves,
so creating a rainforest corridor between Sinharaja World Heritage Forest Reserve and
 Kanneliya Forest Reserve, It will restore 10,000 hectares of rainforest with the help of
the local communities; they plan to plant native trees which are of high ecological and
economic value. The local community will help maintain the project to makes sure that
the trees grow properly.
• What this hopes to achieve?
• It hopes to create more habitats for the animals to live in and also help maintain
migratory patterns which they would not be able to do without this project. It will also
reduce the regions greenhouse emissions as more rainforest to absorb the CO2
emissions. It is also hoping to encourage gene flow as the two areas are joined by the
corridor.
•
• Project Potico – fact file

• The problem
• The rainforest in Indonesia called the Virgin constitutes to 10% of the world’s
remaining tropical rainforest, but since 1990 25% of the countries rainforest has been
cleared and has the second highest annual rainforest lost with roughly 1.9 million
hectares lost each year. This has a very negative effect on the ecosystem affecting the
wildlife and the plant life, it also has a bad the local people who live within the
rainforest as they have to move and lose their tradition. It is also causing knock on
effects such as flooding and global warming.
• What is it?
• POTICO (Palm Oil. Timber, Carbon Offset) is a project setup in Indonesia with an aim: to
help the region which is known for its high deforestation rates become more
sustainable. This is a brand new approach for ecosystem management.
• How it hopes to achieve this?
• In this region palm trees are used for their oil, so the rainforest is cleared so that the
palm trees can plant. It hopes to achieve it by instead of planting the palm trees which
is necessary for income, in the rainforest so it has to be cleared but away from the
rainforest on land which has been already cleared and used. This would mean that this
was able to expand to keep up with demand so generating more income and jobs, so
would stop the need to clear the rainforest. So with this companies with help from the
World Resources Institute will allocate the same amount of degrade land for the
plantations as they would of used in the rainforest. The degraded land would be
converted into usable land by involving appropriate local agencies and companies so a
plantation can be located here. The initial funding for the project is from the New-Page
Corporation and will be lead by the World Resources Institute.
• What it hopes to achieve?
• It hopes to convert 250,000-1,250,000 acres of land into palm plantations and so
protecting the Virgin Forest from being cleared and be conserved according to the
 Forest Stewardship Council guidelines. This would also hope reduce greenhouse gas
emission, prevent the loss of biodiversity due to forest clearing, improve opportunities
for the local communities, introduce sustainable logging into the area which follows
forest management guidelines and so increase viability of wood produce.

Population +
resources
Migration Case Study – Mexico-USA Migration

Introduction:

The United States–Mexico border is the international border between the United States and
Mexico. The border's total length is 3,169 miles, according to figures given by the
International Boundary and Water Commission. It is the most frequently crossed
international border in the world, with approximately 350,000,000 crossings per year.

Push Factors:

• Poor medical facilities - 1800 per doctor.

• Low paid jobs - (GNP = $3750).
• Adult literacy rates 55% - poor education prospects.
• Life expectancy - 72 years.
• 40% Unemployed.

Pull Factors:

• Excellent medical facilities - 400 per doctor.

• Well-paid jobs - GNP = $24,750).
• Adult literacy rates 99% - good education prospects.
• Life expectancy - 76 years.
• Many jobs available for low paid workers such as Mexicans.

Impacts on the USA:

• Illegal migration costs the USA millions of dollars for border patrols and prisons.
• According to a study commissioned by the U.S./Mexico Border Counties Coalition,
costs of law enforcement and criminal prosecution relating to illegal immigration
increased 39% within the border counties of Arizona from 1999 to 2006.
 • Mexicans are seen as a drain on the USA economy.
• Migrant workers keep wages low which affects Americans.
• They cause problems in cities due cultural and racial issues.
• Mexican migrants benefit the US economy by working for low wages.
• Mexican culture has enriched the US Border States with food, language and music.
• The incidents of TB have been increasing greatly due to the increased migration.

Impacts on Mexico:

• The Mexican countryside has a shortage of economically active people.

• Many men emigrate leaving a majority of women who have trouble finding marriage
partners.
• Young people tend to migrate leaving the old and the very young.
• Legal and illegal immigrants together send around $6-13 billion back annually to
Mexico.
• Migra-dollars from America alongside oil one of the biggest injections of money into
Mexican economy.
• Certain villages such as Santa Ines have lost 2/3 of its inhabitants.

Management Attempts:

• The U.S. government had plans in 2006, during the Bush administration, to erect a
border fence along the U.S.-Mexico border. The controversial proposal included
creating many individual fences. Almost 600 miles of fence was constructed, with
each of the individual fences composed of steel and concrete.
• In between these fences are infrared cameras and sensors, National Guard soldiers,
and SWAT teams on alert, giving the name a "virtual fence". Construction on the
fence began in 2006, with each mile costing the U.S. government about $2.8 million.
• In 2010, the initiative was terminated due to costs after having completed 640 miles
of either barrier fence or vehicle barriers that was either new or had been rebuilt
over older inferior fencing. The Boeing-built SBInet systems of using radar,
watchtowers and sensors (without a fence or physical barrier) was scrapped for
being over budget, full of glitches and far behind schedule.

Population Management Case Study: India

India's population growth rate is slowing. This is particularly the case in the southern state
of Kerala. In Kerala there have been a number of initiatives to reduce population growth:

1) Women are being educated. Around half of all Indian women cannot read or write
(illiterate). However, in Kerala 85% of women are literate.
2) Better educated women are more likely to keep their children healthy. Therefore
infant mortality has dropped. This has led to a drop in birth rates.
3) If children are surviving families no longer have to have a couple of extra children to
replace those that die.
4) Contraception is more widely available
 5) The status of women has improved significantly.
6) Women are no longer seen as a burden - they are regarded as an asset. Traditionally
in India when a woman gets married the family have to pay money to the
bridegroom's family. This is called a dowry. However, in Kerala it is the bridegroom's
family who pay a dowry to the bride’s family.

Family Planning in India

Family planning in India is based on efforts largely sponsored by the Indian government. In
the 1965-2009 period, contraceptive usage has more than tripled (from 13% of married
women in 1970 to 48% in 2009) and the fertility rate has more than halved (from 5.7 in 1966
to 2.6 in 2009), but the national fertility rate is still high enough to cause long-term
population growth.

Contraceptive Usage:

• Low female literacy levels and the lack of widespread availability of birth-control
methods are hampering the use of contraception in India.
• In 2009, 48.3% of married women were estimated to use a contraceptive method
• Condoms, at a mere 3% were the next most prevalent method.
• Comparative studies have indicated that increased female literacy is correlated
strongly with a decline in fertility
• Female literacy levels in India may be the primary factor that helps in population
stabilization, but they are improving relatively slowly

Family Planning Programmes:

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the government unit responsible for
formulating and executing family planning related government plans in India. An inverted
Red Triangle is the symbol for family planning health and contraception services in India.

Historical Background:

• Raghunath Dhondo Karve published a Marathi magazine Samaj Swasthya, starting

from July 1927 until 1953. In it, he continually discussed issues of society's well-being
through population control through use of contraceptives so as prevent unwanted
pregnancies and induced abortions.
• He proposed that the Indian Government should take up a population control
program, but was met with opposition.
• In the early 1970s, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, had implemented a forced
sterilization programme, but failed.
• Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilization, but many
unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also
believed to have been sterilized.
• This program is still remembered and criticized in India, and is blamed for creating a
public aversion to family planning, which hampered Government programmes for
decades.
 • Contraceptive usage has been rising gradually in India. In 1970, 13% of married
women used modern contraceptive methods, which rose to 35% by 1997 and 48%
by 2009.
Fertility Rate:

• India suffers from the problem of overpopulation. Although the fertility rate
(average number of children born per woman during her lifetime) in India has been
declining, it has not reached replacement rate yet.
• The replacement rate is defined as the total fertility rate at which new-born girls
would have an average of exactly one daughter over their lifetimes. In more familiar
terms, women have just enough babies to replace themselves.
• Factoring in infant mortality, the replacement rate is approximately 2.1 in most
industrialized nations and about 2.5 in developing nations (due to higher mortality).
• Discounting immigration and population momentum effects, a nation that crosses
below the replacement rate is on the path to population stabilization and,
eventually, population reduction.

Historical Fertility Trend:

• The fertility rate in India has been in long-term decline, and had more than halved in
the 1960-2009 period. From 5.7 in 1966, it declined to 3.3 by 1997 and 2.7 in 2009.
• Seven Indian states have dipped below the 2.1 replacement rate level - Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab and Sikkim.
• Four Indian states have fertility rates above 3.5 - Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya
and Nagaland.

Under-population Case study - France

Alternatively, some countries want to encourage population growth. In France following

World War One the government banned all forms of contraception to try and increase the
male population that had been badly reduced during the war. This law has since been
changed but couples still receive several incentives to have a third child.

These include:

• A payment of up to and over £1000 for having a third child.

• 30% reduction on public transport.
• Increased maternity leave to six months with full pay.

Analysis of its population pyramids would reveal bad male deficit after WW1 and WW2 each
followed by a period of baby boom. Whilst the population has grown significantly fertility
rates have recently dropped - although they are still above the European average.

Population Management Case Study - One Child Policy, China

Overview:
In order to address overpopulation, the one-child policy promotes one-child families and
forbids couples from having more than one child in urban areas. Parents with multiple
children are not given the same benefits as parents of one child. In most cases, wealthy
families pay a fee to the government in order to have a second child or more.

Below: Demographic Cycle of China, showing the increase in population since 1950:

Implementation:

• Before getting married a couple will be tutored and tested on family planning.
Before having a child they have to apply for a certificate from their factory.
• A couple signing a form promising to have just one child will be given bonuses at
work, receive priority for housing, a school and University place for the child and
higher pensions on retirement.
• If the family then have an additional child all benefits are removed.
Success of Policy:

• The benefits of this policy are that the growth rate of China's population has
declined. Without the policy it is estimated that there would be an extra 320 million
more people in a country whose population is estimated to be 1.3 billion.
• The individual savings rate has increased since the one-child policy was introduced.
• Fertility rates and Birth rates have fallen significantly. Life expectancy has doubled.
Literacy rates have increased.

Criticisms and Problems of Policy:

• Mothers expecting a second child are 'encouraged' to have an abortion.

• Evidence of high rates of female infanticide as parents want male child. 90% of
foetuses aborted in China are female.
• Orphanages that are under-funded look after thousands of abandoned females.
• 'Little Emperor Syndrome' - there is a concern that many of the single children are
being badly spoilt possibly creating a future society of selfish people.
• Called the "4-2-1 Problem", this leaves the older generations with increased chances
of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support.
• Government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to
violate the policy in spite of fines.
• For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China's
Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial
family planning commission.
• The scheme has been all but abandoned in rural areas where policing was too
difficult.

Resource Management Case Study - The Colorado River

The Colorado River is the principal river of the south-western United States and northwest
Mexico. The 1,450-mile river flows from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of California,
draining 246,000 square miles in parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. The Colorado
is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas as well as an important provider of
hydroelectric power in the south-western desert lands of North America. Overdraft of the
Colorado River could lead to severe shortages by the mid–21st century, greatly endangering
power generation and water supply.

With 36 to 40 million people dependent on its water for both agricultural and domestic
needs, the Colorado River is considered one of the "most controlled controversial and
litigated rivers in the world". Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to
supply thirsty cities, provide irrigation water to some four million acres (16,000 km2, and
generate more than 12 billion KWh of hydroelectricity each year. Often called "America's
Nile", the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four
times the river's annual flow.

Managing Water Resources in the Colorado Basin:

• The Colorado River flows across the arid Colorado Plateau and Great Basin. Their
water is scarce:
• In its lower course in Nevada, Arizona and California, the Colorado is little more than
a series of reservoir is created by the Hoover, Davis, Parker and Imperial Dams.
• The Colorado River is used between 8 states. It is all tied up in a legal agreement
(CRC- The 1992 Colorado River Compact) Ninety % of the water is used for irrigation
and agriculture.
• Since the states have all had surges in their population and economic growth, they
have all started to exceed their legal share. This is mainly in California.
• Four dams: Hoover, Davis, Parker, Imperial Dams control the water resources in the
lower basin.
• 50% of southern California's water comes from the Colorado River.
• Like Nevada's demand for more water, Arizonans need for water has increased
immensely over the last 30 years.
• There have been major issues concerning the quality of this water.

Environmental Impacts:

• Currently, the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at
the upper end of Lake Powell, and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead.
Dams trapping sediment pose not only damage to river habitat but also threaten
future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system.
• Reduction in flow caused by dams, diversions and evaporation losses from reservoirs
– the latter of which reduces the river's runoff by more than fifteen per cent – has
had severe ecological consequences
• Historically, the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes
provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf.
• Salinity in the lower Colorado River has also increased as a result of reduced flows.
• Large dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower
levels of their reservoirs, resulting in stable and relatively cold year-round
temperatures in long reaches of the river.
 • Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations, and
stable flows enable increased vegetation growth, obstructing riverside habitat.

Uncertain Future:

• When the Colorado River Compact was first signed in 1922, it was based on barely
thirty years of stream flow records that suggested an average annual flow of 17.5
million acre-feet (21.6 km3) past Lee's Ferry.
• This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows
through the Colorado. As Marc Reisner, author of Cadillac Desert puts it, "[the
Colorado is] a 'deficit' river, as if the river were somehow at fault for its overuse."
• During the 21st century, drought took hold and continues to prevail in the Colorado
River system.
• A 2004 study showed that a 1–6% decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff
declining by as much as eighteen percent by 2050. A study by the Scripps Research
Institute in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand a fifty-fifty
chance of dropping to useless levels or "dead pool" by 2021 if current drying trends
and water usage rates continue.
• Despite above-average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than
30 feet (9.1 m), officials estimate that the influx will only stave off rationing until
about 2016.
• Rapid development and economic growth further complicates the issue of a secure
water supply, particularly in the case of California and Nevada fighting over the yet
unused portion of Arizona's share of the Colorado.

OVERFISHING CASE STUDY. (INSERT)

Malthusian Dilemma Case Study - Mauritius

In the late 18th century, Thomas Malthus predicted population growth could not continue
beyond the food supply able to sustain it, e.g. beyond carrying capacity, without the
influence of checks bringing the population back down to a sustainable number. He
predicted that positive checks (factors that increase death rate) such as famine, disease and
war, as well as preventative checks (factors that decrease birth rate) such as delayed
marriages and abstaining from sexual relationships, would reduce the size of the population.
As a population grew, quality of life would diminish until checks could reduce it below
carrying capacity. Today, Neo-Malthusians such as Paul Ehrlich have predicted resources
and the environment could also affect the carrying capacity of a country.

The Malthusian argument was originally opposed by Esta Boserup who predicted that a rise
in population would create a greater demand for food. She believed this would provide an
incentive for agrarian development and technology, thereby producing more food, which
would allow growth to continue. Julian Simon, a more recent optimist, saw population as a
resource rather than a drain. He predicted more people would mean more wealth and
technology, making resources more widely available.

Mauritius is located just east of Madagascar, covering a total area of 1860 sq. km. It has a
tropical climate with suitable land for agriculture and fishing. Mauritius’s economy,
particularly in the 1960s, and even today, relies heavily on sugarcane, which is grown on
90% of cultivated land and earns 25% of export earnings.

Past Problems:

• In the 1960s, Mauritius had a population of 500,000 inhabitants, limited resources

and being an island, no room for expansion.
• The high dependence on farming sugar means it is also likely more children were
thought to be an asset for helping with agriculture. The fertility rate was very high,
being 5.9391 children per woman of child bearing age.
• A high rate of increase meant that Mauritius had the fastest population growth on
Earth and gave rise to a population explosion.
• The income of the country became limited by the surface area available for
agriculture. Overdependence on one cash crop could also have meant disaster if
sugar abroad was cheaper, tropical storms (common due to climate) pests and
disease.
• Population was predicted to rise to 3 million by 2006. At this point, according to
Malthusian theory, carrying capacity would be exceeded and quality of life would
begin to fall as people ran out of food.
• Due to the increasing population around 1960, quality of life indicators should be
low. In 1955, life expectancy was only 51.0yrs, despite improvements in medicine to
reduce death rates. This should decrease if Malthus is to be proved right. Malthus
also predicted there would be inadequate food and poor nutrition as the population
increased; in 1980, 10%2 of the population were undernourished. This figure would
be likely to get higher as production of food could no longer keep up with an
exponentially growing population.
• By 1980, GDP per capita was indeed reasonably low, $2190 due to limited
employment and exports mainly coming from cash crops. In 1980, 29% of male
employment and 30% of female employment was in primary industry.

Response:

• To escape Malthusian catastrophe, Mauritius had to develop a scheme that would

allow it to sustain a population growth in line with its resources and food so that the
quality of life of Mauritians would not decrease.
• Initially in 1953, a government-led family planning programme was set up to try and
reduce the fertility rate to replacement level or below.
• The scheme aimed to restrict early marriage, encourage the use of contraception,
improve social status of women, provide better health care for pregnant women,
and improve family planning education.
 • Key problems- Mauritius has mixed religion within its population- Catholic objection
to the use of contraception posed a difficulty towards decreasing the fertility rate.
• Another problem was that population momentum could continue to increase the
population for a period of time, whilst there were still large numbers of women of
child bearing age.
• The Mauritian government embarked on a further approach, focusing this time on
resources. The process of de-rocking meant that marginal land, not normally
available for use, could be used for agriculture. Multi-cropping was also used,
planting more than one crop on the same area of land. The intensification of farming
to increase agricultural output is in line with the theories of the Green Revolution
put forward by Boserup which food production would keep up with population
growth.
• However even with the intensification of farming through technology, the wealth of
Mauritius remains linked to the amount of land available for agriculture.
• One way the Mauritian government identified to increase export production,
resources for the country, and jobs was to industrialise. They decided to encourage
multi-national companies to set up in the country.
• However the greatest pull on foreign investment is the status of the country as an
Export Processing Zone. This means there are government incentives in place such as
reduced business tax, policies against nationalisation of companies and investment
in infrastructure (including transport)
• Therefore these companies are footloose, meaning they do not have to set up based
on the location of raw materials
• There are now many MNCs in Mauritius that have developed its manufacturing
industry, particularly within textiles and electronics. Benefits?
• A further option for Mauritius was to encourage tourism.

Success of Measures:

• If the quality of life of Mauritians has improved it may be that Boserup and Simon
were correct, with people acting as a resource rather than a burden.
• Since 1960 the birth rate has fallen considerably to 25.8 in 2004 from 46.8 people
per 1000 in 1961. The lowering birth rates are in line with Malthus’s predictions that
preventative checks would occur when carrying capacity was exceeded.
• The fertility rate has fallen considerably between 1960 and 2004 in Mauritius. This
suggests Malthus was correct in saying that the use of contraception would act as a
preventative check.
• In 1980, 31% of males and 30% of females were employed in the primary sector,
mainly in the farming of sugarcane. This suggests the success of Mauritius as an
exporting processing zone, and encouragement of MNCs to alleviate
overdependence on sugarcane production.
• This has helped to increase the country’s economy by increasing exports. GDP per
capita has increased from $2190 in 1980 to $10810 in 2002. This suggests Boserup
and Simon were correct with their prediction that humans would always find
alternative ways to improve production to keep up with a growing population.
 • Female employment has particularly increased to employment within tertiary
industry, with 31% employed in services in 1980 but 54% by 2003.
• The number of tourists visiting Mauritius per year has increased significantly from
48,797 in 1972 to 761,063 by 2005.
• Their focus of employment is no longer on agriculture and looking after children but
in services and manufacturing.
• Despite Malthus’s theory, as the population has grown life expectancy for both
males and females have increased in Mauritius, with a life expectancy of 62yrs in
1962 for women increasing to 75.4yrs in 2003. Perhaps Boserup was right in
suggesting a population could find ways of adapting to the conditions in the country.
• In 1980 10% of the population was undernourished. However by 2001 this had
lowered to 5.6%. This suggests that at no point was carrying capacity exceeded and
the food supply became short or inadequate, once again proving Malthus wrong.
• Since 1950, there has been a very clear increase in carbon emission in Mauritius,
perhaps linking to the industrialisation of the country. This could suggest Ehrlich was
correct that environmental damage will increase as the population grows. Tourism
may also have begun to damage the coral reefs in the area, and this may continue to
worsen as this industry is developed.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the rise of quality of life indicators, such as life expectancy and GDP per
capita, despite a growing population suggest Malthus was in fact wrong. The death rate has
not increased, so the positive checks that Malthus predicted have not acted to decrease
population, the number of undernourished people has in fact decreased. Improvements of
agriculture/technology as well as EPZ and tourism expansion have allowed population
growth to continue without rising above carrying capacity. This is in line with the predictions
of Boserup/Simon that the population would always be able to improve and adapt so
enough food and resources are available.

However, despite positive checks not coming into effect, there is some evidence to suggest
that preventative checks on population did occur. Both birth and fertility rates have
significantly fallen since 1960 due to the success of the family planning programme. Without
population growth being slowed quality of life indicators would almost certainly have fallen.

Neo-Malthusians may also have been correct about the impact of population growth on the
environment. Carbon dioxide emissions have notably risen since 1950 and with an increase
in tourism there may also have been coral reef damage. As the population grows this is only
liable to get worse, unless as Boserup suggested, advancements in technology provide
another answer.

It seems Mauritius has disproved some of Malthus’s pessimistic views on population, whilst
supporting others. Whether the example of Mauritius as a test for sustainable population
growth will hold true for the world as a whole remains to be seen. We may see that
increases in food and resources will be able to support population growth but perhaps the
environment will not unless population growth is checked
Climatic Hazards
Climatic Hazard in an LEDC – Ethiopian Drought 1984-85

• Cause
o With no rain in the rainy season people didn’t have enough water to survive.
• Effect
o 5.2m people normally need food aid, there was a high chance this could reach 15m
during the drought.
o Farmers planted many times but the crops always withered, people don’t have the
space needed to grow substantial amounts of food.
o Cholera was a huge problem because of all the dead animals in the Awash River, the
main water source for many. Many people were already weak due to the lack of
food and water, so they were extremely susceptible to disease.
o Fighting over grazing space as people travel hundreds of kilometres in search for
scarce grazing.
• Management
o Due to the lack of money in the area, people were extremely reliant on aid from
richer countries.

Climatic Hazard in an MEDC – Hurricane Katrina

• Cause
o Started as a very-low pressure weather system but when it hit the cost it was a
category 4 hurricane.
• Effects
o Levees and flood walls breached in 53 different places allowing water to get 3m in
some places in the city, especially the French quarter.
o 80% of city underwater made worse by heavy rain.
o 1836 people died, took days for many bodies to be recovered.
o 10 000 people made homeless.
o 3m people without electricity
o Shortage of food.
• Management
o They set up camps and places for people to stay for the people who lost their
homes.
o The super dome was used for people to go to, but 30 000 people too many
came, and it ended up with shortages of food and unsanitary conditions.
Development and inequalities
Measuring Quality of life

Bangladesh (ledc)

Demographic Measures:

Population density (per km2): 1045

Population growth (% per annum): 1.9

Life Expectancy (years): 63

Economic Measures

GNI per person (in us$): $470

GDP Growth: 6%

% of population below poverty level: 44

Social Measures

Daily calorie intake per person (in kcal): 2105

Internet users per 1000: 3

% of population obese: 0.03

Adult literacy (%): 34

Political measures

Prison population per 100,000: 54

Environmental measures

Energy use (kg oil equivalent per person): 145

Co2 emissions (tonnes per person): 0.3

Composite measures

HDI: 0.53

QLI: 5.6
Measuring Quality of life

China (NIC)

Demographic Measures:

Population density (per km2): 140

Population growth (% per annum): 0.6

Life Expectancy (years): 72

Economic Measures

GNI per person (in us$): $2010

GDP Growth: 10%

% of population below poverty level: 12

Social Measures

Daily calorie intake per person (in kcal): 2844

Internet users per 1000: 85

% of population obese: 23

Adult literacy (%): 91

Political measures

Prison population per 100,000: 117

Environmental measures

Energy use (kg oil equivalent per person): 889

Co2 emissions (tonnes per person): 3

Composite measures

HDI: 0.77

QLI: 6.0
Measuring Quality of life

Japan (Medc)

Demographic Measures:

Population density (per km2): 339

Population growth (% per annum): 0.0

Life Expectancy (years): 82

Economic Measures

GNI per person (in us$): $38 950

GDP Growth: 3%

% of population below poverty level: 12

Social Measures

Daily calorie intake per person (in kcal): 2905

Internet users per 1000: 668

% of population obese: 25

Adult literacy (%): 99

Political measures

Prison population per 100,000: 58

Environmental measures

Energy use (kg oil equivalent per person): 4169

Co2 emissions (tonnes per person): 10

Composite measures

HDI: 0.95

QLI: 7.4
Bangladesh (LEDC)

Slow to develop

Physical Factors

• Lacks minerals
• Monsoon climate
• Few energy resources
• Low lying
• Floods
• River Ganges frequently floods
• Coast flooded by storms

Economic Factors

• Large keep labour supply

• Major rice producer – still relies on primary
• Exploited by TNCs
• Receiver of overseas direct investment
• Poor Transport – Bottlenecks
• Low Status currency

Social Factors

• Limited education
• Rapid population growth
• Corruption
• Farming culture
• Slow to innovate

Political Factors

• Muslim banking system

• Aid receiver
• Stable democracy

Historical Factors

• Former British colony and civil war with Pakistan

• Independent 1971
Japan (Medc)

Economic Miracle

Physical Factors

• Lacks minerals
• Temperate climate
• Few energy resources
• Limited flat land
• Tectonic hazards
• No large rivers
• Long coast

Economic Factors

• Large skilled labour supply

• Limited agricultural base
• Source of TNCs e.g. mitsui
• Makes overseas direct investment
• Efficient transport
• Undervalued currency

Social Factors

• Educated labour supply

• Low population growth
• Work ethic
• Business culture
• Innovative ethic

Political Factors

• Strict control over banks

• Aid Donor- “With Strings”
• Strong democracy

Historical Factors

• Us Aid needed to rebuild after second world war

• Never colonised
Inequalities within a country

China (NIC)

Types of inequalities

Economic

• Poor interior versus wealthy coastal areas – coast has 50% higher per capita income
• Wealthy urban versus poor Rural, eg 5% of all Chinas GDP is generated in Shanghai
• Urban Chinese earn over 3 times as much as rural Chinese
• Wealthy males versus poor females
• Industrial workers earn more than agricultural workers
• Rich versus poor – 204 million live on less than $1.25 a day
• Ethnic groups – 91% are ethnic Han but there are 55 non-Han groups (100m
population)
• Poor old versus wealthy young
• Coastal growth poles as export-driven growth- FDI (85% in east) favours already
• Traditional subsidence farming in interior – lack of investment in agriculture
• Limited infrastructure in interior – poor roads

Social

• Literate versus non literate

• Rapidly aging population – 1 child policy

Demographic

• Greater female infant mortality

• Lower population growth in urban areas
• Larger families in rural areas
• Rapid migration to urban centres but many rural people restricted in mobility by
regulations

Cultural

• Use of minority languages

• Coastal area is more outward looking, westernised and progressive
• Ethnic minorities distrusted e.g. Muslims in interior

Political

• Non – communist party members

• Government has set up 5 special zones and 17 open cities
 • Non-democratic and not a free market economy – so greater control of where
growth is centred
• Rural areas still suffering from the communist land reforms
• Capital is in the north-eastern costal area

History

• Long history of hostile interior borders or disputes, E.g. Tibet

• Contact with western powers via coastal enclaves such as Hong Kong

Causes of economic regression – Zimbabwe (LEDC)

Growth: -4% in 2008

Physical

• A string of low rainfall years

• Forest clearance – soil erosion

Demographic

• Out-migration of professionals and whites

• AIDS epidemic – Life expectancy falling
• Increasing levels of malnutrition

Economic

• Decline in farming due to land redistribution – uneconomic small farms

• Rampant inflation – Over 10 000 000%
• Few exports so little foreign exchange
• 80% unemployment

Social

• Slum Clearance has left many homeless

• Inter-group tensions – insecurity and violence

Political

• Corruption, nationalisation of foreign assets

• Non democratic- semi dictatorship
• Ignored by much of Africa and MEDCs

Historical

• Suffered sanctions from ex-colonial power – UK

 Inequalities in the UK

A core and periphery area in the UK

Area – Core E.g. Central London

Social issues

• Rising housing costs

• Pressure on services
• Increased crime and violence
• Influx of young and ethnic minorities

Environmental issues

• Pollution
• Loss of open space
• Congestion

Groups – Rich

Social issues

• Insecurity
• Maintaining exclusivity
• Access to private healthcare

Environmental issues

• Maintain appearance of area

 Area – Periphery – e.g. North West Scotland

Social issues

• Falling house prices

• Loss of services
• Isolation and loneliness
• Loss of young and influx of second home owners

Environmental issues

• Decay and neglect

• Conserving wilderness areas
• Loss of transport services

Groups – Poor

Social issues

• Insecurity
• Discrimination
• Access to healthcare

Environmental issues

• Reducing hazards from the environment