ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

An important concept in highway design is that every project is unique. The

setting and character of the area, the values of the community, the needs of the
highway users, and the challenges and opportunities are unique factors that
designers must consider with each highway project. Whether the design to be
developed is for a modest safety improvement or 10 kilo meter of new location
rural freeway, there are no patented solutions. For each potential project,
designers are faced with the task of balancing the need for the highway
improvement with the need to safely integrate the design into the surrounding
natural and human environments.

In order to do this, designers need flexibility. There are a number of options

available to State and local highway agency officials to aid in achieving a
balanced road design and to resolve design issues. These include the following:

 Use the flexibility within the standards adopted form ERA.

 Recognize that design exceptions may be optional where environmental
consequences are great.
 Be prepared to reevaluate decisions made in the planning phase.
 Lower the design speed when appropriate.
 Recognize the safety and operational impact of various design features
and modifications.

When faced with extreme social, economic, or environmental consequences, it

is sometimes necessary for designers to look beyond the "givens" of a highway
project and consider other options. The design exception process is one such
alternative. In other cases, it may be possible to reevaluate planning decisions
or rethink the appropriate design.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Transportation deals with the movement of humans and materials from Place
to place. In the world there are various types of transportations like Road,
railway, air, water, etc...From the previous listed transportation types, the
trends are towards road Transportation.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The reason behind is

o Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly

regions. And it provides services for the communities from the start
up to end (termination)
o Roads are constructed relatively at low initial coast than others
and at the same time stage construction is possible.
o Road transportation gives a flexible service, i.e. free from fixed
Program
o It gives door to door services, personalized service, creates higher
employment potential for the community
o -For the development of any nation, infrastructure like that of road
is very important. It's impossible to think of development without
having accessible roads in a given nation.

Roads are very important for many reasons, some of them are

- connecting nation to nation

- reduce wastage of energy during travelling

- connecting people to people living in different places

- facilitate international and national trades

- connecting the gap between producers and consumers helps in the

explorations of natural resources

- used in the transportation of materials which are unevenly distributed

- Also enable the governance of vast areas under control of nation

Besides the advantages, there are some side effects and these side effects
should be reduced by proper design (project handing) and vehicle operation.

Some of the disadvantages are

- Environmental pollution, like noise, vibration, less due to aesthetics

point of views.

- Safety: road accidents become a concern in much country.

- Parking: Especially in cities road transportation needs parking land.

- Energy: it contains higher energy per KM.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

In general when a road design is done the following consideration are done

- Horizontal alignment

- Vertical alignment

- Sight distance requirements

- Cross sectional elements

- Side drainage etc

1.2 PROJECT BACKGROUND

The project location is Harar specifically. It new 1.13 Km access road to provide
access to college to main road. There are residential building and farming lands
on the project area.

Topography of the area is rolling terrain and there is small river. elevation of
the main road is +1820m and elevation of existing road at new road connect is
+1320m.

SITE PLAN

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CHAPTER TWO:
ROUTE SELECTION AND DESIGN STANDARD

INTRODUCTION

Road design, construction and maintenance require an approach depending on

the terrain.

The shortest Road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most
economical option for construction and maintenance.

Frequently; topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are
likely to be the most significant controls in the choice ofthe most suitable
alignment and design of cross section.

Therefore before any alignment of any route and design of the selected route a
detail route survey is needed to understand the terrain, hydrology, and any
other important parameters which affect the alignment of the route. In any
road alignment projects highway surveying of the area is essential and basic for
best route and ease of design and economical route to be found.

2.1 Route Survey And Its Considerations

As mentioned above highway surveying isthe base before, during and after any

alignment and design of road. Route surveying include many considerations or

steps in order to carry out. These are

A. Desk study

B. Reconnaissance

C. Preliminary survey

D. Detail survey or location survey

A. Desk study
Topographical maps of the concerned area provide important features like
river, cultivation areas, valleys, hills together with contour lines.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Routes or alignments could be selected keeping in view of the topographic

features and obligatory points to be touched by the road.

In this project a contour map with forty meter contour interval and scale of
1:50,000 is provided. In the map villages, water courses, churches and
mosques are clearly shown.

So the routes are aligned in accordance with those stated above. That is in
each three selected routes it is tried to

 Incorporate more villages

 Cross minimum number of water courses
 Not to cross obligatory points like churches and mosques.
 Have recommended grades in different terrain types.

B. Reconnaissance
Generally, in this stage, important data’s for the previously selected routes will
be collected. The datas are

 Gradient ,radius of horizontal curve

 Position of hills, lakes, water logged areas, bridge on river
 Number and types of cross drainage
 Types of soil along the route

From the data collected proposed alignments may be altered at few points or
may be completely changed and finally one or more alternative routes may be
proposed for further study.

Since this project is limited totally on desk study some other different
conditions may occur in actual field like

 Cross drainage work that is assumed to be culvert can be bridge and

the vice versa.
 Tracing curves may not be easier or full fill ERA design standards
 Since the contour interval is large there may sever undulations between
two contours.

C. Preliminary survey
The objective of this survey after reconnaissance stage is

 For details of gradient, curve radius, cross diameter

 Quantity of earth work and materials for construction

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

 To compare routes with respect to the cost of construction and

maintenance

Steps of preliminary survey

1. To establish traverse of each alignment

2. To survey the topographical features along the routes, collecting

hydrological data’s, leveling is done to develop longitudinal and cross

sectional drawings for determining the earth work quantity

3. Soil survey should be constructed to check its suitability for road

construction, ground slope, bridge construction, drainage conditions

D. Detail survey (location survey)

The alignment finalized as a result of preliminary survey is first located on the
field and its detail survey is carried out. These are

 Pegging the centre line

 Centre line leveling
 Cross section
 Intersecting roads
 Ditches and streams

In the above mentioned steps only desk study has been carried out for this
particular project. The others are left because there is no field visit in the
project schedule.

Constraints For Highway Alignment:

• Obligatory points

• Geometric standard adopted

• River crossings

• Geological conditions

• Existing right of ways

• Monotony of straight roads

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

2.2 General criteria used in route selection

a) The relative length of the alternatives was considered. mostly the shortest is

selected

b) The average and mean gradient was computed for each route. Normally the
least severe grade alternative is preferred. However, minimum grade mostly
give larger length.

c) Route more closely follow an existing road or track are preferred.

d) Routes face least severe terrain type was considered.

e) Route remain longer on the crest of the terrain minimize drainage structure.

f) Alignment minimizes for land acquisition and demolition of buildings and

houses are preferred.

g) Trial number of cross drainage structures is considered.

h) Routes result in least environmental disturbance is preferred.

i) Route with least overall project cost are preferred.

Route selection comparison:

Criteria Route-1 Route-2 Route-3 Route-4
1.1 average gradient 7.8784 7.5402 5.0620 15.8939
1.2 maximum gradient 12.1773 11.7762 10.5498 17.7103
1.3 minimum gradient 1.989 6.3486 0.7804 13.2459
2. Length of the routes 1637.3137 1167.079 1758.1179 1660.7204
3. River intersection 1* 1* 1 2
4. Population served High High Less Medium
5.follow existing road No Less Less No
6.terain type (general) Rolling Rolling Rolling Rolling
7.route which stay long in poor Good Excellent poor
crest
8. No. Curves 2 2 1 2
9. Environmental problem Medium Less Less High
10. Operational cost Less Medium High Medium

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

From the above four routes comparison we select Route-2 based on the above
criteria.

Bridge

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2.3 Road Types And Design Standards

2.3.1 Types of roads
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors
the functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design
speed; the traffic volume expected on road; the design speed and on the density
and character of the ad joining land use and economic and environmental
considerations.

The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes:

i . Trunk roads (class-I ): There are roads connecting centers of international

importance and terminating at international boundaries which are linked to
the capital. Trunk roads have a present AADT greater than 1000 although they
can have volumes as low as 100AADT. Typical example of trunk road is the
Addis-Gander-Mekelle road.

ii .Link road (class-II ): Center of national and international importance such

as principal town and urban centers must b e linked between each other b y
link roads. A typical link road has over 400-1000AADT. Although values can
range between 50 - 1000AADT.an example of typical link road is the Woldiya-
Woreta-Bahirdar road. This project classified under this category.

iii . Main access roads (class-III ): Centers of principal importance must be

linked between each other by main access roads. These roads have annual
traffic volume of about 30-1000.

iv . Collector roads (class-IV ): roads linking locally important centers to each

other to a more important center or to higher class roads must be linked by
collector roads. These roads have 25-400 AADT.

V .Feeder roads (class-V ): these are classes of roads linking minor centers
such as market and local locations are served by feeder roads. Roads of higher
classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide mobility,
while the primary functions of lower class roads are to provide access.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Design process Road

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2.3.2 Terrain Classification

The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain
through which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized
into four classes as follows:

FLAT: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical
alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent).

ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and
fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in
some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25
percent).

MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This
class of Terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment
obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance
(transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).

ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is

added to cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each
of the above terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations
inclusive of switchback road way sections, or side hill transverse sections
where earthwork quantities are considerable, with transverse terrain slope in
excess of 50 percent).

In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more

difficult and higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such
situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain.

Transverse Terrain Property

In order to know the type of terrain along the selection center line or corridor,
we took horizontal distance perpendicular to the center line and vertical
elevation measurements across the road.

Slop = Vertical Elevation Difference x 100

Horizontal Distance

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Road Road
Station Left Right Width Slop % Terrain
0+000 1820 1820 50 0 Flat
0+020 1817.184 1821.131 50 7.894217 Rolling
0+040 1816.992 1819.992 50 6.00087 Rolling
0+060 1813.366 1820.494 50 14.2572 Rolling
0+080 1811.102 1816.657 50 11.10905 Rolling
0+100 1809.62 1814.146 50 9.053324 Rolling
0+120 1807.412 1814.87 50 14.91424 Rolling
0+140 1808.203 1816.707 50 17.00825 Rolling
0+160 1811.869 1818.462 50 13.18681 Rolling
0+180 1815.26 1817.234 50 3.947187 Flat
0+200 1813.988 1816.537 50 5.098141 Rolling
0+220 1810.978 1814.246 50 6.535977 Rolling
0+240 1806.313 1813.318 50 14.01017 Rolling
0+260 1803.757 1807.293 50 7.070401 Rolling
0+280 1803.128 1803.46 50 0.665399 Flat
0+300 1797.135 1805.237 50 16.20352 Rolling
0+320 1796.172 1805.212 50 18.0791 Rolling
0+340 1796.856 1803.71 50 13.70802 Rolling
0+360 1797.355 1801.626 50 8.543358 Rolling
0+380 1797.011 1800.832 50 7.642631 Rolling
0+400 1797.288 1799.933 50 5.289606 Rolling
0+420 1795.118 1799.143 50 8.049261 Rolling
0+440 1792.074 1796.888 50 9.627187 Rolling
0+460 1790.219 1794.34 50 8.242037 Rolling
0+470 1788.748 1791.436 50 5.376277 Rolling
0+480 1787.543 1789.231 50 3.375837 Flat
0+490 1786.016 1788.734 50 5.435782 Rolling
0+500 1784.911 1787.485 50 5.147672 Rolling
0+510 1784.28 1786.341 50 4.121567 Flat
0+520 1783.309 1785.738 50 4.857286 Flat
0+530 1781.851 1785.355 50 7.008473 Rolling
0+540 1780.252 1784.291 50 8.078395 Rolling
0+550 1779.93 1782.756 50 5.653694 Rolling
0+560 1779.267 1781.977 50 5.420414 Rolling
0+570 1777.762 1781.818 50 8.112048 Rolling
0+580 1775.721 1781.825 50 12.20883 Rolling
0+600 1775.699 1780.549 50 9.699479 Rolling
0+620 1775.918 1779.23 50 6.625284 Rolling
0+640 1775.061 1778.459 50 6.796479 Rolling

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

0+660 1773.692 1777.526 50 7.667933 Rolling

0+680 1772.4 1776.899 50 8.997256 Rolling
0+700 1771.225 1774.572 50 6.694561 Rolling
0+720 1770.787 1773.8 50 6.026093 Rolling
0+740 1768.977 1772.804 50 7.654594 Rolling
0+760 1767.015 1772.933 50 11.83507 Rolling
0+780 1766.901 1770.41 50 7.018554 Rolling
0+800 1764.398 1769.466 50 10.13479 Rolling
0+820 1763.774 1766.357 50 5.164921 Rolling
0+840 1762.332 1764.598 50 4.532848 Flat
0+860 1760.375 1763.543 50 6.334995 Rolling
0+870 1759.048 1761.429 50 4.763039 Flat
0+880 1758.191 1759.938 50 3.494604 Flat
0+890 1756.953 1759.791 50 5.676358 Rolling
0+900 1756.134 1758.998 50 5.727869 Rolling
0+910 1755.017 1758.44 50 6.846356 Rolling
0+920 1753.856 1757.859 50 8.007403 Rolling
0+930 1752.979 1756.656 50 7.354411 Rolling
0+940 1752.768 1754.783 50 4.030119 Flat
0+950 1751.895 1753.734 50 3.676455 Flat
0+960 1750.635 1752.943 50 4.616462 Flat
0+970 1750.209 1750.404 50 0.389135 Flat
0+990 1747.954 1749.036 50 2.163133 Flat
0+1010 1745.382 1747.387 50 4.008914 Flat
0+1030 1742.897 1746.077 50 6.360112 Rolling
0+1050 1738.578 1745.793 50 14.42917 Rolling
0+1070 1738.548 1741.017 50 4.938329 Flat
0+1090 1737.769 1737.794 50 0.051224 Flat
0+1110 1735.269 1735.402 50 0.266146 Flat
0+1130 1729.668 1734.164 50 8.991885 Rolling

From the above table most of the road terrain is rolling.

Therefore, Terrain type is Rolling.

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2.4. Design Standard

ERA classifications of design standards taken under consider ation of design
traffic flow (AADT) of the road alignment. Design classes DS1 to DS10 have
associated bands of traffic flow as was shown in table below. The range of flows
extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day.

Function of Road - Main access road

Design Standard of the Road - DS4.

Design Traffic Flow AADT = 1000

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

CHAPTER THREE:
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
INTRODUCTION

The main aim of every project work is to fulfill the need of people who is served
and the country. In high way design, even though the best route is selected,
without proper design of the road geometric alignments the function time and
the use of that road that is comfort are limited. In other ways maintenance and
operation costs is higher than construction cost for the designed time. Here it
is better to focus on best design and best construction rather than looking for
maintenance and operation costs which happened because of improper design
while function period.

Geometric design of high way deals with proper design of horizontal and
vertical alignments and to fit the required dimensions of the road ways.

3.1 Elements Of Geometric Design

Any designer of highway should take care of the elements of geometric design
after the basic characteristics of drivers, vehicles traffic and road has been
accessed and given to him/her. Also the designer should be in position to
develop the geometric details for a project.

First a design speed and ruling grade must be determined after weighing
factors such as the road’s importance, the estimated amount and character of
traffic, the terrain. The design speed and ruling grade in turn provide the basis
for setting the minimum standards for vertical and horizontal alignment. After
this it is simple to fit standards to the terrain as shown on the maps,
photographs, and other exhibits to produce a plan and profile for the main
road ways.

Generally, in highway design consistency is important rule. Only by making

every elements conform to the driver’s expectations by providing positive
guidance through a variety of cues and by avoiding abrupt changes in
standards can smooth flowing, accident free facility be produced. In addition,
by careful attention to blending horizontal and vertical alignment and fitting
structures to the land escape, the road’s visual qualities can be greatly
enhanced.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

There for in geometric design elements of geometric design should be taken a

care. These are:-

 Gradient
 Horizontal and vertical alignments
 Super elevation
 Sight distances
 Road width

3.1.1 Design Control Factors

Any designer wants to be safe and economical. But sometimes the design is
influenced by the topographic nature and landscapes. These in turn affects
parameters of design to be concerned. The basic design control factors to be
concerned are:-

 Topography
 Design speed
 Traffic factor
 Environmental factor

1. Topography

It determines in fixing the gradient of the roads. The different terrain types are
flat, rolling, mountain and escapement. In hilly terrain steeper gradients and
sharp curves should be allowed by keeping the required minimum standard.

2. Design speed

It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design element of a

highway. Design speed is a speed determined for design and correlation of the
physical features of a highway that influences vehicular operation. It is the
maximum safe speed that can be obtained over a specified section of a highway
when conditions are so favorable that the design feature of the highway
governs. Different speed standards are assigned for different classes of the
road. The choice of a design speed depends on primarily on the surrounding
terrain and the functional class of the highway.

Other factors determining the selection of design speed include traffic volume
and composition, costs of right of way and construction, and aesthetic
considerations.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The speed that a driver adopts on a highway depends on factors such as

physical characteristics of a high way and its surrounding weather condition in
the area and presence of other vehicles and their nature. Speed limitations
place up on the vehicle either by law or mechanical devices.

3. Traffic factor

Vehicular characteristics related to cars, buses trucks, motor cycles all have
different speed and acceleration characteristics. The same traffic behavior is
also affected by physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers
and pedestrians.

4. Environmental factor

The road going to be constructed has many advantages so that it should

provide its function without disturbed by the atmosphere of area. Also
aesthetic and landscaping should affect the geometry of the road. So it should
be considered.

3.2 HORIZONTALALIGNMENT
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight
section, the circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation
section.

1. Tangent Sections

From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat
country but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety
standpoint, they provide better visibility and more passing opportunities.
However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and
usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas, such as on the Awash-
Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase driver fatigue and
hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the
horizontal design. The maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed
4.0 kilometers.

2. The Circular Curve

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radial outward by

centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of
the roadway and/or the side friction developed between the tires and the road

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surface. For calculation of the minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a

particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:

Rmin = V2d
127( e - f )

Where

VD = Design Speed (km/h)

e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)

f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1)

Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Super elevation

Design speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

Vd (Km/h)
Min Horiz. 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R (m)
Side Friction 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor ( f )

Elements of a Circular Curve

PI = Point of Intersection

PC = Point of Curvature

PT = Point of Tangency

Δ = Deflection Angle
T = Tangent Length

R = Radius

l = Length Of Curve

C = Chord Length

E = External

M = Middle Ordinate

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.2.1 Horizontal Curve Design

Function of Road - Main access road

Design Standard of the Road - DS4.

Design Traffic Flow AADT = 1000

Design Speed = 70 Km/Hr (From ERA Table)

Terrain Type - Rolling

e = 8% and f = 0.14 From ERA Manual Table 8.1

College Area

Δ = 310

Δ = 300 P.I2 = 0+956.33

P.I1 = 0+562.25

Main Road

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Curve -1
Minimum Radius of Curve

Rmin = V2d = 702 = 175.375 m

127( e - f ) 127 ( 0.08 x 0.14 )

Therefore, use R = 205 m

Tangent Distance T = R tan(Δ/2)

= 205 tan(300/2)

= 54.93 m

Length Of Curve L = Δ R (2π/3600)

= 300 x 205 (2π/3600)

= 107.338 m

External Distance E = R [sec(Δ/2) - 1]

= 205 [sec(300/2) -1]

= 7.232 m

Middle ordinate M = R [1 - Cos(Δ/2)]

= 205 [1 - Cos(300/2)]

= 6.985 m

Chord Length C = 2R Sin(Δ/2)

= 2 x 205 Sin(300/2)

= 106.116 m

Point of Curvature P.C = P.I1 -T1 = 0+562.25 - 54.93

= 0+507.32 m

Point of Tangency P.T = P.C - L = 0+507.32 + 107.338

= 0+614.66 m

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Curve -2
Minimum Radius of Curve

Rmin = V2d = 702 = 175.375 m

127( e - f ) 127 ( 0.08 x 0.14 )

Therefore, use R = 200 m

Tangent Distance T = R tan(Δ/2)

= 200 tan(310/2)

= 55.465 m

Length Of Curve L = Δ R (2π/3600)

= 310 x 200 (2π/3600)

= 108.21 m

External Distance E = R [sec(Δ/2) - 1]

= 200 [sec(310/2) -1]

= 7.548 m

Middle ordinate M = R [1 - Cos(Δ/2)]

= 200 [1 - Cos(310/2)]

= 7.274 m

Chord Length C = 2R Sin(Δ/2)

= 2 x 200 Sin(310/2)

= 106.895 m

Point of Curvature P.C = P.I2 -T2 = 0+956.33 - 55.465

= 0+900.865 m

Point of Tangency P.T = P.C - L = 0+900.865 + 108.21

= 1+009.075 m

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a
vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object
in its path. The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the
following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time and
the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:

where

d = distance (meter)

t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds

V = initial speed (km/h)

F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)

Table 7-1: Sight Distances (ERA manual)

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Stopping Sight Distance Calculation:

Design Speed V = 70 Km/hr

Driver Reaction Time t = 2.5 sec

f = 0.31 coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)

𝑑 = 0.278𝑡𝑣 + 𝑣2/254𝑓
= 0.278*2.5*70 + 702/254*0.31

= 110.88 m

Stopping sight distance =110.88m > Length of curvature = 107.377m and

108.21 m.

Therefore, it is Safe.

3.2.3 Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distanceis the minimum sight distance on two-way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
traveling at the design speed.

Within the sight area the terrain should be thesame level or a level lower than
the roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may benecessary to remove
obstructions and widencuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required
sight distance. Care must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones
in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in the future due to getative
growth.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four

components, as follows:

Passing sight distance (PSD)

PSD = d1+d2+d3+d4
d1= initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2= distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane

d3= clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver

d4= distance traversed by the opposing vehicle

The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (V–m+at1/2)
Where

t1= 4 sec time of initial maneuver

a = 2.3 km/h/s average acceleration

v = 70 Km/hr average speed of passing vehicle

m = 5 km/h difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle,

d1= 0.278*4(70-5+2.3*4/2) = 77.395 m

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

d2 = 0.278 Vt2
Where

t2= time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s

v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

d2=0.278*70*10

=194.6 m

d3= safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is
dependent on ambient speeds as per Table 7-2:

Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (Km/hr) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

d3 (m ) 30 55 80 100

d3 = 55 m Using ERA manual table 7.2

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal

to d2 less the portion of d2whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane,
estimated at:

d4 = 2d2/3

d4 = 2/3*194.6

=129.733 m

The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:

PSD = d1+d2+d3 +d4

= 77.395+194.6+55+129.733

Passing sight distance (PSD) = 456.728 m

26
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.2.4 Design Widening on Horizontal Curves

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as
drivers following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic
lane. Curve widening reduces such problems.

Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable

to those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is
increased. Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be
sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.

Table 8-3 below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening
shall generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the
beginning of the transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the
circular curve.

The amount of widening needed on horizontal curves, depends jointly on the

length and other characteristics of the design vehicle and the radius of
curvature negotiated.The width elements of the design vehicle used in
determining the appropriate roadway widening on curves include the track
width of the design vehicles that may meet or pass on the curve.

Widening of curve :
Extra widening is provided for two cases.

Widening for vehicle operation

W = nL2/2R

Extra widening needed for Psychological reason.

W = Vd/10√R
Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:

We=nL2/2R + Vd/10√R
Where

n - No of lane (2 in our case)

L - length of the vehicle = 7m

R - radius of curvature
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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Vd - design speed = 70 Km/hr

Widening for curve -1:

Radius of curvature R1 = 205 m

We = nL2/2R + Vd/10√R

= 2*72/2*205 + 70 /10 (205)1/2

= 0.728 m

The minimum widening of curve according to ERA manual = 0.6m

 Therefore, we use W = 0.75 m both sides

Widening for curve -1:

Radius of curvature R2 = 200 m

We = nL2/2R + Vd/10√R

= 2*72/2*200 + 70 /10 (200)1/2

= 0.74 m

 Therefore, we use W = 0.75 m both sides

3.2.5 Transition Curves

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing
radius. Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular
curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also
be used between two circular curves.

Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence
transition curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited
number of situations. For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral
acceleration is small and transition curves are not normally required. It can
also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for certain roads,
particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient justification
for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant

28
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves
has a superelevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum superelevation.
For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road
segments having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 km/hr.

Transition Curve:
Function of Road - Main access road

Design Standard of the Road - DS4

Design Speed = 70 Km/Hr

Terrain Type - Rolling

Based on ERA manual our road does not require spiral transition curve.

 we provide tangent-to-curve transition to develop superelevation

gradually.

3.3 Super elevation

This is done on curves to facilitate the traffic flow while rounding the horizontal
curve. Normally on curves there is a tendency for vehicles to face away from the
outer portion of the curve due to the existence of centrifugal force. To overcome
this effect super elevation is provided. The remains are resisted by lateral
friction. Generally super-elevation rate, e is the raising of the outer edge of the
road along a curve in order to counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in
combination with the friction between the surface and tires developed in the
lateral direction.

Advantages of providing superelevation are

• Higher speeds without danger of over turning

• Increases volume of traffic

• Maintenance is reduced otherwise there will be wear on the outside wheels

causing potholes

• Water drain off which decrease the construction of gutters

29
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The maximum limit of superelevation is dependent on the nature of the climate

condition (frequency and snow condition), the terrain condition whether
mountain or plain, the vehicle type.

In our case the maximum superelevation recommended is used which is 8%

taken from ERA manual 2001 on the curves and less than 8%value is used
through transition length.

1. Superelevation Runoff: the length of roadway need to accomplish a change

in out-lane cross slope from zero to superelevation, or vice versa.

minimum length of Superelevation Runoff for tangent-to-curve transition:

Maximum acceptable difference between the longitudinal grades of the axis of

rotation and the edge of the pavement: appearance and comfort.

relative gradient varies with design speed: longer runoff lengths at higher
speeds and shorter lengths at lower speeds.

Minimum length of Superelevation Runoff:

Lr = (wn1) ed (bw)

G
where: n1 - No of lane rotated using AASHTO exhibit 3-28

w - width of one traffic lane

ed - design superelevation rate

G - maximum relative gradient

bw - adjustment factor for number of lane rotated

30
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

31
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Minimum length of Superelevation Runoff:

Lr = (wn1) ed (bw)

G
using AASHTO exhibit 3-28

n1 = 1 bw = 1 G = 0.55 w = 3.35m ed = 8%

Lr = (3.35*1) 8% (1)
0.55

= 48.727 m

Provide Length Of Superelevation Runoff is = 50m

 Location of superelevation runoff is 2/3 Lr in tangent and 1/3 Lr in

curve.

2.Tangent Runout : length of roadway need to accomplish a change in outside-

lane cross slope from normal cross slope rate to zero, or vice versa.

Minimum length of tangent runout:

 Depends on amount of adverse cross slope to be removed and the rate at

which it is removed and Relative gradient

Lt = eNC Lr

ed
where ed - design superelevation rate = 8%

eNC - normal cross slope rate = 2.5%

Lr - Min. length of suerelevation runoff = 50m

Lt = 2.5% * 50 = 15.237 m

8%

Provide Length Of Tangent Runoff is = 16m

32
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.3.2 Methods of Attaining Superelevation

Four methods are used to transition the pavement to a superelevated cross
section. These methods include:

Method-1 Revolving a traveled way with normal cross slopes about the
centerlineprofile ,

Method-1 Revolving a traveled way with normal cross slopes about the inside-
edge profile,

Method-3 Revolving a traveled way with normal cross slopes about the
outside-edge profile, and

Method-4 Revolving a straight cross-slope traveled way about the outside-edge

profile.

 From the above methods we provide METHOD-1 it shown figure

bellow.

fig . Superelevation variations along a transition curve

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.4 Vertical alignment

Whenever there is a change of grade in the vertical plane, a vertical curve is
required to smoothen the change crated. It is usually parabolic as parabolic
curves provide a constant rate of change of grade.

The vertical alignment of the road has a strong influence on the construction
cost, operation cost of vehicles using the road and the number of accidents.
The vertical alignment should provide adequate sight distances over crests and
sags and should not present any sudden hidden changes in alignment to the
driver. Gradients need to be considered from the stand point of both length and
steepness and the speed at which heavy vehicles enter the gradient. They
should be chosen such that any increase in construction cost is more than
offset by savings in operating costs.

A vertical curve consists of straight parts of highway (grades) with vertical

curves and the design involves:

• Selection of grade

• Inserting of vertical curves

Determination of maximum gradient

• Determination of length of maximum gradient

• Minimum stopping sight distance.

• Length of vertical curves etc...

During vertical alignment the following should be considered

• Gradient of the route should be between the allowable maximum &
minimum.

• Critical length should be within limits.

• Vertical & horizontal curves should not overlap.

• Cut & fill should be balanced.

• Provision of adequate sight distance over all crests

• Avoidance of very short sag vertical curve, i.e. minimum of 120m for
new roads

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

• Avoidance of short grade between two vertical curves

• Avoidance short drop immediately before a long up grade

• Avoidance of combination two vertical curves in the same direction, i.e.

they should be replaced by single vertical curve

3.4.1 Gradients
One of the important considerations in designing a highway is the gradient.
The cost of operation of vehicles the speed of vehicles and the capacity of a
highway are profoundly affected by the grades provided. On mountainous and
steep terrain the grades are not only influenced by the ability of vehicles to
negotiate them, but also by the altitude of a road above sea level since rare
faction of air causes loss of engine power. Roads once constructed to a given
vertical profile are very difficult to be upgraded to flatter gradients at a
subsequent stage without great loss to the initial investment

The grades are selected based on:

 The amount of earthwork (cut/fill) should be as minimum as possible to

reduce cost.
 Design speed and topographic factors.
 Vehicle operating cost.
 Minimum grade of 0.05% should be provided for drainage purpose.
 Grades are selected as much as possible not to cause high fill

Fixing of grade for the road aligned

In fixing, the grade of the road this points where considered to be the decisive
factors

a. Critical length of gradient according to ERA manual table 9.4

b. Maximum grade limit

c. Balance Cut & fill

d. Operation Cost

 In our road terrain type is rolling therefore, little difficult to balance

cut and fill but we try to minimized by using max limited grade.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.4.2 Vertical curves design

General considerations

Vertical curves should be provided at a point of change of grade

The vertical curve serves a number of purposes

• they serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another

without discomfort to riders

• they eliminate sudden humps and troughs

• they provided adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking

If the point of vertical intersection (termed PVI) is above the road surface. The
curve is a summit or crest curve and if it is below the road surface the curve is
a sag curve.

Minimum Length Of Vertical Curves

The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide
sufficient stopping sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable
"K" values, as defined by the formula:

K = L/A

K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change grade

L = length of vertical curve (m)

A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%) = g2 - g1

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.4.2.1 Crest curves

Crest curves are provided where a rising-falling gradient encountered or falling
more falling gradient occurs. The minimum length of vertical curves can be
calculated using a formula based on comfort and stopping sight distance
requirement and the governing one can be used.

In determining the length of the curve the following points are account

 Sight distance (both stopping and passing )

 Class of highway (DS4)
 Topography (Rolling in our case)
 Curvature
 General appurtenance
Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

Length of crest curves

1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

L =AK

2. Length required for safe stopping

When SSd < L

L1 = A*Sd2

100 ( (2h1)1/2 + (2h2)1/2 )2

When SSd > L

L2 = 2Sd - 200( √h1 + √h2)2

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

where

h1 - driver's eye height = 1.070m

h2 - object height for SSd = 0.15m and for PSd = 1.3m

3. Length required for passengers comfort

Lc = Vd2* A /389

4. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)

La= 30 *A

3.4.2.2 Sag curves

Sag curves are provided where a rising-falling grades encounters or raising a
more rising gradient. The minimum values for sag vertical curves are
determined by the required head light sight distances, drainage requirements
and the level of driver's comfort expected.

Short sag vertical curves and short grades between two vertical curves have
been avoided.

The length of the curve is determined by taking the following criteria‟s in to

account

 Headlight sight distance

 Passengers comfort
 Drainage control
 General appearance

Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Length of Sag curves

38
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

L =AK

2. Length required for safe stopping

When S < L

L1 = A*S2 / 200( h + S* tanβ )

When S > L

L2 = 2S - 200(h + S* tanβ)/A

Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6

and the angle b/n the ray from the observer’s eye to the object , β = 10

3. Length required for passengers comfort

Lc = Vd2* A /389

4. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)

La= 30 *A

Table: Sight distance from ERA manual

Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves

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 ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Earth Profile And Gradient Of Road

1840

g1=4.5%
1820
g2=6.95%
1800
g3=8.5%
1780 g4=6.75%
Elevation

1760 g5=9.9%

1740

1720

1700

1680
0
60

530

970
120

180

240

300

360

420

470

500

560

600

660

720

780

840

880

910

940

1030

1090

station

40
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Vertical curves design Calculation:

Road standard - DS4

Design speed = 70 km/hr

curve - 1
Crest curve

g1 = 4.5 % g2 = 6.95%

A = g2 – g1 = 6.95 % - (-4.5 %) = -2.45 %

K = 31; from table

Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

L = AK = 2.45 * 31 = 75.95 m

use L = 80m

Length required for safe stopping:

Ssd = 110m from table h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 0.15m.

When Ssd < L

𝐴𝑆𝑑 2
L1 = 2
100 2𝑕 1 + 2𝑕 2

2.45∗110 2
= 2 = 73.33m
100 2∗1.07+ 2∗0.15

When Ssd > L

2
200 2𝑕 1 + 2𝑕 2
L1 = 2𝑆𝑑 − 𝐴

2
200 2∗1.07+ 2∗0.15
= 2 ∗ 110 − = 55m
2.45

The length required for passenger comfort;

𝐴𝑉𝑑2 70 2 ∗2.45%
L1 = = = 30.86m
389 389

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Length required for aesthetics;

La = 30*A

= 30*2.45

= 73.5m

∴ The actual length curve = 80m greater than L1 = 73.39m, L2 = 55m, Lc =

30.86m and La = 73.5m which is safe for sight distance for safety.

For more safety provide LVc = 120m

Calculation Of Vertical Curves

using the same procedure

Curve g1(%) g2(%) A K SSd Lmin SSd<L SSd>L Lc La Lprov

No. (m) (m) (m) (m) m m (m)
1 -4.5 -6.95 -2.45 31 110 75.95 73.33 55 30.9 73.5 120
2 -6.95 -8.5 -1.55 31 110 48.05 66.8 40.8 19.5 46.5 120
3 -8.5 -6.75 1.75 31 110 54.25 71.14 11 22.0 52.5 120
4 -6.75 -9.9 -3.15 31 110 97.65 128 96.55 39.7 94.5 120

42
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.4.2.3 Setting out of grade of vertical curve:

Luc = 120m g1 = 4.5 % g2 = 6.95%

Elev. PVI = 1811.9m

Elev. PVC = Elev. PVI − g1 ∗ Lvc 2

= 1811.9m − 0.0045 ∗ 120 2

= 1809.2m
𝑟𝑥 2
Elevation point at the curve 𝑌 = + g1 x + 𝐿𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑣𝑢
2

𝑔2 − 𝑔1
Rate of change of grade 𝑟 = 𝐿

Station
PVC X g1 * X Elev PVC + X g1 r=(g2-g1)/L r X^2/2 End Elev.
0+120 0 0 1809.2 1.225 0 1809.2
0+140 20 0.9 1810.1 1.225 0.496125 1811.4961
0+160 40 1.8 1811.9 1.225 1.9845 1815.6845
0+180 60 2.7 1814.6 1.225 4.465125 1821.7651
0+200 80 3.6 1818.2 1.225 7.938 1829.738
0+220 100 4.5 1822.7 1.225 12.40313 1839.6031
0+240 120 5.4 1828.1 1.225 17.8605 1851.3605

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

CHAPTER FOUR:
PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1. GENERAL
Flexible pavements are composed of a series of granular layers topped by a
relatively thin high- quality bituminous surface (surface dressing or asphalt
concrete). A flexible pavement is a structure that maintains intimate contact
with and distributes loads to the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock,
particle friction, and cohesion for stability.
Typically, the highest quality materials are at or near the surface. Flexible
pavements are intended to limit the stress created at the subgrade level by the
traffic traveling on the pavement surface, so that the subgrade is not subject to
significant deformations. In effect, the concentrated loads of the vehicle wheels
are spread over a sufficiently larger area at sub grade level. At the same time,
the pavement materials themselves should not deteriorate to such an extent as
to affect the riding quality and functionality of the pavement.
Pavement design involves a study of soils and paving materials, their behavior
under load, and the design of a pavement to carry that load under all climatic
conditions.
The strength of the road subgrade for flexible pavements is commonly
assessed in terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is
dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture content. Direct
assessment of the likely strength or CBR of the subgrade soil under the
completed road pavement is often difficult to make. Its value, however, can be
inferred from an estimate of the density and equilibrium (or ultimate)
moisture content of the subgrade together with knowledge of the relationship
between strength, density and moisture content for the soil in question. This
relationship must be determined in the laboratory. The density of the subgrade
soil can be controlled within limits by compaction at suitable moisture content
at the time of construction. The moisture content of the subgrade soil is

44
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

governed by the local climate and the depth of the water table below the road
surface.
In pavements containing bituminous materials, the internal deformation of
these materials must be limited.
The component layers of a flexible pavement are given below:
SURFACING
This is the uppermost layer of the pavement and will normally consist of a
bituminous surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material.
Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the
wearing course and the base course (or binder course) as shown in Figure
Below.
The wearing surface may range in thickness from less than 25 mm in the case
of a bituminous surface treatment used for low-cost, light-traffic roads to 150
mm or more of asphalt concrete used for heavily traveled routes.
The wearing surface must be capable of withstanding the wear and abrasive
effects of moving vehicles and must possess sufficient stability to prevent it
from shoving and rutting under traffic loads.
In addition, it serves a useful purpose in preventing the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the base and subgrade from directly above.
For some heavily traveled highways, a 13 mm to 18 mm thickness of highly
drainable open- graded friction course is placed on top of the wearing course
for the purpose of improving skid resistance, and improving wet night visibility.
BASE COURSE
 The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface
course.
 It may be composed of well-graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular
mixed with binder, or stabilized materials.
 It is the main structural part of pavement and provides a level surface for
laying the surface layer.

45
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

 If constructed over the subgrade, it prevents intrusions of the fine

subgrade soils in to the pavement structure.
SUB BASE COURSE
 Layer beneath the base course and on top of the embankment
construction using local and cheaper material for economic reason.
 It provides additional help to the base and the upper layer in distributing
the load.
 It facilitates drainage of free water that might get accumulation below the
pavement.
 If the base course is open graded, the sub base course with more fines
can serve as a filter between the sub grade and the base course.
SHOULDERS
Shoulders participate in the structural function of a road pavement, providing
lateral support for the pavement layers. They should help in removing surface
water from the road surface and facilitate the internal drainage of the
pavement. They are especially important when unbound materials are used in
the pavement. From a functional point of view a minimum width of 1m is
recommended and it is also recommended that shoulders on paved roads
having a width less than 1m should be paved. Shoulders give additional width
for emergency and temporary parking.
The main requirements for shoulders are their ability to support traffic on
occasions, to be practically impervious and not prone to rapid erosion.
The main materials to be considered for constructing the shoulders are:
 The same materials as those used for the base and sub base of the
pavement (preferred alternative); or
 Gravel materials

46
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

SUBGRADE
The type of subgrade soil is largely determined by the location of the road.
However, where the soils within the possible corridor for the road vary
significantly in strength from place to place, it is clearly desirable to locate the
pavement on the stronger soils if this does not conflict with other constraints.
For this reason, the pavement engineer should be involved in the route corridor
selection process when choices made in this regard influence the
pavement structure and the construction costs.

Figure .5.1. Elements of Flexible pavement

47
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

4.2. Design Procedure

The main requirement is to determine the thicknesses of various pavement

layers to satisfy the design objectives stated in Section 8.2.Assuming that the
pavement section consists of surface, base and subbase, three thicknesses: D1,
D2 and D3 are required for the three layers, respectively. The design procedure
can be divided into 12 steps as presented below. These steps have been
incorporated in several computers programs to facilitate the design procedure
such as DARWin (AASHTO, 2001).

Step 1: Reliability

A reliability level (R) is selected depending on the functional classification of the

road and whether the road is in urban or rural area. The reliability is the
chance that pavement will last for the design period without failure. A larger
reliability value will ensure better performance, but it will require larger layer
thicknesses. Table 5.1 shows reliability levels suggested by the 1993 AASHTO
design guide. The reliability Levels shown in Table5.1 has a wide range to
accommodate different field conditions. Different agencies typically select
reliability values from the table that match their local conditions.

Table 5.1 shows reliability levels suggested by the 1993 AASHTO design guide.
The reliability

 The reliability level is 95% is given.

48
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

 But if it is not given we can get from above table

Step 2: Overall Standard Deviation

The overall standard deviation (So) takes into consideration the variability of all
input data. The 1993 design guide recommends an approximate range of 0.4 to
0.5 for flexile pavements. An overall standard deviation value (So) is selected by
the designer within this range.

Over all standard deviation is given, S0=.045

Step 3: Cumulative Equivalent Single Axle Load

In this step, the designer assumes a designed life, typically in the range of 10
to 20 years. The cumulative expected 18-kip (80-kN) ESAL (W18) during the
designed life in the design lane is then determined. If the cumulative two-
directional 18-kip ESAL is known, the designer must factor the design traffic
by directions by multiplying by the directional distribution factor (D) to get the
ESAL in the predominate direction. For example, if the traffic split during the
peak hour is 70 – 30%, D is taken as 0.7. To get the ESAL in the design (right)
lane, the design traffic in the predominant direction is multiplied by the lane
distribution factor (L) shown in Table 5.3.

I. Design life
The design life is the period during which the road is expected to carry traffic at
a satisfactory level of service, without requiring major rehabilitation or repair
work. It is implicit; however, that certain maintenance work will be carried out
throughout this period in order to meet the expected design life.
The table below shows the general guidelines recommended by ERA (Flexible
Pavements and Gravel Roads, 2002)

49
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Table5.2. Design period

Road Classification Design Period
(years)
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10

 Since the road is main access road it will be 15 year of design

period.

II. Lane Distribution Factor

When the pavement design is for carriageways with more than one traffic lane
in each direction, a reduction may be considered in the cumulative ESA to take
into account for the design (ERA, Flexible Pavements and Gravel Roads, 2002).
The ranges given in table 5.3 are suggested for the percentage of design ESAs
to consider in the design lane.
Table5.3. Lane Distribution Factor (AASHTO, 1993)
No. of Lane in % of 18-kip ESAL in
Each Direction the Design Lane
1 100
2 80-100
3 60-80
4 50-70
For this project use 100% because it is one traffic lane
 L= 100 %( 1)
III. Directional distribution factor
Traffic tends to be more channelized on single-lane bituminous roads than on
two-lane roads.

50
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The effective traffic loading in the wheel path in one direction has been shown
to be twice that for a wider road.
Although the D factor is generally 0.5 (50%) for most roadways, experience has
shown that it may vary from 0.3 to 0.7.
In this case we use
 D= 0.5
IV. Vehicle Classifications
Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation (as well
as evaluation of equivalent axle loads). The breakdown adopted by ERA for
traffic counts is the following:
Table 5.3 vehicle classification
Vehicle Type of vehicle Description
code
I Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger
seats),
taxis, pick-ups, and Land Cruisers, Land
Rovers, etc.
II Bus Medium and large size buses above 24
passenger seats
III Medium truck Small and medium sized trucks including
tankers up to 7
tons load
IV Heavy truck Trucks above 7 tons load
V Articulated Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker
truck Trailers

It is most often in terms of volumes (e.g. AADT) in each of these 5 classes that
the traffic data will initially be available to the designer. As mentioned before,
small cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage, particularly
for paved roads. Even though the small cars count is included in any regular

51
ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

traffic count survey, their number does not influence the pavement design of
paved roads. It is also worth noting that the “heavy” vehicles used in the
development of the pavement structures essentially correspond, for all practical
design purposes, to vehicle codes 2 through 5.
 Since in this project the vehicle category is class II so it fall in to
medium and large size buses (>24 seats).

V. Base line traffic flow

In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first
step is to estimate initial traffic volumes (AADT0)
In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the
baseline traffic flows must be estimated.
The base line traffic flow (base year traffic, AADT1) during the first year of
service is obtained from the initial traffic volume (AADT0).
Adjustments are made between AADT0 and AADT1 using the relevant growth
factors.
 AADT0=1000
VI. Traffic Forecasting
Traffic forecasting is an uncertain process. In order to forecast traffic growth it
is necessary to separate traffic into normal traffic, diverted traffic and
generated traffic.
 For our project the growth rate is 3%
VII. Equivalency Factors(EF)
The relationship between a vehicle EF and its axle loading in normally
considered in terms of the axle mass measured in kilograms. The relationship
takes the form:
Equivalent factor = (axlei/8160) n
Where
Axlei = mass of axle i
n = a power factor that varies depending on the pavement
construction type and sub grade but which can be assumed
to have a value of 4.5.
And the standard axle load is taken as 8160kg with the summation taken over
the number of axle on the vehicle in question

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Table5.4. Equivalency factor for different axle load (flexible pavement)

Wheel load Axle load Equivalency
(single & dual) (103kg) factor (EF)
(103kg)
1.5 3.0 0.01
2.0 4.0 0.04
2.5 5.0 0.11
3.0 6.0 0.25
3.5 7.0 0.50
4.0 8.0 0.91
4.5 9.0 1.55
5.0 10.0 2.50
5.5 11.0 3.93
6.0 12.0 5.67
6.5 13.0 8.13
7.0 14.0 11.3
7.5 15.0 15.5
8.0 16.0 20.7
8.5 17.0 27.2
9.0 18.0 35.2
9.5 19.0 44.2
10.0 20.0 56.5

Notes: (1) The equivalency factors given in Table 5.4 are to be used solely in the
context of this
Form ERA PDM ESA per vehicle tabulated as follow.
Table 6.4: Equivalency Factors for Different Heavy Vehicle Configurations
Average Average ESAs per Typical Range of
ESAs vehicle Average
ESAs per vehicle
2-axle truck 0.70 0.30-1.10
2-axle bus 0.73 0.41-1.52
3-axle truck 1.70 0.80-2.60
4-axle truck 1.80 0.80-3.00
5-axle truck 2.20 1.00-3.00

For this project

 3-axle truck = 3-axle bus

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Table 5.5 ESA per Vehicle

Vehicle type ESAs per
vehicle
Car 0
Land Rover 0.7
Small Bus 0.73
Large Bus 1.7
Small Truck 0.8
Medium Truck 1.7
Heavy Truck 1.8
Truck Trailer 2.2
 The Vehicle category is class II, so it contains medium and large
bus.
 It use greater value from both bus
 ESAs per vehicle =1.7

VIII. AXLE LOADING

In order to determine the cumulative equivalent standard ax les over the design
life of the road, the following procedure should be followed.
Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of vehicle weighed using the
results of the traffic survey and any other recent traffic count information that
is available. This is the initial traffic volume (AADT0). Initial traffic volume in
terms of (AADT0) of year 2012
Estimate the annual growth rate 3% and the anticipated number of years 2
between the traffic survey and the opening of the road. Since traffic count is
done at the year 2012 and opening of the traffic expected at the year 2014.
Determine AADT1, the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the road
opening (2014) by:
AADT1= AADT0 (1+i) x

=1000*(1+0.03) 2 =1060.9

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Determine the average daily one-directional traffic flow of vehicle. Take the half
of two directional AADT1.

AADT1= AADT0 (1+i) x

2
=1000*(1+0.03) 2

2
= 530.45

Make a forecast of the one-directional traffic flow for each class of vehicle to
determine the total traffic in each class that will travel over each lane during
the design life.
As described above this project have design period of 15 years. And the
cumulative no of vehicles in one direction over the design period will be as
below
The following formula, using the average daily traffic flow for the first year gives
the cumulative totals:
DT = T * 365 *D*L [(1 + r/100) p– 1] /(r/100)
Where
DT= is the cumulative design traffic in a vehicle category, for one direction, and
T = average daily traffic in a vehicle category in the first year (one direction)
r = average assumed growth rate, per cent per annum
p = design period in years
D= directional distribution factor
L= lane distribution factor
DT= 530.45*365*1*0.5*[(1+3/100)15-1]/ (3/100)
=1800507.3815
=1.8005073815*106
NB: It is the design traffic
Determine the mean equivalence factor of each class of vehicle and for each
direction from the results of the axle load survey and any other surveys that
have recently been carried out.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

The products of the cumulative one-directional traffic flows for each class of
vehicle over the design life of the road and the mean equivalence factor for that
class should then be calculated and added together to give the cumulative
equivalent standard axle loading for each direction.
The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.
Step 4: Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus
Determine the resilient modulus (MR) of the roadbed soil in the laboratory
according to AASHTO T307 method (AASHTO, 2004). Since the resilient
modulus of the soil depends on the moisture content, different resilient moduli
will be obtained in different seasons depending on the amount of rain or snow
in each season. Thus, an effective roadbed soil resilient modulus is needed to
represent a weighted average value for the whole year.

Figure 5.1 can be used to estimate the effective roadbed soil resilient modulus.
In this method, the year is divided into a number of distinct seasons where the
resilient modulus is significantly different. The relative damage (uf)
corresponding to each MR value is determined using the scale in Figure 5.1 and
recorded in the table. The uf values are averaged and the corresponding MR value is
obtained from the same scale and reported as the effective roadbed soil resilient
modulus.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Figure5.1. Work she t for estimating effective roadbed soil resilient modulus (AASHTO,
1993)

 Effective road-bed soil resilient modulus = 7 ksi (Given)

5.4.5. Step 5 Resilient Moduli of Pavement Layers

The resilient moduli (MR) of the surface, base, and subbase layers are either
determined using laboratory testing or estimated using previously developed
correlations.

 Resilient modulus of subbase = 20 ksi

 Resilient modulus of base = 40 ksi (Given)
 Resilient modulus of asphalt concrete surface = 450 ksi (Given)
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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Not. 1ksi = 103psi

MR = 1500 x CBR [psi]…………………………… 5.1

NB: In which MR is the resilience modulus in psi. The coefficient, 1500 could
vary from 750 to 3000, with a factor of 2. Available data indicate that Eq.5.1
provides better results at values of CBR less than about 20. In other words, the
correlation appears to be more reasonable for fine-grained soils and fine sands
than for granular materials. The following table is for granular material.

Table 5.6 Correlation between CBR and Resilience Modulus

Step 6: Serviceability Loss

User’s opinion of how well they are being served by the road is largely
subjective. The serviceability of a given road may be expressed as the average
evaluation given by all users of the road. Performance therefore, is the overall
appraisal of the serviceability history of a pavement. Present serviceability
rating (PSR) is the average of user assessment or rating of the quality of the
pavement. Present serviceability index, (PSI) is an estimate of the PSR of a
pavement based on objective measures of the pavement quality and a
correlation equation for relating these measures to the PSR. PSR and PSI follow
a scale from zero to five, where zero is for an impassable road condition and
five for an excellent condition. A well-constructed new pavement has a PSI of
4.5 – 4.6. Agencies typically define failure as a terminal serviceability index, pt,
of 2.0, 2.5, or 3.0

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Figure .5.2. Change of pavement condition versus time.

AASHTO performance requirement = ΔPSI

• ΔPSI is such that PSIt is NOT reached before end of design life

The serviceability loss is the difference between the initial serviceability index
(Po) and the terminal serviceability index (Pt) (See Figure 5.2).

∆PSI = Po - Pt

NB: The typical Po value for a new pavement is 4.6 or 4.5. The recommended
values of Pt are 3.0, 2.5 or 2.0 for major roads, intermediate roads and
secondary roads, respectively.

Use:

Assume initial serviceability index (Po) = 4.50

Assume terminal serviceability index (Pt) = 2.50

∆PSI = 4.5. - 2.50 = 2.0

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Step 7: Structural Numbers

As shown in Equation 5.2, the structural number (SN) is an index value that
combines layer thicknesses, structural layer coefficients, and drainage
coefficients. In this step the structural numbers required above the subgrade,
sub base, and base layers are determined. The required structural number
above the subgrade (SN3) is determined first using either Equation 5.2 or
Figure 5.3

Log W18 = ZR So +9.36 log (SN +1) - 0.2 +log [∆PSI/ (4. 2 -1.5)] +2.32 log MR –
8.07 5.2

0.4 +1094/ (SN +1)5.19

Figure5.3 Design chart for flexible pavements based on using mean

values for each input (AASHTO, 1993).

Where:

W18 = Cumulative expected 18-kip ESAL during the designed life in the design
lane

ZR =Normal deviate for a given reliability R (3) So = Standard deviation

MR = Effective roadbed soil resilient modulus (step 4)

Note that SN can be obtained from Equation 5.2either by trial and error or by
iteration using a computer program.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

This process is repeated two more times to obtain the required structural
number above the subbase (SN2) and the required structural number above the
base (SN1). To obtain SN2, MR value of the subbase should be used in Equation
5.2 (or Figure 5.3). Similarly, to obtain SN1, MR of the base should be used.

 Insert the following result in to the figure 5.3 and read the SN
value
Reliability(R) = 95%
S0 = 0.45
ESAL =1.8005073815*106
Resilience Modulus is different for different value
∆PSI = 2

SN3 = 5.1 (subgrade MR of 7 ksi)

SN2 = 3.4 (subbase MR of 20 ksi)

SN1 = 2.6 (base MR of 40 ksi)

Step 8: Structural Layer Coefficients

The structural layer coefficient is a measure of the relative ability of a unit

thickness of a given material to function as a structural component of the
pavement. Three structural layer coefficients (a1, a2 and a3) are required for
the surface, base and subbase, respectively. These coefficients can be
determined from road tests, as was done in the AASHO Road Test, or from
correlations with material properties as shown in Figures 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6
(Van Til et al., 1972). It is recommended that the structural layer
coefficients be based on the resilient modulus, which a more fundamental
material property. A typical a1 value for the dense-graded HMA is 0.44,
which corresponds to a resilient modulus of 450,000 psi as shown in

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Figure 5.4.chart for estimating structural layer coefficient of dense- graded

asphalt concrete based on the elastic (resilience) modulus

From the above figure by inserting resilience modulus and read the
structural coefficient (a1)

MR = 450ksi

a1 = 0.44

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Figure 5.5 correlation charts for estimating resilience modules base course

By inserting the resilience modulus in to the figure and read the structure
layer coefficient (a2)

MR =40ksi

a2=.17

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

FIGURE.5.6. Chart for estimating structural layer coefficient of dense-graded

asphalt concrete based on the elastic (resilient) modulus (Van Til et al., 1972).

 By inserting the following result in to the above figure and read the
structural layer coefficient (a3)
 MR= 20ksi
 Texas triaxial = 2.3
 R valve = 85
 CBR = 80
a3 = 0.14

Step 9: Drainage Coefficients

Drainage coefficients are measures of the quality of drainage and the
availability of moistures in the granular base and subbase. Two equal drainage
coefficients (m2 and m3) are needed for the base and subbase, respectively. The
drainage coefficient values for the untreated base and subbase recommended
by the AASHTO 1993 design guide are shown in Table 5.7

TABLE 5.7 Recommended Drainage Coefficients for Untreated Bases and

Subbases in Flexible Pavements

(AASHTO, 1993)

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

From the table read the drainage coefficient?

Rating is good
Water removed within 1 day
10% of the time the moisture levels approaching saturation
So the value range between 1.15 – 1.00 by interpolation the value of
m2 and m3 will be:
m2 = m3 = 1.1125

Step 10: Layer Thicknesses

Using the structural numbers required above the base, subbase and the
subgrade (SN1, SN2 and SN3) obtained in Step 7, the layer thicknesses of the
surface, base and subbase (D1, D2 and D3) can be obtained from Equations 5.3,
5.4 and 5.5, respectively. First, Equation 5.3 is used to solve for D1 and the
value is round up to the next 1/2 in. increment. The rounded value of D1 is
used in Equation 5.4 to solve for D2 and the value is rounded up to the next 1
in. increment. Finally, the rounded values of D1 and D2 are used in Equation
5.5 to solve for D3 and the value is rounded up to the next 1 in. increment.

SN1 ≤ a1D1
(5.3)

SN2 ≤ a1D1 + a2D2m2

(5.4)

SN3 ≤ a1D1+ a2D2m2 + a3D3m3

(5.5)

The values of D1, D2 and D3 have to meet certain minimum practical

thicknesses as shown in Table 5.8

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

 SN1 ≤ a1D1
 D1 ≥ SN1/a1
 ≥2.6/0.44
 ≥5.909090909in. (Round to 6.00in)
 SN2 ≤ a1D1+a2D2m2
 D2 ≥ SN2-a1D1
a2m2
 D2 ≥ 3.4 – 0.44*6
0.17*1.1125
 ≥4.018506279in. Use a minimum value of 6in.)(Table8.7)
 SN3 ≤ a1D1+ a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
 D3 ≥ SN3 - a1D1- a2D2m2
a3m3
 D3 ≥ 5.1 – 0.44*6 – 0.17*6*1.1125
0.14*1.1125
 ≥11.91235955in. (Rounded to 12)

Note that Equations 5.3 to 5.5 may allow for thickness compensations among
layers. For example, a larger value for D1 may be used that would allow for a
smaller value of D2. Since the costs of materials at different locations are
different, the designer can make use of the thickness compensation concept to
obtain the most economic pavement section.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

CHAPTER FIVE:
EARTHWORK QUANTITIES & ROAD CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
Introduction

The road cross section should be designed depending on the terrain

characteristics and traffic requirements. Even though the cross section may
vary over a particular route because of varying controlling factors, the section
should be designed in such a way that it can fulfill the basic requirements.

The basic requirements include:

 Changes in cross section standards shall be uniform within each

subsection of the route.
 Any changes of a cross section shall be effected gradually & logically
over a transition length. An abrupt or isolated change in cross section
leads to increased hazards, reduced traffic capacity & complicated traffic
operation.

5.1 Road cross section elements:

Road cross section normally consists of carriageway, shoulder or curbs,
drainage features & earth work profiles.

Carriage way: includes traffics lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration &
deceleration lanes, climbing lanes & passing lanes excluding shoulders.

Roadway: includes carriage way & shoulders, parking lanes & viewing areas.

Earth work profile: includes side slopes and back slopes.

1. Lane widths
It is the width of the carriage way in which the vehicle moves with comfort &
safety. To increase is the safety & comfort the width ofthe carriage way shall be
increased & shall be constructed from good quality asphalt. This increase in
width decreases the cost of maintenance and operation costs after onstruction.

For this project the lane width considered based on the design standard
adopted as DS4

 Main access road is 3.35m of each lane with 2.5% normal crown and it is
of two lane road

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

2. Shoulders
They are portions of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway and serves: as
parking for broken vehicle, for accommodation of traditional and intermediate
non- motorized traffic, animals or pedestrians.

Shoulders are constructed from inferior quality material than the carriageway.
The reason is to prevent drivers not to use the shoulder as a carriageway such
that there is no accident with broken cars and animals.

For this project the shoulder considered based on the design standard adopted
as DS4

 Main access road is 1.5m of 4% normal crown for each side.

3. Side slopes and back slope

Side slope and back slopes should be designed toinsure the stability of the road
way and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control
vehicle. Embankment or fill slopes parallel yon to the flow of the traffic may be
defined as recoverable or non-recoverable or, critical.

The selection of aside slope & aback slope dependent on three factors:

 safety consideration, height of cut or fill & economic consideration.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

4. Road side ditches

Cambers, side slopes and back slopes are provided for the purpose drainage in
order to remove this water road side ditches are provided.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive soil such as black cotton
soil.

Where this is not possible they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m
from the toe the embankment, dependent on the functional classification (6m
for trunk roads). The ditch on this instance should have trapezoidal flat bottom
configuration.

Drainage design

We use trapezoidal roadside is preferable.

Given Q = 2.5m3 /s

Assume D50 =50mm gravel riprap, B=1.2m, So =0.005m/m and side slope of
1V: 3H

STEP 1: using D50=50mm the permissible shear stress (Ʈ𝑝=38pa) from table

STEP 2: Let Y>0.6m for Y>0.6m and D50=50mm n=0.034 from table

= (1.486*Q*n) / b (8/3)* √So

1.486∗2.5∗0.034
=( 8 ) = 1.0998 ≅ 1.1
1.23 0.005

1.486Q∗n
STEPS 3 find y/d using ( , 𝑍)
𝑏 8/2

From side slop 1V:3 H use Z=3

Y/b =0.56

yo= y/b*b=0.56*1.2
= 0.672 > 0.6 𝑂𝐾‼!

STEP 4: calculate the maximum bed shear stress Ʈ𝑑

Ʈ𝑑 = 9800𝑦𝑠𝑜 = 9800 ∗ 0.672 ∗ 0.005 = 32.93𝑀𝑃𝑎

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

STEP 5: compare Ʈ𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ʈ𝑝

Ʈ𝑑 32.93 < Ʈ𝑑 38𝑝𝑎 … … … … … . 𝑂𝐾

Step 6: use trapezoidal section of y=0.672m b=1.2, So =0.005m/m, side slop

1V:3 H and D50= gravel lining.

Height of channel = y + free bored

= .67 +.15

= .82m

 use channel height = 90 cm

5. Right of way
Right of way is provided in order to accommodate road width and enhance the
safety, operation and appearance of the road. The width of right of way
depends on:

• The cross section elements of the highway

• Topography and

• Other physical controls together with economic consideration

In this project the road cross section have been taken as follows:

Main access road DS4 for urban region.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

5.2 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES

The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter devoted to
the issue of earthwork quantities and a mass haul diagram. The careful
attentions to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass
haul diagram are essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal,
vertical, and cross-sectional design. This is especially true when the design
includes consideration of the least cost in relation to earthworks.

Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include:

 Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by

widening cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent
to the road within the right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may
be noted on the plans
 Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for
making the embankment
 Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material
may be transported without the added cost above the unit bid price
 Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free
haul distance
 Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical
to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow

The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the

development of the optimal mass haul diagram are:

 End area calculations

 Earthwork calculations
 Preparation of mass haul diagram
 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram

5.2.1 Calculating Earthwork Method

Among different earthwork calculation methods, the “average end area” method
is the most common. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill
quantities of adjacent stations and multiplying by the distance between
stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and embankment between the
two stations.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Volumes of cut or fill between station 1&2 are given by

Vcut = ( A1cut+A2cut ) *L

Vfill = ( A1fill+A2fill ) *L

Where, L: distance between two stations

A: area

Accumulation totals of cut and fill can now be calculated as follows:

Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts:

= excavation volume *adjusted factor

Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from stations (no
adjustment)

Although adjustment factors can be applied to either embankment or

excavation quantities, it is general practice to apply the compaction factor to
the excavation so that a compaction factor of -25 percent would result in
100cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment of 110 cubic
meters.

The designer should avoid using one factor for the entire project as these
results in incorrect distribution of earthwork quantities. But in our case one
factor is used due to lack of soil properties for the area. For this project we
assume a normal soil and a cut factor of 25% according to ERA manual.

Shrinkage and Swell

Compaction factors for excavated materials must be determined or estimated in

order to determine quantities of excavation and embankment. The process of
excavation breaks up earth and makes it take up more space. After placing the
excavated in a fill and compacting, volume will become less than the original
for excavated soil and usually greater than the original for excavated rock.

 For our project we use swelling factor of 0% and factor shrinkage 85%
because we assume the soil is ordinary common soil therefore, we
consider only swelling.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

5.2.2 Calculation of mass ordinates

Area of Area of Total Total Mass
Station cut fill Distance Adj.factor Adj. vcut Adj. vfill ordinat (m3)
0+000 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0
0+020 0.17535 0.10855 20 0.85 2.98095 1.84535 1.1356
0+040 0.29225 0.501 20 0.85 4.96825 8.517 -3.54875
0+060 0.62625 1.983125 20 0.85 10.64625 33.71313 -23.0669
0+080 0 21.08375 20 0.85 0 358.4238 -358.424
0+100 0 41.95875 20 0.85 0 713.2988 -713.299
0+120 0 61.84219 20 0.85 0 1051.317 -1051.32
0+140 0 55.42313 20 0.85 0 942.1931 -942.193
0+160 6.47125 10.20871 20 0.85 110.0113 173.5481 -63.5368
0+180 54.48375 0 20 0.85 926.2238 0 926.2238
0+200 72.22917 0 20 0.85 1227.896 0 1227.896
0+220 60.22438 0 20 0.85 1023.814 0 1023.814
0+240 31.62563 0 20 0.85 537.6356 0 537.6356
0+260 5.062188 5.01 20 0.85 86.05719 85.17 0.887187
0+280 0 27.76375 20 0.85 0 471.9838 -471.984
0+300 0 42.68938 20 0.85 0 725.7194 -725.719
0+320 0 39.03625 20 0.85 0 663.6163 -663.616
0+340 0 17.48991 20 0.85 0 297.3285 -297.328
0+360 0 5.4275 20 0.85 0 92.2675 -92.2675
0+380 2.400625 1.04709 20 0.85 40.81063 17.80053 23.0101
0+400 23.48438 0 20 0.85 399.2344 0 399.2344
0+420 39.69757 0 20 0.85 674.8587 0 674.8587
0+440 31.34757 0 20 0.85 532.9087 0 532.9087
0+460 15.34313 0.89345 20 0.85 260.8331 15.18865 245.6445
0+470 3.381249 3.235625 10 0.85 28.74062 27.50281 1.237804
0+480 0 19.93563 10 0.85 0 169.4528 -169.453
0+490 0 29.43375 10 0.85 0 250.1869 -250.187
0+500 0 37.9925 10 0.85 0 322.9363 -322.936
0+510 0 40.08 10 0.85 0 340.68 -340.68
0+520 0 40.81063 10 0.85 0 346.8903 -346.89
0+530 0 34.75688 10 0.85 0 295.4334 -295.433
0+540 0 45.09 10 0.85 0 383.265 -383.265
0+550 0 55.63188 10 0.85 0 472.8709 -472.871
0+560 0 59.91125 10 0.85 0 509.2456 -509.246
0+570 0 51.56125 10 0.85 0 438.2706 -438.271
0+580 0 48.3465 10 0.85 0 410.9453 -410.945
0+600 0 33.8175 20 0.85 0 574.8975 -574.898

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

0+620 0 17.43063 20 0.85 0 296.3206 -296.321

0+640 1.624075 4.279375 20 0.85 27.60928 72.74938 -45.1401
0+660 0.827986 0.613725 20 0.85 14.07576 10.43333 3.642437
0+680 4.916063 5.24213 20 0.85 83.57306 89.11621 -5.54315
0+700 2.0875 2.879915 20 0.85 35.4875 48.95856 -13.4711
0+720 9.915625 4.48395 20 0.85 168.5656 76.22715 92.33848
0+740 17.32625 0 20 0.85 294.5463 0 294.5463
0+760 2.0875 0 20 0.85 35.4875 0 35.4875
0+780 25.4675 0 20 0.85 432.9475 0 432.9475
0+800 25.51969 0 20 0.85 433.8347 0 433.8347
0+820 27.24188 0 20 0.85 463.1119 0 463.1119
0+840 20.50969 0 20 0.85 348.6647 0 348.6647
0+860 16.75219 0 20 0.85 284.7872 0 284.7872
0+870 4.5925 0.18871 10 0.85 39.03625 1.604035 37.43222
0+880 2.818125 0.6847 10 0.85 23.95406 5.81995 18.13411
0+890 8.55875 0.45591 10 0.85 72.74938 3.875235 68.87414
0+900 1.87875 0.58784 10 0.85 15.96938 4.99664 10.97274
0+910 2.672 0.51937 10 0.85 22.712 4.414645 18.29736
0+920 7.30625 0 10 0.85 62.10313 0 62.10313
0+930 0 0.4676 10 0.85 0 3.9746 -3.9746
0+940 8.036875 0 10 0.85 68.31344 0 68.31344
0+950 8.245625 0 10 0.85 70.08781 0 70.08781
0+960 8.245625 0 10 0.85 70.08781 0 70.08781
0+970 7.9325 0.41249 10 0.85 67.42625 3.506165 63.92009
0+990 2.818125 0.303105 20 0.85 47.90813 5.152785 42.75534
0+1010 2.0875 0.47929 20 0.85 35.4875 8.14793 27.33957
0+1030 8.14125 0.350867 20 0.85 138.4013 5.964739 132.4365
0+1050 4.749063 0 20 0.85 80.73406 0 80.73406
0+1070 1.87875 1.04375 20 0.85 31.93875 17.74375 14.195
0+1090 0 0.077655 20 0.85 0 1.320135 -1.32014
0+1110 0 19.36156 20 0.85 0 329.1466 -329.147
0+1130 0 46.13375 20 0.85 0 784.2738 -784.274

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5.3. Mass haul diagram

The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represents the
stations of the survey and the ordinates represent the stations of the survey
and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment
quantities from some point of beginning on the profile.

At the beginning of the curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated

continuously from the initial station to the end of the project.

The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:

 Proper distribution of excavated material

 Amount and location of waste
 Amount and location of borrow
 Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
 Direction of haul.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

Balancing earth work using the mass haul diagram

Balancing is to mean proportioning of earthwork with haul distance and cost

Haul distances

 Free haul (FH) the maximum distance through which excavated material
may be transported without the added cost above the unit bid price.
 Overhaul the excavated material transported to a distance beyond the
free haul
 distance.
 Economic limit of haul (ELH) distance through which it is more
economical to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow.

E.L.H=F.H.distance + unit price of borrow

Unit price of overhaul

Calculation:
Free haul distance is 300m

Unit price of borrow (Cb) = 4birr/m3

Unit price of excavation(Ce)= 3birr/ m3

Unit price of overhaul(Coh)= 1.35birr/m3-station, 1 station=100m

Overhaul = unit price of borrow = 4birr/m3*100m/1.35birr/m3

Unit price of overhaul

= 296 m

ELH = FH+296 = 300+296 = 596 m

From the mass haul diagram we have found 3 loops

Loop No. Range of station Maximum distance Remark

1 0+00 - 0+120 120 Less than FH
2 0+120 - 0+300 180 Less than FH
3 0+300 - 0+600 300 Equal to FH

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ROAD GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

 As shown in the remark column the maximum distance of the loops

are less than the free haul distance therefore there is no hauling cost
for the project. The only cost is excavation cost and it is given by

Cost of excavation = ce* cumulated cut

= 3birr/m3*9337.22 m3

=28011.66 birr

cost of borrow = Cb * cumulated fill

= 4birr/m3 * 11968.25m3 = 47873 birr

Total cost of the project = 28011.66 + 47873 birr

= 75884.66 birr

77