CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Flood is a major natural disaster that affect life’s and properties. Flood is defined as a large

amount of water covering an area that was usually dry (Emmanuel and Ojinnaka, 2015). Daniella

et al. (2018) stated that flood takes place when the river exceeds its storage capacity and fills the

adjacent low-lying lands. It is reported that flood disaster account for about a third of all natural

disasters (by number and economic losses). According to (Adetunji and Oyeleye, 2013) explain

that flood usually occur from extreme rainfall that causes excess runoff to exceed the drainage

system capacity.

The history of flooding is said to be as old as man as it is stated in the Holy Bible (Genesis

chapter 6,7 and 8). The disastrous event occurred as a result of Gods anger on man’s sinful ways.

It was stated that only Noah, his family and pairs of every animal species survived the flood as a

result of the ark Noah built which was an instruction from God.

Statistically, every year approximately 100 million people are affected by episodes of flooding

globally (Kundu and kundu, 2011; Rabalao, 2010). Floods that occurs in Nigeria are as a result

of extensive rainfall, drainage blockages and dam failures (Jeb and Aggarwal, 2008). Flooding

cannot be completely avoided, but damages from several flooding can be reduced if effective

flood prevention scheme is implemented. Mitigation is hence the cornerstone of emergency

management. According to (FGN,2013), Nigeria is one of the disaster prone countries in Africa,

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and flood are the most common and recurring natural disaster, with the frequency, severity and

spread of these flood increasing. Recent flood disasters in Nigeria has been of major concern to

people, communities and institutions. Flash floods are the most common in Nigeria during the

peak of the rainy season (June –October).

In flood prone areas, Government Officer are saddled with the responsibility of managing flood

to ensure safety and wellbeing of citizens and the environment. urban flood vulnerability can

range from time to time and can be determined in one of a kind location due to environmental

conditions, human and way of life in response (Ahmad and simonovic, 2013).

Therefore, it is necessary to use modern day techniques in developing measures that will help the

government and relief agencies in identifying flood prone areas and in planning against flooding

events in the future. Geographical information system (GIS) is a tool which can be used to map

and investigate areas that are less or more vulnerable flood in conjunction with weather

forecasting techniques to predict the precipitation intensity and duration in the nearest future.

1.2 Statement of the research problems

In kogi state, citizens settle mostly in relatively low lying areas and river flood plains due to

great number of natural resources and agricultural potential present which has increase human

settlement and other activities in the area. Flooding has been a major disaster in kogi state which

has resulted in loss of lives and properties, destruction of roads, bridges especially the major

roads that links the state with other states, and farmlands.

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The Nigeria Emergency Management Agency (NEMA, 2012) has identified five districts

namely; Ganaja, Adankolo/Kabawa, Phase 1-Old Poly quarters, Sarkin Noma/Galilee, and

Gadumo were flooded in August and early September 2012.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide and help me in achieving the aim of this

research.

 What are the causes of flooding in the study area?

 What are the factors that makes the study area vulnerable to flooding?

 What are the mitigation and adaptation strategies to flood events in the study area?

1.4 Aim and objectives

The aim of the study is to access flood risk in Lokoja metropolis and its environment, Kogi

State, Nigeria.

Objectives

1. Examine the causes of flood in the study area

2. Analyze the vulnerability of the study location to flood event

3. Identify mitigation and adaptation strategies to flood event in the study area

1.5 Justification for the study

Flooding in Lokoja, Kogi State is a frequent disaster occurrence which has caused severe

damaged to both lives and properties cutting across many local government areas. The

flooding result from climate change and inadequate preparation and planning before it

occurred. Lack of good drainage system, absent of dams, lack of awareness program to

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 warn the general public on flood vulnerability and how effect of climate change can affect

human activities, blockage of drainage systems, all result from inadequate preparation and

planning.

In the past, many work have been done on assessment of flood risk vulnerability but majority of

those work done do not provide a reasonable solution to the flood disaster and also lack of proper

techniques used to analyze on a large space distribution. The adoption of different techniques

with disaster management cycle will give better information about where the flood risk exists,

how to implement actions to manage flood risk, co-ordinate activities to manage flood risk,

which will be beneficial to Lokoja and its environs, the economy, the cultural heritage and the

environ

1.6 Scope of the study

This study is on Lokoja metropolis, Kogi State, Nigeria and the study is concerned with

accessing effect of coastal flooding in the study area. The study about the effect of flood in

Lokoja will be carried out within the duration of year 2012 and 2022. In the evaluation of

vulnerable areas, the major analysis considered included, Aspect, Terrain, vulnerable area

using DEM will be taken into account. Information will be obtain through questionnaire

distribution. Ganaja village, Kabawa, Felele, Gadumu and Adankolo area of Lokoja will be

focused on.

1.7 Study Area

1.7.1 Description of the study area

Lokoja the capital of Kogi State is located in the middle belt of Nigeria and lies within

latitude 6˚41ˈN and longitude 7˚30ˈE and it lies at an altitude of 45 -125 meters above sea level.

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Lokoja is the administrative head of Kogi State. It is well connected and accessible through State

and Federal Highways. It has an area of 63.82km² (Adeoye, 2012). Lokoja has a population of

195,261 at the 2006 census and shares common boundaries with Kogi local government areas in

the south Bassa local government area, Kaba/Bunu local government area in the west, Lokoja

local government area in the north and Ajaokuta/Adavi local government area in the east. Lokoja

and its environment are built on ironstone and sandstone.

1.7.2 Geographical location of the study area

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Figure 1.0: The Courage of the Study Area (Lokoja) Kogi State, Nigeria

Source: FUT, Minna. Geography department (2021)

1.7.2.1 Climate

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 The climate of Lokoja is described as tropical wet and dry climate of the Koppen’s

classification which is characterized by wet and dry season (Ifatimehin, 2007). The dry

season is from November to February while the wet season is from March to October. The

annual rainfall is between 1016 mm and 1524 mm; Lokoja is generally hot throughout the

year with an annual temperature of 27˚C (Alabi, 2009).

1.7.2.2 Vegetation and soil

The vegetation of Lokoja is categorized to be within the guinea savannah belt, even though what

we have now is the derived savannah, only resistant vegetation still remains dominant due to

anthropogenic activities of bush clearing and burning, lumbering, most of the areas consist of

secondary regrowth. Short grasses like Andropogon tectorum, Bambusa vulgarise, panicum

laxum, cynodon dactylon (Alabi, 2012). The tall trees found in the area include, Carapa procera,

Elaeis guineensis, Enanma chloranta, while the shrub species are the Sida acuta, Chromolaena

odorantum, Mimosa pudica, Cassi tora (Alabi, 2012).

The main type of soil found in Lokoja are clay, sandy, and silt in a varying proportion. Places

around Felele, Kabba road and Lokoja central respectively were found to be areas of loamy soil,

this is as a result of high precipitation and high temperature which encourages rapid break down

of organic elements and loam formation (Alabi, 2012).

1.7.2.3 Relief

Lokoja is a city that rises from about 300 meters along the Niger-Benue, to a height of between

300 and 600 meters above sea level in the uplands (M. Aderoju Olaide, et. al 2014). The

confluence city is notable because of the presences of river Niger and river Benue, the Agbaja

hill and the mountain Patti, (Alaci and Olatunde, 2017).

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1.7.2.4 Population distribution

The population of Lokoja has grown rapidly and expended over the years, it has experience a

large flux of population from it surrounding regions and has led to great changes to the

landscape. Lokoja’s 2021 population is now estimated at 741,482. In 1950, the population of

Lokoja was 12,065. Lokoja has grown by 49,432 since 2015. This subsequently has resulted to

clearance of the natural landscape and the destruction of the legacy of ornamental plants and

trees. All these, have inevitably resulted in bare surfaces, increase in erosion and flooding and

the development of urban heat island (Alabi and Ufuah, 2007; Scalengh and Marsan, 2019).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Flooding is an historical problem. Flooding refers to a sudden upward jab in the water diploma in

a motion or lake, or any coastal device that overflows its banks. Flooding is described by means

of huge erosion or river discharge which accumulate in the drainage channels, this causes water

to spill over into adjacent land.

Flooding is a most vital environmental hazard in Nigeria (Etuonovbe 2011). Flooding and

extraordinary flood-related dangers are turning into more normal in Nigeria. Flooding is

certainly one of the many risks that can occur in our environment. Flooding can reason large

discomfort, property damage, pollution, and even destruction of lives. By the extent of harm

caused, flooding severity has been assessed.

Ologunorisa (2010) identifies three sorts of flooding in his studies: river flooding, coastal

flooding, and town flooding. River flooding is when a river bursts or overtops its banks, and

floods the surrounding areas. It is greater generic that coastal flooding. Coastal flooding takes

vicinity when sea ranges upward jostle above every day due to heavy storms, excessive local

weather stipulations and immoderate tides. This motives seawater to flood the land and can lead

to coastal flooding. Urban flooding can exhibit up in a quick time span and can flood a

neighborhood with quite a few meters of water. Flood danger will amplify as a region turns into

more urbanized. This is due to human matters to do like deforestation and setting up barring

plans. Urban flooding can be a bother due to the truth they often take region in densely populated

areas.

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According to Geoscience Australia 2013, flooding can be genuinely described as "water the

region he is no longer wanted". Flooding can moreover be described as an event in which an

issue of the earth's flooring is covered by water from rainfall or overflowing water bodies.

Pagasa (2013) described flooding as "a natural hydrological phenomenon and its incidence can

usually be the aftermath of metrological matters to do such as seismic activity, astronomically-

influenced phenomena (high tides coinciding occurrence of immoderate rain), constructing of

quick dams as well as failure of hydraulic and exclusive manipulate mechanisms." Although

floods are commonly devastating, their severity and extent count number on the terrain, depth of

human activity, water quantity, and preparedness of the stakeholders. Flooding, specifically

River flooding, is one of the most detrimental natural screw ups in the globe. Although it is now

not the most universal purpose of demise in Nigeria (Usman 2012), it then again influences and

displaces larger people that any special herbal disaster. Authorities in developing international

locations prefer to be successful to prevent, prepare, and mitigate the outcomes of natural

disasters, especially in Nigeria. This is especially genuine in the context of quickly urbanization

and immoderate tiers of populace make bigger in developing countries. These factors often lead

to accelerated populace concentrations in an unplanned environment (Ishaya et al 2012).

According to Wouter JW Botzen et. al (2009), the best way to reduce flood risk and prepare for it

is to identify areas at high risk. This is why maps of flood-prone areas are required with many

features that can manipulate each spatial and attribute data. (Abah, 2013). Daffi et al. (2014)

referred to that "conventional, normal methods" can nevertheless be used. For flood hazard

assessment, far flung sensing and geographical facts machine strategies have been advised as

they supply fast, efficient, and superb results.

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2.1 Conceptual framework
2.1.1 Definition of flooding
Flooding is the temporary inundation of all or part of the floodplain or temporary localized

inundation occurring when surface water runoff moves through surface flow, gutters and sewers.

Flooding can also be regarded as the overflow that comes from a river or other bodies of water

and causes or threatens or damage lives and properties. Its occurrence is usually due duo to the

increase in volume within a water body which causes it to exceed drainage channel capacity and

over flow its bounds. Due to the nature of flood occurrence, full analysis of the effect of a flood

requires correlative research linking physical hazard and socioeconomic impact. The most

effective form of evaluating effect of any flood event including most environmental disasters

involves the assessment of such impacts within the past, present and future context.

2.1.1.1 Causes of flooding

Flood can be as a result of natural cause and also man made factors (anthropogenic

activities). There are many different causes/conditions leading to flooding. Nature causes of

flood are generally as a result of heavy rainfall. While the anthropogenic causes are as a result of

man’s activities, that is in terms of environmental hazards. Flood only become a hazard when

negatively affect human activities, mostly due to build-infrastructures by floodplain and

coastlines. Major causes of flooding have been linked to human interaction with the environment

(for example, urbanization and agricultural activities). As urbanizations intensifies, natural

surfaces are replaced by buildings, paved roads and concrete surfaces which don’t allow water to

percolate into the ground. The effect is, therefore a large proportion of rainfall which normally

11
should infiltrate into the soil or to be intercepted by vegetation, this immediately convert into

surface runoff. Attempt to harness available water resources have resulted in the construction of

dams and other water control structures, infrequent as they may be, as also resulted in flooding

(e.g. the collapse of the Gussau Dam in the capital of Zamfara on September 30,2006).

The encroachment of buildings on floodplains through towns and cities and the disposing

of waste materials creating blockage can facilitate flooding. Six general causes of flooding in

Nigeria include (1) heavy rainfall (i.e. a tropical climate combined with a relating wet season);

(2) poor waste disposal (i.e. blockage of drainage channels, especially in urban centers); (3) poor

land use policy planning and management (i.e. improper sitting of buildings, structures, drainage

construction, and roads ); (4) soil nature (i.e. poor infiltration of rain water flow and soil

percolation); (5) deforestation(i.e. increase in forest and vegetation removal, especially within

lowlands and valley beds); (6) climate change (i.e. NEMA attributing it to the 2012 flood

disaster and indirect aggravation of flood patterns in flood prone areas). It is unfortunate Nigeria

authorities lack proper planning and orderly conduct when it comes to sound promotion of flood

prevention

2.1.2 Flood risk

The most common approach to define flood risk is that it is the product of hazard, i.e. the

statistical aspects of the flooding of the actual flooding. Flood risk can also be defined as the

probability of the specific annual maximum discharge in any year is the core of hydrological

research into flood risk. Flood risk research concern multiple disciplines; hydrology, economic,

sociology, geography and environmental science. Each of them approaches flood risk analysis

from different viewpoint and the result is variability of the expressed objective matter in

technology and methods of analysis and management. In this context flood risk can be

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considered as the actual threat, in other words the real source of flood hazard to the affected

areas. The quantification of flood risk results either in monetary units or in loss of life units. If

the losses are measurable, or in qualitative terms (e.g. allocation in classes) in the case of

intangible damages (social, environmental, cultural) to the affected areas.

A number of factors including social, economic, cultural, political, environmental, and

geographical contexts in which people live (McEntire, 2001; Wisner et al., 2004) affect their

exposure to flood risk. In the field of flood risk management, the impact of flood hazards is

measured in terms of the direct and indirect losses sustained by the affected people (Jha et al.,

2012). Direct effects of flood hazard on people may include but are not limited to loss of lives,

personal injuries, damage to buildings, displacement of people from their homes, loss of valuable

properties, and disruption of socio-economic life of individuals and groups (Adelekan, 2010; Jha

et al., 2012; IFRCS, 2012; Bello and Ogedegbe, 2015). In 2010 alone, over 8,000 deaths were

directly attributed to flooding worldwide (Jha et al., 2012), with children and the elderly being at

higher risk of getting drowned than younger adults (Bartlett, 2008). Jonkman and Kelman (2005)

have observed that two-thirds of deaths recorded during flooding were the result of drowning

while other causes such as electrocution, health related problems and injuries suffered while

struggling to escape account for the rest. Other direct impacts such as loss of farmland, farm

produce, income, structural and household properties, and the outbreak of epidemics that

threaten the health of survivors have also been reported (Bello and Ogedegbe, 2015). In the study

of the causes and effects of flood in parts of Ibadan, Nigeria, Adetunji and Oyeleye (2013) found

that 25.6% of the respondents reported the loss of lives as a major impact while another 27.6

reported injuries to household member(s). The authors also noted property loss, economic losses

and outbreak of diseases as direct impacts of the flood.

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2.1.3 Flood hazard

Hazard can be defined as a condition or threat that may cause loss of lives and properties or

initiate any failure to the natural, modified or humans. It is also known as a source of potential

harm. The initiating causes of hazard may be either internal (defective element of the system e.g.

an embankment breach) or external (e.g. earthquake, flood or human agency) with the potential

to initiate a failure mode. Hazard can also be classified as either of natural origin (e.g. excessive

rainfall, floods) or of man-made and technological nature (e.g. sabotage, deforestation, industrial

site of chemical waste). Regarding hazard identification and estimation, two approaches can be

identified based on the ANCOLD Guidelines (2003) and the ISDR principles (2004):

a. Traditional deterministic approach: a first level estimation of the potential adverse

consequences, if the hazard occurs, in order to classify the system under threat, identify

the necessity or not of further investigation. This approach is also the most

comprehensive way of estimating mad-induced and/or technological hazards.

b. Probability approach: it is based on the theory of probability and regards hazard

estimation as the probability of occurrence of a particular natural event with an estimated

frequency within a given period of time. It can be applied on hazard of natural origin and

it represents a very common method used in most flood plain delineation studies when

the potential for loss of life is considered negligible in terms of historical floods.

Existing studies on flood hazard revealed that people living close to a hazard source such as a
river, dam, and on flood plain have higher exposure, while those who live in poorly built
homesteads sustain greater losses in the event of a flooding than their counterparts located away
14
from the hazard source and whose homes are built with durable materials (Pelling, 2007; Kellens
et al., 2011; Jha et al., 2012).Various reasons have been adduced for the reluctance of people
living close to hazard sources to relocate to safer locations. These reasons include maintaining
family ties, livelihood opportunities, proximity to work or business location, being native to the
community, low cost of land and housing, and accessible social amenities (Adelekan, 2010;
Mmom and Aifesehi, 2013; Ologunorisa and Adeyemo, 2005).

2.1.4 Climate Change Impact of flooding

Olorunfemi (2010), assessed managing flood disaster under a changed climate. The research

focused on the impacts and responses to flood risk associated with slum settlement in Nigeria

and South Africa. The work utilized primary and secondary data in the process of establishing

the concept of the study. Comparing South Africa to South Africa focused on the vulnerable

informal settlements in Cape Town and the Asa river channel at Ilorin (Nigeria). As disaster

shocks become more common, the study found that the existing coping strategies of slum

dwellers may be less effective. The study suggests strategies that reduce vulnerability to people.

These strategies should be grounded in vulnerability analysis and a greater understanding of

macro- and household-level responses that can be used to reduce the vulnerability of the poor to

climate risks. The study could not measure the relationship between climate change and flood

magnitudes. Action Aid (2006) stated that climate change is the result of long-lasting heavy rains

across the globe, which often leads to flooding. Climate used to be mentioned as a reason of

flooding due to the fact of local weather exchange results such as heavy rains and relative sea

stage upward push close to most shorelines. Extreme sea ranges upward shove is extra frequent.

Douglas (2014) also examined Climate Change and Flooding Intensity. The study focused on the

urban poor of Africa. Research has shown that flooding is one of the most dangerous climate

hazards. It poses multiple dangers to human health, livelihoods and socio-economic activities.

15
The evaluation of floods and their effects has not been done well enough to allow for sustainable

management of this environmental threat. The study could not apply a quantitative approach to

determine the relationship between climate change and flooding in the area. Patrick (2008)

assessed the livelihoods of rural communities and built resilience to flood risk reduction. Climate

change is linked to the vulnerability of rural communities to flooding risk due to increasingly

severe and frequent events. The study did not address flood management strategies in rural

communities. Dare (2004) examined flood frequency estimates and forecasting climate change

impacts. Flood is one of the most hazardous local weather hazards, posing a couple of fitness

risks. The current learn about will consider feasible flood administration techniques for the area.

Aderogba (2012) assessed the world warming and flood challenges in Lagos Metropolis

(Nigeria). The find out about examined local weather trade and the results it had on flooding,

which is frequently brought on by way of extended heavy rainfall throughout the globe. Climate

alternate was once recognized as a purpose of flooding. Kolawole (2008) examined the outcomes

of local weather change. This learn about discovered that the worst outcomes of climate

exchange are already being felt in growing countries, and that they are most inclined to future

changes. Flooding is one of the most risky and expensive herbal hazards, however its outcomes

can additionally be exacerbated with the aid of human-caused causes. Atedhor et al (2011), In

Benin City, Nigeria, researchers observed shifting rainfall and anthropogenic-induced flooding,

as well as their effects and adaptive measures. The study reveals that flooding is caused by

increasing rainfall, drainage system obstructions and lack, disruptions to socio-economic

activities, loss or inaccessibility of property, and a reduction in the beauty of the surrounding

environment.

2.1.5 Human Impact of Flooding:

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Ghose (2003), examined the reasons of flooding. The end result of the study indicates that

notwithstanding the universality of rainfall as a most important motive of flooding, there are

different joint causative elements categorized as human interference. Aladelokun (2011), in his

find out about of floods and Man refers to them as man's interplay with his surroundings in the

shape of urbanization, agricultural things to do and deforestation. He mentioned that when

urbanization intensifies herbal surface, is changed by way of building,

2.1.6 Flooding and its Effects on Socio-Economic Activities

Another study, Aderogba (2012), examined the motives and penalties of floods in South West

Nigeria as properly because the sustainable improvement conceivable of cities and towns. This

study examined floods within the place and their consequences on fundamental cities and towns.

The socio-economic have an impression on of those occasions has been growing over time. Evan

(2011) analyzed the socio-economic penalties and influences of intense floods. This study

examines the concept that floods are a sociological phenomenon and go past hydrological

prerequisites to contains penalties for the well-being human communities. However, 81% of

respondents claimed that floods have affected their socioeconomic activities. 19% claimed that

flooding has an impression on their bodily surroundings and not simply their socioeconomic

activities. However, the research was unable to use superior statistical methods to see the socio-

economic effects of flooding within the area. The existing learn about will consequently center

of attention on the quantitative evaluation of floods as nicely as sustainable development.

Helen (2009) found the influence of flooding on the socio-economic and environmental things to

do of the human beings in Ozoro kingdom. Personal commentary and assessment, as properly as

statistics from secondary sources, had been used to gather the data. All information had been

17
analyzed the usage of easy percentages. The study determined that 13.3% of respondents

believed that flooding had affected their communities' transportation systems, housing, and

crops. This has regularly led to excessive residing charges at some point of dry seasons. Ocheri

(2012) assessed the social effect of flooding in Makurdi, Nigeria. The records have been

gathered from interviews, questionnaires, non-public observation, and archive data from the

Ministry of Environment. Analyzing the records the use of descriptive statistics, it was once

determined that floods in Makurdi are most frequent throughout heavy rainfall and that the

quantity is greater all through the height wet season. Lack of drainage networks and dumping of

refuses in the drainage and water canals, topographical characteristics, flooding from river banks,

immoderate water tables, and low infiltration functionality have been all factors that substantially

influenced flooding in this area. Climate alternate phenomena and improved runoffs are

moreover possible. The locate out about might also favor to now not use regression analyses to

determine the electrical energy of the relationship between socio have an impact on and people's

perceptions of flooding. This used to be one of the factors for the present study. Angela (2010)

examined the devastating penalties of flooding in Nigeria. Considerably, another examined

flooding in Nigeria and introduced recommendations for techniques to mitigate and stop future

floods. Oyewale (2013) analyzed the motives and penalties of flooding in Apete, Ido Local

Government Area, Oyo State. Research printed that 92.9% believed that flooding in the

neighborhood was once as soon as brought on by means of ability of blockage of drainage

systems. However, all respondents agree with that horrible waste administration is responsible.

Flood is added on thru flooding in areas the location 89.7% have faith that developing alongside

water channels can purpose flood. Other factors consist of collapsed bridges 84.6%. 38.4%

blamed neighborhood climate change, while 96.1% blamed inadequate drainage channels. It used

18
to be precipitated with the aid of terrible planning, 92.3% claimed, at the same time as 57.7%

attributed exclusive causes, such as ignorance, inadequate trees, terrible authorities’ intervention,

or bad bodily planning. Yande (2009) moreover examined the consequences of Floods have

wreaked havoc on the livelihoods of inhabitants of Sikaunzwe Community in Zambia's

Kazungula District. The data used consist of questionnaires, personal observation, assessment

and information from secondary sources. This research about decided that flooding had a

horrible have an impact on socio-economic livelihoods as proper as one of a kind quintessential

elements like agriculture, health and education, housing, water and sanitation, property, and

assets. Although flooding can purpose problems and make human beings unhappy, it does no

longer have the awful results that many researchers believe. Abowei, (2005) examined flood

direction, in this case, floods are considered a disaster when flood waters affects areas populated

with human beings or areas that have gorgeous human development. Floods can be encouraged if

they are left in their natural state. Bariweni (2012) analyzed the environmental penalties of

flooding in Nigeria's Niger Delta Region. According to the study, most contemporary floods that

resulted in demise had been added about through rising population. These effects have adversely

affected the free go with the float water in drainage channels, rivers, and streams due to human

matters to do like dam constructions, irrigation, roads constructions and constructions that block

the natural go with the go with the flow of water. The 2012 Nigerian flooding used to be

assessed through the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA). This find out about

published that flooding had precipitated extra than 1 million Nigerians to be displaced. This used

to be published by using Alhaji Sani SIidi, Director General NEMA at some point of an

evaluation of flood-prone communities in Anambra State. This learn about ought to no longer set

up the sturdy relationship between flooding motives and the outcomes on susceptible

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communities. This is what gave upward shove to the modern study. Awosika (2011) evaluated

the flood results at Ibadan. It was once located that floods can disrupt verbal exchange and

traffic, as properly as land areas. Additionally, industrial enterprises and industrial flowers are

affected through flooding. Floods can reason untold hardship, mainly for the most susceptible

(women and children)

Stephen (2011) additionally examined the motives and river structures of flooding in Nigeria.

Inadequate drainage is one of the reasons of flooding, in accordance to the study. The find out

about similarly printed that flooding happens when the movement channel is too busy, inflicting

water to overflow onto the land adjoining to the channel boundaries. These are the 5 kinds of

flooding that have been recognized via the study.

2.1.7 Primary Impact of Flooding

Nigeria, some predominant tangible penalties of flooding have been recorded via Johnson (2002)

for the global committee of the fourth worldwide (ICFI0. He referred to that over 5 hundred

residences and one hundred motors have been damaged. In North West Nigerian, up to 13

villages have been destroyed in Sokoto state. More than one hundred residences had been

destroyed by using the use of way of flooding from an opened barrage in neighboring Zamfara

state. Around 114 households have been reportedly affected by way of the usage of attainable of

flooding in Yobe state. In Lagos, the state of affairs used to be tricky via the truth that

intelligence sea tiers had been expanded all by using the months of September and October

(based on historic evaluation of tides 1992 – 1996). Furthermore, storm surge peaks are seen

between the months of April to May and August to September, when the top of the surge

surpasses four meters above low water levels, resulting in floods that damaged homes well worth

billions of naira.

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Between 1994 and 1998, the catastrophic floods in Mokwa, Rabba, and its environs wrecked

properties worth over 500 million naira, drowned many residences, and affected social services,

according to Lawal and Nagya. In addition, askew (2000) stated that floods caused one-third of

all deaths, one-third of all accidents, and one-third of all damages caused by natural disasters

throughout the globe.

In a study conducted by Efe (2007), he stated that the amount of rain water has often flooded

major cities and rural areas in Delta South and Central Senatorial District following each and

every rain event. Whenever this happens, social-economic activities are almost always supplied

to a high level in the region. He further stated that severe rains that occurred between July and

September 2000 and 2002 made many people homeless and damaged homes worth billions of

naira.

Etuonovbe (2011) posted that flooding affected 4000 human beings in Awka-Ibom. The identical

catastrophe affected Edo state, 560 houses had been destroyed and 820 human beings affected.

While in Bayesla state, houses, faculties and farmlands have been submerged all by means of

1999 and 2001 flooding. Also two 1/3 of the populace have been affected with the resource of

flooding. Similarly, flooding displaced 200,000 humans in the years 1999 and 2000, in the Niger

state, human beings were discovered.

Flooding also in other words affected buildings and farmlands in Taraba, Zamfara, and Kogi

states. In Zamfara state, 12,398 human beings had been affected, at the same time as in Taraba

state, 50,000 human beings have been displaced and eighty residences had been swept off.

2.1.7.1 Secondary Impact of Flooding

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(Garg, 2010) examined the losses in respect to the most important and cannot be measured in

monetary terms, and include: human life losses, anxiety and ordinary social anguish, snake bites

and physiological diseases, monetary difficulty, instability, and so on.

2.1.7.2 Casualties

Flooding is the major intent of herbal catastrophe deaths worldwide and have been in cost for the

twentieth century, 6.8 million people died (Docy et al, 2013). Across 2012, three million people

were affected by spectacular and deadly examples of massive flooding in west and central

Africa, mostly in Nigeria, Chad, and Senegal (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian

Affairs, 2012). According to Ujah (2007), around 5,650 people in Nigeria have died and

displaced via flooding, with 34 deaths reported. Also, in Ibadan (1995, 1987 and 1990), Oshogbo

(1992, 1996 and 2003), Yobe (2000), Akure (2002, 2004 and 2006) and the coastal cities of

Lagos, Port Hacourt, Calabar, Oyo and Warri, flooding claimed many lives (Eludoyin, Akinbode

and Okuko, 2007). Flooding in addition claimed 14 lives between 1999 and 2010 in Benin City

(odjugo, 2012). Moreso, in Nigeria, flooding affected 7.7 million people, broken 600,000 homes

and claimed 363 lives in 2012 (UN for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2012).

Similarly, in the route of flooding water are contaminated and common drinking water will

become scarce, unhygienic stipulations and unfold of water-borne diseases (Adeloye and

Rustum, 2011). Olajuyigbe, et al (2012) discovered that flooding activities are many instances

now not restrained to destruction of bodily structure however are in addition accompanied with

incidence of diarrhea and particular water-borne ailments as most furnish of water are polluted.

More so, Eli (2008) posted that flooding has a negative impact on health, resulting in an

increased prevalence of water-borne diseases including cholera and dysentery.

22
He also bemoaned the fact that when flood victims drink water from a dirty river, they develop

fever, malaria, pneumonia, and stress. Flooding also polluted unprotected water sources,

exposing humans to the risk of water-borne illnesses, according to Ujah (2007).

2.1.7.3 Flooding's Economic Impact

Economic problem brought about via brief decline in tourism, meals shortage main to charge

rise ,rebuilding costs, and so on. Even more, rehabilitation expenses for Bacita sugar fields,

which are downstream of the jebba dam, Yenagoa residents in Nigeria's Bayelsa state have been

reduce off from all land routes via flooding in 2012. This precipitated a meals crisis, and the rate

of indispensable meals gadgats soared (Pere, 2013, 2013). According to his study, a hundred and

seventy millions of these expenses have been incurred by way of flood victims who relocated

from bayelsa into different cities. These charges may want to be attributed to excessive transport

expenses and packing. In Yenagoa 2012 flooding precipitated roads to be flooded, which led to

gasoline fees of N150 per Liter and higher (Pere, 2013).

Nadia Hamdani et al 2019 used the top above the nearest drainage (HAND) to model the

lineament mapping of groundwater potentials areas. It grew to flip out to be crucial to use new

geospatial utilized sciences for mapping and monitoring of groundwater resources. Spatial

contrast of hydro-geological lineament local and hydrological modeling can moreover enable

proper identification of areas that favor infiltration and recharge of overexploited groundwater.

This search for ambitions to determine the relative contribution of the topo-hydrological factor,

viewed as Height above Nearest Drainage (HAND) for environment quality exploration and

administration of groundwater property in central Middle Atlas. The methodology used to be as

quickly as particularly primarily based on the Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) data for

23
retrieving the lineaments and the elevation records from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

(SRTM) for the calculation of the HAND model. Four panorama schooling namely, waterlogged

land, wetlands sloped, hill slope and plateaus, corresponding to the most quintessential

hydrological systems, have been delineated the utilization of the HAND model. The software

program application of the HAND issue as an impartial variable in the delineation of

groundwater manageable areas (GPAs) is examined to be beneficial for enhancing the accuracy

of the today's multi-criteria GIS models. David G Tarboton et 2017, carried out a seem up to

illustrate the use of TauDEM for calculation of the pinnacle above the nearest drainage (HAND)

from a digital elevation model, to use this HAND raster to derive circulation collect hydraulic

properties, flood inundation depth and a flood inundation map.

Srinivasa et al, 2018 administered a lookup on (HAND) on equipment and satellite-based spatial

evaluation Hyderabad (India) urban flood. an strive is formed to acknowledge the difficulty of

city flooding in phase of Hyderabad metropolis (Zone-12) geospatially brooding about the

satellite-based modifications in land use/land cowl between 1989 and 2018, deciding low-lying

areas vulnerable to flooding the usage of HAND (height above nearest drainage) mannequin in

conjunction with the evaluation of high-resolution satellite television for pc pics and floor based

totally validation of affected places during rains of September 2018. The study indicates that

Zone-12 has skilled giant enlarge in tightly closed cowl by using 42% between 1989 and 2018.

The have an impression on of urbanization has obliterated the footprints of circulation network,

notably altering the hydrological panorama thanks to burial of channels and concretization of

lake beds. The interconnected channel community and lake gadget appearing as sinks to require

in excessive runoff during monsoons are encroached upon anxious the town flooding problem.

The determine about suggests that HAND mannequin are often a wonderful device beneath

24
statistics scarce environments, constrained cloud-free high-resolution satellite television for pc

facts availability for the duration of floods to possess first reduce baseline records on flood

susceptible place.

2.1.7.4 Impact of climate change on flooding

According to (Douglas, 2014) assessed climate change and flood intensity, which the study was
focused on urban poor of Africa. The assessment of flood and it effect has not been done
properly to allow for sustainable management of this environmental threat. The study failed to
apply a quantitative approach to figure out the relationship between climate change and flooding.
Aderogbe (2012), examine global warming and flooding in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. The
finding assesses local weather trade and its result on flooding, which is as a result of extended
heavy rainfall throughout the world.

Also according to Tabari, H (2020) examine that extreme precipitation is expected to intensify
with global warming over large parts of the globe as the concentration of atmospheric water
vapor which supplies the water of precipitation increases in proportion to the saturated
concentration at a rate of about 6-7% per degree rise in temperature according to the
thermodynamic Clausius Chaperon relationship. (Kundzewicz et al. 2012) examine a holistic
perspective on changing rainfall driven flood risk is provided for the late 20th and 21st centuries.
Economic losses from floods have greatly increased, principally driven by the expanding
exposure of assets at risk. Projected increase in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall,
based on climate models, should contribute to increase in precipitation generated local flooding
(e.g. flash flooding and urban flooding).

2.1.7.5 Impact of human activities on flooding

According to (Aladelokun, 2011.) in his research about man and flooding describe flooding as
man’s interplay with his environment in the form of urbanization, agricultural as well as
deforestation. He stated that when urbanization intensifies the land surface is changed by paved
roads, buildings, concrete surfaces which don’t allow water to penetrate into the ground. He

25
stated that the resulting effect is that a great share of the rainfall which need to infiltrate into the
ground or be intercepted by vegetation and as a result runoff into rivers and streams thereby
increasing their volume making them flood.

2.1.7.6 Impact of flooding in Nigeria

Nigeria has the Africa’s largest economy and population of over 200 million people. Nigeria
faces numerous challenges as it struggles to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
with flooding being the most serious with wide- reaching impacts (Adaku Jane Echendu, 2020).

As most people are aware, the impacts of flooding include loss of lives, destruction to crops,
damage to properties, loss of livestock and deterioration of health conditions owing to water
borne diseases. As communication links and infrastructures such as power plants, bridges and
roads are destroyed, some economic activities may come to a standstill, people are forced to
leave their homes and normal life is disrupted (NEMA,2012).

2.2 Theoretical framework

2.2.1 Urban flood modelling

Most urban areas are impervious (that is, water cannot penetrate into the ground) there are prone
to lower rate of infiltration and higher rate of runoff, causing pluvial or urban floods following
extreme rainfall events (Chen, Hill and Urbano, 2009). The societal and economic consequences
of this has turned out to be at a very critical level, for instance claiming of over 409 lives and a
financial loss of 50 billion Indian rupees in Mumbai, India after a flash flood at 26 th July 2005
(Kulkarni et el, 2014)

2.2.2 Features of urban flood and methods of modelling them

According to (Abede and Bulti, 2020) explain that the different methods of GIS-modelling urban

flood can be divided into the following groups; “rapid flood spreading (RFS), overland flow (1D

26
and 2D), and sewer-surface coupling approaches (1D-1D and 1D-2D),” - leaving out the

approach of “one-dimensional sewer (1D-S)” since it only relates to drainage.

Flood inundation modeling (inundation refers to overflowed land) are well suited for establishing

the distribution and the range of the flood, as well as other characteristics such as e.g. how fast

the runoff-water are moving on the surface. The latter is synonymous with flow velocity and is

appropriate for risk assessing the potential damage to infrastructure. The former however,

representing the actual water depth and range of the inundation can be used for e.g. mapping

water resources or areas in need of better drainage capacity (Abede and Bulti, 2020).

Although, majority of the rainfall in catchment-areas surrounding urban settlement become

runoff-water, some parts of the storm water enter the processes of initial and continuing losses.

Initial losses represent a smaller amount of the precipitation that is kept on rooftops, on

vegetation, and in puddles on the ground etc. Continuing losses on the other hand are the amount

of water that is being infiltrated through the ground or via evapotranspiration. This latter type of

losses can occur as long as there is water on the surface, although the type of catchment, the

rainfall-duration and the threshold-level of saturated soil will have an effect on the rate of loss,

which subsequently will increase the rate of runoff-water (Abede and Bulti, 2020). The two key

terms mentioned represent two different parts of the urban drainage system, where the first one,

minor drainage system consists of manholes, inlets, ditches next to the road etc. (i.e. constructed

drainage systems). This is where much of the runoff water would end up under normal

precipitation events. The 2nd type, the essential drainage system, is the pathways that the runoff-

water would take (on the surface) if and when the ability of the minor drainage device is

surpassed due to heavy precipitation (i.e. areas and channels that are not artificially made

constructs to guide the runoff water). These pathways can be e.g. streets, depressed channels or

27
depressed areas where the water is temporarily stored (Abede and Bulti, 2020). The method of

rapid flood spreading (RFS) is a more simplified method of modeling flood since it only acquires

terrain data (DTM) as spatial input, and the output only illustrate the final state of a flooded area.

It does not provide any flood velocity, nor does it take into account the pathway of the water and

it is modeled within a duration maximum 2 minutes – contrary to several hours. The method first

finds the impact zones (areas prone to accumulation of water) using the terrain data and

thereafter cells are established with the purpose to store the water. Secondly, the cells in each

impact zone with the lowest height are identified, indicating where the water should start

flooding. Finally, the flood can be computed, starting at the defined cells and moving on to the

neighboring cells when these are filled up. It is completed when there is no more water left

(Abede and Bulti, 2020).

The one-dimensional (1D) overland flow modeling method attempts to simulate the runoff water

defined earlier as the major drainage system (i.e. only the water flowing on the surface,

excluding the minor drainage system). Since the surface flow will be modeled in 1D, the route of

the flow can only go in one direction, contrary to a 2D modeled overland flow where it is

Multi directional (X-Y-Z coordinates). This implies that when for an instance a depressed area
becomes over flooded and the water should be enabled to flow further, this method will not
model such a feature. The input-data requirements of the method are a DTM and a surface
network dataset, and the modeling-duration is very short, – similar to the RFS-method (Abede
and Bulti, 2020). The surface network can be created either manually or automatically by using
the DEM combined with other tools. This is however a very time-consuming process and the
water need to flow on the defined network in order to attain a viable result (Abede and Bulti,
2020). The 2D modeled overland flow method on the other hand does not need this type of data
because the floodwater can automatically navigate on the surface of the DTM throughout the
duration of the modeling (Djordjevic, 2010).

28
2.2.3 Characteristics of urban flood and the main methods of modelling

Flood can be categorized into the groups of; “rapid flood spreading (RFS), overland flow (1D

and 2D), and sewer-surface coupling approaches (1D-1D and 1D-2D),” - leaving out the

approach of “one-dimensional sewer (1D-S)” since it only relates to drainage.

Flood inundation modeling (inundation referring to lands that are overflowed) are well suited for

establishing the distribution and the range of the flood, as well as other characteristics such as

e.g. how fast the runoff-water are moving on the surface. The latter is synonymous with flow

velocity and is appropriate for risk assessing the potential damage to infrastructure. The former

however, representing the actual water depth and range of the inundation can be used for e.g.

mapping water resources or areas in need of better drainage capacity (Abede and Bulti, 2020).

Further on, although much of the rainfall in catchment-areas surrounding urban setting turns into

runoff-water, some parts of the storm water enter the processes of initial and continuing losses.

Initial losses represent a smaller amount of the precipitation that is kept on rooftops, on

vegetation, and in puddles on the ground etc. Continuing losses on the other hand are the amount

of water that is being infiltrated through the ground or via evapotranspiration. This latter type of

losses can occur as long as there is water on the surface, although the type of catchment, the

rainfall-duration and the threshold-level of saturated soil will have an effect on the rate of loss,

which subsequently will increase the rate of runoff-water (Abede and Bulti, 2020). The two key

terms mentioned represent two different parts of the urban drainage system, where the first one,

minor drainage system consists of manholes, inlets, ditches next to the road etc. (i.e. constructed

drainage systems). This is where much of the runoff water would end up under normal

precipitation events. The 2nd type, the essential drainage system, is the pathways that the runoff-

29
water would take (on the surface) if and when the ability of the minor drainage device is

surpassed due to heavy precipitation (i.e. areas and channels that are not artificially made

constructs to guide the runoff water). These pathways can be e.g. streets, depressed channels or

depressed areas where the water is temporarily stored (Abede and Bulti, 2020). The method of

rapid flood spreading (RFS) is a more simplified method of modeling flood since it only acquires

terrain data (DTM) as spatial input, and the output only illustrate the final state of a flooded area.

It does not provide any flood velocity, nor does it take into account the pathway of the water and

it is modeled within a duration maximum 2 minutes – contrary to several hours. The method first

finds the impact zones (areas prone to accumulation of water) using the terrain data and

thereafter cells are established with the purpose to store the water. Secondly, the cells in each

impact zone with the lowest height are identified, indicating where the water should start

flooding. Finally, the flood can be computed, starting at the defined cells and moving on to the

neighboring cells when these are filled up. It is completed when there is no more water left

(Abede and Bulti, 2020).

The one-dimensional (1D) overland flow modeling method attempts to simulate the runoff water

defined earlier as the major drainage system (i.e. only the water flowing on the surface,

excluding the minor drainage system). Since the surface flow will be modeled in 1D, the route of

the flow can only go in one direction, contrary to a 2D modeled overland flow where it is

Multi directional (X-Y-Z coordinates). This implies that when for an instance a depressed area

becomes over flooded and the water should be enabled to flow further, this method will not

model such a feature. The input-data requirements of the method are a DTM and a surface

network dataset, and the modeling-duration is very short, – similar to the RFS-method (Abede

and Bulti, 2020). The surface network can be created either manually or automatically by using

30
the DEM combined with other tools. This is however a very time-consuming process and the

water need to flow on the defined network in order to attain a viable result (Abede and Bulti,

2020). The 2D modeled overland flow method on the other hand does not need this type of data

because the floodwater can automatically navigate on the surface of the DTM throughout the

duration of the modeling (Djordjevic, 2010).

31
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Type of data

Primary and secondary data will be used throughout the study area. The primary data will be
generated directly from the field while the secondary data will be gotten from secondary sources.

3.1.1 Primary data

Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver/handler will be used in the acquisition of coordinates
from the field, as well as other information that will be gotten during field assessment of the
environment which include questionnaire, interview and reconnaissance survey.

3.1.2 Secondary data

The following are the secondary data that will be used, the shuttle radar topographical mission
(SRTM) with a resolution of which will be used to generate contour lines, Land Sat images
with a resolution of will also be used, Land use and land cover (LULC) over kogi state will be
from the online. Articles and journals will be used.

3.2 Sources of data

3.2.1 Questionnaire: Questionnaire will be administered to people who reside in the community
for a long period of time between ten to fifteen years and have experienced flood event over such
period of time. I will administer questionnaires and the data to be collected include social
economic characteristic of people such as age, occupation, marital status, level of education,
major challenges, the effect of flood to them, adaptation to flooding event.

3.2.2 Interview: Interviews will be conducted in the field while administering questionnaire so
as to be able to gather more detailed information about flood in the sturdy areas.

3.2.3 Reconnaissance survey: reconnaissance survey will be carried out in the field to
determine some of the vulnerable practices, adaptation and mitigation measures.

3.2.4 To examine the remote cause of flood in the study area

32
A detailed survey will be conducted making use of a purposive sampling method for
questionnaire administration and personal interview. Information will be collected to know the
remote cause of flood in the study area either main made (anthropogenic activities) or natural
cause.

3.2.5 To analyze the vulnerability of the study location to flood event

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a 3-dimentional illustration of the land surface generated from
elevation data. DEM is the simplest form of digital representation of topography. DEM will be
used to determine the elevation of the study area. Buffer analysis is used for identifying areas
surrounding geographic features. The Buffer analysis will be used to determine flood vulnerable
areas.

3.2.6 To Identify mitigation and adaptation strategies to flood event in the study are

To be able to understand the coping strategies to flood event in Lokoja, the use of questionnaire
and interview will also be used. Information will be gotten to understand how those in the study
area cope with the advert effect of the flood. The coping mechanism put in place to reduce flood
effect on the people.

3.3 Instruments for data collection

 Phone
 Questionnaires

3.3.1 Sample frame

This technique was to identify appropriate household to be selected based on the residents of the

study area and also simple random sampling was used, that is, all the major areas in Lokoja

metropolis have equal chance of being selected.

2
z ( p ) (1−p )
Adapting the formula n = ............................................................ (3.1)
E2

Where n is the number of individual from the population size

33
Z is the z score associated with the confidence level required,

E is the required precision, and

p is the occurrence rate within the population from statistical and development team,

At a confidence level of 90 percent, and associated z score of 1.65, 0.5 occurrence rate and 0.05

precision,

1.652 ( 0.5 )( 1−0.5 )

n= 2
0.05

This equals 352.25

As a result, about 352questionnaires was administered in the 5 major areas identified in the study

area, namely; Ganaja village, Kabawa, Felele, Gadumu and Adankolo area

352.25
Therefore, , this equals 70.45
5

Therefore, about 70 questionnaires were administered in each 5 of the areas. Information

obtained from these five (5) areas was used.

3.4 Method of data analysis

3.4.1 Descriptive statistical

For the purpose of this study ‘’percentage’’ was used to summarized the information collected.

‘’histogram’’, ‘’bar chart’’, linear regression and EXCEL are other statistical techniques were

used to present the result.

3.4.2 Inferential statistical,

34
‘’Pearson’s product moment correlation ‘’ was used to find out the relationship among the

variables under consideration in order to arrive at a good decision, it was useful to measure the

actual impact of each independent variable in predicting the outcome of the dependent variables.

The method is of the form

n ∑ xy −∑ x ∑ y
b= ………………. (3.1)
√n ∑ x 2−¿ ¿ ¿

Where ‘b’ is the product moment coefficient.

y = residents.

x = distance of the river

n = number of observations.

And ‘’spearman’s rank correlation coefficient’’ was also used to find out if there is a significant

relationship between the distance of the river and the residents. Using the formula below:

2
6 ∑d
r =1− 2 …………. (3.2)
n(n −1)

Where n = is the number of observations

d = is the difference between the distance of the river and the residents.

‘’histogram’’ was used to show the information obtained on the river in the study are ‘’grouped

bar’’ was used to show the distance of the residents in study area.

3.5 Summary of materials and methods

S/N Objectives Source of data Types of data Method of data

35
 analysis
To examine the remote
1. Questionnaire Primary and Descriptive
cause of flood in the study
, survey and secondary type statistical,
area
interview, of data Inferential
journals statistical

2. To analyze the vulnerability Degital Primary type of

of the study location to Elevation data
flood event Model (DEM),

3. To Identify mitigation and Questionnaire Primary type of Descriptive

adaption strategies to flood , intreview data statistical
event in the study are

REFERENCES

36
Abah RC (2013). An application of Geographic Information System in mapping flood risk zones
in a north central city in Nigeria. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7(6)365-371.

Abede, B.G. and Bulti, D.T. (2020) A review of flood modeling methods for urban pluvial flood
application, Modelling Earth Systems and Environment. DOI:10.1007/s40808-020-00803-z

Aderogba, K.C., Martins, O. M., Oderinde, S. andAfelumo, T. (2012). Challenges of Poor

Drainage Systems and Floods in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria.International Journal of
Social Science and Education, 2(30) 412-427.

Alabi. M.O(2009). Urban Sprawl, Pattern, and Measurement in Lokoja, Nigeria. Theoretical and
Empirical Researches in Urban Management, 4, 158-164

Emmanuel UA, Ojinnaka OC (2015). Flood Hazard Analysis and Damage Assessment of
2012 Flood in Anambra State using GIS and Remote Sensing Approach. America Journal of
Geographic Information System 4(1): 38-

Etunovbe, A.K. (2011). The Devastating Effect of Flooding in Nigeria. Hydrography and the
Environment Innocent Chirisa, Zimbabwe Inclusive Cities and Housing: Bridging the Gap
between Cultures Marrakech, Morocco, 18-22 May 2011.

Garg RK, Saksena DN, Rao RJ (2010b). Assessment of physicochemical water quality of Harsi
Reservoir, District Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. J. Ecophysiol. Occupat. Health 6: 33-40

Geoscience Australia, (2013). What is Flooding? Retrieved from:

http://www.ga.gov.au/hazards/flood/flood-basics/what.html

IFRCS (2012a), “Emergency Appeal; Nigeria: Floods”. 29th September, 2012. Retrieved from
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/MDRNG01401.pdfAccessed
January 10, 2021.

Ishaya S, Ifatimehin OO, Abaje IB (2009), Mapping Flood Vulnerable Area in a Developing
Urban Center of Nigeria. J. Sust. Dev. Afr (volume 11, NO.4, 2009). ISSN:1520-5509. Clarion
University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania.

Munyai, R.B., Musyoki, A. and Nethengwe, N.S., 2019, “An assessment of flood vulnerability
and adaptation: A case study of Hamutsha-Muungamunwe-village, Makhado municipality”,
jamba: journal of disaster risk studies 11(2), a692. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.vlli2.692

Obatola, G. A. (2005). “The Niger Delta and its Environmental Hazards”. Benin City; Ethiopia
Publishing House.

37
Pagasa.dost (2013). Causes and Types of Floods. Retrieved from:
http://kidlat.dost.gov.ph/genmet/floods/causes_types.html

Usman I (2012). A Survey of the Area Vulnerable to Flood and the Mitigation Strategies
Adopted by Akare Community, Niger State, Nigeria. A Master Degree Thesis submitted
to the Centre for Disaster Risk Management and Development Studies, Federal
University of Technology, Minna.

38
 DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
MINNA, NIGER STATE

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESEARCH WORK (GENERAL PUBLIC)

Dear Respondent,

I am an Undergraduate Student of Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. Who is

embarking on an academic research on flood risk assessment of Lokoja town and its environs?

Could you please supply objective answers to the questions contained herein? All your answers
will be treated with confidentiality. Your answers will help the researcher in advising the
government concerning the problem of flood risk in Lokoja, Kogi state.

1. Sex of respondent?
(a) Male (b) Female

2. Occupation?
(a) Farmer (b) Trader (c) Artisan (d) Civil Servant

3. Education
(a) Primary (b) Secondary (c) Tertiary (e) None

4. Marital Status
(a) Single (b) Married (c) Widowed (d) Divorced

5. How Long Has Your Family Been Residing In This Area?

(a) Less Than 5yrs (b) 6 to 10yrs (c) 11 to 15yrs (d) 16 to 20yrs
(d) Above 20yrs

6. Which one is a more serious problem in your surrounding?

(a)flood (b) flood shortage (c) diseases (d) overpopulation

7. How often does the flood strikes?

(a) once in a year (b) twice in a year 5 (b) once in two year (d) give a
specific year

8. How long does the disaster event lasts ……………… days

39
9. Have you ever received any awareness about household flood preparedness through warning,
training and experience? Yes No

10. What are the major causes of flood?

(a) Heavy rainfall (b)Release of water from dams (c) Small drainage
(d) Drainage id blocked

11. How are people informed about flood?

(a) Television and radio (b) neighbors, relatives and friends (c)government officials
(d) the elders and adult children

12. How do you handle flood events when it occurs?

13. How does the government help those affected by flood events?

______________________________________________________________________________

14. In your own words, what can be done to reduce the effect of flood on people living in lokoja
and its environs?

______________________________________________________________________________

15. What are the major challenges you face during flood?

______________________________________________________________________________

40