CA5305.

Lecture 2
Sensors

Instructor : Dr. M. Deivamani

October 20, 2021

Readings

S. Misra, A. Mukherjee, and A. Roy, Introduction to IoT. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
Definition

 A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions or in the state of another
device or a system, and forwards or processes this information in a certain manner [1].

 “A device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates, or otherwise
responds to it” [2].
‐ Oxford Dictionary

References:
1. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/sensor.html
2. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sensor
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Sensors

 They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the physical changes in
characteristics of a system in response to a stimuli.
 For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or atmospheric
pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.

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Transducers

 Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into another.

 For example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into
electrical signals for an amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device)
converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.

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Sensor vs. Transducer

 The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to
sense a wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc., and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages
or currents [1].

References:
1. http://www.electronics‐tutorials.ws/io/io_1.html
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Sensor Features

 It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature sensor senses the ambient
temperature of a room.)
 It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application (e.g., A
temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the temperature.)
 It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature does not reduce
or increase the temperature).

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Sensor Resolution

 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is
measuring.
 The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the smallest resolution the digital
output it is capable of processing.
 The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its precision.
 A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

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Sensor Classes

Based on Based on
Output Data type

Analog Scalar

Vector/
Digital
Multimedia
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Analog Sensors

 Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional
to the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc. are all
analog quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.
 For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down.

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Digital Sensors

 Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages that are a digital
representation of the quantity being measured.
 Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or
“OFF”).
 Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values, which may be output as a
single “bit” (serial transmission), or by combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output
(parallel transmission).

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Scalar Sensors

 Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to the
magnitude of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc. are all scalar quantities
as only their magnitude is sufficient to convey an information.
 For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple, which responds to temperature changes irrespective of the orientation of the
sensor or its direction.

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Vector Sensors

 Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to the
magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration, orientation, etc. are all vector
quantities, as only their magnitude is not sufficient to convey the complete information.
 For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an accelerometer, which
gives the components of acceleration of the body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.

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Sensor Types

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Sensor Types

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Sensorial Deviations

 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a
minimum or maximum, when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full-scale range
of a sensor defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
 The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ from the value specified. This is
called a sensitivity error.
 If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error
or bias.

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Non-linearity

 Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function (TF) from a straight-line transfer

function.
 This is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal TF behavior over the full range of
the sensor, which is denoted as the percentage of the full range.
 Most sensors have linear behavior.
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as
drift. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

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Hysteresis Error

 A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary depending on the sensor’s previous
input values.
 If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by
increasing or decreasing the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
 The present reading depends on the past input values.
 Typically, in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, heating of metal strips.

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Other Errors

 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured
property. This error is also called quantization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error, or if the
input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency proportional to the multiple
of the sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

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