UNIT 12.

2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT ENERGY

TOPIC 1. TEMPERATURE

Ttemperature is how hot or cold an object feels when we touch it. Temperature measured an object
average kinetic energy. Temperatures are measured in degree Celsius (℃), degrees Fahrenheit(℉)
and kelvin scale(𝑲). Hotter regions have a higher temperature and cooler regions have a lower
temperature.

The Celsius (Centigrade) temperature scale

Lowest fixed point is 0℃ (melting temperature of pure ice)
Highest fixed point is 100℃ (temperature of boiling water)
The temperature difference between these points is divided up into 100 equal intervals, called
degrees centigrade.

The Kelvin scales

The lowest value on kelvin scale is 0K (zero kelvin). The temperature at which all the heat energy is
assumed to be removed from a body is called Absolute zero. It is 0K in kelvin scale or −273℃ in
degree Celsius.

Temperature scale conversion between kelvin and degree Celsius

1. To convert (∅℃) to (𝐾) 2. To convert (𝐾) to (∅℃)

𝑻(𝑲) = ∅℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻(∅℃) = 𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
The Fahrenheit scales

From Fahrenheit To Fahrenheit

Celsius (℃) 9 9
[(℉) − 32] x (℃)x + 32
5 5
Kelvin (𝐾) 9 9
[(℉) + 459.67] x (𝐾)x − 459.67
5 5

Worksheet 01
1. a) List this temperature from cooler region to warmer region; 5℃, −15℃, 10℃, −4℃,
20℃, 0℃, 30℃,
_________________________________________________________________________
b) Convert them into kelvin scale
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c) convert them into Fahrenheit scale
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2. On a day when the temperature reaches 50°F, what is the temperature in degrees Celsius and in
kelvins?
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3. Rank the following temperatures from lowest to the highest 0.00℃, 0.00℉, 0.00𝐾, 20.0℃,
20.0℉, 20.0𝐾

4. Why do few people live in:

a) Greenland?
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b) Australia?
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5. Which thermometer is most suitable for measuring body temperatures in PNG hospitals?
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6. Which one has more heat energy?
a 0.5 g substance at 0℃ or a 0.5 g of the same substance at −2℃
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7. Differentiate between heat and temperatures

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8. Define the term;
a) boiling point of water?
b) the freezing point of water?
c) absolute zero temperatures?

9. Why does the cigarette lighter spark at a high temperature of 1000 ℃ not hurt the body, but the
water at only 100 ℃ does? Explain in terms of ability of heat energy to make particles move?

10. The temperature of a body rise from 7℃ to 25℃. What is the rise in
a) Kelvin
b) Fahrenheit degrees

11. Why is that the kelvin scale is used to measure freezing point and boiling point of known
substances rather than degree Celsius?

12. Mercury and alcohol are in common use in thermometers. Which one is suitable for measuring
low temperatures? Explain with reasons?

13. If you want to go to south pole would you take mercury or an alcohol thermometer?

14. State the appropriate boiling point of water at

a) Mt. Wilhelm
b) Lae
c) explain the difference in temperatures to your answers in (a) and (b) above.

1.1 Thermometers

➢ Thermometers are instruments which measure the change in temperature of an object by

measuring the change in a physical property of the object.
➢ The main physical properties that change with changes in temperature are;
(a) volume of a liquid
(b) length of a solid
(c) pressure of a gas at constant volume
(d) electrical resistance of a conductor
(e) radiation emitted by an object at high temperature

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 ➢ Some examples of thermometers are; liquid – in – glass thermometers, clinical
thermometers, Bi – metallic strip, Resistance thermometers, thermocouple thermometers
(electric thermometer), helium thermometer, magnetic thermometers, pyrometers

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of the fact that liquid volume increases when
temperature increases. Such thermometers are made by having a liquid, usually mercury or alcohol,
sealed in a hollow glass rod. Temperature measurement is made when liquid expands. A draw back
to the use of such thermometers is the limited range of temperatures. Most clinical thermometers
are of this type.

Bimetallic strip
The bimetallic strip (or compound bar) is composed of two different metals whose lengths expand at
different rates when temperature increases and contract at different rates when temperature is
decreased. The expansion and contraction at different rates causes the bimetallic strip to bend. It is
often used in industries where high temperatures are measured. It may be limited to temperatures
which are less than the melting point of both metals.

Thermocouple
The thermocouple consists of two different metal wires. One end is in a reference temperature (ice)
while the other is used as a probe. Both wires are connected to a sensitive electric meter such as a
galvanometer. When the probe-end is held at a higher temperature, the galvanometer gives a
reading for the p.d. of both ends of a wire. The potential difference between these metals is
proportional to the difference in temperature.

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Resistance thermometers
Resistance thermometers make use of the fact that resistance increases with an increase in
temperature. A probe is made from a conducting wire and connected to a circuit with a meter which
can give the reading of the resistance of the wire.

Pyrometers
Pyrometers make use of the fact that hot bodies give off electromagnetic (EM) radiation (infrared
part of the EM spectrum). Constant – volume gas thermometer This thermometer makes use of the
property of gases where if the volume of a gas is constant then temperature is proportional to
pressure. Below is a diagram of such a thermometer. When the temperature of the gas is increased,
its pressure is increased.

Examples 1
A liquid thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in melting ice and then in boiling water. The
column of the liquid is respectively 4cm and 29cm.

(a) What is the average change in length (cm) per unit change in temperature (°C) of the liquid?
∆𝑳 𝟐𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎
∆𝑻
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃−𝟎℃
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/℃

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 (b) Find the temperature when the column is 10.0cm long.
𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎
𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/℃
= 𝟒𝟎℃
(c) What is the height of the column of liquid at 65℃?
(0.25cm)/℃ x 65℃=16.25 cm

Example 2.
The following graph shows the change in resistance of a conductor as temperature increases.

(a) What is the resistance of the conductor at 280K? 𝟏𝟑𝛀

(b) If room temperature is 25°C, find the resistance of the conductor at that temperature.
𝑻𝑲 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲 at 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲, resistance is 𝟏𝟓𝛀

Example 3
One end of a thermocouple probe is kept in an ice-water mixture at 0°C while the other is inserted
into boiling water at 100°C. The reading on the meter is 64µA. When one of the probes is kept in ice-
water while the other is immersed in warm water, the reading on the thermocouple becomes 84µA.
What is the temperature of the warm water?

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Worksheet 2

1. List the main physical properties that are used in the construction of the thermometers discussed.
i. _________________________________________________________________
ii. _________________________________________________________________
iii. _________________________________________________________________
iv. _________________________________________________________________
v. _________________________________________________________________

2. John constructs a liquid-in-glass thermometer using a thin glass tube and a liquid that expands at
0.3cm per degree Celsius change in temperature. At 0°C, the height of the liquid in the thermometer
is 2.3cm.
a) To what approximate height does the liquid rise when the thermometer is at 25°C?
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b) Suppose John wants to use his thermometer to measure temperatures from 0°C to 80°C, what
should the minimum height of his glass tube be?
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3. The resistance scale of temperature is defined by the equation below.

𝑅𝑇 − 𝑅0
𝑇℃ = 𝑥 100℃
𝑅100 − 𝑅0
Where RT is the resistance value at temperature T°C, R100 and R0 are the resistance values at 100°C
and 0°C respectively. A resistance thermometer is calibrated by measuring the resistance of the
thermometer at 0°C and then at 100°C. At 0°C, the resistance thermometer reads 10Ω. At 100°C, the
thermometer reads 160Ω.
a) State how resistance, current and voltage generally change when temperature increases.
__________________________________________________________________
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b) Using the formula and the information above, find the temperature when the resistance
thermometer reads 80Ω?
c) What resistance value would we expect the thermometer to read at 40°C?

5. a) For a constant volume of gas, briefly explain how it’s pressure changes when there is an
increase or decrease in the gas temperature?
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(b) 700g of a certain gas kept in a sealed container at 0°C has a pressure of 101 300Pa. At 30°C the
gas pressure is double the pressure at 0°C. What is the average change in pressure per degree
Celsius of this gas?
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3.2 The kinetic theory of matter

Kinetic theory of matter basically explains that all matter is composed of particles which have
energy. Solid particles are held in close together and vibrate while in fixed positions. Liquid particles
are able to move about freely and are further apart than those in solids. Gases move very quickly
and very far apart. The particles in the three states of matter have energy called kinetic energy
which is the energy possessed by any object that moves.

Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy that each particle in an object possesses. This
means that an object which has a high temperature would have particles that have a high average
kinetic energy or move very fast. Objects with low temperatures would have particles that have a
low average kinetic energy or move slower.
Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if their temperatures are the same.

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TOPIC 2: THERMAL EXPANSION
In general, when matter is heated it expand and when it is cooled it contract.
When an object experiences a change in temperature, a change in length and size also occurs
simultaneously. This changing in length and size when change in temperature occurs is called
thermal expansion.

2.1 Linear Thermal Expansion

- solid objects expand in length as a result of change in temperature

∆𝑳
∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳𝒐 𝚫𝑻 ∆𝑳 = 𝑳 − 𝑳𝒐 = 𝜶𝑳𝒐 𝚫𝑻 𝑳𝒐
= 𝜶𝚫𝑻

Below is a table showing the linear expansion coefficients for some materials.

Example 1.
A steel beam is 20m long at 20°C. If the extremes of temperature to which it might be exposed to
are -30°C and +40°C, how much will it contract and expand? [ 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 11 x 10−6 (℃)−1]

2.2 Area (Superficial) Thermal Expansion

Change in a materials area dimension due to temperature change.
∆𝑨
∆𝑨 = 𝜸𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑨 − 𝑨𝒐 = 𝜸𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻 = 𝜸∆𝑻
𝑨𝒐
ΔA is the change in area or A – A0, α is the coefficient of linear expansion, A0 = original area, A is the
area after thermal expansion; ΔT is the change in temperature.
where 𝜸 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝟐𝜶
∆𝑨
∆𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑨 − 𝑨𝒐 = 𝟐𝜶𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑨𝒐
= 𝟐𝜶∆𝑻

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Example 2

Solution
(a)

(a) Determine the initial area of washer to

two (2) decimal places.
(b) Determine the new area of the washer to two (2)
decimal places

Solution b)

2.3 Volume Thermal Expansion

The change in volume of a material which undergoes a temperature change is given by;
∆𝑽
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑽 − 𝑽𝒐 = 𝜷𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑽𝒐
= 𝜷∆𝑻

Where ΔV is the change in volume (𝑚3 ), β is the coefficient of volume expansion with its unit
(℃−1 ), and ΔT is the change in temperature (°C)

where 𝜷 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝟑𝜶

∆𝑽
∆𝑽 = 𝟑𝜶𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑽 − 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟑𝜶𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑽𝒐
= 𝟑𝜶∆𝑻

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Example 3
The 70L steel petrol tank is filled to the top with gasoline at 20°C. The steel tank is then left to sit in
the sun where it reaches a temperature of 50°C. How much petrol do you expect to overflow from
the tank? (Use the coefficients of thermal expansion table 2)

Worksheet 3

1. State the three factors that determine the linear expansion of an object.

2. A strip of lead metal initially with a length of 35cm is heated so that its temperature changes by
80°C. Find the change in length of the lead and its new length at the new temperature.

3. Find the temperature range of a 25m aluminium cable that expands and contracts by 7mm each
day.
4. A metallic axle with a diameter of 20mm has to be fitted into a wheel which has a circular hole at
its canter with diameter 18.5mm. To fit the axle into the hole, the axle is dipped into liquid nitrogen
at a temperature of -200°C. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal.

5. A square sheet of steel is heated from 25°C to 100°C. it experiences a change in area of 0.25 𝑐𝑚2 .
Using the formula for area expansion, find the initial area of the steel sheet.

6. A brass cylinder with a radius of 5cm and height of 5cm is kept at a temperature of - 10°C. if the
cylinder is heated to a temperature of 50°C, calculate the new volume of the cylinder.

7. What temperature change is required to make 25mL of acetone expand to 30mL?

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TOPIC 3. HEAT

➢ Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with different
temperatures (flowing from the high-temperature system to the low-temperature system).
Also referred to as heat energy or thermal energy.
➢ Heat is the total internal energy of the object
➢ What is heat energy? It is the measure of potential energy and kinetic energy of a substance.
➢ Heat energy is transferred from a hotter region to a cooler region.
➢ Heat is s form of energy. It is measured in joules (J).
➢ Heat energy is sometimes refereed to as thermal energy or internal energy.
➢ When two bodies come into contact at different temperatures, they both will reach the
same temperature called the thermal equilibrium or equilibrium temperatures.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with
some third body, then they are also in equilibrium with each other.

Figure shows the zeroth law of thermodynamics; (a, b) If the temperatures of A and B are measured
to be the same by placing them in thermal contact with a thermometer (object C), no energy will be
exchanged between them when they are placed in thermal contact with each other (c).

3.1 Units for heat

The three (3) units commonly used to measure heat are calorie, BTU and the joule. 1 Calorie (cal) is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. The kilocalorie
(kcal) is a unit that is often used. BTU stands for British Thermal Unit where 1 BTU is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1°F. The Joule is the SI unit for
measurement of energy.

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Example 1
1 serving of butter is said to contain 1900 kcal of energy. How much energy is this in Joule and in
BTU?

3.2 Heat capacity

is defined as the amount of heat gained (or lost) by a substance for a change in temperature of 1°C.
𝑸
𝑪 = ∆𝑻
where C is the heat capacity in Joules per degree Celsius (J/°C), Q is the amount of thermal energy in
Joules and ΔT is the temperature in degree Celsius.

Example 2.
When 5 400J of thermal energy is added to a steel frying pan, the approximate change is
temperature is 30°C. What is the heat capacity of the steel frying pan?
Solution:

3.3 Specific heat capacity

is the amount of heat energy absorbed or given out by a unit mass of a substance to change its
temperature by 1℃.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = (𝑆𝐻𝐶)x (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)x (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑸 = 𝒄 𝐱 𝒎 𝐱 ∆𝑻
where unit for 𝑐 = 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 ℃−1

The relationship between heat capacity (C) and specific heat capacity (c) is given by the equation
below. C = mc

Example 3
Determine the mass of the steel frying pan in Example 2 if the specific heat capacity of steel is
450 J/kg°C.

Example 4
How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 20kg of iron from 10°C to 90°C given that
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 450 J/kg°C?

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Example 5
Water has a specific heat capacity of 4186J/kg°C. 125 000J of energy is given off by a mass of water
when it cools from 100°C to 25°C. What is the mass of water that has cooled?

The table below shows the specific heat capacities of some substances at 25℃ and atmospheric
pressure.

WORKSHEET 04
1. Express the following energy values in calories and BTU.

2. Explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity.

3. 100g of copper is heated so that it experiences a 130°C rise in temperature. a) Given that copper
has a specific heat capacity (c) of 387J/kg°C, find the amount of heat energy added. b) If we double
the mass of copper, how would this affect the amount of energy needed to heat copper with the
same temperature rise?

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4. Lead has a specific heat capacity (c) of approximately 130J/kg°C. A sample of lead has a heat
capacity (C) of 975J. Its temperature was decreased by 60°C.
a) What is the mass (in kg) of the lead sample?
b) How much energy has been removed from the lead sample in this decrease in temperature?

5. A 120g amount of sodium chloride is heated from 25°C to 100°C. The amount of energy added is
calculated to be 7 920J.
a) Determine the heat capacity of 120g of sodium chloride.
b) Find the specific heat capacity of sodium chloride
c) How much energy is required to cause the same temperature change for 200g of sodium chloride?

6. 50g of a metal at an initial temperature of 200°C is cooled to 40°C. The amount of energy that is
given off in cooling this metal is 1872J.
a) Find the specific heat capacity of the metal.
b) Use the table of specific heat capacities to identify the metal whose specific heat capacity you
found in a.

3.4 Calorimetry
is a field of study that looks at measuring the amount of thermal energy gained or lost by
substances. It uses the heat equation and the law of conservation of energy to help determine
amounts of energy as well as heat capacities and specific heat capacities of substances.

Law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but only
change form to another. The total magnitude of energy remains.
Heat Equation: 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻

Expression for heat lost: 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄(𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 )

Expression for heat gain: 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄(𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝒎𝒄(𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 ) = 𝒎𝒄(𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 )
Example 1
A 0.5 kg of hot water at a temperature of 100℃ is placed in 1.0 kg of cold water. Assuming that no
thermal energy is lost to the surroundings. What will be the initial temperature of the cold water
when they come to the same temperature of 38.97 ℃.
a) find the heat lost by the hot water

b) how much energy is gained by the cold water?

c) Find the initial temperature of the cold water.

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Example 2
200g of water at 95°C is poured into a 150g glass cup initially at 25°C. What will the final
temperature of the mixture be when equilibrium is reached, assuming that no heat flows to the
surroundings? (cwater= 4200 J/kg°C , cglass = 840J/kg°C)

Example 3
0.25kg of honey at 63°C is added to an aluminium container of mass 300g initially at 15°C. Assuming
no energy is lost to the surroundings, calculate the specific heat capacity of honey if the specific heat
capacity of aluminium is 900J/kg°C and the final temperature of the mixture is 48°C?

Worksheet 5
1. 50g of copper is heated by placing it in boiling water (100°C). It is then placed in a beaker
containing 250 g of an unknown liquid at 20°C. The final temperature of the copper and the liquid is
found to be 25°C. What is the specific heat of the liquid? (Assume no heat is lost to the surroundings.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 390J/kg°C.)

2. A 1500W electric jug is used to heat 500mL of water. Calculate the time for the jug to raise the
temperature of the water from room temperature, 20°C, to boiling point. (Note: 1500W means it
supplies 1500J of heat energy every second. The density of water is 1000kg𝑚−3, Use specific heat
capacity of water = 4200J/kg°C)

3. In an experiment, 500g of copper at 80°C is dropped into 1kg of kerosene at 20°C. The mixture
reached a temperature of 25°C. What is the specific heat capacity of kerosene? (use specific heat of
copper = 390J/kg°C)

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3.5 Latent heat
is the energy absorbed or given out during a change of state without any temperature changes
involved.
There are two types:
Latent heat of fusion – is the energy needed to change solid to a liquid and vise versa. It is given out
when a liquid change to a solid. For example, ice needs latent heat before it will melt.
Latent heat of vaporization – is the heat energy needed to change liquid to a gas and vice versa. It is
given out when a gas change to a liquid. Boiling water needs latent heat before it can change into
steam.

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Notice the flat areas B and D on the graph. In the two (2) areas (B and D), energy is being added, but
temperature is not changing. From the energy added in B and D are very large. The energy added in
B and D is called latent heat. These two sections earn this name because we can see that energy is
added but there is no change in temperature.

Specific latent heat

- is the energy absorbed or given out by a unit mass of a substance during a change of state without
any temperature changes.

The table below shows the latent heat of fusion and vaporisation of several substances.

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Example 1
How much energy is needed to change 0.120kg of solid sulphur to liquid at its melting point of
119°C?

Example 2
Calculate the energy required to completely melt 10 grams of gold initially at room temperature
(25°C).

Example 3
How much energy does a refrigerator have to remove from 1.5kg of water at 20°C to make ice at -
12°C?

Example 4
A 0.5kg chunk of ice at -10°C is placed in 3.0kg of water at 20°C.
a) How much heat is to be removed to bring 3.0kg of water from 20°C to 0°C?
b) How much heat is required to bring the 0.5kg chunk of ice from -10°C to 0°C?
c) In what state will the final mixture be?
d) What is the final temperature of the mixture?

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Worksheet 6
1. What is latent heat?

2. Find the energy required to melt 2.5 kg of gold at its melting point.

3. Copper has a melting point of 1083°C. Find the energy required to completely melt 200g of copper
originally at room temperature of 22°C.

4. A 2.0kg bottle of water at 20°C is placed in the freezer of a refrigerator. How much heat must be
removed by the refrigerator to completely freeze the 2.0kg of water?

5. A child wanting to make a cordial ice block, places 200g of cordial at 25°C in the freezer. If the
freezer can remove energy at the rate of 250 joules per second, what time will it take for the cordial
to freeze? (Assume the specific latent heat and specific heat capacity of cordial are the same as
water.)

6. Two solid ice blocks of mass 20g each at 0°C are placed in 500g of water at 40°C. What will be the
final temperature of the mixture when both ice cubes have melted? (Assume no heat is lost to the
container or the surroundings.

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TOPIC 4. HEAT TRANSFER
Heat can be transmitted (from hotter to cooler region) in three ways – conduction, convection and
radiation.
4.1 Conduction
– is the flow of heat energy through matter without the movement of matter itself. Energy is
transferred in solid materials by conduction when bodies at different temperatures are in physical
contact (i.e., touching). Materials which allow heat to pass through them is called good conductors.
Examples are metals. Materials that resist the flow of heat is called insulators. Non – metals are
examples. Air is the worst conductor of heat.

The base of a saucepan is made of copper

which is a good conductor of heat. The
handle of the saucepan has to be made of
plastic so that heat from the copper is not
transferred to someone's hand when they
touch the handle.

Explain the heat flow in the following situations

i) A barefoot feels cold on a wooden floor than in a shoe

ii) A hot spoon feels hotter when touched

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Example 1
Determine the rate of energy conduction through a rectangular glass block of area 1.2𝑚2 and
5.0mm thick. The temperature on one side is 20°C while the temperature on the other side is 8°C.

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4.2 Convection
– is the flow of heat energy with the movement of medium itself. Most mediums are fluids, air and
gas
Figures 13, 14 and 15 show three examples of convection.

Global winds (Trade winds and monsoon winds), local winds (such as land-sea breezes, mountain-
valley breezes) and ocean currents which influence our climates and weather patterns are caused
mostly by convection. Weather patterns such as El Nino and La Nina are caused by changes in the
direction and temperature of ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean.

4.3 Radiation
– is the flow of energy through a vacuum by means of electromagnetic radiation waves.
Radiated heat energy can be absorbed, reflected or transmitted in a material. Glass for instance,
reflects some heat radiation, absorbs a little and allows some to pass through. Absorbers are objects
which soak up radiated heat. Radiators or emitters are objects which emit give off radiated heat.
Reflectors are objects which absorb a little heat but transmit most of the radiation.

Generally, dark or dull objects are good absorbers and radiators, while shiny and lightcoloured
objects are poor absorbers and radiators. You would notice the effect of absorbing radiation by the
colour of clothes you wear. On a hot day, most people would advise against wearing dark coloured
clothing because dark colours are good absorbers of radiation.

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Example 2
Estimate the net rate of heat loss by radiation from an unclothed person’s body if they are in a
closed room at a temperature of 25°C and their skin temperature is 34°C. Let the emissivity be ε =
0.70 and the surface area of the skin be 1.5𝑚2 .

More on emissivity Emissivity (ε) is a measure of the efficiency in which a surface emits thermal
energy. It is defined as the fraction of energy being emitted relative to that emitted by a thermally
black surface (a black body).
A black body is a theoretical object that is the perfect absorber and emitter of heat energy with an
emissivity value of 1. In theory, a black body would be capable absorbing 100% of the thermal
energy available.
A material with an emissivity value of 0 would be considered a perfect thermal mirror. It would not
absorb any radiated thermal energy but would reflect the thermal energy.
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝜺) = 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨

For example, would have an emissivity value of 0.90 if it absorbs or emits 90J of energy with its given
surface area. A black body with an equal surface area would absorb or emit 100J of energy.
In the real world there are no perfect "black bodies" and very few perfect infrared mirrors so most
objects have an emissivity between 0 and 1.

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Example 3
A black body sphere of radius of 12cm is heated to a temperature of 950K. What would be its final
temperature after 3 minutes if it loses heat energy by radiation at a rate of 500W? (Assume that the
sphere does not absorb any radiation while emitting)

Worksheet 07
1. List the factors that affect the rate of heat conduction of any substance.

2. One end of a copper rod of length 30cm and thickness of 0.25cm is placed in such a way that one
end is exposed to a temperature of 120°C while the other end is at 25°C. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer by conduction along the rod.

3. A room is designed to maintain a temperature of 25°C. Outside the room on a cold night the
temperature is measured as 10°C. The room is separated from the outside by a glass slab of area
0.25𝑚2 and thickness of 8mm.
a) Find the rate of heat loss by conduction of the room.

b) Suppose the owners of the room wish to replace the glass slab with another transparent material
that will allow for a rate of heat transfer of 150W. Determine the thermal conductivity of this
material.

4. Explain the term convection.

5. In a tropical place such as in PNG a shiny vehicle is more comfortable to drive. Explain why this
statement is valid.

6. The surface of the Sun has a temperature of about 5800K. The radius of the Sun is 6.96 × 108m.
Calculate the total energy radiated by the Sun each second. (Assume that ε = 0.965).

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7. The picture below shows a thermos flask which is a common household item. The thermos flask
can be used to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for longer periods of time than usual.

a) Give a reason why there is a vacuum between the inner and outer surfaces.

b) Give a reason why the inner and outer surfaces are “silvered”.

Topic 5: Applications of Heat and Temperature

Some of the applications are;

✓ Electric kettle
✓ Fire Walking
✓ Mumu
✓ Insulation
✓ Thermal expansion of rocks
✓ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
✓ Steam engine

Research and find out how the following applications of heat and energy transfer works.

The End!

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