Chapter 1

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Definition of Limits and Limits Theorems (𝜺 − 𝜹 definition
optional)

THE FORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMIT OF A FUNCTION (  −  Definition of Limit)

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing a,
except possibly at the number c itself and let L be a real number. The statement
lim f ( x ) = L
x →c means that for any  > 0, however small, there exists a  > 0 such that if
0 x −c  f ( x ) − L  lim f ( x ) = L
then . The limit notation x → c is likewise referred to as
the “two-sided or ordinary limit” of a function.
Stating the definition in words, it simply means that the function values f(x) approach
a limit L as x approaches a number c if the distance between f(x) and L can be made as
small as we desire by taking x sufficiently closer c but not equal to c.

Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

Common types of Behavior Associated with Nonexistence of a Limit
1. 𝑓(𝑥) approaches a different number from the right side of c than it
approaches from the left side.
2. 𝑓(𝑥) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.
3. 𝑓(𝑥) oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c.
Example 1. Sketch the graph of the function to find its limit.
1 , x2
a. f (x ) =  x
0 , x=2 c. xlim
→0 x

x−2
 x 2 + 3 , x 1 lim
b. f (x ) =  d.
x→2 x−2
2 , x =1
Example 2. Create a table of values for the function and use the result to estimate
the limit.
x
a. xlim
=2
→0 x +1 −1
Solution:

x −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 001

f(x) 1.995 1.9995 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.0005 2.005

𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 2

x+6 − 6
b. xlim
= 0.204
→0 x
Solution:

x −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.001

f(x) 0.2042 0.2041 0.2041 ? 0.2041 0.2041 0.2040

𝑓(𝑥) = 0.204 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.204

Basic Limit Theorems
The following are the most useful basic theorems designed to facilitate
work with limits of a function:
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g be
functions. Then,
1. lim b = b
x →c
2. lim x = c
x →c
3. lim x n = c n
x →c
4. If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g( x ) = K ,
x →c x →c
a) lim bf ( x ) = bL (LIMIT OF A SCALAR MULTIPLE)
x →c
b) lim  f ( x )  g( x ) = L  K (LIMIT OF A SUM OR DIFFERENCE)
x →c
c) lim  f ( x )  g( x ) = LK (LIMIT OF A PRODUCT)
x →c
d) lim f ( x ) = L , provided that K  0 (LIMIT OF A QUOTIENT)
x → c g( x ) K
e) lim  f ( x ) = Ln
n (LIMIT OF A POWER)
x →c
5. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then lim p( x ) = p(c ) .
x →c
6. If r is a rational function given by r ( x ) = p( x ) and c is a real number such
q( x )
that q(c )  0 , then lim r ( x ) = r (c ) = p(c ) .
x →c q(c )
7. lim n x = n c , where c > 0 if n is even.
x →c
 
8. If lim g( x ) = L and lim f ( x ) = f (L) , then lim f ( g ( x )) = f  lim g ( x ) = f ( L)
x →c x→L x→c  x→c 
.

9. If c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function,

then:
a) lim cos x = cos c d) lim cot x = cot c
x →c x →c
b) lim sin x = sin c e) lim csc x = csc c
x →c x →c
c) lim tan x = tan c f) lim sec x = sec c
x →c x →c
10. Suppose f ( x ) = g( x ) for all x  c in an open interval containing c. If
lim g( x ) exists, then lim f ( x ) also exists and lim f ( x ) = lim g( x ) .
x →c x →c x →c x →c
 Example 3. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists) using the Limit Theorems.
a. lim (3x + 2)2 c. lim x+3
x →0 x →3
Solution: Solution:
lim (3 x + 2 ) = (3(0 ) + 2 ) x +3 = 3+3
2 2
lim
x →0 x→3

= (0 + 2 ) = 6
2

= (2 )
2

=4

x
b. lim
x →0 x +1 −1 x4 −1
d. lim
Solution: x →1 x 6 −1
x Solution:
lim `
x→0 x +1 −1
  x + 1 + 1  lim
x4 −1
= lim 3
x2 −1 x2 + 1 ( )( )
= lim 
x
 
x→1 x 6 − 1 x→1 x − 1 x 3 + 1 ( )( )
x→0
 x + 1 − 1  x + 1 + 1 
( x − 1)( x + 1) x 2 + 1 ( )
= lim
x x +1 +1( )
= lim
(
x→1 ( x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 ( x + 1) x 2 − x + 1 ) ( )
x→0
(
x + 1 − (1)
2 2
) x2 + 1 ( )
= lim
(
x x +1 +1 ) = lim 2
(
x→1 x + x + 1 x 2 − x + 1 )( )
x→0 x +1−1 (1) + 1
2
( )
= lim
(
x x +1 +1 ) =
(
(1)2 + (1) + 1 (1)2 − (1) + 1 )( )
x→0 x 2
=
= lim x + 1 + 1
x→0
(3)(1)
= 0 +1 +1 2
=
3
= 1 +1
=2
 Activity 1.1
Definitions of Limits and Limits Theorem (𝜺 − 𝜹 definition optional)

Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Sketch the graph of the function to find its limit.

2 x + 3 , x 1 x 2 , x2
a. f (x ) =  
7 , x = 1 c. f (x ) = 8 − 2 x , 2  x  4
2 4 , x4

b. xlim
→5 x −5

II. Create a table of values for the function and use the result to estimate the limit.
2x2 + x − 3
a. lim
x →1 x −1

x
f(x)

x2 − 9
b. xlim
→3 x − 3

x
f(x)

III. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists) using the Limit Theorems.

y2 − 9
a. ylim
→ −3 2 y 2 + 7 y + 3
x2 − 4
c. xlim
→ −2 x + 2
4x2 + 4x − 3
lim x −1
b.
x→
1 2x −1 lim
d. x →1
2 x+5 −2
 1.2 Continuity and One-sided Limits
1.2.1 One-sided Limits
The notion of one-sided limits arises when one is interested to investigate the
behavior of a function, say f, as x approaches a number, say c, but only from one direction.
Furthermore, these types of limits are usually encountered when a given function f is not
defined in any open interval (a , b) containing the number c.
Illustration:
Consider a function f defined by f (x) = x + 1 .
Observe that if x  −1 , the function values are not real numbers (hence, f(x) is not
defined when x  −1 ). In this connection, the ordinary limit (also known as two-sided
limit) lim x + 1 does not make any sense at all. However, if we consider values of x
x → −1
that are greater than – 1, then we find that the limit of x + 1 as x approaches to – 1 from
the right can be considered.
The limit of the given function f (x) = x + 1 can also be examined by creating of
table of values for the function.

x approaches - 1 from the left x approaches -1 from the right

x -1.001 -1.0001 -1.00001 -1.000001 -0.999999 -0.99999 -0.9999 -0.999

f(x) imaginary imaginary Imaginary Imaginary 0.001 0.00316 0.01 0.0316

f(x) is imaginary f(x) approaches 0

We shall now define these one-sided limits formally:

DEFINITION 1: RIGHT HAND LIMIT

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (c , b) .
Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the right is L, written
lim f ( x) = L
x →c +
if for every   0 , however small, there exists a   0 such that f ( x ) − L  
whenever 0  x − c   .
 DEFINITION 2: LEFT HAND LIMIT
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a , c ) .
Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the left is L, written
lim f ( x) = L
x →c −
if for every   0 , however small, there exists a   0 such that f ( x ) − L  
whenever 0  c − x   .
Remark: The symbol x → c + means that x approaches c from values greater than
c. The symbol x → c − indicates that x approaches c from values less than c.

THEOREM (Existence of a Limit):

lim f ( x ) exists if and only if lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) both exist and
x→c x→c − x→c +
equal. Moreover,
lim f ( x) = lim + f ( x) = lim − f ( x) .
x →c x →c x →c

Example 1. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists).

6 − 2x x2 − 1
1. lim 2. lim
x→3− x 2 − 2 x − 3 x →1− x − 1
Solution: Solution:
6 − 2x x2 −1
lim− lim−
x →3 x − 2 x − 3
2
x →1 x −1
− 2( x − 3 )
= lim−  x 2 − 1  x −1 
x →3 ( x + 1)( x − 3) = lim−   
 x − 1 
x →1
 x − 1 
−2
= lim−
x →3 x + 1
= lim−
(x 2
−1 )( x −1 )
=
−2 x →1
( x −1 )2

3 +1
= lim−
(x − 1)(x + 1)( x −1 )
−2 x −1
= x →1
4
1
= lim− ( x + 1)
x →1
( x −1 )
=−
2 (
= (1 + 1) 1 − 1 )
=0
 x −3
3. lim+
x →9 x−9
Solution:
x −3
lim+
x →9 x−9
 x − 3  x + 3
= lim+  


x →9
 x − 9  x + 3 

= lim+
( x) 2
− (3)
2

x →9 (x − 9)( x +3 )
x−9
= lim+
x →9 (x − 9)( x +3 )
1
= lim+
x →9 x +3
1
=
9 +3
1
=
6

Example 2. Find the indicated limit if it exists.

 2 x 2 , − 1 x  1
1. f ( x ) = 
 3 − x , 1 x  2
Find:
a.) lim f ( x ) b.) lim f (x) c.) lim f ( x )
x →1+ x →1− x →1
Solution: Solution: Solution:
lim f (x ) = lim+ 3 − x lim f ( x ) = lim+ 2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = 2
x →1+ x →1 x →1+ x →1 x →1− x →1

= 3 −1 = 2(1)
2

=2 =2
  x3 + x2 + 2x + 2
 x  −1
2. h( x ) =  x+1
,
− 4 , x = −1


Find:
lim h( x )
a. lim h( x ) c. lim h( x )
b. x → −1 −
x → −1 + x → −1
Solution: Solution: Solution:
x + x + 2x + 2
3 2 x3 + x 2 + 2x + 2 lim h( x ) = lim h( x ) = 3
lim − x → −1− x → −1+
lim +
x → −1 x +1
x → −1 x +1
(x + 2)(1 + 1)
2
= lim −
(x + 2)(1 + 1)
2

= lim + x → −1 x +1
x → −1 x +1
= lim + (x + 2 )
2 = lim − (x 2 + 2 )
x → −1
x → −1
= (1) + 2
2
= (1) + 2
2

=3 =3

2 x − a , x  −3
Example 3. Given G ( x ) = ax + 2b , − 3  x  3 . Find the values of a and b such that
b − 5 x , x3


lim G ( x ) and lim G ( x ) both exist.

x → −3 x→3
Solution:
c = −3 c=3
lim G ( x ) lim G ( x ) lim G ( x ) lim G ( x )
x → −3− x → −3+ x →3 − x →3 +

= lim − 2 x − a = lim + ax + 2b = lim− ax + 2b = lim+ b − 5 x

x → −3 x → −3 x →3 x →3

= 2(− 3) − a = a(− 3) + 2b = a(3) + 2b = b − 5(3)

= −6 − a = −3a + 2b = 3a + 2b = b − 15

lim G ( x ) = lim − G ( x ) lim G ( x ) = lim+ G ( x )

x → −3− x → −3 x →3 − x →3

− 6 − a = −3a + 2b 3a + 2b = b − 15
− 6 − a + 3a − 2b = 0 3a + 2b − b + 15 = 0
2a − 2b − 6 = 0 Eq. 1 3a + b + 15 = 0 Eq. 2

Multiply Eq. 2 by 2. Then add Eq. 2 and Eq.1

2(3a + b + 15 = 0 )  6a + 2b + 30 = 0
2a − 2b − 6 = 0  2a − 2b − 6 = 0
8a + 24 = 0
8a = −24
8a − 24
=
8 8
a = −3
 Substitute a to Eq. 2
3a + b + 15 = 0
3(− 3) + b + 15 = 0
− 9 + b + 15 = 0
b+6=0
b = −6
1.2.2 Continuity of a function
The previous section pointed out that if lim f ( x ) exists, then its value is not
x→ c

necessarily equal to f(c), the value of the function at x = a. On the other note, it is possible
for the value of f(c) to exist and not lim f ( x ) . Nevertheless, when both of them exist and
x→ c

are equal then we say that the function f is continuous at c. Continuous function is stated
formally in the following definition.
A. Continuity of a Point: A function f is said to be continuous at the number a if the
following three conditions are satisfied:
i. f(c) is defined
ii. lim f ( x ) exist
x→ c

iii. lim f ( x ) = f(c)

x→ c

B. Continuity of an Interval: A function f is said to be continuous on an open

interval (a , b) if it is continuous at each point in the interval. A function that is continuous
on the entire real number line (−  ,+) is continuous everywhere. If one of the three
conditions in Definition A fails to hold, then we say that the function f is said to have a
discontinuity at x = c. Geometrically, a function f has a discontinuity at the number c if
there is a break, a cut, a gap, a hole, or a jump in the graph of the y = f ( x) at the point
where x = c. The possible graphs of functions that have discontinuity at c are shown
below:

If function f is not continuous at c but lim f ( x ) exists, then either lim f ( x )  f ( c ) or f(c)
x→ c x→ c

is not defined. If this situation occurs then we say that the discontinuity is removable.
This type of discontinuity can actually be redefined so that lim f ( x ) = f(c) and hence,
x→ c
the resulting function f is turned into a continuous function at c. This is the reason for the
term “removable”. If the discontinuity at c is not removable, then it is called an
nonremovable/essential discontinuity.

DEFINITION OF CONTINUITY ON A CLOSED INTERVAL:

A function f is continuous on the closed interval a , b  if it is continuous on
the open interval (a , b) and lim f ( x ) = f (a ) and lim f ( x ) = f (b ) .
x→ a + x→ b−

The function f is continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left at b.

Example 1. Determine if the given function is continuous at the indicated number c. If

it is discontinuous at a, determine if the discontinuity is removable or essential. If it is
removable, redefine the function to make it into a continuous function.
 x −1
 , if x  1
i. f (x ) =  x − 1 c =1
0 , if x  1

Solution:
i.) f (c ) is defined
f (1) = 0

ii.) lim f (x ) exist

x →c

x −1
lim− f (x ) = lim− lim f (x ) = lim+ f (x )
x →1 x →1 x −1 x →1+ x →1

x −1
= lim− = lim+ 0
x →1 − ( x − 1) x →1

= lim− − 1 = lim+ 0
x →1 x →1

= −1 =0

lim f ( x )  lim+ f ( x ) lim f ( x )

Since x →1− x →1 . The x →1 does not exist.

Hence, the function 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous and it is essential.

 x , if x  1

ii. f ( x) =  2 , if x = 1 c =1
 2x − 1 , if x  1

Solution:
i.) f (c ) is defined
f (1) = 2

ii.) lim f (x ) exist

x →c

lim f (x ) = lim− x lim f (x ) = lim+ 2 x − 1

x →1− x →1 x →1+ x →1

=1 = 2(1) − 1
=1
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) lim f ( x )
Since, x →1− x →1 . The x →1 exist.

iii.) lim f (x ) = f (c )
x →c

lim f (x ) = f (1)
x →1

1 2
lim f ( x )  f (1)
Since, x →1

Hence, the function 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous and it is removable. If we redefined the 𝑓(1) = 1 then
the lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) and the function became continuous.
𝑥→1
Example 2. Let g be a function defined by
 1+ x 3
 , if x  −1
 1+ x
 . For what value of k is the function g a continuous function
g ( x) =  3 , if x = −1
 2x + 5
 , if x  −1

 k
at c = −1 ?
Solution:
i.) f (c ) is defined
f (− 1) = 3

ii.) lim f (x ) exist

x →c

1+ x 3
2x + 5
lim − f (x ) = lim lim + f (x ) = lim +
x → −1 x → −11+ x
−
x → −1 x → −1 k

= lim −
( (
1 + x) 1 − x + x 2 ) =
2(− 1) + 5
x → −1 1+ x k
−2+5
x → −1
(
= lim − 1 − x + x 2 ) =
k
= 1 − (− 1) + (− 1)
3
=
2

k
=3
lim f (x ) = lim + f (x )
x → −1− x → −1

3
3=
k
 3
k3 =  k
 k
1
(3k = 3) 1
3 3
k =1
2𝑥+5
To check the continuity of your function, substitute the value of 𝑘 to lim+ .
𝑥→−1 𝑘
2x + 5 2x + 5
lim + = lim + iii.) lim f (x ) = f (c )
x → −1 k x → −1 1 x →c

= lim + 2 x + 5 lim f (− 1) = f (− 1)
x → −1 x →c

= 2(− 1) + 5 3=3
=3
 THEOREM 2: INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
A function f is continuous on the closed interval a , b  , 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), and 𝑘 is
any number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), then there is atleast one number 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such
that
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘

Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the polynomial
Function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1 has a zero in the interval [0,1].
Solution:
Note that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [0,1].
f (0) = (0) + 2(0) − 1 = −1 f (1) = (1) + 2(1) − 1 = 2
3 3

it follows that 𝑓(0) < 0 and 𝑓(0) > 0. You can now therefore apply the
Intermediate Value Theorem to conclude that there must be some 𝑐 in [0,1] such that
𝑓(𝑐) = 0 𝑓 has a zero in the closed interval [0,1].

THEOREM 2: SQUEEZE THEOREM

If ℎ(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for all x in an open interval containing 𝑐, except
possibly at 𝑐 itself, and if
lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim ℎ(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Then lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and is equal to 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑐

Example. Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) given that:

𝑥→1
4 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 for all x.
Solution:
lim 4 = 4
x →1 x →1
( 2
)
lim x 2 + 6 x − 3 = (1) + 6(1) − 3 = 4

x →1 x →1 x →1
( )
lim 4  lim f (x )  lim x 2 + 6 x − 3

lim f ( x ) = 4
x →1
 Activity 1.2
Continuity and One-Sided Limit

Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists).

a.) lim 1
b.) lim 42 − x
x→8+ x +8 x→4− x − 16
II. Find the indicated limit if it exists.
x3 + 1 , x 1
f (x ) = 
x + 1 , x 1
Find:
a.) lim f (x) b.) lim f ( x ) c.) lim f ( x )
x →1+ x →1− x →1
 2 , x 1

III. Given f (x ) = ax + b , 1  x  3 . Find the value of a and b such that lim f ( x ) and
 −2 , x3
x →1

lim f ( x ) exists.
x →3

IV. Determine if the given function is continuous at the indicated number c. If it is

discontinuous at a, determine if the discontinuity is removable or essential. If it is
removable, redefine the function to make it into a continuous function.
3 + x , x 1
a. f (x ) = 
3 − x , x 1
 x − 3 , x  3
f (x ) = 
2, x=3
b.
 1.3 Infinite Limits
Consider a function f defined by f ( x ) =
1
. Let us investigate the behavior of some
x−1
of the values of f as x moves closer to 1.

x approaches 1 from the left x approaches 1 from the right

X 0.8 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.2

f(x) -5 -10 -100 -1000 1000 100 10 5

f(x) decreases without bound f(x) increases without bound

A limit in which f(x) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c is

called an infinite limit.

DEFINITION OF INFINITE LIMITS:

Definition 1: Let f be a function defined at every number in some open

interval I containing c, except possibly at the number c itself. We say that f(x)
increases without bound as x approaches c, written
lim f ( x ) = +
x →c
if for every positive number M, there exists a   0 such that f ( x )  M
whenever 0  x − c   .

Definition 2: Let f be a function defined at every number in some open

interval I containing c, except possibly at the number c itself. We say that f(x)
decreases without bound as x approaches c, written
lim f ( x ) = −
x →c
if for every negative number N, there exists a   0 such that f ( x )  N
whenever 0  x − c   .
Note that lim f ( x ) = + or lim f ( x ) = − does not have the same meaning
x →c x →c
as lim f ( x ) = L , where L is a real number. When lim f ( x ) = + or
x →c x →c
lim f ( x ) = − , it means that lim f ( x ) actually does not exist. The
x →c x →c
notations lim f ( x ) = + and lim f ( x ) = − are just used to indicate that
x →c x →c
the behavior of the function as x approaches to c.
 THEOREM: (Properties of Infinite Limits)
Let c and L be real numbers and let f and g be functions such that
and .

1. Sum or Difference:

2. Product: , L>0

, L<0

3. Quotient:

Note: Similar properties hold for one-sided limits and for functions for which
.

Definition: (VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE)

If f(x) approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as x approaches c from the
right or the left, then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.

Example 1. Find the limit (if it exists).

4
1. lim +
x → 1 (t − 1)3
Solution:

x 1 1.0001 1.001 1.01

𝒇(𝒙) ? 𝟒𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝟒𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

4
 lim+ = +
x →1 (t − 1)3
  4 x2 + 1 
2. lim   
+

x → 0  2 x − 1 
x 2

Solution:

X 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01

𝒇(𝒙) ? −𝟒𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 −𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 −𝟒𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟐

4 x2 +1 
 lim+   2  = −
x →0
 x 2 x − 1

3. −2 5− x
lim
x3
x →0 −

Solution:

X - 0.01 - 0.001 - 0.0001 0

𝒇(𝒙) 4,476,605.86 4,472,583,146.2 4,472,180,676,100 ?

−2 5− x
 lim− = +
x →0 x3

Example 2. Find the vertical asymptotes (if any) of the graph of the function.

2t − 3
f (x) = 2. h(t ) = 3. T ( x ) =
1 x
1.
x2 t 2 − 25 x2 + 1
Solution: Solution: Solution:
x =02
t − 25 = 0
2
x2 +1 = 0
x2 = 0 t 2 = 25 x 2 = −1
x=0 t 2 =  25 x2 =  −1
t = 5 x =  imaginary
 1.4 Limits at Infinity
Consider a function defined by f ( x ) =
x
.
x+2
Let us allow x to increase and decrease without bound. The corresponding
function values appear in the table below:

1.5 x decreases without

x increases without bound
bound
X -10000 -1000 -100 -10 0 10 100 1000 10000
f(x) 1.0002 1.0020 1.0204 1.25 0 0.8333 0.9804 0.9980 0.9998

f(x) approaches 1 f(x) approaches 1

The table clearly suggests that the value of f(x) approaches 1 as x either
increases or decreases without bound. These limits at infinity are denoted by
x x
lim = 1 lim = 1
x → + x + 2 x → − x + 2
and
The illustration above allows us to introduce the formal definition of limits at
infinity.

DEFINITION OF LIMITS AT INFINITY:

Let L be a real number.

DEFINITION 1: The limit of f(x) as x increases without bound is L, written

, if for any , there exists a number such that whenever .

DEFINITION 2: The limit of f(x) as x decreases without bound is L, written

, if for any , there exists a number such that

whenever .

REMARKS: The symbol is used to denote that x increases without bound while
the symbol is used to denote that x decreases without bound.
Besides the basic theorems and corollaries on limits, as discussed in the previous
lessons, the following theorem is likewise essential in evaluating limits at infinity:

THEOREM: If r is a positive rational number and c is any real number, then

a) b) whenever .
GUIDELINES FOR FINDING LIMITS AT OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
1. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then the limit of
the rational function is 0.
2. If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, then the limit of
the rational function is the ratio of the leading coefficients.
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then the limit
of the rational function does not exist.

Definition: (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE)

The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if or

Example 1. Find the limit, if possible.

3x4 − 7 x2 + 2 t 2 +1 3
8x3 + x2 − 1
lim lim 3. lim
1. x→ − 2x4 + 1 2. t → + 2t + 1 x→ + 1 − 5x
Solution: Solution:
Solution:
3x 4 − 7 x 2 + 2 t 2 +1
lim
2x 4 + 1
lim 3
8x 3 + x 2 − 1
x → − t → + 2t + 1 lim
3x 4 7 x 2 2 2
x→ + 1 − 5x
− 4 + 4 t 1
+ 2
= lim x
4
x x 2 8x 3 x 2 1
x → − 2x 4 1 = lim
t t 3 + −
+ 4 t → + 2t 1 x3 x3 x3
x4 x + = lim
t 2
t2 x→ + 1 5x
3−0+0 −
= t2 1
3
x3 3 x3
2+0 + 2
2
t t 8x 3 x 2 1
=
3 = lim
t → + 2t 1 3+ −
2 + x3 x3 x3
t t = lim
x→ + 1 5x
1+ 0 −
= x x
2+0
1
3
8+0−0
= =
2 0−5
3
8
=
−5
2
=−
5
Example 2. Determine the horizontal asymptote(s) of the graph of the function.
x+1
1. f ( x ) = 2. h(x ) = 2x
x−4 3x 2 + 1
Solution: Solution:
y = lim f ( x ) y = lim h( x )
x→ 
x→ 
x +1
= lim = lim
2x
x→  x − 4
x→ 
3x 2 + 1
x 1
+ 2x
= lim x x
x→  x x2
−4 = lim
x→ 
x 3x 2 1
+
1+ 0 x2 x2
=
1− 0 2x
1 x
= = lim
1 x→  2
3x 1
=1 +
x2 x2
2
=
3+0
2
=
3
2 3
=
3
 Chapter 2
Differentiation
One of the most essential processes of calculus uses the limit concept in its definition is
called differentiation.

Calculus grew out of four major problems that early mathematicians were working on
during the seventeenth century and these are the following:

1. The Tangent Line Problem 3. The Maximum and Minimum Problem

2. The velocity and Acceleration Problem 4. The Area Problem

2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem

2.1.1. The Tangent Line Problem

The problem of finding the tangent line at a point P is stemmed from the problem of
finding the slope of the tangent line at point P. This slope can be approximated using a secant
line passing through the point of tangency and a second point on the curve.
If is the point of tangency and is a second point on
the graph of f, then the slope of the secant line through the two points is given by the
substitution into the slope formula.

(slope of secant line)

As we choose points closer and closer to the point of tangency, the more accurate
approximation of the slope of the tangent line that we will obtain.
A. DEFINITION OF TANGENT LINE WITH SLOPE m:
If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and if the limit
exists, then the line passing through with

slope m is the tangent line to the graph of f at the point .

It should be noted that the definition of the tangent line to a graph of f does not include
the possibility of a vertical tangent line. For vertical tangent lines, we shall use the following
definition.
B. DEFINITION OF VERTICAL TANGENT LINE:

If f is continuous at c and , then the vertical line

passing through is a vertical tangent line to the graph of f.

Example: Find the slope(s) of the tangent line(s) of the graph of the function at the
indicated point(s).
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑 at the point (𝟐, 𝟏).
Solution:
𝒇(𝒄+∆𝒙)−𝒇(𝒄)
𝒎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒇(𝒄 + ∆𝒙) = 𝟐(𝒄 + ∆𝒙) − 𝟑 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝟐𝒄 − 𝟑

𝒇(𝒄 + ∆𝒙) = 𝟐𝒄 + 𝟐∆𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝟐𝒄 − 𝟑
(𝟐𝒄+𝟐∆𝒙−𝟑)−(𝟐𝒄−𝟑)
𝒎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙
𝟐𝒄+𝟐∆𝒙−𝟑−𝟐𝒄+𝟑
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙
𝟐∆𝒙
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
∆𝒙→𝟎

𝒎=𝟐
2. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 at the point (𝟎, 𝟏) and (−𝟏, 𝟐).
Solution:
𝒇(𝒄+∆𝒙)−𝒇(𝒄)
𝒎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒇(𝒄 + ∆𝒙) = (𝒄 + ∆𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝒄𝟐 + 𝟏

𝒇(𝒄 + ∆𝒙) = 𝒄𝟐 + 𝟐𝒄∆𝒙 + (∆𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝒄𝟐 + 𝟏
[𝒄𝟐 +𝟐𝒄∆𝒙+(∆𝒙)𝟐 +𝟏]−(𝒄𝟐 +𝟏)
𝒎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒄𝟐 +𝟐𝒄∆𝒙+(∆𝒙)𝟐 +𝟏−𝒄𝟐 −𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝟐𝒄∆𝒙+(∆𝒙)𝟐
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙
∆𝒙(𝟐𝒄+∆𝒙)
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟐𝒄 + ∆𝒙)

∆𝒙→𝟎

= 𝟐𝒄 + 𝟎

𝒎 = 𝟐c
when (𝟎, 𝟏) when (−𝟏, 𝟐)
𝒎 = 𝟐c 𝒎 = 𝟐c
𝒎 = 𝟐(𝟎) 𝒎 = 𝟐(−𝟏)
𝒎 =0 𝒎 = −𝟐
Try this! Find the slope(s) of the tangent line(s) of the graph of the function at the indicated
point(s).

1. 𝑔(𝑥) = 6 − 𝑥 2 at the point (1,5).

3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 at the point (−2, −2).
2
3. ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 + 3 at the point (−2,7)

2.1.2. The Derivative of a Function

The derivative of f at x is given by provided that the limit

exists, For all x for which the limit exists, then f ‘ (read “f prime”) is a function of x. The function
f is said to be differentiable at x if the derivative exists at x and is said to be differentiable on an
open interval (a,b) if it is differentiable at every point in the interval.

From the definition above, we see that the derivative of a function is again, a function.
The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation.

NOTE: If the function f is defined by the equation , then the derivative of a function at a
number x can be denoted by any of the following symbols:

Example: Find the derivative of the following functions by the limit process.
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙
Solution:
𝒇(𝒙+∆𝒙)−𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) = (𝒙 + ∆𝒙)𝟑 + 𝟐(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙

𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 ∆𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙(∆𝒙)𝟐 + (∆𝒙)𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐∆𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙
[𝒙𝟑 +𝟑𝒙𝟐 ∆𝒙+𝟑𝒙(∆𝒙)𝟐 +(∆𝒙)𝟑 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐∆𝒙]−(𝒙𝟑 +𝟐𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒙𝟑 +𝟑𝒙𝟐 ∆𝒙+𝟑𝒙(∆𝒙)𝟐 +(∆𝒙)𝟑 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐∆𝒙−𝒙𝟑 −𝟐𝒙

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝟑𝒙𝟐 ∆𝒙+𝟑𝒙(∆𝒙)𝟐 +(∆𝒙)𝟑 +𝟐∆𝒙

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

∆𝒙[𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙∆𝒙+(∆𝒙)𝟐 +𝟐]

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙∆𝒙 + (∆𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟐

𝟐
∆𝒙→𝟎

= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙(𝟎) + (𝟎)𝟐 + 𝟐

𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
 2. 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟒
Solution:
𝒇(𝒙+∆𝒙)−𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) = √(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) + 𝟒 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟒

√(𝒙+∆𝒙)+𝟒 − √𝒙+𝟒
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙

√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 − √𝒙+𝟒 √𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙 √𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒
𝟐 𝟐
(√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 ) −( √𝒙+𝟒)
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙(√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒)
(𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒)−(𝒙+𝟒)
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙(√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒)
𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒−𝒙−𝟒
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙(√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒)
∆𝒙
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙(√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒)
𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒙→𝟎 (√𝒙+∆𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒)
𝟏
=
√𝒙+𝟎+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒
𝟏
=
√𝒙+𝟒 + √𝒙+𝟒

𝟏
𝒇′ (𝒙) =
𝟐√ 𝒙 + 𝟒

Try this! Find the derivative of the following functions by the limit process.

1. 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟕
2. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐
3. 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑
 Activity 2.1
The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

1. Find the slope(s) of the tangent line(s) of the graph of the function at the indicated point(s).
a. 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙 at the point (−1,8).
b. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒕 − 𝒕𝟐 at the point (0,0).
2. Find the derivative of the following functions by the limit process.

a. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑
b. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐
 2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change

Finding the derivative of a function using the definition poses a tedious and a complicated
task. We can find relief from using such technique by applying some of the basic theorems of
differentiation.

THEOREM 1: (Constant Rule)

If for all x where c is a constant, then .

THEOREM 2: (Power Rule)

If n is a rational number and , then .

THEOREM 3: (Constant Multiple Rule)

If f is differentiable at x and , where c is a constant, then g is

differentiable at x and .

THEOREM 4: (Sum and Difference Rules)

If f and g are differentiable at x and , then h is differentiable at

x and .

THEOREM 5: (Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions)

a. If , then .

b. If , then .

c. If , then

d. If , then .
e. If , then .
f. If , then .

Examples: Derivatives
Theorem 1: 𝒚 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒚′ = 𝟎

Theorem 2: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟑−𝟏 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐

Theorem 3: 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒙𝟓 𝒉′ (𝒙) = 𝟒(𝟓𝒙𝟓−𝟏 ) = 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟒

Theorem 4: 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒈′ (𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟑−𝟏 − 𝟒[(𝟏)𝒙𝟏−𝟏 ] + 𝟎 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒

: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

: 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏)𝒙𝟏−𝟏 + (− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) + 𝟎 = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Try this! Use the rules of differentiation to find the derivative of the function.

𝟏
1. 𝒚=
𝒙𝟓

2. 𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟏
𝟓
3. 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙
𝟓
4. 𝒇(𝒙) (𝟐𝒙)𝟑 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
 Activity 2.2
Basic Differentiation Rules and Rate of Change
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Use the rules of differentiation to find the derivative of the function.

𝟏
a. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟐

b. 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕 + 𝟓𝒕𝟐 − 𝟑𝒕 + 𝟖
𝟑

c. 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙
𝟏
d. 𝒈(𝒙) = − 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝒙
 2.3 Product and Quotient Rules and Higher-Order Derivatives

THEOREM 5: (Product Rule)

If f and g are differentiable at x and h( x ) = f ( x )  g( x ) , then h is differentiable at x and

h' ( x ) = f ( x )  g' ( x ) + g ( x )  f ' ( x ) .

THEOREM 6: (Quotient Rule)

f (x)
If f and g are differentiable at x and h( x ) = with g ( x )  0 , then h is differentiable
g( x )
f ' ( x )  g( x ) − g' ( x )  f ( x ) Dx  f ( x ) g( x ) − D x g ( x ) f ( x )
at x and h' ( x ) = or h' ( x ) =
g( x ) 2 g( x ) 2
.

Example 1. Find the derivative of 𝒉(𝒙) = (𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 )(𝟓 + 𝟒𝒙).

Solution:
( )
h(x ) = 3x − 2 x 2 (5 + 4 x )
h (x ) = (3x − 2 x )(4) + (5 + 4 x )(3 − 4 x )
' 2

= (12 x − 8 x ) + (15 − 20 x + 12 x − 16 x )
2 2

= (12 x − 8 x ) + (15 − 8 x − 16 x )
2 2

h ' (x ) = 12 x − 8 x 2 + 15 − 8 x − 16 x 2
h ' (x ) = −24 x 2 + 4 x + 15 or h ' (x ) = 15 + 4 x − 24 x 2

𝟓𝒙−𝟐
Example 2. Find the derivative of 𝒚 = .
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
Solution:
5x − 2
y= 2
x +1

y' =
(5)(x 2 + 1) − (2 x )(5 x − 2)
(x 2 + 1)2
=
(5x 2
+ 5) − (10 x 2 − 4 x )
(x 2
+ 1)
2

5 x 2 + 5 − 10 x 2 + 4 x
=
(x 2
+ 1)
2

− 5x 2 + 4 x + 5 5 + 4 x − 5x 2
y' = or y' =
(x 2
+ 1)
2
(x 2
+ 1)
2
Try this! Find the derivative of the following functions.
𝟐
1. 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
2. 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝒕𝟐 +𝟒
3. 𝒚=
𝟓𝒕−𝟑
𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
4. 𝒚=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

HIGHER – ORDER DERIVATIVES

If we differentiate a function f(x), we obtain the first derivative of f(x), provided that
f(x) is differentiable. For example, given that

f ( x ) = 5 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 6 x + 11 ,

The first derivative is f ' ( x ) = 15 x 2 − 6 x + 6

The second derivative is 

Dx  f ' ( x) = Dx 15 x 2 − 6 x + 6   f " ( x) = 30 x − 6 .
The third derivative is Dx  f " ( x ) = Dx 30 x − 6   f "' ( x ) = 30 .

The fourth derivative is Dx  f "' ( x ) = Dx 30  f (4 )( x ) = 0 .

In general, the nth derivative of a function f, denoted by f (n ) ( x ) , is the derivative of

f (n − 1) , where f (n − 1) is the (n – 1)th derivative of f, where f (n − 1 ) is differentiable. Other

symbols to denote the n derivative of the function defined by y = f ( x ) are the following:
th

dn dny
D xn  f ( x ) , n
 f ( x ) , .
dx dx n
 𝟐
Example 1. Find 𝑫𝟒𝒙 (𝒙𝟑 + ).
𝒙𝟐
Solution:
 2 
( ) 4
D x  x 3 + 2  = D x x 3 + 2 x − 2 = 3 x 2 − 4 x −3 = 3 x 2 − 3
 x  x

 4
( ) 12
D x2  3 x 2 − 3  = D x2 3 x 2 − 4 x −3 = 6 x + 12 x − 4 = 6 x + 4
 x  x

 12 
( )
48
D x3  6 x + 4  = D x3 6 x + 12 x − 4 = 6 − 48 x −5 = 6 − 5
 x  x

 48 
( )
240
D x4  6 − 5  = D x4 6 − 48 x −5 = 0 + 240 x −6 = 6
 x  x

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝑹(𝒙)∙𝑹′ (𝒙)

Example 2. Let 𝑹(𝒙) = . Show that = −𝟏.
𝟏+𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝑹′′ (𝒙)
Solution

R (x ) =
' (− sin x )(1 + sin x ) − (cos x )(cos x ) R ''
(x ) = (0)(1 + sin x ) − (cos x )(− 1) R( x ) • R ' ( x )
= −1
(1 + sin x )2 (1 + sin x ) 2
R '' ( x )
 cos x  1 
  − 
− sin x − sin x − cos x
2 2
 1 + sin x  1 + sin x  = −1
R ' (x ) = R '' ( x ) =
cos x
(1 + sin x )2 (1 + sin x )2 cos x
(1 + sin x )2
cos x
−
R ' (x ) =
(
− sin x − sin 2 x + cos2 x ) (1 + sin x )2 = −1
(1 + sin x )2 cos x
(1 + sin x )2
− sin x − 1  cos x   (1 + sin x ) 
2
R ' (x ) =  − 2   = −1
(1 + sin x )2  (1 + sin x )  cos x 
1 + sin x
R ' (x ) = − − 1 = −1
(1 + sin x )2
R( x ) • R ' ( x )
R (x ) = −
1
'
 = −1
1 + sin x R '' ( x )
Try this!
𝒅𝟑 𝟑
1. Find (
𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝟐𝒙−𝟏
).
2. Find 𝒈’(𝒙) and 𝒈”(𝒙) if 𝒈(𝒙) = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟑 .
3. Find 𝒇(𝟓) if (𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 . Evaluate the fifth derivative at the point (𝝅, 𝟏).
 Activity 2.3
Product and Quotient Rules and Higher-Order Derivatives
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Use the product/quotient differentiation rule and higher derivatives to find the derivative
of the function.
a. 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
b. 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝒙+𝟏
c. 𝒉(𝒙) = (
𝒙+𝟐
) (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓)
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
II. Find of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙.
𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
III. Find of 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙.
𝒅𝒙𝟐
 2.4 The Chain Rule

If y = f (u) is a differentiable function of u and u = g ( x ) is a differentiable function of x,

dy dy du
then y = f ( g ( x )) is a differentiable function of x and =  or equivalently,
dx du dx

d
 f ( g ( x )) = f ' ( g ( x ))  g' ( x ) .
dx

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions using Chain Rule

a. If f (x) = sin u , then f ' (x) = cosu du .

b. If f (x ) = cosu , then f ' (x) = − sin u du .

c. If f (x ) = tan u , then f ' (x ) = sec 2 u du

()
d. If f (x ) = cot u , then f ' x = − csc u du .
2

e. If f (x ) = sec u , then f ' (x ) = sec u tan u du .

f. If f (x ) = cscu , then f ' (x ) = − cscu cot u du .

Example: Find the derivative of the function using the basic differentiation rules.

1. y = (4 x − 1)3
Solution:

y = (4 x − 1)
3

Let

u = 4x − 1
du = 4
y = u3
y ' = (3u 2 )(du )
y ' = (3u 2 )(4)
y = (12u 2 )
y ' = 12(4 x − 1) y ' = 12(16 x 2 − 8 x + 1)  y ' = 192 x 2 − 96 x + 1
2
or
2. f (x ) = sec x 2( )
Solution:
f (x ) = sec x 2 ( )
Let

u = x2 f (u ) = sec u
du = 2 x f ' (u ) = sec u tan u du
f (x ) = (sec x 2 tan x 2 )(2 x )
'

f ' ( x ) = 2 x sec x 2 tan x 2

3
 3x2 
3. h( x ) =  
 2x + 3 
 
Solution:
3
 3x 2 
h(x ) =  
 2x + 3 
Let

3x 2
u=
2x + 3

du =
6 x(2 x + 3) − 2 3 x 2
=
( )
12 x 2 + 18 x − 6 x 2 6 x 2 + 18 x
=
(2 x + 3)2 (2 x + 3)2 (2 x + 3)2
h(u ) = u 3
h ' (u ) = 3u 2 du
2
 3 x 2   6 x 2 + 18 x 
h ( x ) = 3
'
  2 
 2 x + 3   (2 x + 3) 
 9 x 4   6 x 2 + 18 x 
= 3 
2  2 
 (2 x + 3)   (2 x + 3) 
 27 x 4   6 x 2 + 18 x 
=  
2  2 
 (2 x + 3)   (2 x + 3) 
162 x 6 + 486 x 5
h (x ) =
'

(2 x + 3)4
 4. g( x ) = sin 3 ( x + 1)
Solution:

g (x ) = sin 3 (x + 1) = sin (x + 1)

3

Let
u1 = sin u 2 u2 = x + 1
du1 = cos u 2 du 2 = 1
g ( x ) = (u1 )
3

g ( x ) = 3(u1 ) (du1 )(du 2 )

2

g ( x ) = 3(sin u 2 ) (cos u 2 )(1)

2

g ( x ) = 3sin (x + 1) cos( x + 1)

2

g ( x ) = 3 sin 2 ( x + 1) cos( x + 1)

Try this!

1. g( x ) = sec2 x
x 2 ( x − 2 )4
2. f (x) =
2
3. h( x ) = 3 cos 2 (6 x + 1)
 Activity 2.4
The Chain Rule
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Find the derivative of the function using the basic differentiation rules.
a. s(t ) = t 2 + 6t − 2
y = cos(1 − 2 x )
2
b.
2
 1 
f (x ) =  
c.  x −3
d. y = sin (tan 2 x )
 2.5 Implicit Differentiation

Suppose that a function, say f, is defined by the equation y = 2x 2 − 1 . We can see that the given
equation is expressed as y in terms of x. In this case, the function is being defined explicitly as a
function of x. However, not all relations can be defined in such a manner. For example, the equation

x 2 + y 2 = 4 defines two functions of x, namely y = f 1 ( x ) = 4 − x 2 and y = f 2 ( x ) = − 4 − x 2

such that f1 and f2 satisfy x 2 + y 2 = 4 . In this case, we say that function f1 (or function f2) is defined
implicitly by the equation x2 + y2 = 4 .
The given example above introduces the formal definition of implicit differentiation.

DEFINITION: Implicit differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of a function that is
defined implicitly.

We shall now illustrate how this process is applied.

Suppose that y is differentiable function of the variable x. Find D x y or y' .

5 x 3 y − 7 xy 2 = 3 + 7 y
Solution:

Step 1: Differentiate both members/sides of the equation. Thus,

( )
Dx 5 x 3 y − 7 xy 2 = Dx (3 + 7 y )

D (5 x y ) − D (7 xy ) = D (3) + D (7 y )
x
3
x
2
x x

5 D (x y ) − 7 D (xy ) = 0 + 7 D y
x
3
x
2
x

5(x y' + y  3 x ) − 7 x(2 yy' ) + y (1) = 0 + 7 y'

3 2 2

5 x 3 y' + 15 x 2 y − 14 xyy' − 7 y 2 = 7 y'

Step 2: Simplify the resulting equation and express it as y’ in terms of x and y.

(5x 3
)
− 14 xy − 7 y' = 7 y 2 − 15 x 2 y
7 y 2 − 15 x 2 y
y' =
5 x 3 − 14 xy − 7
 d
Example: Suppose that y is differentiable function of the variable x. Find dx or y' by
implicit differentiation.

1. (2x + 3)4 = 3 y 4 2. x 4 + x3 y + y 4 = 3
Solution: Solution:

(2 x + 3)4 = 3 y 4
x4 + x3 y + y 4= 3
d
  ( )
(2 x + 3)4 = d 3 y 4
dx dx
3 dx

x + x y + y 4 = 3
d 4 3 d
dx

4(2 x + 3) (2) = 12 y
3 dy
 3  dy  2 
( ) ( )
3
4 x +  x   + ( y ) 3x  + 4 y
dx dy
3
=0
  dx  
3
dx
8(2 x + 3) = 12 y
3 dy
dx dy
3
dy
3 4x + x3 3
+ 3x 2 y + 4 y =0
= 8(2 x + 3)
dy 3 dx dx
12 y
dx 3
3 dy dy
1  x + 4y = −4 x 3 − 3x 2 y
3 1
3

12 y
dy
= 8(2 x + 3 )  3
dx dx
12 y 3   12 y
( )
dx dy
x3 + 4 y3 = −4 x 3 − 3x 2 y
dy 8(2 x + 3)
3
dx
=
dx 12 y 3 1  3
x + (
4 y 3 dy
) = −4 x 3
− 3 x 2 
y
1
dy 2(2 x + 3)
3 x 3 + 4 y 3  dx  x 3 + 4 y 3
=
dx 3y3 dy − 4 x 3 − 3x 2 y
= 3
dx x + 4y3
  2 
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of x2 + 4 y2 = 4 at the point  2 ,− .
 2 
 
Solution:
 2
x2 + 4y2 = 4 when  2 ,− 
 2 

d
(
x2 + 4y2 = )
d
(4) dy
=−
2
dx dx dx  2
4 − 

 2 
dy 2
2x + 8 y =0 =
dx 2 2
dy dy 1
8y = −2 x =
dx dx 2
1  dy  1
8 y = −2 x 
8y  dx  8y
dy 2x
=−
dx 8y
dy x
=−
dx 4y

𝑑2𝑦
3. Find the of the function 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 100 using implicit differentiation.
𝑑𝑥 2
Solution:

(− 1)( y ) −  dy (− x )
 dx 
2
d y
x 2 + y 2 = 100 =
dx 2 ( y )2
 x
− y + ( x ) − 
d
(x 2 + y 2 ) = dx
d
(100 ) =  y
dx y2
 x2 
− y −  
2x + 2 y
dy
=0 =  y 
dx y2
− y2 − x2
dy y
2y = −2 x =
dx y2
1  dy  1  − y2 − x2  1 
2y = −2 x  =   2 
2y  dx  2y  y  y 
dy 2x − y2 − x2
=− =
dx 2y y3
dy x y2 + x2
=− =−
dx y y3
d2y 100
2
=− 3
dx y
 d
Try this! Suppose that y is differentiable function of the variable x. Find dx or y' by
implicit differentiation.

1. x+ y =4
x+ 2y
2. x2 =
x− 2y
3. cos( x + y ) = y sin x
 Activity 2.5
Implicit Differentiation
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

d
I. Suppose that y is differentiable function of the variable x. Find dx or y' by implicit
differentiation.

a. (
3 x2 + y2 )
2
= 100 xy
b. y = sin xy
d2y 2x
II. Given x 3 + y 3 = 1 , show that 2 = − 5 .
dx y
d2y
III. Given x 2 + y 2 = 25 , find 2
. Evaluate the first and the second derivatives at the point (− 3 ,4 )
dx
..
 2.6 Indeterminate Forms and L’hopital’s Rule

THEOREM: L’HOPITAL’S RULE

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions that are differentiable on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) containing 𝑐
itself. Assume that 𝑔′(𝑥 ) ≠ 0 for all x in (𝑎, 𝑏), except possibly at 𝑐 itself. If the limit of 𝑓 (𝑥 )⁄𝑔(𝑥 )
as x approaches 𝑐 produces the indeterminate form 0⁄0, then

f (x ) f ' (x )
lim = lim
x →c g ( x ) x →c g ' ( x )
Provided the limit on the right exist (or is infinite). This result also applies if the limit of
𝑓(𝑥 )⁄𝑔(𝑥 ) as x approaches 𝑐 produces any one of the indeterminate forms ∞⁄∞, −∞⁄∞, ∞⁄−∞,
or −∞⁄−∞

Example 1. Indeterminate for 𝟎/𝟎. Example2. Indeterminate for ∞/∞.

e −1 2x
ln x
lim lim
Evaluate x→0 x . Evaluate x→0 x .

Solution: Solution:

e −1
d 2x

e −1 
ln x
2x
dx d
lim = lim ln x
x dx
x →0 x →0 d
x lim = lim
x
x → x x → d
dx
2e 2 x dx
= lim 1
x →0 1

= lim 2e 2 x
x →0
( ) = lim x
x → 1

= 2e 2 ( 0 ) 1
= lim  
= 2(1)  
x → x

=2 =0
Example 1. Indeterminate for 𝟏∞ .
x
 1
lim 1 + 
Evaluate
x →
 x .

Solution:
 1 
 − x2 
 
x 1 + 1 
 1  
y = lim 1 +  = lim  x 
x →
 x x →
− 2 
1
 x 
 
 
  
 1  1 
− 2  
 x  1 +  
1
  1 x    x 
ln  y  = ln lim 1 +   = lim  
 x→ x   x →
 − 2
1

 x 
 
 
 
 
  1   1 
= x ln lim 1 +  = lim  
 x → x   x →
1 + 1
 x 
  1  1
= lim  x ln 1 +  =
x →
  x  1+ 0
  1 
 ln 1 + x  
= lim    =1
x →  1 
 x 
 
 d   1  
 ln 1 +  
dx  x  
= lim  
x →  d 1 
 x 
 dx   
Example2. Indeterminate for 𝟎𝟎 .
lim (sin x )
x

Evaluate x →0 x .
Solution:
 
 cot x 
y = limx (sin x ) = limx 
x

x →0 x →0
− 1 
 x 2 
 1 

ln  y  = ln limx (sin x )
x →0
x
 
= limx  tan x 
x →0
− 1 


 x 2 


= x ln limx (sin x )
x →0
 = limx 
 1  x 2 
x →0  tan x 

 − 
 1 
 − x2 
= limx x ln (sin x ) = limx  
x →0

x →0 tan x


 ln (sin x )
 d
  2 
 dx − x 
= limx   = limx  
x →0
 1  x →0
 d tan x
 x   dx 
d 
 ln (sin x )
 − 2x 
= limx  dx  = limx  2 
x →0  d 1  x →0  sec x 
 dx  x  
 
 cos x 
 
= limx  sin x  =0
x →0
− 1 
 x 2 
 2.7 Related Rates

GUIDELINES FOR SOLVING RELATED-RATE PROBLEMS

1. Identify all given quantities and quantities to be determined. Make a sketch and
label the quantities.
2. Write an equation involving the variables whose rates of change either are given
or are to be determined.
3. Using the Chain Rule, implicitly differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to time t.
4. After completing step 3, substitute into the resulting equating all known values for
the variables and their rates of change. Then solve for the required rate of change.

Examples:
1. A pebble is dropped into a calm pond, causing ripples in the form of concentric
circles. The radius r of the outer ripple is increasing at a constant rate of 1 foot
per second. When the radius is 4 feet, at what rate is the total area A of the
disturbed water changing?

Solution:
Given
r = 4 ft
dr
= 1 ft s
dt
dA
=?
dt

A = r 2
d
dt dt
 
( A) = d r 2
dA dr
= 2r
dt dt
= 2 (4 )(1)
dA
dt
dA
= 8 ft 2 s  25.133 ft 2 s
dt
 2. A conical tank is 10 feet across the top and 12 feet deep. If water is flowing into
the tank at a rate of 10 cubic feet per minute, at what rate of change of the depth
of the water when the water is 8 feet deep.
Solution:
Given
d t = 10 ft
rt = 5 ft
rw
= t
r d
V  = d  25 h 3 
hw ht dt dt  432 
ht = 12 ft 25  2 dh 
 rw rt  dV
=   3h 
hw = 8 ft h w =  w
h dt 432  dt 
 w
h ht 
dV dV 25 dh
= 10 ft min
3
r = h 2
dt rw = t hw dt 144 dt
ht
dhw
=? 1  dV 25 dh  1
5  = h 2 
rw = hw
h 2  dt 144 dt  25
dt 25
12 h 2
144 144
dV
1 2
V = r h dt =
dh
3 25
2 h 2 dt
1 5  144
V =   h h
3 12  dV
1  25 2  dh
= dt
10 ft V =  h h 25
3 144  dt
h 2
25 144
V = h 3 dh 10
432 =
 (8)2
dt 25
144
12 ft dh
 0.2865 ft min
8 ft dt

10 ft
Use Properties of Similar
Figure

12 ft
8 ft
3. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at a rate of 4.5 cubic feet per
minute. Find the rate of change of the radius when the radius is 2 feet.
Solution:
Given
r = 2 ft 4
V = r 3
dV 3
= 4.5 ft 3 min
dt d
(V ) = d  4 r 3 
dr
=? dt dt  3 
dt dV 4  2 dr 
=   3r 
dt 3  dt 
dV dr
= 4r 2
dt dt
1  dV dr  1
2 
= 4r 2 
4r  dt dt  4r 2
dV
dt = dr
4r 2 dt
dV
dr
= dt
dt 4r 2
dr 4.5
=
dt 4 (2 )2
dr
 0.0895 ft min
dt
4. A ladder 25 feet long is leaning against the wall of a house. The ladder is pulled
away from the wall at a rate of 2 feet per second. How fast is the top of the
ladder moving down the wall when its base is 7 feet?
Solution:
Given
x2 + y2 = r 2
x2 + y2 = r 2
r = 25 ft
x 2 + y 2 = (25 )
2

x = 7 ft y2 = r 2 − x2
x 2 + y 2 = 625
dx y = r −x
2 2 2

dt
= 2 ft s
y = r 2 − x2
d 2
dt
 
x + y 2 = (625 )
d
dt
y=?
dy y= (25)2 − (7 )2 d 2
 
x + y 2 = (625 )
d
=? dt dt
dt y = 625 − 49 dx dy
y = 24 2x + 2y =0
dt dt
dy dx
2y = −2 x
dt dt
1  dy dx  1
 2y = −2 x 
2 y  dt dt  2 y
dx
− 2x
dy dt
=
dt 2y
dx
x
dy
= − dt
dt y
dy
=−
(7 )(2)
7 ft
dt (24 )
dy
 −0.58 ft s
dt
 Activity 2.6
Related Rates
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

1. All edges of a cube are expanding at a rate of 6 centimeters per second. How fast
is the surface area changing when each edge is 2 centimeters?
2. A ladder 25 feet long is leaning against the wall of a house. The ladder is pulled
away from the wall at a rate of 2 feet per second. How fast is the top of the ladder
moving down the wall when its base is 15 feet?
3. Water is flowing at the rate of 5 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 into a tank in the form of an inverted cone
having an altitude of 24 𝑚 and radius of 12 𝑚. How fast is the water level rising
𝟏
when the water is 8 𝑚 deep? (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 ∶ 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉)
𝟑
 2.8 Linear Approximation

Definition of Linear Approximation

Is a method of estimating the value of a function, 𝑓(𝑥), near a point, 𝑥 = 𝑎,
using the following formula:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
The formula we’re looking at is known as the linearization of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎, but this
formula is identical to the equation of the tangent line to 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

3
Example 1: Determine the linear approximation for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥 = 8. Use the linear approximate
3 3
the value of √8.05 and √25.
Solution:
1
f (x ) = x 3
 f (x ) = x 3

2
−
f ' (x ) =
1 3
x
3
1
=
33 x 2
y = f (a ) + f ' (a )(x − a )
 1 
= 8 +
3  ( x − 8)
 33 (8)2 
 
= 2+
1
( x − 8)
3(4)
x −8
= 2+
12
24 + x − 8
=
12
x + 16
y=
12

Comparison:

8.05 + 16
y= = 2.004166667 3
8.05 = 2.00415802
12

25 + 16
y= = 3.41666667 3
25 = 2.92401774
12
Example 2: Determine the linear approximation for sin 𝜃 at 𝜃 = 0.
Solution:
f ( x ) = sin 
f ' ( x ) = cos
y = f (a ) + f ' (a )( x − a )
y = sin (0) + cos(0 )( − 0 )
y = 0 + (1)( )
y =
as long as 𝜃 stays small we can say that sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.

4.2 Rectilinear Motion

Rectilinear motion is an application in physics: the motion of a particle on a line.

Definition of Instantaneous Velocity

If 𝑓 is a function given by the equation
𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)
and a particle is moving along a line such that 𝑠 is the number of units in the directed distance
of the particle from a fixed point on the line at 𝑡 units of time, then the instantaneous velocity
of the particle at 𝑡 units of time is 𝑣 units of the velocity, where
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) ⟺ 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
if it exist.

Example 1: A particle is moving along a horizontal line according to the equation

𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 36𝑡 − 24, 𝑡≥0
Determine the intervals of time when the particle is moving to the right and when it is
moving to the left. Also determine the instant when the particle reverse its direction.
Solution:
ds
v= = 3t 2 − 24t + 36
dt
(
= 3 t 2 − 8t + 12 )
= 3(t − 2)(t − 6)
t−2=0 or t −6=0
t=2 t=6
The instantaneous velocity is zero when 𝑡 = 2 and 𝑡 = 6. The particle is, therefore, at rest these
two times.

Intervals 𝑡−2 𝑡−6 Conclusion

0≤𝑡<2 − − 𝑣 is positive; particle is moving to the right.
𝑡=2 0 − 𝑣 is zero; particle is at rest.
2<𝑡<6 + − 𝑣 is negative; particle is moving to the left.
𝑡=6 + 0 𝑣 is zero; particle is at rest.
6<𝑡 + + 𝑣 is positive; particle is moving to the right.
 t=7 t=8

t=5 t=4 t=3

t=6

t=0 t=2

Example 2: A particle is moving on a line is at position 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 9𝑡 2 + 24𝑡 − 5 at time 𝑡 where 𝑡

is in seconds. At which time 𝑡 (if any) does the particle change its direction?
Solution:
v(t ) = x ' (t )
= 3t 2 − 18t + 24
(
= 3 t 2 − 6t + 8 )
= 3(t − 2)(t − 4)
t−2=0 or t−4=0
t=2 t=4
The instantaneous velocity is zero when 𝑡 = 2 and 𝑡 = 4. The particle is, therefore, at rest these
two times.

Intervals 𝑡−2 𝑡−4 Conclusion

−∞ ≤ 𝑡 < 2 − − 𝑣 is positive; particle is moving to the right.
𝑡=2 0 − 𝑣 is zero; particle is at rest.
2<𝑡<4 + − 𝑣 is negative; particle is moving to the left.
𝑡=4 + 0 𝑣 is zero; particle is at rest.
4<𝑡 + + 𝑣 is positive; particle is moving to the right.

2.9
t=5 t=6

t=3
t=4
t=2
 Chapter 3
Logarithmic, Exponential, and Other Transcendental Functions
3.1 The Logarithmic Function: Differentiation
3.1.1 Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic function of x to the base a is the function defined by the equation
, where , and .

Properties of Logarithms:

1. (Logarithm of a Product)

2. (Logarithm of a Quotient)

3. , where k is any real number (Logarithm of a Power)

Notes: a. If the base , then is called the common logarithm.

b. If the base , then is called the natural logarithm, where

.

Derivative of the Logarithmic Function:

Let be differentiable function of .

1. , where and .

Example: Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions.

1. (
g (x) = log 3 x 2 + 1 )
Solution:
g (x) = log 3 x 2 + 1 ( )
Let
a = 3, u = x2 +1
du = 2 x
g (u ) = log a u

g ' (u ) =
1
du
u ln a
= 2
1
(2 x )
(
x + 1 ln (3) )
g ' (x ) = 2
2x
(
x + 1 ln (3) )
 2. f (x ) = log 10 cos x
Solution:
f (x ) = log 10 cos x
Let
a = 10, u = cos x
du = − sin x
f (u ) = log a u

f ' (u ) =
1
du
u ln a
=
1
(− sin x )
(cos x ) ln (10 )
− sin x
=
(cos x ) ln (10 )
f ' (x ) = −
tan x
ln (10 )

Try this! Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions.

1. y = log 4 3 2 x + 1
x2 −1
f (x ) = log 10
2. x

3.1.2 Natural Logarithmic Functions

Properties of Natural Logarithms:

If x and y are positive numbers and k is rational, then the following properties are true.

1. ln (1) = 0

2. ln (xy ) = ln x + ln y

3.
ln x k = k ln x , where k is any real number

x
ln   = ln x − ln y
4.  
y

Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function:

Let loge x = ln x be differentiable function of e2.7182 18. .

d
(ln x) = 1 , x0
1. dx x
'
d
(ln u ) = 1 du = u , u0
2. dx u dx u
Example: Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions.

1. F (t ) = ln 4t + 5
Solution:
F (t ) = ln 4t + 5 , Let u = 4t + 5

F (t ) = ln (4t + 5) ,
1
2 du = 4

F (t ) = ln (4t + 5), F (u ) =ln (u )

1 1
2 2
1  du 
F ' (u ) =  
2 u 
1 4 
=  
2  4t + 5 

F ' (t ) =
2
4t + 5

2. y = ln
(
x x2 + 4 )
2x − 1
Solution:

y = ln
(
x x2 + 4 )
2x − 1
( )
y = ln x x 2 + 4 − ln 2 x − 1

( )
y = ln x + ln x 2 + 4 − ln (2 x − 1) 2
1

( )
y = ln x + ln x 2 + 4 − ln (2 x − 1)
1
2
let
u1 = x u2 = x 2 + 4 u3 = 2 x − 1
du1 = x du2 = x + 4 2
du3 = 2 x − 1
1
y = ln u1 + ln u 2 − ln u 3
2
du du 1  du 
y ' = 1 + 2 −  3 
u1 u 2 2  u3 
1 2x 1 2 
=+ −  
x x + 4 2  2x − 1 
2

1 2x 1
y' = + −
x x + 4 2x − 1
2

Try this! Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions.

(
1. y = ln x x 2 − 1 )
 2x 
f (x ) = ln  
2.  x + 3
 Activity 3.1
Logarithmic Functions: Differentiation
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions.

(
1. h(t ) = log 2 t 2 + 7 )
3

x2
y = log 2
2. x −1
3. (
g (x ) = ln ln x 2 )
4. f (x ) = ln 1 + sin 2 x
 3.2 Differentiation Exponential Functions: Differentiation
3.2.1 Exponential Functions

The exponential function in x is the function defined by the equation

f (x) = a x , where x is any
real number, f (x) = loga x and x  0 .

Note: If the base is a = 10 , then

f (x) = e x is called the natural exponential function.

Derivatives of the Exponential Function:

 
Dx a u = a u ln a  Dx u

Example: Find the derivative of the following exponential functions.

1. h( x ) = 23x

Solution:
h( x ) = 2 3 x
Let
a = 2, u = 3x
du = 3
h(u ) = a u
h ' (u ) = a u (ln a )(du )
h ' (u ) = 2 3 x (ln 2 )(3)
h ' (u ) = 3(ln 2 ) 2 3 x ( )
2. F (x ) = 5 cos x −sin x
Solution:
F (x ) = 5 cos x −sin x
Let
a = 5, u = cos x − sin x
du = − sin x − cos x
F (u ) = a u
F ' (u ) = a u (ln a )(du )
F ' (u ) = 5 cos x −sin x (ln 5)(− sin x − cos x )
( ) (
F ' (x ) = − sin x(ln 5) 5 cos x −sin x − cos x(ln 5) 5 cos x −sin x )
 Try this! Find the derivative of the following exponential functions.

1. ( )
y = x 9 −2 x
2. f (t ) = t 2 2 t

3.2.2 Natural Exponential Functions

The inverse function of the natural logarithmic function is called the natural
exponential function and is denoted by

That is,

if and only if

Derivatives of the Natural Exponential Function:

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any real numbers.

1.

2.

Derivatives of the Natural Exponential Function:

Let be differentiable function of .

1.

2.
Example: Find the derivative of the following exponential functions.

1. f (x) = e 2 x −5

Solution:
f ( x ) = e 2 x −5
Let
u = 2x − 5
du = 2
f (u ) = e u
f ' (u ) = e u du
f ' (x ) = e 2 x −5 (2)
f ' (x ) = 2e 2 x −5

2
2. y = 3 xe x
Solution:
2
y = 3 xe x
Let
u = x2
du = 2 x
f (u ) = 3 xe u
(
f ' (u ) = (3 x ) e u du + e u (3)) ( )
(
f ' ( x ) = (3 x ) e x (2 x ) + e x
2
) ( )(3)
2

f ' ( x ) = 6 x 2 e x + 3e x
2 2

Try this! Find the derivative of the following exponential functions.

1. y = ln e ( )
x 2

1 + e x 
f ( x ) = ln  
1 − e
x
2. 
 Activity 3.2
Exponential Functions: Differentiation
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

I. Find the derivative of the following exponential functions.

1. y = 7 2 x −1
32t
h(t ) =
2. t
ex +1
g (x ) = x
3. e −1
e 2x
f (x ) = 2 x
4. e +1
 3.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Differentiation

Definition of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function Domain Range

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• If and , then

and

• If , then

and

• If and or , then

and
Similarly properties hold for the other inverse trigonometric functions.

Example1: (Evaluate each Function.)

 1
arcsin  − 
1.  2 2. arccos(0) 3. arctan ( 3)
Solution: Solution: Solution:
 1
arcsin −  = −30 0
 2 arccos(0 ) = 90 0 arctan ( 3 ) = 60 0
Example 2: (Solve the Equation for x)


arctan(2 x − 3) = arcsin (3x −  ) =
1
1. 4 2. arctan(2 x − 5) = −1 3. 2

Solution: Solution: Solution:


arctan (2 x − 3) = arcsin (3 x −  ) =
1
4 arctan (2 x − 5) = −1 2
  tan arctan (2 x − 5) = tan (− 1) 1
tan arctan (2 x − 3) = tan   sin arcsin (3 x −  ) = sin  
4 2 x − 5 = tan (− 1) 2
 
2 x − 3 = tan   2 x = tan (− 1) + 5 1
3 x −  = sin  
4 2
2 x = tan (− 1) + 5 1
  2 1
2 x = tan   + 3 3 x = sin   + 
4 tan (− 1) + 5 2
x=
   1 2  1 1
2 x = tan  4  + 3 2 x  2.4913 3 x = sin  2  +   3
       
  1
tan   + 3 sin   + 
x= 4 x= 2
2 3
x  1.5069 x  1.0501

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Let u be a differentiable function of x.
d
(arcsin u ) = du 2
•
dx 1− u
d
(arccosu ) = − du 2
•
dx 1− u
d
(arctan u ) = du 2
• dx 1+ u
d
(arc cot u ) = − du 2
• dx 1+ u
d
(arc sec u ) = du2
dx u u −1
•
d
(arc cscu ) = − du2
dx u u −1
•
Example 3: (Find the derivative of the following functions.)
 1. y = arcsin(2 x )
Solution:
Let
F = x arcsin x + 1 − x 2
u = 2x 3.
Solution:
du = 2
y = arcsin u
( )
1
F = x arcsin x + 1 − x = x arcsin x + 1 − x
2 2 2

du
y' =  1 
( ) (− 2 x )
1
F ' = (x )  + (arcsin x )(1) + 1 1 − x 2
−
1− u2 2 
2

2  1− x  2
y' =
( )
1
1 − (2 x )
x −
F' = + arcsin x − x 1 − x 2 2
2

1− x2
2
y' = x x
1 − 4x 2 F' = + arcsin x −
( )
1
1− x2 1− x2 2
x x
2. f (t ) = sin (arccost ) F' = + arcsin x −
Solution: 1− x 2
1− x2
Let F ' = arcsin x
u = arccost
1
du = −
1− t2
f (u ) = sin u
f ' (u ) = cos u du
 
f ' (t ) = cos(arccost ) −
1


 1− t2 
f ' (t ) = −
t
1− t2
Try this!
1. y = arccos ( x)
2. f (x) = arcsin x + arccos x
3. F = arc sec e x ( )

3.1 Hyperbolic Functions

Definition of Hyperbolic Function

e x − e−x 1
sinh x = coth x = ,x  0
2 tanh x

e x + e−x 1
cosh x = sec h x =
2 cosh x
sinh x 1
tanh x = csc h x =
cosh x sinh x

Hyperbolic Identities

cosh2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 sinh (x − y ) = sinh x cosh y − cosh x sinh y

tanh 2 x − sec h 2 x = 1 cosh(x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

coth 2 x − csc h 2 x = 1 cosh(x − y ) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y

− 1 + cosh 2 x 1 + cosh 2 x
sinh 2 x = cosh2 x =
2 2
sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x cosh 2 x = cosh2 x + sinh 2 x

sinh (x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Let u be a differentiable function of x.
d
dx
(sinh u ) = (coshu )du d
dx
(
(coth u ) = − csch 2 u du )
d
(coshu ) = (sinh u )du d
(sec hu) = −(sec hu tanh u )du
dx dx
d
dx
(
(tanh u ) = sec h 2 u du ) d
dx
(csc hu) = −(csc hu coth u )du
Example: (Find the derivative of the following functions.)
 1. y = sinh 3x 2.
f (x) = ln (sinh x)
Solution: Solution:
Let Let

u = sinh x
u = 3x
du = cosh x
du = 3
y = ln u
y = sinh u
du
y ' = cosh u du y' =
u
y ' = (cosh 3 x )(3) cosh x
y' =
y ' = 3 cosh 3 x sinh x
y = coth x
'

3.
g (x) = x cosh3x − sinh 3x
Solution:

Let

u = 3x
du = 3
g (u ) = x coshu − sinh u
g ' (u ) = (x )(sinh u du ) + (coshu )(1) − coshu du
g ' (x ) = (x )(sinh 3x )(3) + (cosh3x )(1) − (cosh3x )(3)
g ' (x ) = 3x sinh 3x + cosh3x − 3 cosh3x
g ' (x ) = 3x sinh 3x − 2 cosh3x

Try this! (Find the derivative of the following functions.)

1.
( )
y = sec h 5x 2

2.
f (x ) = sec h 2 3x
tanh 2 (4 x − 3)
g (x ) =
3. 2
 Chapter 4
Applications of Derivatives
4.1 Extrema on an Interval

Definition of Extrema
Let 𝑓 be defined on an interval 𝐼 containing 𝑐.
1. f (c ) is the minimum of 𝒇 on 𝑰 if f (c )  f (x ) for all 𝑥 in 𝐼.
2. f (c ) is the maximum of 𝒇 on 𝑰 if f (c )  f (x ) for all 𝑥 in 𝐼.
The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are the extreme values,
or extrema (the singular form of extrema is extremum), of the function on the
interval. The minimum and maximum of a function on the interval are also called
the absolute minimum and absolute maximum, or the global minimum and
global maximum, on the interval.

Definition of Relative Extrema

1. If there is an open interval containing 𝑐 on which f (c ) is a maximum, then
f (c )
is called a relative maximum of f , or you can say that f has a relative
maximum at (c, f (c )) .
2. If there is an open interval containing 𝑐 on which f (c ) is a minimum, then
f (c )
is called a relative minimum of f , or you can say that f has a relative
minimum at (c, f (c )) .
The plural of relative maximum is relative maxima, and the plural of relative
minimum is relative minima. Relative maximum and relative minimum are
sometimes called local maximum and local minimum, respectively.

minimum is relative minima. Relative maximum and relative minimum are

sometimes called local maximum and local minimum, respectively.
Definition of a Critical Number
f ′ (𝑐)
Let be defined at 𝑐. If 𝑓 = 0 or if 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑐, then 𝑐 is a critical
number of 𝑓.

Relative Extrema Occur only at Critical Numbers

If f has a relative minimum or relative maximum at x = c , then c is a critical
number of f .
Examples:
1. Find the extrema of f (x) = 3x 4 − 4x 3 on the interval − 1,2 .
Solution:
f (x ) = 3x 4 − 4 x 3
f ' (x ) = 12 x 3 − 12 x 2 set f ' (x ) = 0
12 x 3 − 12 x 2 = 0
12 x 2 (x − 1) = 0
12 x 2 = 0 or x −1 = 0
1
12
(
12 x 2 = 0
1
12
) or x =1

x =0
2

x2 =  0
x=0
The critical numbers are 0 and 1.

Left Endpoint Critical Number Critical Number Right Endpoint

f (− 1) = 7 f (0) = 0 f (1) = −1 f (2) = 16
Minimum Maximum

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Relative

Maximum

Relative

Minimum
 2. Find the extrema of f (x ) = 2 sin x − cos 2 x on the interval 0,2  .
Solution
f ( x ) = 2 sin x − cos 2 x
f ' ( x ) = 2 cos x + 2 sin 2 x set f ' (x ) = 0
2 cos x + 2 sin 2 x = 0
2 cos x + 2(2 sin x cos x ) = 0
2 cos x + 4 sin x cos x = 0
2 cos x(1 + 2 sin x ) = 0
2 cos x = 0 or 1 + 2 sin x = 0
1
(2 cos x = 0) 2 sin x = −1
2
cos x = 0
1
(2 sin x = −1)
2
1 3 1
x = ,  sin x = −
2 2 2
7 11
x = , 
6 6

1 3 7 11
The critical numbers are 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋 and 𝜋.
2 2 6 6
Left Critical Critical Critical Critical Right
Endpoint Number Number Number Number Endpoint
f (0) = −1 1  7  3 3   11  3 f (2 ) = −1
f =3 f =− f    = −1 f =−
2  6  2 2  6  2
Maximum Minimum Minimum

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Relative
Maximum

Relative
Minima
 2
Try this! Find the extrema of f (x ) = 2 x − 3x 3 on the interval − 1,3 .

Rolle’s Theorem
Let 𝑓 be continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the open
interval (𝑎, 𝑏). If
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
Then there is at least one number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0

Example:
Find the two 𝑥-intercepts of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 and show that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 at
some point between the two 𝑥-intercepts.
Solution:
Set f (x ) = 0
x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0
x −1 = 0 or x−2=0
x =1 x=2
so,
f (1) = (1) − 3(1) + 2 f (2) = (2) − 3(2) + 2
2 2

f (1) = 0 f (2) = 0
Since,
f (1) = f (2) = 0 there exist f ' (c ) = 0.
To find 𝑐, you can use the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥)
f ' (x ) = 2 x − 3
set f ' ( x ) = 0,
2x − 3 = 0
2x = 3
1
(2 x = 3)
2
3
x=
2
 Mean Value Theorem
If 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the open
interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then there exist a number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

Example:
4
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − ( ), find all values of 𝑐 in the open interval (1, 4) such that
𝑥
𝑓(4) − 𝑓(1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
4−1
Solution:
4 4
f (4) = 5 −   = 4 and f (4) = 5 −   = 1
4 1
f (4) − f (1) 4 − 1
f ' (c ) = =
4 −1 4 −1
f (c ) = 1
'

the derivative of f (x )is

f (x ) = 5 − 4 x −1
f ' (x ) = 0 − (− 4 x − 2 )

f ' (x ) = 2
4
x
sin ce f (x ) = 1,
'

4
=1
x2
4 
x 2  2 = 1
x 
4=x 2

x= 4
x = 2
Thus, the interval (1,4) you can conclude that 𝑐 = 2.
 4.2 Increasing and Decreasing of a Function and the First Derivative Test

Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the first Derivative Test

A function 𝑓 is increasing on an interval if for any two numbers 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in
the interval, 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 implies 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
A function 𝑓 is decreasing on an interval if for any two numbers 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in the
interval, 𝑥1 > 𝑥2 implies 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and
differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
1. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
3. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is constant on [𝑎, 𝑏].

Example:

3
Find the open intervals on which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 is increasing or decreasing.
2
Solution
f (x ) = x 3 −
3 2
x
2
f ' (x ) = 3x 2 − 3x set f ' (x ) = 0
3x 2 − 3x = 0
3x( x − 1) = 0
3x = 0 or x −1 = 0
1
(3x = 0) x =1
3
x=0

The critical numbers are 0 and 1.

Interval −  x  0 0  x 1 1 x  
Test Value x = −1 x=
1 x=2
2

Sign of f (x ) f (− 1) = 6  0 f (2) = 6  0
' ' ' '
1 3
f  =− 0
2 4
Conclusion Increasing Decreasing Increasing
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Relative
Maximum

Relative
Minimum

Guidelines for Finding Intervals on which a function is Increasing or Decreasing

Let 𝑓 be a continuous on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏). To find the open intervals on which 𝑓
is increasing or decreasing, use the following steps.
1. Locate the critical numbers of 𝑓 in (𝑎, 𝑏), and use these numbers to determine
test intervals.
2. Determine the sign of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at one test value in each of the intervals.
3. Use test for increasing or decreasing function to determine whether 𝑓 is
increasing or decreasing on each interval.
These guidelines are also valid if the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) is replaced by an interval
of the form (−∞, 𝑏), (𝑎, ∞), or (−∞, ∞)

The First Derivative Test

Let 𝑐 be a critical number of a function 𝑓 that is continuous on an open
interval 𝐼 containing 𝑐. If 𝑓 is differentiable on the interval, except possibly at 𝑐, then
𝑓(𝑐) can be classified as follows.
1. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes from negative to positive at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has a relative minimum
at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).
2. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes from positive to negative at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has a relative
maximum at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).
3. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) positive on both sides of c or negative on both sides of 𝑐, then 𝑓(𝑐) is
neither relative minimum nor relative maximum.
Examples:
1
1. Find the relative extrema of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 in the interval
2
(0, 2𝜋).
Solution:
f (x ) =
1
x − sin x
2
f ' (x ) = − cos x f ' (x ) = 0
1
set
2
1
− cos x = 0
2
1
= cos x
2
1
cos x =
2

1 5
x = , 
3 3
1 5
The critical numbers are 𝜋 and 𝜋.
3 3

Interval 1 1 5 5
0 x   x    x  2
3 3 3 3
Test Value 1 7
x=  x= 
4 x = 4
' '
Sign of 1  7 
f    = −0.2071  0 f    = −0.2071  0
f (x ) f ( ) =  0
' ' 3
4  4 
2
Conclusion Decreasing Increasing Decreasing

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Relative
Maximum

Relative
Minimum
 2
2. Find the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 4)3 .
Solution:
( )
2
f (x ) = x 2 − 4 3

( ) (2 x )
1
f '
(x ) = 2 2
x −4
−
3
3
f '
(x ) = 4x
( )
1
3 x2 − 4 3

set f '
(x ) = 0 f '
(x ) does not exist

( )
1
4x = 0 3 x2 − 4 3 =0
1 1
( )
1
1
(4 x = 0) 1 3 x2 − 4 = 0
3 
3
4 4 3
3
 2 
( )
1
x=0 −  = (0 )
3
 x 4 3
 
x −4=0
2

x2 = 4
x2 =  4
x = 2
The critical numbers are -2, 0, and 2.

Interval −   x  −2 −2 x 0 0 x2 2 x

Test Value x = −3 x = −1 x =1 x=3

Sign of f (x ) f (− 3) = −2.34  0 f (− 1) = 0.92  0 f (1) = −0.92  0 f (3) = 2.34  0

' ' ' ' '

Conclusion Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Increasing

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Relative
Maximum

Relative
Minima
Try this!
𝑥 4 +1
4.2 Find the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥2
 Activity 4.1
Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.
1. Find the extrema of f (x ) = on the interval − 2,2 .
2x
x +1
2

t2
2. Find the extrema of f (t ) = on the interval − 1,1 .
t +1
2

3. Find the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 1).

𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1
4. Find the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥+1
 4.3 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

Definition of Concavity
Let 𝑓 be differentiable on an open interval 𝐼. The graph of 𝑓 is concave upward
on 𝐼 if 𝑓 ′ is increasing on the interval and concave downward on 𝐼 if 𝑓 ′ is decreasing
on the interval.

Test for Concavity

Let 𝑓 be a function whose second derivative exists on an open interval 𝐼.
1. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝑖, then the graph of 𝑓 is concave upward on 𝐼.
2. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝑖, then the graph of 𝑓 is concave downward on 𝐼.

Examples:
f (x ) =
6
1. Determine the open interval on which the graph of x2 + 3 is concave
upward or downward.
Solution:
f (x ) =
6
x +3
2

Find the first derivative:

f ' (x ) =
(
0 x 2 + 3 − 2 x(6) )
(x 2
+3 )2

− 12 x
f ' (x ) =
(x 2
+3 )
2

Find the second derivative:

f ' ' (x ) =
( )
− 12 x 2 + 3 − 2 x 2 + 3 (2 x )(− 12 x )
2
( )
) (x 2
+3
2 2

(x ) = (x + 3)− 12(x + 3) − 2(2 x )(− 12 x )

2 2
f ''
(x + 3) 2 4

(x ) = (x + 3)− 12(x + 3) − 2(2 x )(− 12 x )

2 2
f ''
(x + 3) 2 4

− 12 x 2 − 36 + 48 x 2
f ' ' (x ) =
(x 2
+3 )3

2
− 36
f ''
(x ) = 36 x2
(x +3 )
3
 2
− 36
f ''
(x ) = 36 x2
(x +3 )
3

set f '
(x ) = 0 f '
(x ) does not exist
36 x 2 − 36 = 0 (x + 3) = 0
2 3

36 x 2 = 36 3
(x + 3) = 2 3 3
0
1
36
(
36 x 2 = 36
1
36
) x2 + 3 = 0

x =1
2
x 2 = −3
x2 =  1 x2 =  − 3
x = 1 x =  3i
The critical numbers are -1 and 1.

Interval −   x  −1 −1  x  1 1 x  

Test Value x = −2 x=0 x=2

Sign of
f ' ' (x ) f ' ' (− 2) = 0.3149  0 f ''
(0) = − 4  0 f ' ' (2) = 0.3149  0
3

Conclusion Concave Upward Concave Downward Concave Upward

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Relative
Maximum

Try this!
x2 +1
f (x ) =
1. Determine the open interval on which the graph of x 2 − 4 is concave
upward or downward.
 Definition of Points of inflection
Let 𝑓 be a function that is contimuous on an open interval and let 𝑐 be a point in
the interval. If the graph of 𝑓 has a tangent line at this point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)), then this point is a
point of inflection of the graph of 𝑓 if the concavity of 𝑓 changes from upward to
downward (or downward to upward) at the point.
If (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) is a point of inflection of the graph of 𝑓, then either 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓 ′′ does
not exist at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Example:
1. Determine the points of inflection and discuss the concavity of the graph of
f (x ) = x 4 − 4x 3 .
Solution:
f (x ) = x 4 − 4x 3
• Find the first derivative:

f ' (x ) = 4 x 3 − 12 x 2
• Find the second derivative:

f ' ' (x ) = 12 x 2 − 24 x set

f ' ' (x ) = 0
12 x 2 − 24 x = 0
12 x(x − 2) = 0
12 x = 0 or x−2=0
1
(12 x = 0) x=2
12
x=0
The critical numbers are 0 and 2.

• Point of Inflection

Use the critical value of the second derivative to find the points of

inflection.
when x = 0 when x = 2
f (0) = (0) − 4(0) f (2) = (2) − 4(2)
4 3 4 3

f (0) = 0 f (2) = −16

 • Concavity of the Graph

Interval −  x  0 0 x2 2 x

Test Value x = −1 x =1 x=3

Sign of
f ' ' (x ) f ' ' (− 1) = 36  0 f ' ' (1) = −12  0 f ' ' (3) = 36  0
Conclusion Concave Upward Concave Downward Concave Upward

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Point
of
Inflections

Relative
Minimum

Second Derivative Test

Let 𝑓 be a function such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 and the second derivative of 𝑓 exist on an
open interval containing 𝑐.
1. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0, then 𝑓 has relative minimum at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).
2. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 0, then 𝑓 has relative maximum at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).
If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) = 0, the test fails. That is, 𝑓 may have a relative maximum, a relative
minimum, or either. In such cases, you can use first derivative test.
Example:

1. Find the relative extrema for

f (x ) = −3x 5 + 5x 3 .
Solution:
f (x ) = −3x 5 + 5x 3
• First Derivative:
f ' (x ) = −15 x 4 + 15 x 2 set
f ' (x ) = 0

− 15 x 4 + 15 x 2 = 0
( )
− 15 x 2 x 2 − 1 = 0
− 15 x 2 = 0 or x2 −1 = 0

−
1
15
(− 15 x 2 = 0 ) x2 = 1

x2 =  0 x2 =  1
x=0 x = 1
The critical number are -1, 0, and 1.
• Second Derivative:
f ' ' (x ) = −60 x 3 + 30 x
• Second Derivative Test:
Use the critical value of the first derivative to find the points
Point (− 1, − 2) (0, 0) (1, 2)

Sign of
f ' ' (x ) f ' ' (− 1) = 30  0 f ' ' (0) = 0 f ' ' (1) = −30  0
Conclusion Relative Minimum Test Fails Relative Maximum

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Relative
Maximum

Point
Relative Of
Minimum Inflection
Try this!

4.3 Find the relative extrema for

f (x ) = x 2 + 3x − 8 .
 Activity 4.2
Concavity and Point of Inflections
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

Find the points of inflection and discuss the concavity of the graph of the
following function. Find also the relative extrema using second derivative test.

1. f (x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 12 x
x2 +1
2. f (x ) =
x 2 −1
 4.4 A Summary of Curve Sketching

Guidelines for analyzing the graph of a function

1. Determine the domain and range of the function
2. Determine the intercepts, asymptotes, and symmetry of the graph
3. Locate the x-values for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) either are zero or do not exist.
Use the results to determine relative extrema and points of inflection.

Examples
(
2 x2 − 9
f (x ) = 2
)
1. Analyze and sketch the graph of x −4 .
Solution:
f (x ) =
(
2 x2 − 9)=
2 x 2 − 18
x −4
2
x2 − 4
• Vertical and Horizontal asymptotes:

o Vertical Asymptote/s:
Equate denominator to 0.
x2 − 4 = 0
(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
x+2=0 or x−2=0
x = −2 x=2

o Horizontal Asymptote/s:
2 x 2 − 18
y = lim 2
x → x − 4

2 x 2 18
2
− 2
y = lim x 2 x
x → x 4
−
x2 x2
2−0
y=
1− 0
y=2
 • First derivative test:

f ' (x ) =
(
(4 x ) x 2 − 4 − 2 x 2 x 2 − 18 ) ( )
x2 − 4
2
( )
4 x 3 − 16 x − 4 x 3 + 36 x
f ' (x ) =
(x 2
−4 ) 2

f ' (x ) =
20 x
(x 2
−4 ) 2

set
f ' (x ) = 0 f ' (x ) does not exist

20 x = 0 (x − 4) = 0
2 2

(20 x = 0) (x − 4) =
1 2 2
0
20
x=0 x2 − 4 = 0
x2 =  4
x = 2
The critical numbers are -2, 0 and 2.

Interval −   x  −2 −2 x 0 0 x2 2 x

Test Value x = −3 x = −1 x =1 x=3

Sign of f (x ) f (− 3) = − f (− 1) = − f (1) = − f (3) =

'
12 20 20 12
0 0 0 0
' ' ' '

5 9 9 5
Conclusion Decreasing Decreasing Increasing Increasing

• Concavity of a function:

(x ) = ( )
20 x 2 − 4 − 2 x 2 − 4 (2 x )(20 x )
2
( )
) (x
''
f
2 2
2
−4

(x ) = (x − 4)20(x − 4) − 2(2 x )(20 x )

2 2
f ''
(x − 4) 2 4

20 x 2 − 80 − 80 x 2
f ' ' (x ) =
(x 2
−4 )3

− 60 x 2 − 80
f ' ' (x ) =
(x 2
−4 )
3
 set
f ' ' (x ) = 0 f ' ' (x ) does not exist

− 60 x 2 − 80 = 0 (x − 4) = 0
2 3

60 x 2 = −80 3
(x − 4) =
2 3 3
0
1
60
(60 x 2 = −80 ) x2 − 4 = 0
x2 = 4
80
x2 = − x2 =  4
60
4 x = 2
x2 = −
3
4
x2 =  −
3
4
x= i reject
3

The critical numbers are -2 and 2.

Interval −   x  −2 −2 x  2 2 x

Test Value x = −3 x=0 x=3

f ' ' (x )
f ' ' (− 3) = − f ' ' (0) =  0 f ' ' (3) = −
124 5 124
Sign of 0 0
25 4 25
Conclusion Concave Downward Concave Upward Concave Downward

• Points of inflection:
Use the critical value of the second derivative to find the points of
inflection.
when x = −2 when x = 2
2(− 2) − 18 2(2 ) − 18
2 2
f (− 2) = f (2) =
(− 2)2 − 4 (2)2 − 4
− 10 − 10
f (− 2) = undefined f (2) = undefined
0 0
No point of inflection

• Second Derivative:
Use the critical value of the first derivative to find the points.
Point  9
 0, 
 2
f ' ' (x )
f ' ' (0) =  0
5
Sign of
4
 Conclusion Relative Minimum

• Graph

Relative
Minimum

2. Analyze and sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 48𝑥 2 − 64𝑥

Solution:
f ( x ) = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 48 x 2 − 64 x
• Vertical and Horizontal asymptotes:
No vertical and horizontal asymptotes due to no denominator.

• First derivative test:

set
f ' (x ) = 0
f (x ) = 4 x 3 − 36 x 2 + 96 x − 64
'

4 x 3 − 36 x 2 + 96 x − 64 = 0
1
4
(4 x 3 − 36 x 2 + 96 x − 64 = 0)
x 3 − 9 x 2 + 24 x − 16 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 4)(x − 4) = 0
x − = 0 or x − 4 = 0 or x−4=0
x =1 x=4 x=4
 The critical numbers are 1 and 4.

Interval −  x 1 1 x  4 4 x
Test Value x=0 x=2 x=5

Sign of f (x ) f (0) = −64  0 f (2) = 16  0 f (5) = 16  0

' ' ' '

Conclusion Decreasing Increasing Increasing

• Concavity of a function:

set
f ' ' (x ) = 0
f ' '
(x ) = 12 x 2 − 72 x + 96

12 x 2 − 72 x + 96 = 0
1
12
(
12 x 2 − 72 x + 96 = 0 )
x 2 − 6x + 8 = 0
(x − 4)(x − 2) = 0
x−4=0 or x−2=0
x=4 x=2

The critical numbers are 2 and 4.

Interval −  x  2 2 x4 4 x

Test Value x=0 x=3 x=5

Sign of
f ' ' (x ) f ' ' (0) = 96  0 f ' ' (3) = −12  0 f ' ' (5) = 36  0

Conclusion Concave Upward Concave Downward Concave Upward

• Points of inflection:
Use the critical value of the second derivative to find the points of
inflection.
when x = 2 when x = 4
f (2) = (2) − 12(2) + 48(2) − 64(2) f (4) = (4) − 12(4) + 48(4) − 64(4)
4 3 2 4 3 2

f (2) = −16 f (4) = 0

• Second Derivative:
Use the critical value of the first derivative to find the points.
Point (1, − 27) (4, 0)

Sign of
f ' ' (x ) f ' ' (1) = 36  0 f ' ' (4) = 0
 Conclusion Relative Minimum Test Fails

• Graph

Point
of
Inflections

Relative
Minimum

Try this!
𝑥 2 −2𝑥+4
4.4 Analyze and sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−2
 Activity 4.3
Sketching the Graph of any Given Function

Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

1. Analyze and sketch the graph of f (x ) =

x
.
x2 + 2
x3
2. Analyze and sketch the graph of f (x ) = 2
x −9 .
 Chapter 4
Antiderivatives, Indefinite Integrals, and Applications
4.1 Antiderivatives and formulas for antidifferentiation

Definition of Antiderivative
A function 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 on an interval 𝐼 if 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
for all 𝑥 in 𝐼.

Theorem 5.1: Representation of an Antiderivatives

If 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 on an interval 𝐼, then 𝐺 is an antiderivative
of 𝑓 on the interval 𝐼 if and only if 𝐺 is of the form 𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, for all
𝑥 in 𝐼 where 𝐶 is a constant.

Notation for Antiderivatives

When solving a differential equation of the form

It is convenient to write it in the equivalent differential form

The operation of finding all solutions of this equation is called antidifferentiation (or
indefinite integration) and is denoted by an integral sign ∫ . The general solution is
denoted by
Variable of Constant of
integration integration

on

Integrand An antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥)

Basic Integration Rules
• Zero Integration:

 0dx = C
• Constant Rule:

 kdx = kx + C
• Constant Multiple Rule:

 kf (x )dx = k  f (x )dx + C
• Sum and Difference Rule:

  f (x )  g (x )dx =  f (x )dx   g (x )dx

• Power Rule:
x n+1
 x dx = n + 1 + C, n  1PowerRule
n

• Trigonometric Function:

 cos xdx = sin x + C

 sin xdx = − cos x + C
 sec xdx = tan x + C
2

 sec x tan xdx = sec x + C

 csc xdx = − cot x + C
2

 csc x cot xdx = − csc x + C

Examples:
Find the antidifferentiation (or indefinite integral) of the following.
1
1. 
3 xdx
2.
x 3
dx

Solution: Solution:

 3xdx = 3 xdx 1
x 3
dx =  x −3 dx
 x1+1 
= 3  + C x −3+1
1+1 = +C
− 3 +1
 x2  x −2
= 3  + C = +C
 2  −2
=
3 2
x +C x −2
=− +C
2 2
1
= − 2 +C
2x

3.  x dx
4.  2 sin xdx
Solution: Solution:
1

 x dx =  x 2 dx
 2 sin xdx = 2 sin xdx
1
= 2(− cos x ) + C
+1
2
x
= +C
1 = −2 cos x + C
+1
2
3
2
x
= +C
3
2
3
2
= x2 + C
3
 x +1
 x
dx
5.

Solution:
x +1  x 1   12 − 
1

 x
dx =  
 x
+ dx =   x + x 2 dx
x  
1 1
+1 − +1
2 2
x x
= + +C
1 1
+1 − +1
2 2
3 1
x2 x2
= + +C
3 1
2 2
3 1
2
= x 2 + 2x 2 + C
3

sin x

6. cos
2
x
dx

Solution:
sin x  sin x  1 
 cos 2
x
dx =    dx =  tan x sec xdx
 cos x  cos x 
= sec x + C

Try this!
Find the antidifferentiation (or indefinite integral) of the following.
x 2 + 2x − 3
1.
 x 4 dx
 1 
  x + 2 x dx
2.
 (t − cos t )dt
2
3.
4.  sec y(tan y − sec y )dy
 Activity 4.1
Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integrals
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

Find the antidifferentiation (or indefinite integral) of the following.

 (8 x − 9 x + 4)dx
3 2
1.
2.  (5 cos x + 4 sin x )dx
3.  (x + 1)(3x − 2)dx
 4.2 Integration by Substitution

Theorem 5.2: Antidifferentiation of a Composite Function

Let 𝑔 be a function whose range is an interval 𝐼, and let 𝑓 be a function
that is continuous on 𝐼. If 𝑔 is differentiable on its domain and 𝐹 is an
antiderivative of 𝑓 on 𝐼, then
 f (g (x ))g (x )dx = F (g (x )) + C
'

Letting 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) gives 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and

 f (u )du = F (u ) + C

Example:
 (x ) (2x)dx .  5 cos5xdx .
2
2
+1
1. Find 2. Find
Solution: Solution:
let u = x2 +1
du = 2 xdx let u = 5x
du = 5dx
(
=  x2 +1 ) (2 xdx)
2

=  cos5 x(5dx)
=  u du 2

=  cosu du
u 2+1
= +C = sin u + C
2 +1
= sin 5 x + C
u3
= +C
3
1
(
= x2 +1 + C
3
3
)

 sec x(tan x + 3)dx .

2
3. Find
Solution:
let u = tan x + 3
du = sec 2 xdx
=  (tan x + 3) sec 2 xdx ( )
=  u du
u 1+1
= +C
1+1
u2
= +C
2
= (tan x + 3) + C
1 2

2
 4. Find x
2
x 3 + 1dx
. 5. Find x 2 x − 1dx
.
Solution: Solution:
u +1
let u = x3 + 1 let u = 2x − 1  x=
2
du = 3x 2 dx  1
3 du = x 2 dx 1
dx = du
=  x 3 + 1 x 2 dx ( ) 2

=
1 
u  du 
 u +1
=  ( ) 1 
 u  du 
 2  2 
3 
 1
=  (u + 1) u 2 du
1 1
1 2
3
= u du 4  
 1 +1  1  2 
3 1
=   u + u 2 du

1  u 2  4 
= +C 
3 1 
 +1  3 +1 1 
2  
1 u 2
u 2
+1

 3 =  + +C
4 3
+ 1 
1
1  u 2   +1
= +C 2 2 
3 3 
   5 3 
 2  1  u 2 u 2 
= + +C
12 2 
3
=  u +C 4 5 3 
 
3  3   2 2 
12 2 
( )
3 5 3
2 3
= x +1 2 + C =  u 2 + u 2  + C
9 45 3 
5 3
1 2 1 2
= u + u +C
10 6
= (2 x − 1) 2 + (2 x − 1) 2 + C
1 5 1 3

10 6

Try this!
Find the antidifferentiation (or indefinite integral) of the following.

 3x x 3 + 1dx
2
1.
 x(x )
4
2
+ 1 dx
2.
3.  2 x − 1dx
 cos y sin ydy
2
4.
 Activity 4.2
Integration by Substitution
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

Find the antidifferentiation (or indefinite integral) of the following.

1.  cos 2 x sin 2 xdx

 x(x + 1) dx
2 3

2.
3.  (x + 1) 2 − x dx
 4.3 Area of a Plane Region
4.3.1 Area

Sigma Notation
The sum of 𝑛 terms 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 is written as
n

a
i =1
i =a1 + a 2 + a3 + ... + a n

where 𝑖 is the index of summation, 𝑎𝑖 is the 𝑖𝑡ℎ term of the sum, and the upper and lower
bounds of summation are 𝑛 and 1.

Theorem 1.3 Summation Formulas

n

 c =cn
i =1
1. , c is a constant
n
n(n + 1)
i =
i =1 2
2.
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

i =1
i2 =
6
3.
n 2 (n + 1)
n 2


i =1
i =
3

4
4.

n
i +1

i =1 n2 .
Example 1: Evaluate
Solution:
n
i +1 1 n


i =1 n
2
= 2
n
 (i + 1)
i =1

1  n n

2  
=  i + 1
n  i =1 i =1 

1  n(n + 1) 
= 2 + n
n  2 
 n2 + n
1 
=  + n 
n2
 2 
1  n + n + 2n 
2
= 2  
n  2 
1  n 2 + 3n 
= 2  
n  2 
n+3
=
2n
 Upper and Lower Sums
To approximate the area of the region, begin by subdividing the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
into 𝑛 subintervals, each of width

The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees the existence of a minimum and a

minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) in each subinterval.

Minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ subinterval.

Maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ subinterval.
The sum of the areas of the inscribed rectangles is called a lower sum, and the
sum of the areas of the circumscribed rectangles is called an upper sum.

Lower sum Area of inscribed rectangle

Upper sum Area of circumscribed rectangle

Example: Find the upper and lower sums for the region bounded by the graph of
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and the x-axis between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2.

Solution:
b−a 2−0 2
x = = =
n n n

Using Lower Sums Using Upper Sums

mi = a + (i − 1)x M i = a + ix
2 2
= 0 + (i − 1)  = 0 + i 
n n
2(i − 1) 2i
mi = Mi =
n n
 n
s (n ) =  f (M i )x
n
s (n ) =  f (mi )x
i =1
i =1

 2(i − 1)  2 
n
 2i  2 
=  f   
n
= f  
i =1  n  n  i =1  n  n 
2
 2(i − 1)  2 
n
 2i   2 
=    
n 2

=   
i =1  n   n  i =1  n   n 

 4i 2  2 
4(i − 1)  2 
n
=   2  
n  2
=    i =1  n  n 
i =1  n 2  n 
 8i 2 
( )
n
n
 4 i 2 − 2i + 1  2  =   3 
=    i =1  n 
i =1  n2  n 
8 n
= 3 i2
 8 
( )
n
=   3  i 2 − 2i + 1 n i =1
i =1  n 
8  n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
 8 
( ) =
n
=   3  i 2 − 2i + 1 n 3  6 
i =1  n 
8  2n 3 + 3n 2 + n 
8 n
(
= 3  i 2 − 2i + 1
n i =1
) = 3 
n  6


8  n 2 n n
 =
4
(
2n 3 + 3n 2 + n )
3   
=  i − 2i + 1 3n 3
n  i =1 i =1 i =1 

s (n ) = + + 2
8 4 4
8  n n n

= 3   i 2 − 2  i +  1 3 n 3n
n  i =1 i =1 i =1 

8  n(n + 1)(2n + 1)  n(n + 1)  

= − 2  + n
n 3  6  2  
8  2n 3 + 3n 2 + n 
= 3
n 
(
− n 2 + n + n )
6 
8  2n 3 + 3n 2 + n 
=  − n2 
n3  6 
8  2n 3 + 3n 2 + n − 6n 2 
=  
n3  6 
8  2n − 3n + n 
3 2
=  
n3  6 
=
4
3n 3
(
2n 3 − 3n 2 + n )
s (n ) = − + 2
8 4 4
3 n 3n
 4.3.2 Area of a Plane Region

Definition of the Area of a Region in the Plane

Let 𝑓 be continuous and nonnegative on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. The area
of the region bounded by the graph of 𝑓, the x-axis, and the vertical lines
𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
n
Area = lim  f (ci )x
n →
i =1
where 𝑥𝑖−1 ≤ 𝑐𝑖 ≤ 𝑥𝑖 and
b−a
x =
n

Example 1: Find the area of the region bounded by the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , the x-axis,
and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1
Solution:
b − a 1− 0 1 1 i
x = = = ci = a + ix = 0 + i  =
n n n n n
n
 n 2 + 2n + 1 
Area = lim  f (ci )x = lim  
n →
i =1
n →
 4n 2 
n
 i  1  1 1 1 
= lim  f    = lim  + + 2
n →
i =1  n  n  
n → 4 2n 4n 
3
n
 i  1 1
= lim      = +0+0
i =1  n   n 
n → 4
n
 i3  1
= lim   4  Area =
n →
i =1  n  4
n
1
= lim
n → n 4
ii =1
3

1  n 2 (n + 1)2 
= lim 4  
n → n
 4 
 (n + 1) 2
= lim  2 
n →
 4n 
Example 2: Find the area of the region bounded by the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2 , the x-
axis, and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2
Solution:
b − a 1− 0 1 1 i
x = = = ci = a + ix = 1 + i  = 1 +
n n n n n
n
10 n 2 − 9n − 1
Area = lim  f (ci )x = lim  
n →
i =1
n →
 6n 2 
n
 i  1  5 3 1 
= lim  f 1 +   = lim  − − 2
n →
i =1  n  n  
n → 3 2n 6n 
n 
i   1 
2
 5
= lim  4 − 1 +    = −0−0
  n   n 
n →
i =1  3
n 
 2i i 2  1  5
= lim  4 − 1 + + 2   Area =
n →
i =1   n n  n  3
n
 2i i 2  1 
= lim  3 − − 2  
n →
i =1  n n  n 
n
 3 2i i 2 
= lim   − 2 − 3 
n →
i =1  n n n 
 n 3 n 2i n
i2 
= lim   −  2 −  3 
n →
 i =1 n i =1 n i =1 n 

3 n 2 n 1 n 
= lim  1 − 2  i − 3  i 2 
 i =1
n → n n i =1 n i =1 
3 2  n(n + 1)  1  n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 
= lim  (n ) − 2  −  

n → n n  2  n3  6 
 n + 1 (n + 1)(2n + 1)
= lim 3 − − 
n →
 n 6n 2
 n + 1 2n 2 + 3n + 1
= lim 3 − − 
n →
 n 6n 2 

= lim 
( )
18n 2 − 6n(n + 1) − 2n 2 + 3n + 1 

n →
 6n 2 
18n 2 − 6n 2 − 6n − 2n 2 − 3n − 1
= lim  
n →
 6n 2 
 Activity 4.3
Area of a Plane Region
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

1. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = −4𝑥 + 5, the x-axis,
and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑦 2 + 2, the y-axis, and
the horizontal lines 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = 1
 4.4 The Definite Integral

Definition of Definite Integral

If 𝑓 defined on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and the limit of Riemann
sums over partitions ∆
n
lim
 →0
 f (c )x
i =1
i i

exists (as described above), then 𝑓 is said to be integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏] and the
limit is denoted by
n

 f (c )x =  f (x )dx
b
lim i i
 →0 a
i =1

The limit is called the definite integral of 𝑓 from 𝑎 to 𝑏. The number 𝑎

is the lower of the integration, and the number 𝑏 is the upper limit of
integration.

Theorem 5.3: Continuity Implies Integrability

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 is

 f (x)dx exists.
b

integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏]. That is a

Theorem 5.4: The Definite Integral as the Area of a Region

If 𝑓 is continuous and nonnegative on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then
area of the region bounded by the graph of 𝑓, the x-axis, and the vertical
lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by
Area =  f (x )dx
b

Theorem 5.5: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐹 is an
antiderivative of 𝑓 on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then

 f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a) .

b

a
Example: Evaluate each definite integral.

 (x )
2 4
− 3 dx 3
2
x dx
1. 1 2. 1

Solution: Solution:
1
4 4 4
 3 x dx = 3 x dx = 3 x 2 dx
 (x )
2
2
− 3 dx 1 1 1
1 4
2  1 +1 
x 2 +1
 x2 
= − 3x = 3 
2 +1 1  1 +1
 
x3
2
2 1
= − 3x 4
3  3 
1
 x2 
 (2 )3   (1)3  = 3 
= − 3(2) −  − 3(1)  3 
 3   3   
 2 1
10  8 
= − − −   2 32 
4

3  3 = 3 x 
2  3 1
=−
3 3 4
= 2x 2

= 2(4) − 2(1) 2
3 3
2

= 14


3. 0
4 sec 2 xdx

Solution:


 0
4 sec 2 xdx

= tan x 04
   
= tan   − tan  
4 4
= 1− 0
=1

Try this! Evaluate each definite integral.



1. 0
cos xdx
4 u−2
1
u
du
2.
5

3. 0
2 x − 5 dx
 Activity 4.4
Definite Integrals
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:
Solve the following as indicated and show your complete solution.

Evaluate each definite integral.

2

1.  6xdx
0


  4 sec tan  d
3
−
2. 3

 (2x − 1)dx
0

3. −1
 4.5 The Mean Value Theorem for Integration

The Mean-Value Theorem for Integrals:

If the function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], there exist a
number 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that
𝒃

∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒄)(𝒃 − 𝒂)
𝒂

4.6 Arc Length of a Plane Region

Definition of Arc Length:

Let the function given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) represent a smooth curve on the

interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. The arc length of 𝑓 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is
𝒃

𝑠 = ∫ √𝟏 + [𝒇′(𝒙)]𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒂

Similarly, for a smooth curve given by 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥), the arc length of 𝑔 between 𝑐
and 𝑑 is
𝒅

𝑠 = ∫ √𝟏 + [𝒈′(𝒚)]𝟐 𝒅𝒚
𝒄
Example 1: Find the arc length of the graph of
x3 1
y= +
6 2x
1
On the interval [ , 2].
2

Solution:
dy dy
• Find first • Substitute to the equation :
dx dx
dy 1 2 0(2 x ) − 2(1)
2

( )
= 3x + s=
b  dy 
1 +   dx =
1 2 2 1 
2 12 
 x + 2 dx
dx 6 (2 x )2 a
 dx  x 
2
3x 2 − 2 1  1 
= + 2 = 1
2
1 +   x 2 − 2  dx =
1 2 2
2 12
( )
x + x − 2 dx
6 4x 2 2  x 
2
x2 1 2 1 1  1  x 3 x −1 
= − 2 = 1 1 +  x 4 − 2 + 4 dx =  + 
2 2x 2 4 x  2  3 −1  1
2
2
dy 1  2 1  2 x4 1 1 1  x3 1 
= x − 2  = 1 1+ − + 4 dx =  − 
dx 2  x  2 4 2 4x 2  3 x 1
2

   1 3 
   
1  (2) 1    2  1 
3
2 x4 1 1
= 1 + + 4 dx =  −  −  −
2 4 2 4x 2  3 2

3  1  
    
   2  
2 1 4 1  1 13  47 
= 1  x + 2 + 4 dx = − − 
2 4 x  2  6  24 
2
2 1 2 1  1  99 
= 1  x + 2  dx =  
2 4 x  2  24 
2 1 2 1  33
= 1  x + 2 dx s=
2 2 x  16
Example 2: Find the arc length of the graph of (𝑦 − 1)3 = 𝑥 2 on the interval [0, 8].
Solution:
• Transform the equation in terms of x :

( y − 1)3 = x 2 x = ( y − 1) 2
3

dx
• Find :
dy

= ( y − 1) 2
dx 3 1

dy 2
dx
• Substitute to the equation : • Let u = 9 y − 5,
dy
2
 dx  1
s=
b
1 +   dy du = 9dy  du = dy
a
 dy  9
2
3  1 5 1 
1 +  ( y − 1) 2  dy
1
=
2 1
5
s= u  du 
1
2  9 
1 5  2  1 
1
=
9
( y − 1)dy
5

2 1   9 
1+ =  u  du 
1 4
1 5 2 
1
(du )
9 9
=
18 1  
5
1+ y − dy =  u
1 4 4
5
 3
5 9 5 1 u 2 
= y − dy =  
1 4 4 18  3 
 2  1
5
1 2 2 
3
=
1
(9 y − 5)dy
5
=  u 
1 4 18  3  1
5
1  2
3
1 5
=  9 y − 5dy = u 
2 1 27   1
5
1  
( )
3
=  9 y − 5 2

27  1

1  
 ( )  2 − 9(1) − 52
3 3
=  9 5 − 5 
27 
1  
( ) 2 − (4 ) 2
3 3
=  40 
27 
s  9.073
 4.7 Volumes by Slicing, Disks/Washers, and Cylindrical Shell

4.7.1 Volume: The Disks Method

The Disks Method

To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the disk method, use one of the
formulas below.
𝒃
Horizontal Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 [𝑹(𝒙)]𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒃
Vertical Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 [𝑹(𝒚)]𝟐 𝒅𝒚

Example 1: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = √sin 𝑥 and the x-axis (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋) about the x-axis.
Solution:
Rx  = f (x ) = sin x
So, the volume of the solid of revolution is
V =   R(x ) dx
b 2
a

=
0

( )
2
sin x dx

=   sin x dx
0

=  − cos x 0


=  − cos( ) + cos(0)
=  − (− 1) + 1
= 2
Example 2: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 about the line 𝑦 = 1.
Solution:
( )
Rx  = f (x ) − g (x ) = 2 − x 2 − 1 = 1 − x 2
So, the volume of the solid of revolution is
V =   R( x ) dx
b 2
a

( )
=   1 − x 2 dx
1

−1
2

=   (1 − 2 x + x )dx
1
2 4
−1
1
 2x3 x5 
=  x − + 
 3 5  −1
 2(1) (1)   2(− 1) (− 1) 
3 5 3 5
=    (1) −
 +  −  (− 1) − 3 + 5 
  
  3 5   
16 
= 
15 
16
= 
15

4.7.2 Volume: The Washer Method

The Washer Method

To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the washer method, use one of the
formulas below.
𝒃
Horizontal Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 ([𝑹(𝒙)]𝟐 − [𝒓(𝒙)]𝟐 )𝒅𝒙
𝒃
Vertical Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 ([𝑹(𝒚)]𝟐 − [𝒓(𝒚)]𝟐 )𝒅𝒚
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 about the x-axis.
Solution:
Rx  = x
r (x ) = x 2
So, the volume of the solid of revolution is

a
(b 2
)
V =   R(x ) − r (x ) dx
2

=     x  − x  dx
1 2 2 2
0  
1
(
=   x − x 4 dx
0
)
1
 x2 x5 
= − 
2 5 0
  (1)2 (1) 5   (0)2 (0)5 
=    − − − 
  2 5   2 5 
3
= 
10 
3
= 
10

\
Example 2: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1 about the y-axis.
Solution:
y = x2 +1  x = y −1
R y  = 1
 0 , 0  y 1
r(y) = 
 y −1, 1  y  2
So, the volume of the solid of revolution is

a
(
V =   R( y ) − r ( y ) dy
b 2 2
)
=   (1
1

0
2 2
)
− 0 dy +   1 −
2

1 
2
 
y − 1 dy
2


=   dy +  (1 − y + 1)dy
1 2

0 1

=   dy +  (2 − y )dy
1 2

0 1
2
 y2 
=   y  +  2 y − 
1
0
 2 1

(2)   (1) 
2
 2 2
=  1 − 0 +   2(2) −  −  2(1) − 
 2   2 
1

1
=  (1) +   
2
3
= 
2

4.7.3 Volume: The Shell Method

The Shell Method

To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the shell method, use one of the
formulas below.
𝒃
Horizontal Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝒂 𝒑(𝒚)𝒉(𝒚)𝒅𝒚
𝒃
Vertical Axis of Revolution: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝒂 𝒑(𝒙)𝒉(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

Note: 𝑝(𝑥)/ 𝑝(𝑦) is the distance from the center of the rectangle to the axis
revolution. ℎ(𝑥) / ℎ(𝑦) is the height of the rectangle.
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 and the x-axis (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1) about the y-axis.
Solution:
p(x ) = x
h( x ) = x − x 3
So, the volume of the solid of revolution is
V = 2  p(x )h(x )dx
b

= 2  x(x − x 3 )dx
1

= 2  (x 2 − x 4 )dx
1

0
1
 x3 x5 
= 2  − 
3 5 0
  (1)3 (1) 5   (0)3 (0)5 
= 2   − −
  3 − 5 

  3 5   
2
= 2  
15 
4
= 
15
 Example 2: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
2
by the graph of 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑦 and the x-axis (0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1) about the y-axis.
Solution:
p( y ) = y
h( y ) = e − y
2

So, the volume of the solid of revolution is

V = 2  p( y )h( y )dy
b

a
1
( )
= 2  y e − y dy
0
2

1
= 2  ye − y dy
2

let u = −y2
1
du = −2 ydy  − du = ydy
2
= 2  e − y ( ydy )
1 2

1  1 
= 2  e u  − du 
0
 2 
1
= −  e u du
0

 
= − e u
1
0

 
= − e − y
2 1

= − e 
0
− (1) 2
− (0 )2
−e
 1.986