TITUS TANKO'S

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GNS 401
COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH IV
COURSE OUTLINE

1. Theory and practice of communication

a. Definition of communication
b. Theories of communication
c. Methods of communication
i. Oral communication
ii. Non – verbal communication
iii. Written communication
2. Organizational communication
a. Directions of communication: vertical, horizontal, diagonal and external.
b. Differences between inter-personal and intra-personal communication
c. Barriers to communication
d. Types of non verbal communication
i. Kinesics
ii. Proxemics
iii. Paralangauge
iv. Chronemics
e. The impact of environment, power, status, and role on communication
f. Theories of leadership
g. Qualities of good leadership
h. Good leadership, good communication skill for conflict resolution.

What is Communication?
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to
another.

Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient. This may sound
simple, but communication is actually a very complex subject.
As this definition makes clear, communication is more than simply the transmission of
information. The term requires an element of success in transmitting or imparting a message,
whether information, ideas, or emotions.

A communication therefore has three parts: the sender, the message, and the recipient.

The sender ‘encodes’ the message, usually in a mixture of words and non-verbal
communication. It is transmitted in some way (for example, in speech or writing), and the
recipient ‘decodes’ it.

Of course, there may be more than one recipient, and the complexity of communication means
that each one may receive a slightly different message. Two people may read very different
things into the choice of words and/or body language. It is also possible that neither of them will
have quite the same understanding as the sender.

In face-to-face communication, the roles of the sender and recipient are not distinct. The two
roles will pass back and forwards between two people talking. Both parties communicate with
each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body
language. In written communication, however, the sender and recipient are more distinct.

Categories of Communication
There are a wide range of ways in which we communicate and more than one may be occurring
at any given time.

The different categories of communication include:

Spoken or Verbal Communication, which includes face-to-face, telephone, radio or television

and other media.

Non-Verbal Communication, covering body language, gestures, how we dress or act, where we
stand, and even our scent. There are many subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even
unintentionally) with others. For example, the tone of voice can give clues to mood or emotional
state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.

Written Communication: which includes letters, e-mails, social media, books, magazines, the
Internet and other media. Until recent times, a relatively small number of writers and publishers
were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today, we can all write
and publish our ideas online, which has led to an explosion of information and communication
possibilities.
Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can all communicate
messages.

The desired outcome or goal of any communication process is mutual understanding.

The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply

'happens'. Instead, it must be seen as a process that involves participants who negotiate their
roles with each other, whether consciously or unconsciously.

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to one or

more recipients.

The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is
appropriate to the communication channel, and the recipient then decodes the message to
understand its meaning and significance.

Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process.

Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming any

barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process.
An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate communication
channel, hones their message for this particular channel and encodes the message effectively to
reduce misunderstanding by the recipient(s).

They will also seek out feedback from the recipient(s) to ensure that the message is understood
and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible.

Receivers can use techniques such as Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure
that the message sent has been understood correctly.
The Communication Process
A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a
receiver, or to multiple receivers.

The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is
appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to
understand its meaning and significance.

Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process.

Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming any

barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process.
An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate communication
channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to reduce
misunderstanding by the receiver(s).

They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and
attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible.

Receivers can use techniques such as Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure
that the message sent has been understood correctly.

The Communication Process

Communication Channels

Communication channels is the term given to the way in which we communicate. It is therefore
the method used to transmit our message to a recipient, or to receive a message from someone
else.

There are multiple communication channels available to us today. These include face-to-face
conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the Internet (including social media such as
Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports.

Choosing an appropriate communication channel is vital for effective communication. Each

communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses.

For example, broadcasting news of an upcoming event via a written letter might convey the
message clearly to one or two individuals. It will not, however, be a time- or cost-effective way
to broadcast the message to a large number of people. On the other hand, conveying complex,
technical information is easier via a printed document than a spoken message. The recipients
are able to assimilate the information at their own pace and revisit anything that they do not
fully understand.

Written communication is also useful as a way of recording what has been said, for example by
taking minutes in a meeting.

Encoding Messages
All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel
chosen for the message.
We all do this every day when transferring abstract thoughts into spoken words or a written
form. However, other communication channels require different forms of encoding, e.g. text
written for a report will not work well if broadcast via a radio programme, and the short,
abbreviated text used in text messages would be inappropriate in a letter or in speech.

Complex data may be best communicated using a graph, chart or other visualisation.

Effective communicators encode their messages so that they fit both the channel and the
intended audience. They use appropriate language, conveying the information simply and
clearly. They also anticipate and eliminate likely causes of confusion and misunderstanding.
They are generally aware of the recipients’ experience in decoding similar communications.

Successful encoding of messages for the audience and channel is a vital skill in effective
communication.

Decoding Messages
Once received, the recipient needs to decode the message. Successful decoding is also a vital
communication skill.

People will decode and understand messages in different ways.

This will depend on their experience and understanding of the context of the message, how well
they know the sender, their psychological state and how they feel, and the time and place of
receipt. They may also be affected by any Barriers to Communication which might be present.

There are therefore a wide range of factors that will affect decoding and understanding.

Successful communicators understand how the message will be decoded, and anticipate and
remove as many as possible of the potential sources of misunderstanding.

Feedback
The final part of a communication is feedback: the recipient lets the sender know that they have
received and understood the message.

Recipients of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have understood the
messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions. Effective communicators pay close
attention to this feedback as it is the only way to assess whether the message has been
understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be corrected.
Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary with the communication channel.
Feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst
feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even
conveyed through other media such as the Internet.

Effective communicators pay close attention to this feedback as it is the only way to assess
whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be
corrected.
THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

The most commonly described Models of Communication:

The Linear Model of communication works in one direction only, a sender encodes some
message and sends it through a channel for a receiver to decode.

In comparison, the Interactional Model of communication works bidirectional. People send and
receive messages in a cooperative fashion as they continuously encode and decode information.

The Transactional Model then assumes that information is sent and received simultaneously
through a noisy channel, and further considers a frame of reference or experience each person
brings to the interaction.

Organizational Communication Flows

Information can flow in four directions in an organization: downward, upward, horizontally, and
diagonally. The size, nature, and structure of the organization dictate which direction most of
the information flows. In more established and traditional organizations, much of the
communication flows in a vertical—downward and upward—direction. In informal firms, such as
tech start-ups, information tends to flow horizontally and diagonally. This, of course, is a
function of the almost flat organizational hierarchy and the need for collaboration. Unofficial
communications, such as those carried in the company grapevine, appear in both types of
organizations.

Downward Communication Flows

Downward communication is when company leaders and managers share information with
lower-level employees. Unless requested as part of the message, the senders don’t usually
expect (or particularly want) to get a response. An example may be an announcement of a new
CEO or notice of a merger with a former competitor. Other forms of high-level downward
communications include speeches, blogs, podcasts, and videos. The most common types of
downward communication are everyday directives of department managers or line managers to
employees. These can even be in the form of instruction manuals or company handbooks.
Downward communication delivers information that helps to update the workforce about key
organizational changes, new goals, or strategies; provide performance feedback at the
organizational level; coordinate initiatives; present an official policy (public relations); or
improve worker morale or consumer relations.

Upward Communication Flows

Information moving from lower-level employees to high-level employees is upward
communication (also sometimes called vertical communication). For example, upward
communication occurs when workers report to a supervisor or when team leaders report to a
department manager. Items typically communicated upward include progress reports, proposals
for projects, budget estimates, grievances and complaints, suggestions for improvements, and
schedule concerns. Sometimes a downward communication prompts an upward response, such
as when a manager asks for a recommendation for a replacement part or an estimate of when a
project will be completed.

An important goal of many managers today is to encourage spontaneous or voluntary upward

communication from employees without the need to ask first. Some companies go so far as to
organize contests and provide prizes for the most innovative and creative solutions and
suggestions. Before employees feel comfortable making these kinds of suggestions, however,
they must trust that management will recognize their contributions and not unintentionally
undermine or ignore their efforts. Some organizations have even installed “whistleblower”
hotlines that will let employees report dangerous, unethical, or illegal activities anonymously to
avoid possible retaliation by higher-ups in the company.

Horizontal and Diagonal Communication Flows

Journalist Miles O’Brien speaking at a podium
Examples of channels that carry external communication include press briefings, fact sheets,
press kits, newsletters, magazines, brochures, news releases, annual reports, invoices and
purchase orders.
Horizontal and Diagonal Communication Flows
Horizontal communication involves the exchange of information across departments at the
same level in an organization (i.e., peer-to-peer communication). The purpose of most
horizontal communication is to request support or coordinate activities. People at the same
level in the organization can work together to work on problems or issues in an informal and as-
needed basis. The manager of the production department can work with the purchasing
manager to accelerate or delay the shipment of materials. The finance manager and inventory
managers can be looped in so that the organization can achieve the maximum benefit from the
coordination. Communications between two employees who report to the same manager is also
an example of horizontal communication. Some problems with horizontal communication can
arise if one manager is unwilling or unmotivated to share information, or sees efforts to work
communally as threatening his position (territorial behavior). In a case like that, the manager at
the next level up will need to communicate downward to reinforce the company’s values of
cooperation.
Diagonal communication is cross-functional communication between employees at different
levels of the organization. For example, if the vice president of sales sends an e-mail to the vice
president of manufacturing asking when a product will be available for shipping, this is an
example of horizontal communication. But if a sales representative e-mails the vice president of
marketing, then diagonal communication has occurred. Whenever communication goes from
one department to another department, the sender’s manager should be made part of the loop.
A manager may be put in an embarrassing position and appear incompetent if he isn’t aware of
everything happening in his department. Trust may be lost and careers damaged by not paying
attention to key communication protocols.

Diagonal communication is becoming more common in organizations with a flattened, matrix, or

product-based structure. Advantages include:

Building relationships between senior-level and lower-level employees from different parts of
the organization.
Encouraging an informal flow of information in the organization.
Reducing the chance of a message being distorted by going through additional filters.
Reducing the workloads of senior-level managers.

External Communication Flows

Communications do not start and stop within the organization. External communication focuses
on audiences outside of the organization. Senior management—with the help of specialized
departments such as public relations or legal—almost always controls communications that
relate to the public image or may affect its financial situation. First-level and middle-level
management generally handle operational business communications such as purchasing, hiring,
and marketing. When communicating outside the organization (regardless of the level), it is
important for employees to behave professionally and not to make commitments outside of
their scope of authority.
Common Barriers to Effective Communication:
The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and
some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may include, but
are not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and sex, racism
and any opinion that may be seen as unpopular.
Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. (See our page Barriers to
Effective Listening for more information).
Differences in perception and viewpoint.
Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone
calls, text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less
effective than face-to-face communication.
Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People often
hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect
conclusions. Our page The Ladder of Inference explains this in more detail.
Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the
way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies
between cultures and between different social settings. See our page on Intercultural Awareness
for more information

Types of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesics is the study of how we use body movement and facial expressions. We interpret a great
deal of meaning through body movement, facial expressions, and eye contact. Many people
believe they can easily interpret the meanings of body movements and facial expressions in
others. The reality is, it is almost impossible to determine an exact meaning for gestures, facial
expressions, and eye contact. Even so, we rely a great deal on kinesics to interpret and express
meaning. We know that kinesics can communicate liking, social status, and even relational
responsiveness (Mehrabian). Facial expressions are a primary method of sharing emotions and
feelings (Ekman & Friesen; Scherer, Klaus, & Scherer). For example, imagine yourself at a party
and you see someone across the room you are attracted to. What sort of nonverbal behaviors
do you engage in to let that person know? Likewise, what nonverbal behaviors are you looking
for from them to indicate that it’s safe to come over and introduce yourself? We are able to go
through exchanges like this using only our nonverbal communication.
Proxemics is the study of how our use of space influences the ways we relate with others. It also
demonstrates our relational standing with those around us (May). Edward Hall developed four
categories of space we use in the U.S. to form and maintain relationships. Intimate space
consists of space that ranges from touch to eighteen inches. We use intimate space with those
whom we are close (family members, close friends, and intimate partners). Intimate space is
also the context for physical fighting and violence. Personal space ranges from eighteen inches
to four feet and is reserved for most conversations with non-intimate others (friends and
acquaintances). Social space extends from four to twelve feet and is used for small group
interactions such as sitting around a dinner table with others or a group meeting. Public space
extends beyond twelve feet and is most often used in public speaking situations. We use space
to regulate our verbal communication and communicate relational and social meanings. A fun
exercise to do is to go to a public space and observe people. Based on their use of the above
categories of space, try to determine what type of relationship the people are in: Romantic,
Family, or Friends.

Our environment are nonverbal acts through our use of spaces we occupy like are homes,
rooms, cars, or offices. Think of your home, room, automobile, or office space. What meanings
can others perceive about you from these spaces? What meanings are you trying to send by
how you keep them? Think about spaces you use frequently and the nonverbal meanings they
have for you. Most educational institutions intentionally paint classrooms in dull colors. Why?
Dull colors on walls have a calming effect, theoretically keeping students from being distracted
by bright colors and excessive stimuli. Contrast the environment of a classroom to that of a fast
food restaurant. These establishments have bright colors and hard plastic seats and tables. The
bright colors generate an upbeat environment, while the hard plastic seats are just
uncomfortable enough to keep patrons from staying too long–remember, it’s FAST food
(Restaurants See Color As Key Ingredient). People and cultures place different emphasis on the
use of space as a way to communicate nonverbally.

Chronemics is the study of how people use time. Are you someone who is always early or on-
time? Or, are you someone who arrives late to most events? Levine believes our use of time
communicates a variety of meanings to those around us. Think about the person you know who
is most frequently late. How do you describe that person based on their use of time? Now, think
about someone else who is always on time. How do you describe that person? Is there a
difference? If so, these differences are probably based on their use of time. In the U.S., we place
high value on being on time, and respond more positively to people who are punctual. But, in
many Arab and Latin American countries, time is used more loosely, and punctuality is not
necessarily a goal to achieve. You may have heard the expression, “Indian time” to refer to “the
perception of time [that] is circular and flexible” (Harris, Shutiva). This is the belief that activities
will commence when everyone is present and ready; not according to an arbitrary schedule
based on a clock or calendar. Neither approach is better than the other, but the dissimilar uses
of time can create misunderstandings among those from different cultural groups.
Paralanguage is the term we use to describe vocal qualities such as pitch, volume, inflection,
rate of speech, and rhythm. While the types of nonverbal communication we’ve discussed so far
are non-vocal, some nonverbal communication is actually vocal (noise is produced). How we say
words often expresses greater meaning than the actual words themselves. Sarcasm and
incongruence are two examples of this. The comedian Stephen Wright bases much of his
comedy on his use of paralanguage. He talks in a completely monotone voice throughout his act
and frequently makes statements such as, “I’m getting really excited” while using a monotone
voice, accompanied by a blank facial expression. The humor lies in the in congruency—his
paralanguage and facial expression contradict his verbal message

Six main leadership theories

The six main leadership theories are:

The great man theory

The trait theory
The behavioral theory
The transactional theory or management theory
The transformational theory or relationship theory
The situational theory
The great man theory
The great man theory of leadership states that excellent leaders are born, not developed. A
popular concept in the 19th century, this theory states that leadership is an inherent quality.
This type of leader often possesses the natural attributes of intelligence, courage, confidence,
intuition and charm, among others.

The trait theory

The trait theory of leadership states that certain natural qualities tend to create good leaders.
Having certain qualities does not necessarily mean someone has strong leadership skills,
however. Some leaders may be excellent listeners or communicators, but not every listener or
communicator makes an excellent leader.

The behavioral theory

The behavioral theory of leadership focuses on how a person’s environment, not natural
abilities, forms him or her into a leader. One of the key concepts of behavioral theory is
conditioning. Conditioning states that a person will be more likely to act or lead in a certain style
as a result of environmental responses to behavior.

The transactional theory or management theory

The transactional theory of leadership, also called the management theory, studies leadership as
a system of rewards and penalties. It views effective leadership as results-focused and
hierarchical. Transactional leaders prioritize order and structure over creativity.

The transformational theory or relationship theory

The transformational theory of leadership, also called the relationship theory, studies effective
leadership as the result of a positive relationship between leaders and team members.
Transformational leaders motivate and inspire through their enthusiasm and passion. They are a
model for their teams, and they hold themselves to the same standard they expect of others.
The situational theory
The situational theory of leadership does not relate to a certain type of leader or claim that any
one style is best. Instead, situational theory argues that the best kind of leader is one who is
able to adapt her style based on the situation. They may respond to a situation by commanding,
coaching, persuading, participating, delegating or however they think is necessary. Situational
leaders are defined by their flexibility.
Leadership qualities to strive for
Honesty
One of the leadership qualities that define a good leader is honesty. When you are responsible
for a team of people, it is important to be straightforward. Your company and its employees are
a reflection of yourself, and if you make honest and ethical behaviour as a key value, your team
will follow. So remember to lead by example.

“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way.”
– John C. Maxwell

Delegate
Regardless of the situation and position you are in, always remember that you can’t do
everything on your own. Good leaders recognise that delegation does more than simply passing
the task to someone else. It is trusting and believing that your employees are able to handle the
task given to them.

Delegating to others shows that you have confidence in their abilities, and this can result in a
positive morale in the workplace. Your employees want to feel appreciated and trusted. So by
giving them a task, they would generally feel honoured that they got selected and they would
feel the importance of having them around.

Communication
Communication is the key to success, said everyone. Without clear communication, your
employees will have trouble to understand your mission, goals, and vision.

Good communication is a leadership attribute for a number of reasons. Communication should

be consistent when it comes to establishing work expectations or giving constructive feedback.
With great communication, your employees will have a broad understanding to what they are
working for.

“It is better to lead from behind and to put others in front, especially when you celebrate victory
when nice things occur. You take the front line when there is danger. Then people will
appreciate your leadership.”

-Nelson Mandela

Confidence
Another one of the leadership qualities, is having confidence. Admit it, there may be days where
the future of your brand is cloudy or the monthly sales do not look promising. Any company or
businesses would have gone through these issues before; so it is not something new.

As a leader, it is your responsibility to maintain the team morale and keep moving forward. Keep
your confidence level up and assure everyone that setbacks being looked into. By staying calm
and confident, the team would not worry as they put their trust in you.

Commitment
Nothing shows commitment like getting your hands dirty with the rest of the employees. There
is no greater motivation than seeing their leader working alongside everyone else. By proving
your commitment to the company and especially your team, you will not only earn the respect
of your team, but will also instil that same hardworking drive among your staff.

Showing your commitment sets the example for others to follow, and leads to greater loyalty
and respect for you as a leader. Set the tone of commitment, and others will follow suit.
Remember that if you expect your team to work hard and produce quality work, you would
need to lead by example.

Positive attitude
You want to keep your team motivated towards the continued success of the company, and
keep the energy levels up. Whether that means providing snacks, coffee, relationship advice, or
even just an occasional beer in the office, remember that everyone on your team is a person.
Keep the office mood a fine balance between productivity and playfulness.

If your team is feeling happy and upbeat, chances are they won’t mind staying that extra hour to
finish a report, or devoting their best work to the brand.

“Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.”

-Peter Drucker

Creativity
As a good leader is someone the team could look up to for answers or solutions, it is up to you
to think outside the box when any issues arise.

You could also gather the team and start brainstorming ideas to build upon some of your ideas.
When you get your employees involved in a decision or an idea, they often the importance of
their existence in the company. They feel respected and wanted and at times, even looking
forward to work!

Inspire
Another quality that defines a good leader is being inspiring. Being able to inspire your team is
great for focusing on the company’s vision and goals, but it is also important for the team during
their current projects.

When your team are drowning in workload or their morale is low, you as a leader need to be
inspiring and start finding ways to inspire your team. It is your job to keep spirits up, and that
begins with an appreciation for the hard work that they have put in. Start off by giving words of
encouragement once in a while.

Empathy
Having empathy as a leader goes a long way. Empathy is the ability to understand or feel what
other people are experiencing. In other words, they put themselves in other people’s shoe.
Extraordinary leaders praise in public and address problems in private.

At times, leaders need to look after their team‘s feelings. The best leaders guide employees
through challenges and are always on the lookout for a solution. Instead of making things
personal when they encounter problems, or assigning blame to individuals, good leaders look
for constructive solutions and focus on moving forward.

Accountability
A good leader takes responsibility for everyone’s performance as well as their own. When things
are going well, they praise. However when problems arise, they identify them quickly, seek
solutions, and get the team back on track.