Printable File

Flight Instructor Refresher Course Jorge Valderrama

Lesson 6: Conducting a Meaningful Flight Review

Conducting a Meaningful Flight Review and IPC

Introduction

In this module we’ll offer tips on how to conduct a meaningful flight review and instrument proficiency check (IPC).

Conducting a flight review or IPC is arguably the most important lesson you conduct as a flight instructor.
You are essentially recertifying a pilot to
Exercise their privileges for the next 24 calendar months, or
Operate safely in all aspects of instrument flying
You will want to be aware that you may find the pilot has some potentially catastrophic weaknesses or habits

This article by John King addresses three ways to approach lowering the GA accident rate:  “Three counter-intuitive
solutions to general aviation problems”.  These solutions may cause you to think differently about how you can
make an impact on the accident rate.  Please take a few minutes to review the article now.

You may have noticed that the FAA no longer uses the term “Biennial Flight Review”.
“Biennial” implies that pilots only need currency training once every 24 calendar months
Encourage your customers to seek currency training as often as they need it to stay proficient in the different
Aircraft categories, classes, and types they fly
Operations they conduct

You will want to give some thought about what to cover during a flight review/IPC.
You’re in the best position to determine what will be most valuable to your customer
There’s also lots of information available from the FAA on this subject including AC 61-98D, Currency
Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check
This AC has a wealth of helpful information such as
Helping pilots develop personal currency plans, including a sample outline pilots can use to make their
proficiency practice plans
Ways to help reduce general aviation accidents
Sample flight review and IPC checklists and regulatory review guides
If you are not familiar with this AC, please click on the link above and spend time familiarizing yourself with
how it is organized and the types of guidance that are provided
You can also find this AC in the CFI Resource Materials

You can use all the modules in this FIRC as resources for topics.

You will also want to give some thought to how to conduct a flight review or IPC, including
Managing expectations
Honest evaluation
Offering additional training, and
 Turning an unsatisfactory performance into success

What topics should you cover?

61.56 is very specific, and at the same time, very general.

You must spend at least 1 hour of ground time reviewing Part 91; however
It leaves the specific topics up to you
You need to determine what topics are most relevant to each individual customer
The checklists in the appendices of AC 61-98D provide a good starting point

You can use the CFI Resource Materials from this course as a good reference when creating your plan.

You must also spend at least an hour in flight.

61.56 leaves what maneuvers to accomplish up to you, because
You’re in the best position to determine what is relevant for each individual customer
You must determine that they can safely exercise the privileges of their pilot certificate
Again, AC 61-98D provides recommendations on maneuvers that should be included in every flight review,
and even a whole checklist you can use when giving a flight review

Keep the following scenario in mind as you go through this module:

The pilot is a successful local businessman in his early forties who regularly flies his Bonanza around
the state on business.  He calls a local flight school to schedule a flight review and is told it will consist
of 1 hour of ground and 1 hour of flight.  The school schedules him for 0900 the next morning.

When he arrives at the school he’s greeted by one of the schools newest instructors.  The instructor does an
excellent job of determining the type of flying the pilot does, how often he flies, etc, and puts together a well thought
out plan for the morning.  He tells the customer they will go out of the area and do slow flight and stalls, and then
return for pattern work.  The businessman glances at his watch, then back to the CFI, and says, “Son, we’re going
to do a few landings and be done with it.”  The instructor pauses and then says, “OK”.

What to Cover in a Flight Review

Before conducting a flight review or IPC, you should review the following references where applicable, and have your
customer review them as well:
The applicable Airman Certification Standards (ACS)
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
Airplane Flying Handbook
Instrument Flying Handbook
Instrument Procedures Handbook
Information for Operators (InFO) 15012, Logging Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP)
AC 60-28B, FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and
107
AC 61-65H, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors
AC 61-89E, Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings
AC 61-136B, FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience
AC 91-73B, Part 91 and 135 Single Pilot, Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations
 The Airplane Flying Handbook has been updated (2021), and some of the changes to note include
An introduction to and the benefits of the WINGS program, how to access it, and how to create an
account
An entire new chapter on Energy Management
Which is about managing the airplane’s altitude and airspeed using an energy-
centered approach, and covers
Basic energy management concepts
The energy role of the controls for managing the airplane’s energy
state
How to identify, assess, and mitigate risks associated with
mismanaging the airplane’s energy state
The addition of information on lazy eights
Revisions about night flying to align with information from the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute
(CAMI)
Added information about turning back to an airport after engine failure after takeoff (the impossible
turn)
An added section about emergency response systems, specifically ballistic parachutes and
Emergency Autoland (EAL) systems

As a flight instructor you should know that the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) is the primary
vehicle for government-aviation community cooperation, communication and coordination on GA accident reduction.
GAJSC findings
Reveal common pilot errors
Result in recommended mitigation strategies
As an instructor you are encouraged to
Stay abreast of these findings and recommendations
Incorporate them into your flight reviews and IPCs

GA pilots are using more and more advanced technology in the cockpit including
A tablet or other handheld device often utilizing a program frequently referred to as an electronic flight bag that
among other things can display aviation charts
Examples of programs include
ForeFlight
WingX
Garmin Pilot
The panel-mount equipment found in a Technically Advanced Airplane (TAA) which by definition (61.129(j)) must
be equipped with an electronically advanced avionics system that includes at least
An electronic Primary Flight Display (PFD), which must be continuously visible, that includes at a minimum
An airspeed indicator
A turn coordinator
An attitude indicator
A heading indicator
An altimeter, and
A vertical speed indicator
An electronic Multifunction Display (MFD), which must be continuously visible, that includes at a minimum a
moving map using GPS navigation displaying the aircraft position
A two-axis autopilot integrated with the navigation and heading guidance system

An important part of the flight review or IPC should be evaluating your customer’s
Proficiency in whatever systems they use
Knowledge of system limitations
Proficiency in using automated systems and what to do if they fail
Over-confidence, complacency, or automation-bias (trusting the automated system more than their own skills)
Ability to actively manage these systems and cross-reference information from the different systems in the
aircraft
Ability to control the aircraft manually
 This will help mitigate the risk of them losing control of the aircraft
Simulating an autopilot failure during approach is one way you could accomplish this

During a flight review you will of course review Part 91 with your customer.
You’ll want to tailor this review to each pilot’s particular needs
The objective is to ensure your customer can comply with all regulatory requirements and operate safely in
Various types of airspace
An appropriate range of weather conditions
You’ll want to have a broad enough review to meet the objective while providing a more comprehensive review in
those areas your customer is weaker in

Although you will ultimately decide what to cover in a flight review, the following are topics that you’ll want to include in
every review in an effort to address and reduce accident and incident trends.
Pilot deviations
Spend time on pilot deviation avoidance awareness and best practices in avoiding deviations
Automation competency
Defined as the pilot’s ability to understand and operate a given aircraft’s automated systems
Consider what automated systems your customer uses and come up with a plan to evaluate their proficiency
using these systems
Angle of Attack (AOA) systems
Heavily promoted by the FAA and the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) to reduce loss of
control accidents
Loss of control is
Often the end result of a failure in risk management
The number one immediate cause of fatalities
If the airplane used in the review
Has an AOA indicator
Evaluate how your customer interprets and uses its cues
Ensure that they know how to use the AOA correctly
Does not have an AOA indicator
Emphasize the importance of angle of attack
Evaluate your customer’s general knowledge of aerodynamic principles relating to AOA
Abnormal and emergency procedures applicable to the aircraft

During the oral review evaluate your customer’s practical knowledge of recommended procedures and regulatory
requirements in the areas of (but not limited to)
Aircraft systems
Speeds
Performance
Meteorological and other hazards
Operations in controlled airspace
Abnormal and emergency procedures

During the flight portion, regardless of your customer’s experience or background, at a minimum evaluate those
maneuvers that are critical to flight safety, such as
Takeoffs
Stabilized approaches and landings
Slow flight
Stall recognition, stalls, and stall recovery
Spin recognition and avoidance
Recovery from unusual attitudes
Operating the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated conditions

Managing Expectations
You may find it beneficial to interview your flight review/IPC customers first to find out
The type of aircraft they fly
The type of flying they do
Their recency of experience

Something very important to consider is that a pilot who has multiple ratings only needs to take ONE flight review in
ANY of the aircraft they are rated for (61.56).
This review would count towards ALL of the aircraft they are rated for
For instance, a pilot who has a private pilot certificate with both an airplane single-engine land rating and a
rotorcraft-helicopter rating could take their flight review in either one and it would make them current for both
The exception is SFAR 73 regarding Robinson R22 and R44 helicopters, which requires that a flight review
must have been done in them specifically
As a flight instructor you may want to recommend your customers take their flight review in
The type of aircraft they fly the most
The most complex aircraft they fly
More than one category/class of aircraft, even though the regulations do not require it
Again, encourage them to get as much currency training as they need, above and beyond the minimum
requirements

Another thing to ask your customers about is the type of flying they do.
This way you can decide what maneuvers to cover during the flight review or IPC as you determine whether they
are capable to act as PIC

Recency of experience is also an important factor in developing a plan for the review and will help you manage their
expectations about how long the review will take.
Most pilots know they must complete 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight training for a flight review
This can create an unrealistic expectation of spending only about 2 hours with you
We know from experience the time will be more like 4 hours
As a rule of thumb, add an additional hour for each year the pilot has not been actively flying
Be sure you let your customer know the real time involved
This way your customer will clear the allotted time and be prepared to spend that time
Flight reviews are based on meeting proficiency, not on a time requirement

Preparation:
Have your customer review Part 91
There is an excellent course provided by the FAASTeam that you can recommend your customers take to
prepare for the flight review, ALC-25:  Flight Review Prep Guide
This course breaks the regulations down according to the 4 parts of PAVE – Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment,
External pressures
We don’t recommend you have your customer prepare a cross country in advance
Preparations done in advance may not give you an accurate picture of the process they use to plan a flight
The process itself is as important as the results
Have a written plan that details all the topics and maneuvers you will cover on the flight review

Again, AC 61-98D provides good guidance on

Preparing for the review
Giving the ground and flight portion
Going through a post-flight debriefing
Helping pilots develop personal minimums and proficiency training plans

Go over the plan with your customer so they know exactly

What they will be doing, and
What level of performance is expected

Get the customer’s “buy-in” before you begin.

 Many pilots have a deep-rooted apprehension of slow flight and stalls, and therefore never learned to
perform these maneuvers properly.
These should be a part of any thorough flight review
If necessary, try to convince your customers of the value of practicing these maneuvers

Let them know you will use the appropriate Airman Certification Standards (ACS) (e.g., private standards for private
pilots, commercial standards for commercial or ATP pilots) as the standard of performance, because
They’re objective
They’re industry accepted
The pilot had to meet these standards at one time

We recommend you emphasize to the pilot that the purpose of this flight review is safety
Not only their own, but also
The safety of those who fly with them

Also let them know they will need to understand how to correctly apply all relevant regulations to prevent
A mishap, and/or
FAA action against their certificate

The rapid development and use of various flight apps and online aviation marketplaces have made
interpreting the regulations regarding private pilot limitations and sharing flight expenses versus for-hire
operations (14 CFR 61.113) even more challenging.
In light of this the FAA has published additional guidance in AC 61-142, “Sharing Aircraft Operating
Expenses in Accordance with 14 CFR 61.113(c)," which your customers will find to be very helpful and
useful

One other responsibility you have as a CFI is to make sure you are current in and knowledgeable about the aircraft
you will be giving the review in.
Consider your personal qualifications for any given flight review or IPC
Get up to speed on your own recency of experience and familiarity with an aircraft’s make, model, type, and
systems (e.g. glass cockpit, autopilot) before giving the flight review
If you are not or cannot get proficient in the aircraft
Be honest about it
Decline to perform the flight review or IPC
Assist the customer in finding an experienced instructor who is well qualified to give the evaluation

For flight instructors, transition training has many similar considerations as a flight review as far as how important
this training is and what to take into account in conducting the training.  You can find out more in this FAA Safety
Briefing article, “Shifting Gears:  Tips for Tackling Transition Training”.

Honest Evaluation

We don’t recommend giving a flight review or IPC to friends or family members.

Unless their performance clearly meets the standards or clearly doesn’t
You’ll be in an uncomfortable position, and
You may have external pressures affecting your objectivity
You may also be influenced because you have seen them perform better in the past
 Which is irrelevant to this flight review or IPC
Some instructors are adamant about the fact that they are instructors, not evaluators
In fact, evaluation is an essential part of instruction
On this flight review/IPC you need to be more of an evaluator
If you find yourself in this situation we recommend you suggest another CFI conduct the review

Flight Review Ground Segment

This is not a lecture.

You’ll need to ask the pilot about the topics you’ve chosen

Use Scenario-Based Training (SBT) by giving them various scenarios on the ground and in flight, which
Will give you a good idea of the depth of the pilot’s knowledge
Is the only way you will know if they truly understand the information and how to apply it

Ask them to plan a short cross-country flight and explain what they’re doing.
This gives you an opportunity to see how they plan
Remember, they may use a different system than you do
Evaluate the one they use for
Accuracy
Completeness
You should not penalize them for using automated flight planning programs
Your job is to evaluate the thoroughness of their planning, regardless of the tools they use

Ask them to explain the

Airspace they will encounter on the flight
Requirements to fly in that airspace

Ask them to discuss

The risks they may encounter on this flight
Their plans to mitigate those risks
You are evaluating their decision-making and risk management skills, not just their physical flying skills and
basic knowledge

This is not a practical test

You can instruct during the flight review, but
You need to ask yourself how much instruction you should have to give
They should be able to explain the majority of the information without your assistance

During the ground segment of the flight review you notice the pilot’s cross-country planning is
incomplete.  He doesn’t know how to compute a magnetic heading for the flight, the weather planning
was incomplete, he didn’t have any substantial knowledge of airspace or special use airspace, and he did not check
NOTAMs or TFRs.

What should you do in this case?

You probably can’t help this pilot correct his deficiencies in an hour
You should suggest a training plan and offer to help him bring his knowledge back up to speed
You should not complete the flight review unless the customer
Agrees to finish it
Understands he won’t receive a flight review endorsement at the end of the flight

Some factors that may influence your evaluation during a flight review or IPC include
Are they receptive to your evaluation?
Do they acknowledge their deficiencies?
 Are they receptive to your training plan?
If they don’t know some of the subject matter, do they know where to look it up?

One other thing you will need to consider is whether the customer meets the FAA Aviation English Language
Standard (AELS).
These standards
Replace what was formerly known as English Language Proficiency
Are addressed in AC 60-28B
Issued in June 2017
Flight reviews and IPCs are both evaluations of a pilot’s ability to conduct a safe flight
A lack of meeting AELS directly affects flight safety
The regulations require pilots to meet and maintain English language standards
It is not uncommon for a pilot to meet these standards when first certificated, but lose that proficiency over
time
This may particularly occur if the pilot resides in a non-English-speaking country and has not been
speaking English regularly since their initial certification
As a flight instructor you are considered to be an FAA AELS evaluator
An FAA AELS evaluator, by definition, is anyone who is authorized to conduct certification, training, testing,
or checking, or to issue an endorsement required by the regulations
During the ground segment it should become evident whether the customer meets the AELS
A pilot cannot use the privileges of their certificate if they are not proficient in the English language
As an instructor you share the responsibility to ensure the customer is proficient in the English language
If your customer does not demonstrate proficiency to the FAA standards you should
Not continue the flight review/IPC
Not sign off their flight review/IPC
Make a logbook endorsement for the training received
Let the customer know about your AELS evaluation
By doing so you may be doing them and other pilots a big favor
You may prevent a deviation or an accident
Notify their local FSDO for further action

Your job is to evaluate and notify the local FSDO if you determine a customer does not meet the AELS. 
The FSDO is responsible to make the final determination and act accordingly.

As mentioned above, you can find out more about the FAA AELS in AC 60-28B, which provides you with eligibility
standards and guidance on evaluating the AELS.

Flight Review Flight Segment

What should the pilot be able to do?

Perform the tasks you’ve agreed on to at least the ACS appropriate to their pilot certificate

Again, you can certainly offer instruction, but

You must be confident that they can perform the maneuvers without your assistance

Sometimes the customer’s performance, good or bad, is clear, but

More often than not, it falls somewhere in the “gray” area in between

If in doubt, ask yourself if you would want one of your loved ones flying with this pilot.
If not, do not endorse the flight review

Have the customer review the flight and offer self-evaluation of how they performed.
You will learn far more than if you debrief the flight
 Chapter 6 of the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook provides specific suggestions for conducting the post-
flight evaluation discussion as a “collaborative critique”

Giving an Instrument Proficiency Check

If you are a CFII you also have the privilege of conducting an instrument proficiency check (IPC).
You have a great responsibility in determining if an IPC customer can operate safely in all aspects of instrument
flying
You must determine if they have the necessary
Knowledge
Skill
Ability to manage risks
This can be challenging because
You have a relatively short amount of time to evaluate the customer
As compared to preparing an applicant for an instrument rating
You may be unfamiliar with the
Customer
Aircraft and/or avionics
As discussed earlier, you will want to either get up to speed on these, or help your customer find a
more qualified CFII
The IPC probably won’t be conducted in realistic (IMC) conditions
However, you do have the option to conduct the IPC under
VFR
IFR in simulated instrument conditions, or
IFR in actual conditions

Just like with a flight review, you’ll want to

Interview your customer ahead of time
Make a plan for the IPC
Go over the plan with your customer and get their buy-in

Unlike a flight review, an IPC

Is a proficiency check rather than a training event where proficiency is evaluated
Your customers must demonstrate proficiency to the maneuvers specified in the applicable PTS/ACS
Any training you provide cannot count towards the IPC
Is category specific
So where a flight review in one category of aircraft meets the requirements for all categories of aircraft that
your customer has on their pilot certificate
Your customers must pass an IPC for each category of aircraft held on their certificate

IPC Ground Segment

You will need to evaluate whether your customer has adequate knowledge and understanding of
Part 91, paying special attention to subparts
B, Flight Rules
C, Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements
E, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
Enroute and approach chart interpretation, including
Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs)
Climb via/descend via procedures
Pilot misunderstanding regarding altitudes, particularly on “climb via” clearances, are a significant
cause of deviations
 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP)
Area Navigation (RNAV), GPS and WAAS procedures
Getting and interpreting weather information
Especially hazardous weather such as icing and convective activity
Aerodynamic principles relating to angle of attack (AOA) and the purpose, operation, and limitations of an AOA
indicator if installed
The following as they pertain to IFR operations
Preflight planning
Aircraft performance
NOTAM information (including TFRs)
Fuel requirements
Alternate requirements
Use of appropriate FAA publications (such as the Chart Supplement)
Aircraft systems and emergency procedures for equipment failure
Aircraft flight instruments and navigation equipment and emergency procedures for malfunction or failure
Determining the airworthiness of the aircraft, including required inspections and documents
Particularly the customer’s understanding of the additional requirements for instrument flight versus
VFR flight
ATC procedures with emphasis on ATC clearances and pilot/controller responsibilities

IPC Flight Segment

There are specific flight maneuvers you must evaluate during an IPC.
You can find these in the Instrument Airman Certification Standards
At the end of the Appendix titled “Practical Test Roles, Responsibilities, and Outcomes”
You’ll find a table listing the minimum tasks you must perform
You should use a scenario that incorporates as many of these tasks as possible
This helps you evaluate the customer’s risk management skills
Another thing you should emphasize is proper adherence to ATC clearances
You can also evaluate any other maneuvers at your discretion
To help you ensure that the customer can safely operate in IMC
Again, tailoring the IPC to the airspace and aircraft the customer will fly in
Regardless of the maneuvers you select, ensure that your customer has satisfactory basic attitude
instrument flying skills

You may conduct part or all of the IPC in an approved simulator, flight training device (FTD), or aviation training
device (ATD).
The Instrument ACS provides guidance on the applicability of specific devices to particular tasks
In general, advanced aviation training devices (AATDs) may be used for an IPC, but basic aviation training
devices (BATDs) may not
You should review the ATD letter of authorization (LOA) for the specific approval of that device

Just as with a flight review, have your customer offer self-evaluation at the conclusion of the IPC.
Again, Chapter 6 of the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook provides specific suggestions for conducting the post-
flight evaluation discussion as a “collaborative critique”

The FAA provides further guidance on giving an IPC in AC 61-98D.

As with the flight review, there is an excellent course provided by the FAASTeam that you can recommend your
customers take to prepare for the IPC, ALC-38:  Instrument Proficiency Check Review Guide.

Click on this article by John King to gain some useful tips you can pass on to your customers about special
considerations when making the decision whether to go on an IFR flight:  “What weather conditions would cause
you to stay on the ground as an IFR-rated pilot?”
As a CFII you should also be aware of InFO15012, which clarifies when an instrument approach procedure (IAP) can
be logged for currency and training requirements.
In summary, the pilot must fly all segments of the IAP (unless they receive vectors to the final approach course)
solely by reference to instruments when flying in
Simulated instrument conditions
All the way to the minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision altitude/decision height (DA/DH)
Actual IMC
Until transitioning from IMC to visual conditions for landing
In actual IMC they do not need to fly solely by reference to instruments all the way to the MDA or
DA/DH for the approach to count

Offering Additional Training

If the flight review or IPC was successful, you need to make the endorsement required by 61.56, but don’t stop there
This is the perfect opportunity to discuss any weak areas the pilot may have
And offer a training plan to help them
It’s also an ideal opportunity to offer added ratings if applicable

If you don’t sell yourself, who will?

You should make the endorsement for a satisfactory flight review or IPC in accordance with AC 61-65H, Certification:
Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.

Form 8710-1 now has fields for a flight review and IPC.
When a review is successful the FAA strongly encourages your customer to fill out an 8710-1 and you to submit it
This is not a requirement but it helps make sure the pilot’s FAA records are up-to-date

Turning an Unsatisfactory Performance Into Success

Sometimes it’s clear the pilot is no longer proficient.

If this is the case you should not

Endorse the flight review or IPC
Record an unsatisfactory review in the customer’s logbook
Instead you should log the training as instruction given

Point out that they took this flight review/IPC to see if they had any weak areas, and they were successful in finding a
few.
Now they can fix these issues and move on

Pilots who haven’t done well are naturally disappointed.

Sometimes that disappointment results in humility
Sometimes it results in hostility, mainly about their own performance, but hostility nonetheless

Those who acknowledge their weak areas are usually very receptive to a training plan.
Those who get hostile and won’t accept your evaluation just confirmed that their ability to safely exercise their
privileges is suspect.
Offer them a training plan and offer to help

Your Own Flight Review

As an instructor and a pilot

Not only do you have the authority to conduct a flight review
You must maintain your own currency as well

You can satisfy the requirements for your own flight review by
Completing a flight review with another instructor and receiving the endorsement
Completing a phase in the Wings program
Passing the practical test for a pilot certificate, category or class rating, or operating privilege
As of Nov. 15, 2013, passing the practical test for
A Flight Instructor certificate
An additional rating on an instructor certificate
Renewal or reinstatement of a CFI certificate

 
Until November 15, 2013, passing a Flight Instructor practical test did not constitute a flight review.
The FAA had previously issued a legal opinion (included in the CFI Resource Materials) in 2008 to
clarify 61.56(d), stating that the Flight Instructor Certificate is a teaching certificate, not
a pilot certificate
The FAA has now changed the rule so that an Instructor practical test does count as a flight review

If you are a flight instructor, renewing your flight instructor certificate (as you are doing by taking this
course) counts towards the one hour of ground training for your flight review.

Key Takeaways from this Lesson

What went wrong in the scenario we presented at the beginning of this module?
The customer was given an unrealistic expectation of how much time the flight review would take, and time was
an issue for them
The CFI didn’t have the maturity to deal with a more experienced pilot
The CFI was not experienced in conducting a flight review
The CFI wasn’t given any guidance from the school
The CFI had a momentary lapse of judgment

But none of those are an excuse.

 
As you have seen, the flight review and IPC are the most important lessons you conduct as a flight instructor because
you are
Recertifying pilots to use the privileges of the their pilot certificate for the next 24 calendar months
Determining that instrument-rated pilots can operate safely in all aspects of instrument flying

While you are ultimately responsible for determining what to cover in a flight review or IPC, the FAA provides good
guidance in ACs and handbooks that you will find very useful.

Some good tips on conducting a meaningful flight review or IPC include

Interviewing your customers beforehand
Developing a plan for the review/IPC and getting their buy-in
Letting them know how much time the review/IPC will take
Showing them what they need to do ahead of time to prepare for the review/IPC
Making sure you are current in and knowledgeable about the aircraft you will be giving the review/IPC in
Using scenario-based training during the review/IPC
Having your customers offer self-evaluation of the review/IPC

You also have the responsibility to evaluate whether your customers meet the FAA Aviation English Language
Standard (AELS).
If they cannot sufficiently meet the AELS, you should not sign off on the review or IPC

When a customer
Does not successfully complete the review/IPC
Log the time as instruction
Offer additional training they may need
Successfully completes the review/IPC
Submit an 8710-1 form to the FAA
Although this is not a requirement it is highly recommended by the FAA for record keeping
Provide the appropriate logbook endorsement
Still offer additional training they may need

Links for Further Study

Article by John King:  Three counterintuitive solutions to general aviation problems

AC 61-98D:  Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check

Flight review regulations:  61.56

Subjects to cover in a flight review:  Part 91

Airman Certification Standards (ACS)

Airplane Flying Handbook

Instrument Flying Handbook

Instrument Procedures Handbook

InFO 15012:  Logging Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP)

AC 60-28B:  FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and 107

AC 61-65H:  Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors

AC 61-89E:  Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings

AC 61-136B:  FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience

AC 91-73B:  Part 91 and 135 Single Pilot, Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations

Definition of a Technically Advanced Airplane (TAA):  61.129(j)

SFAR 73

ALC-25:  Flight Review Prep Guide

Private pilot privileges and limitations regulations:  61.113

AC 61-142:  Sharing Aircraft Operating Expenses in Accordance with 14 CFR 61.113(c)

FAA Safety Briefing article:  Shifting Gears:  Tips for Tackling Transition Training

Aviation Instructor's Handbook Chapter 6

Aviation Instructor's Handbook

Instrument ACS

ALC-38:  Instrument Proficiency Check Review Guide

Article by John King:  What weather conditions would cause you to stay on the ground as an IFR-rated pilot?

FAA’s legal opinion to clarify 61.56(d)