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Geographic Information System (GIS)

GIS : An System for effective Spatial Analyses and Decision Support

History
In 1832, the French geographer Charles Picquet
represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by
halftone color gradient according to the number of
deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.

In 1854 John Snow determined the source of a

cholera outbreak in London by marking points on
a map depicting where the cholera victims lived,
and connecting the cluster that he found with a
nearby water source.

Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A Geographic

Information System for Regional Planning". Tomlinson is also
acknowledged as the "father of GIS”

Present day Google Map, ARC Info, QGIS are highly evolved in terms of all
main functionalities

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".. a system of hardware, software and procedures designed to support the

capture, management, manipulation, analysis, and display of spatially
referenced data for solving complex planning and management problems."

What is so special about spatial database & GIS ?

It is transformation of Spatial Data to Geo-information

Why Needed ??

• The world is increasingly IT led .... and databases are just

getting bigger ....
• BUT data  information.
• GIS is about converting data to information
• And since we live in an inherently spatial world,
exploiting this will be important.
• Increased computer power allows us to attempt this
conversion.
• Geographic Information Systems provide the tools to
process spatially referenced data.

•A GIS is more than a spatially referenced database.

•The operations (and queries) which one might like to apply to spatial data are
often very different to those applied to non-spatial data.

•So a GIS provides:

a core database system;
spatial data analysis capabilities;
and map input & output capabilities.

Cartography versus GIS

There is a big overlap between (digital) cartography and GIS.
The prime differences between a GIS and a mapping system are in their functional
components:

A GIS contains these four components:

a. Input b. Database c. Analysis d. Output

In contrast, a mapping (cartographic) system can be described in three components:

i. Input ii. Map design iii. Output

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GIS & Related Mapping technologies

In order to enable spatial data manipulation and results, a GIS must include the
following characteristics, based on the above components:
a. A database management system (DBMS)
b. Analysis capability
c. Spatial geo-referencing
d. Graphics input and output

Related types of mapping software may have some but not all of these
capabilities:
CAD: Computer Assisting Drawing, e.g. AutoCad, Microstation c, d
GDS: Graphic Design System, e.g. CorelDraw, Illustrator d
DBMS: Database Management System, e.g. Oracle, Sybase a
DIPS: Digital Image Processing System, e.g. PCI, Erdas b, c, d
GPS: Global Positioning Systems, e.g. Garmin, Trimble c, d

How Does GIS Work:

1. Data Capture
2. Relating information from different sources
3. Projection & registration
4. Data integration
5. Data Structure
6. Data Modeling

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Types of queries a GIS can Answer

a. Location
WHAT exists here - what is at a particular location?
Examples : "What is at 1 000 000N and 546 000E ?" Forest attributes or municipal
ownership.

b. Condition
WHERE are specific conditions -
Examples : "Where does it rain 250 cm per year ?" or where are all houses owned by
person x?

c. Trends
WHAT HAS CHANGED (over time) -
Examples : "How far has the river bank receded in the past 2 years ?"
Areas harvested between then and now, houses increased in price by > 50%.

d. Patterns
HOW are patterns related
Examples : "How does proximity to Hostel 2 affect the number of Leopard attacks";
Harvested watersheds and stream water quality, traffic accidents and road surfaces.

e. Modelling
WHAT IF ..? -
Examples : Geo-statistics- Ore Reserve Estimation
What if the climate warmed by 2 degrees? (effect on habitats)

What are the special features of GIS ??

1. Slope and aspect

2. Data analysis
3. Topological modeling
4. Geometric networks
5. Hydrological modeling
6. Cartographic modeling
7. Map overlay
8. Geostatistics
9. Address geocoding
10. Reverse geocoding
11. Multi-criteria decision analysis
12. GIS data mining

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GIS data TYPES:

1. Spatial Data
2. Attribute Data
Themes / Layers:

The Spatial database can be divided into as many layers as is necessary, where
each layer contains one characteristic such as soils, land use, drainage, etc. The
layers 'overlay' each other perfectly (as a result of georeferencing) and enabling
analysis between layers.

Attribute Data

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GIS data structures

In the early days of GIS, there was much
dispute over the two main types of data
structures:

Raster and Vector.

Each has different advantages, so the best

choice depends on your application.

Vector data consist of points, lines (arcs) and

polygons formed from lines joining x and y
coordinates. Most map data are vector. vector
systems handle databases and map output
more effectively.

Raster data are organised in grids, one value

per grid square. All photographs and images
are raster.

Most software integrates the best of both

arenas although their roots were primarily in
one of raster or vector.

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Point

GIS Vector feature class

There are three main types of vector data:

a. Points: Arc
have no length or area at the given scale have a single
X, Y coordinate represent a feature that is too small to
be displayed as a line or area in the given scale.

b. Lines / Arcs:
have length but too narrow for width to be shown, e.g. a
creek, small road are accompanied by a set of linked
coordinates
Polygon
c. Areas (polygons):
have an area that is given by the lines (arcs) that make
the boundary. They are used to represent features that
have area (e.g. lakes, large cities and islands)

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GIS Data Models

Raster Vs Vector

“Raster is Faster but vector is corrector”

Raster Vector
Location is referenced by a grid cell Location is referenced by x,y coordinates,
in rectangular array which can be linked to form lines or polygons
in rectangular array

Attribute is represented as a single value Attribute referenced through unique id

Best For continuous features Best suited for discrete boundaries

(elevation, temperature etc.) (soil, lithology, road, rail, admin boundaries)

Geo dataset:

We call a database as geo-dataset if it comprises:

1. Projection parameters viz., zone, spheroid, datum, etc.,

2. Feature Coverage / grids. This again will have spatial and tabular data

What is Topology ?

Topology is a mathematical procedure for explicitly defining spatial relationships.

In other words “way in which geographical elements are linked together”.

Uses:
Stores data more efficiently,
Data processing is faster
Because of topological relations only flow
modeling / network analysis/ overlaying of
Geographic features are possible.

Three major Topological Concepts:

Arcs connect to each other at nodes
Arcs that connect to surround an area define a polygon (area definition)
Arcs have direction and left and right sides.

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A central component of the ‘Geo-relational Data Model’ is linking spatial

data and tabular data and ability to retrieve it, analyze it.

-The topological data structure logically determines exactly how and where
points and lines connect on a map by means of nodes (defines topological
junctions).

Vertex & Nodes

Vertices are the x,y pairs along the arc.’
Nodes are the end points of the arc. So accordingly
from-node and to-node.
Arcs join only at nodes.

Polygons
A polygon consists of a series of arcs enclosing an area because arcs have
directional information, the data structures store “inside” versus “outside” data
of each polygon.

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Topology has three components:

three types of topological relationships - these are:

1. Connectivity
- information about linkages among spatial elements
- example: arcs are connected to others at nodes
-identifies possible routes and networks – rivers and roads – via lists of arcs in
database.

2.Containment
-information about one spatial object inside another
-example: enclosed polygon has measurable
Area

3.Contiguity/Adjacency
-information about neighborhood among spatial objects – adjacent and proximity
(near)
-adjacency of polygons determined by shared arcs
Only the above 3 functionalities Allows answering of questions and queries
in GIS:

1. From point A, how can I get to point B using the city road system ?
2. What is the total area of all residential housing ?
3. Which residential areas are next to parks?

The use of topological relationships in GIS

1.Data input and representation

-storing the adjacency info in the form of identifiers of polygons left and right of
arcs removes the need to duplicate storage of the line data.Boundaries that are
shared are digitized and stored only once.

2. Spatial search by topological relationships

- in a GIS the computer makes use of the adjacency information to identify
immediately all polygons that share a common boundary with the parcel of interest
and applies respective internal ID’s as a key to retrieve the descriptive data

3. Construction of complex spatial objects

-complex spatial objects are represented as complex polygons:

a) those containing one or more holes (islands) and

b) those made up of two or more polygons that are not physically connected

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‘Geo-relational Data Model’

where spatial/graphical data are stored using topological data structure,

and attribute data are stored using relational or tabular data structure

Linkages between attribute data and spatial data is done through a common
identifier.

- attributes are stored in a .FAT (feature attribute table)

.PAT, .AAT, .PAT

Boundary table .BND - no attributes

Registration table .TIC - no attributes

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Standard GIS Data Model : Links spatial and attribute data

Common Database Models:

Relational Database Model

• There is one to one relationship between features on the map and the records
in feature attribute table

• The link between the features and its record is maintained through a unique
numerical identifier assigned to each feature.

• The unique identifier is physically stored in two places. In the files that contain
x,y coordinate pairs and with the corresponding record in the FAT.

GIS ANALYSIS
Map Overlay in GIS
Definition: - the process of taking two different thematic maps of the same area
and overlaying them one on top of the other to form a new map layer.

“The ability to integrate data from two sources using map over is perhaps the key
GIS analysis function”.

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Map Algebra

• C. Dana Tomlin (1983…)

• implemented in many grid analysis packages, including

ArcGrid, Idrisi, MapII, ArcView Spatial Analyst

• Four classes of operations:

– local
– focal
– zonal
– incremental

Local Functions
• work on single cells, one after another,
value assigned to a cell depends on this
cell only
• examples:
– arithmetic operations with a constant, or
with another grid:

2 0 1 6 0 3 2 0 1 1 5 3 2 0 3
2 4 0 * 3 = 6 12 0 2 4 0 * 4 4 3 = 8 16 0
3 1 9 3 3 1 2 5 6 6 6

– also logical operations, comparisons (min,

max, majority, minority, variety, etc.)

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Polygon Overlay, Discrete Object Case

B
A
In this example, two
polygons are intersected
to form 9 new polygons.
One is formed from both
input polygons; four are
formed by Polygon A and
not Polygon B; and four
are formed by Polygon B
and not Polygon A.

Focal Functions
• assign data value to a cell based on its
neighborhood (variously defined)
• uses:
– smoothing - moving averaging
– edge detection
– assessing variety, etc.
• examples:
– focal sum - adds up values in cell neighborhood,
and assigns this value to the focal cell
– focal mean - averages values in neighborhood,and
assigns the result to the focal cell
– also: logical functions, other mathematical

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Shapes of Neighborhoods

1 1
3 4 6 3 6
4 4
5 1 2 5 1 2
3 4 6 3 4 6
3 4 4 3 4 4

Kinds of Neighborhoods
• Neighborhood: a set of locations each of
which bears a specified distance and/or
directional relationship to a particular
location called the neighborhood focus (D.
Tomlin)
– distance and directional neighbors
– immediate and extended neighbors
– metric and topological neighbors
– neighbors of points, lines, areas...

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Neighborhood Operations
some function

1
3 4 6 X
4
Functions:
Total: X = 18 Variety: X = 4
Average: X = 4 Median: X = 4
Minimum: X = 1 Deviation: X = 0
Maximum: X = 6 Std. dev.: X = 2
Minority: X = 1 (or 3, or 6) Proportion: X = 40
Majority: X = 4 ...

Neighborhood Statistics
• In Spatial Analyst you can specify:
– shape of neighborhood: | Circle |
Rectangle | Doughnut | Wedge
– size of neighborhood: radius (circle),
inner and outer radius (doughnut),
radius, start and end angles (wedge),
width and height (rectangle)
– operation: | Minimum | Maximum | |
Mean | Median | Sum | Range |
Standard Dev. | Majority | Minority |
Variety |

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Buffer: a Typical Neighborhood

• Buffers and offsets
• Buffers in vector form
– either a chain of “sausages”
– or a Voronoi network
• Buffers in raster form
– a two-step operation: (1) create a map
of distances from the object; (2)
reclassify it into a binary map

Buffering
Polyline

Polygon
Point

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Rules of Map Combination

• Dominance
– selects one value from those
available, other values ignored; an
external rule is used for selection
• Contributory
– values from each map contribute to
+ the result, typically combined with
some arithmetic operation, ignoring
interdependence of factors (each
value contributes without regard to
others)
• Interaction
– interaction between factors is
accounted for, more flexible design

Digital Elevation Model / Digital Terrain Model

The term digital elevation model or DEM is frequently used to refer to any digital
representation of a topographic surface. However, most often it is used to refer
specifically to a raster or regular grid of spot heights.

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Bundle of rays

Point Cloud - Aerial Photographs

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Several data structures have been used, although the most popular are the
grid and triangular irregular network.

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1. In a TIN model, the sample points are connected by lines to form triangles
(within each triangle the surface is usually represented by a plane)

2. By using triangles we ensure that each piece of the mosaic surface will fit with its
neighboring pieces - the surface will be continuous - as each triangle's surface
would be defined by the elevations of the three corner points.

3. for vector GIS, TINs can be seen as polygons having attributes of slope, aspect
and area, with three vertices having elevation attributes and three edges with
slope and direction attributes

4. the TIN model is attractive because of its simplicity and economy

in addition, certain types of terrain are very effectively divided into triangles with
plane facets

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