MIND ACTION SERIES

With the Educators, for the Educators

MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 NEW EDITION

TEXTBOOK LAUNCH - SAMPLE CHAPTERS

1. Trigonometry Chapter 6
2. Probability Chapter 13

ISBN:

Mathematics Textbook NCAPS (New Edition 2022) 978177611844-1

Mathematics Teacher Guide (New Edition 2022) 978177611847-2

Authors

• Jurgens Basson
• Jaco Odendaal
• Heilana Gouws
• Lidwinia Nieuwoudt
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 CHAPTER SIX
——————————————————————————————

Trigonometry
————————————————————————————————————————

Trigonometry is about the relationships between sides and angles in triangles. In Grade 10, we will
study these relationships in right-angled triangles.

LABELING OF TRIANGLES

The sides of triangles are labeled based on their positions relative to a specific angle (θ in this
diagram):

LE
● The longest side (opposite the 90° angle) is
called the hypotenuse.
● The side next to the specified angle is called hypotenuse opposite
the adjacent side.
● The side opposite the specified angle is called
the opposite side. θ
adjacent

Note that we often use Greek letters (α, β, θ etc.) to denote angles in trigonometry.
MP
RATIOS BETWEEN SIDES OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

As an example, consider the following two similar triangles: P

C
(hypotenuse) 6
(hypotenuse) 2 1(opposite) 3 (opposite)
30°
A B
3
SA

(adjacent)
30°
M N
27
(adjacent)

The ratios between the sides of these two triangles (relative to the 30° angle) are:

BC opposite 1 PN opposite 3 1
= = = = =
AC hypotenuse 2 MP hypotenuse 6 2

AB adjacent 3 MN adjacent 27 3
= = = = =
AC hypotenuse 2 MP hypotenuse 6 2
BC opposite 1 PN opposite 3 1
= = = = =
AB adjacent 3 MN adjacent 27 3

 Notice that each of the different ratios remains constant for these two similar triangles. These ratios
will remain constant for all right-angled triangles with a 30° angle.

opposite adjacent
In all right-angled triangles with the same set of angles, the ratios , and
hypotenuse hypotenuse
opposite
will remain constant. These ratios are called the sine ratio, the cosine ratio and the
adjacent
tangent ratio respectively.

DEFINITION OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

We define the three trigonometric ratios as follows:

LE
Sine Cosine Tangent
opposite adjacent opposite
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

hypotenuse
opposite
MP
θ
adjacent

In the following examples, we will write down the values of the trigonometric ratios:

EXAMPLE 1
C
In the sketch alongside, Â = 60°, AB = 1 unit, BC = 3 units and AC = 2 units.

Use the sketch to write down the values of the following trigonometric ratios:
SA

2 3
(a) sin 60° (b) cos 60° (c) tan 60°
60°
A B
1
Solution

First label the sides of the triangle:

C opposite 3
(a) sin 60° = =
hypotenuse 2
adjacent 1
(hypotenuse) 2 3 (opposite) (b) cos 60° = =
hypotenuse 2

opposite 3
60° (c) tan 60° = = = 3
A B adjacent 1
1
(adjacent)
2

 EXAMPLE 2
L
In the diagram alongside, M̂ = θ, LN = 3 cm and MN = 4 cm.

(a) Write down the value of tan θ.

3 cm
(b) Determine the value of cos θ.
(c) Write down the value of sin θ .
θ
M N
4 cm
Solution

(a) L

LE
opposite 3
3 cm (opposite) tan θ = =
adjacent 4

θ
M N
4 cm
(adjacent)

(b) LM2 = MN2 + LN2 (Pythagoras)

MP
∴ LM2 = 42 + 32
∴ LM2 = 25
∴ LM = 5 cm

adjacent 4
(hypotenuse) 5 cm 3 cm (opposite) cos θ = =
hypotenuse 5

θ
SA

M N
4 cm
(adjacent)

opposite 3
(c) sin θ = =
hypotenuse 5

EXAMPLE 3
T
In the sketch alongside, TR = 13 units and
RS = 12 units.
13
Write down the value of
(a) cos T (b) sin T (c) tan T
R S
12

 Solution

T (a) TR2 = TS2 + RS2 (Pythagoras)

∴ 132 = TS2 + 122
(hypotenuse) 13 ∴ TS2 = 25
(adjacent)
∴ TS = 5 units
adjacent 5
R S cos T = =
12 hypotenuse 13
(opposite)

opposite 12 opposite 12
(b) sin T = = (c) tan T = =
hypotenuse 13 adjacent 5

LE
EXAMPLE 4

The right-angled triangle alongside has sides with lengths x, y x

α
and z. The angles α and β are shown.

(a) Write down, in terms of x, y and z, the value of y

(1) cos α (2) sin α (3) tan α z

β
(b) Write down, in terms of x, y and z, the value of
cos β sin β tan β
MP
(1) (2) (3)

Solution

(a) Label the sides with respect to α.

x (adjacent) adjacent x
(1) cos α = =
α hypotenuse z

opposite y
y (2) sin α = =
hypotenuse z
(hypotenuse) z (opposite)
SA

β opposite y
(3) tan α = =
adjacent x

(b) Label the sides with respect to β.

adjacent y
x (opposite) (1) cos β = =
α hypotenuse z

opposite x
y (2) sin β = =
hypotenuse z
(hypotenuse) z (adjacent)
β opposite x
(3) tan β = =
adjacent y

 EXERCISE 1

(a) In the triangle alongside, N̂ = 30°, MN = 8 units, MP = 4 units M

and NP = 48 units.

Use the sketch to write down the values of the following 8

4
trigonometric ratios. Simply the ratios as far as possible.
(1) sin 30° (2) cos 30°
(3) tan 30° N
30°
P
48

A
(b) In the sketch alongside, Ĉ = θ, AB = 8 cm and

LE
BC = 15 cm.
(1) Calculate the length of AC.
(2) Determine the values of the following 8 cm
trigonometric ratios:
(i) sin θ (ii) cos θ
(iii) tan θ B θ
C
15 cm

8
In ΔRST, RS = 8 units and RT = 10 units.
MP
(c) R S
Determine the value of
(1) sin R (2) tan R
(3) cos R
10

T
(d) The sides of the right-angled triangle alongside have lengths
29 units, 21 units and 20 units. The angles θ and β are shown. β
Write down the value of
SA

(1) cos θ (2) sin θ 29

(3) tan θ (4) cos β 20
(5) sin β (6) tan β
θ
21

(e) In the sketch alongside, two of the sides of the triangle

have lengths 5 units and 3 units. The angles α and β
β are indicated on the sketch. Determine the values
of the following trigonometric ratios: 5 3
(1) tan α (2) cos α
(3) sin α (4) tan β α
(5) cos β (6) sin β

 (f) The right-angled triangle alongside has sides of length

a, b and c units. The angles α and θ are shown. θ

Write down the values of the following trigonometric a

b
ratios in terms of a, b and c:
(1) sin θ (2) cos θ (3) tan θ
(4) sin α (5) cos α (6) tan α α
c
CALCULATING SIDES IN TRIANGLES

It is possible to calculate the values of the trigonometric ratios for any angle with a calculator.

For example: sin 40° = 0,6427876097

cos 65° = 0,4226182617

LE
tan 25° = 0,4663076582

In the following examples, we will use the values of the trigonometric ratios to determine unknown
sides in triangles.

EXAMPLE 5 U
In ΔUVW alongside, V̂ = 35° and UV = 12 units.

12
MP
Determine the length of the following sides correct to two decimals:
(a) VW
(b) UW
35° W
V
Solution

(a) Label the sides with respect to the given angle:

U
SA

(hypotenuse) 12 (opposite)

35° W
V
(adjacent)

Use the ratio between the side given and the side required.

adjacent
= cos 35°
hypotenuse
VW
∴ = cos 35°
12
∴ VW = 12 cos 35°
∴ VW = 9,83 units

 (b) UV2 = VW2 + UW2 (Pythagoras)

∴ (12)2 = (9,83)2 + UW2
∴ 144 = 96,6298 + UW2
∴ UW2 = 47,3702
∴ UW = 6,88 units

EXAMPLE 6
A
In the sketch alongside, Â = 53° and BC = 7 m.
53°
Determine the length of side AC. Give your answer correct to one
decimal place.
B C

LE
7m
Solution

A opposite
= tan 53°
adjacent
53°
7
(hypotenuse) (adjacent) ∴ = tan 53°
AC
∴ 7 = AC tan 53°
B C 7
7m
MP
∴ AC =
(opposite) tan 53°
∴ AC = 5,3 units

EXERCISE 2

(a) Calculate the length of the side labeled with x in each of the following right-angled
triangles. Round your answers to two decimal places.

(1) (2)

8
11
SA

25°
x 48°

x
(3) (4)
58°
4 13

63°

 (b) Determine the length of AC in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to one
decimal place.

(1) B A (2) A
42°

32°
6 km

C
C B
3m

LE
(c) Determine the length of PQ in each of the following triangles. Round your answer to three
decimal places.

(1) 15 (2) P Q
P R 73°
29°

10 cm
MP
Q

CALCULATING ANGLES IN TRIANGLES

It is possible to determine the angle for which a trigonometric ratio will have a specific value by
SA

using the inverse trigonometric functions (sin−1, cos−1 and tan−1) on the calculator .

(2)
1 1
For example, if sin θ = , then θ = sin−1 = 30°.
2

EXAMPLE 7
D
In the triangle alongside, DF = 7 units, DE = 10 units and Ê = θ.

Determine the size of θ correct to two decimal places. 10 7

θ
E F

 Solution

Label sides with respect to θ :

D
opposite
= sin θ
hypotenuse
(hypotenuse) 10 7
∴ = sin θ
7 (opposite) 10

( 10 )
7
∴ θ = sin−1
θ
E F
(adjacent) ∴ θ = 44,43°

LE
EXERCISE 3

(a) Determine the size of the angle labeled θ in each of the following triangles. Give your
answers correct to two decimal places.

(1) (2)
MP
15 17 cm 24 cm

θ θ
13

(3) θ (4)
θ

15
18 m 16 m
SA

30

(b) In the triangle alongside AB = 5 units and AC = 9 units. A

Determine the size of Ĉ . Round your answer to

one decimal place. 9
5

B C

 (c) In ΔMNP sketched alongside, MN = 14 km M 14 km N
and MP = 12 km.

Determine the size of N̂ . Round your answer

to one decimal place. 12 km

PROBLEMS INVOLVING MORE THAN ONE TRIANGLE

When there are two or more triangles in a problem, we usually start by solving for the common side
between the two triangles:

LE
EXAMPLE 8

In the diagram below, Â = 35°, AC = 10 m and CD = 15 m.

C 15 m D

10 m
MP
35°
A B
Determine the size of D̂ .

Solution
C In ΔABC:
BC
sin 35° =
AC
SA

(hypotenuse) 10 BC
(opposite) ∴ sin 35° =
10
∴ BC = 10 sin 35∘
35° ∴ BC = 5,74 m
A B

15 (adjacent) In ΔBCD:
C D
BC
tan D =
CD
5,74 5,74
∴ tan D =
(opposite) 15

( 15 )
5,74
∴ D = tan−1

B ∴ D = 20,94°

10

 EXERCISE 4

In this exercise, round all answers to two decimal places.

(a) In the diagram below, Â = 42°, AB = 20 cm and BD = 24 cm. Determine the size of B̂ 1.

C D

24 cm

LE
1
42°
A 20 cm B

(b) In ΔFGH, FG = 12 units, EH = 4 units, F̂ = 51° and GE ⊥ FH. Determine the size of Ĥ .

G
MP
12

51°
F E 4 H

(c) In ΔPQR, P̂ = 48° and Q̂ = 90°; and in ΔQRS, QS = 11 m, Ŝ = 63° and QRS
̂ = 90°.
Determine the length of PR.

P
SA

48°

Q R

11 m
63°
S

11

 (d) In the diagram below, ACB̂ = 25°, BCD

̂ = 63°, CBA
̂ = CDB
̂ = 90° and CD = 7 cm.
Calculate the length of AB.

C A
25°
63°

7 cm

D B

In ΔKLM, K̂ = α and K ML
̂ = β. KM = ML = 20 m and KL = 30 m. MN ⊥ KL.

LE
(e)
M

β
20 m 20 m

α
K L
N
MP
30 m

Calculate

(1) α (2) β

(f)* In ΔEFG, Ê = 58°, F̂ = 40° and EF = 20 units. H is a point on EF such that GH ⊥ EF.
EH = x.
G
SA

58° 40°
E x H F
20

20 tan 40°
(1) Show that x = .
tan 58° + tan 40°

(2) Hence, calculate the length of EG.

12

 (g)* In ΔABC, Â = α, A BC ̂ = 90°.
̂ = 90° and AB = x. In ΔBCD, D̂ = θ and BCD

A x B
α

LE
C D

x tan α
(1) Show that BD = .
sin θ

(2) If α = 71°, θ = 64° and x = 15 units, calculate the length of BD.

CALCULATING TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSIONS ON THE CALCULATOR

MP
The values of many trigonometric expressions can be calculated using a calculator.

EXAMPLE 9

Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two decimal places:

(a) sin 40° + sin 15° (b) cos(35° + 20°) (c) tan 50° + 3
Solution

(a) 0,90 (b) 0,57 (c) 4,19

SA

EXAMPLE 10

Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to one decimal place:

(a) 3 sin 42° (b) cos 2(36°) (c) tan 28° sin 15°
Solution

(a) 3 × sin 42° = 2,0 (b) cos(2 × 36°) = 0,3 (c) tan 28° × sin 15° = 0,1

Exponents of trigonometric ratios are often written after the ratio name and before the angle. For
example sin2 θ = (sin θ )2 = sin θ × sin θ.

In general
sinn θ = (sin θ )n
cosn θ = (cos θ )n
tann θ = (tan θ )n

13

 EXAMPLE 11
Calculate the values of following expressions, correct to two decimal places.
(a) cos2 55° (b) tan4 42° (c) sin 14°
Solution
(a) (cos 55°)2 = 0,33 (b) (tan 42°)4 = 0,66 (c) sin 14° = 0,49

EXAMPLE 12
If A = 51° and B = 28°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two decimal
places.
(a) sin(A + B) (b) cos(A − B) (c) tan 2B + 1

LE
3
(d) sin A cos B (e) cos B (f) sin2 A + cos3 B
4
(g)
tan A
Solution
(a) sin(51° + 28°) = 0,98 (b) cos(51° − 28°) = 0,92 (c) tan(2 × 28°) + 1 = 2,48
3
(d) sin 51° × cos 28° = 0,69 (e) cos 28° = 0,96 (f) (sin 51°)2 + (cos 38°)3
= 1,29
4
MP
(g) = 3,24
tan 51°

EXERCISE 5
(a) Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to one decimal place:
(1) sin 74° + cos 41° (2) tan(28° + 12°) (3) cos 25° + 4
(4) 2 cos 35° (5) sin 3(18°) (6) 4 tan 25° − 1
(7) tan2 72° (8) sin 54° (9) 4 cos3 12°
(10) tan(83° − 16°) (11) cos 80° − tan 35° (12) 3 − sin 43°
1 tan 28° 8
SA

(13) (14) (15)

sin 28° 4 5 cos 67°
tan 35°
(16) sin 25° cos 12° (17) (18) tan 87° sin 3° − cos 87°
cos 70°

( 2 )
56° 1
(19) tan (20) cos 40° (21) 2 sin 35° + sin 2(35°)
3

( 5 )
50° 3 sin2 25°
(22) 3 sin2 (23) cos 80° − 1 (24) −3
2 cos 10°
(b) If A = 83° and B = 32°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
decimal places:
(1) tan(A + B) (2) cos A + cos B (3) sin A tan B

(2)
tan A B
(4) (5) sin (6) cos2 B − 1
cos B
sin3(3B − A)
(7) 2 tan A (8) cos(A − 2B) (9) +1
2
14

 CALCULATING UNKNOWN ANGLES IN EQUATIONS

To determine an unknown angle in an equation, we will first get the trigonometric ratio by itself on
one side of the equation. We will then use the inverse trigonometric functions to calculate the
angle:

EXAMPLE 13

Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round to two decimal places.
(The angle is acute in each case.)
2
(a) sin x = (b) 4 cos x = 3 (c) 2 tan x − 1 = 0
3
5

LE
(d) sin 2x = (e) 5 cos 3x − 4 = 0 (f) 2 tan(x − 10°) = 5
8
Solution

2 (b) 4 cos x = 3 (c) 2 tan x − 1 = 0

(a) sin x =
3 3 ∴ 2 tan x = 1
∴ cos x =
(3)
2 4 1
∴ x = sin−1 ∴ tan x =
(4)
3 2
∴ x = cos−1

(2)
∴ x = 41,81° 1
MP
∴ x = tan−1
∴ x = 41,41°
∴ x = 26,67°

5 (e) 5 cos 3x − 4 = 0 (f) 2 tan(x − 10°) = 5

(d) sin 2x =
8 4 5
∴ cos 3x = ∴ tan(x − 10°) =
(8)
5 5 2
∴ 2x = sin−1
(5)
4 ∴ x − 10° = 68,20°
∴ 3x = cos−1
∴ 2x = 38,68218745° ∴ x = 68,20° + 10°
∴ x = 19,34° ∴ 3x = 36,86989765° ∴ x = 78,20°
SA

∴ x = 12,29°

EXERCISE 6

(a) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations if 0° ≤ x ≤ 90°.

Round to two decimal places.

4 8
(1) sin x = (2) cos x = 0,4 (3) tan x =
13 7

(4) 5 tan x = 3 (5) 6 sin x = 4 (6) 8 cos x = 5

(7) 6 cos x − 1 = 0 (8) 11 sin x − 5 = 0 (9) 7 tan x − 2 = 0

15

 (b) Determine the value of θ in each of the following equations. Round to one decimal place.
The angle is acute in each case.
4
(1) tan 2θ = 4 (2) cos 3θ = (3) sin 2θ = 0,375
11
(4) 7 cos 3θ = 3 (5) 2 tan 2θ − 6 = 0 (6) 9 sin 4θ − 7 = 0
(7) tan(θ − 30°) = 0,8 (8) 6 sin(θ − 25°) = 3 (9) 11 cos(2θ − 5°) − 3 = 0

ANGLES GREATER THAN 90° (WORKING ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE)

Up to now, we have only worked with angles smaller than 90° (angles of a right-angled triangle).
By placing the angle on the Cartesian plane, the definition of the trigonometric ratios can be
expanded to include angles greater than 90°.

LE
Consider a line segment of length r , drawn from the origin, that forms an acute angle θ with the
positive x-axis:

In the right-angled triangle formed in this sketch:

y (x ; y)
opposite y
● sin θ = =
hypotenuse r
r adjacent x
● cos θ = =
hypotenuse r
MP
θ y
opposite y
x ● tan θ = =
adjacent x
x
It is also possible to draw similar diagrams for angles greater than 90°:

(x ; y) θ θ
y x x

r r r
θ
SA

x y
(x ; y) y (x ; y)

In general for all angles, θ, on the Cartesian plane we define the trigonometric ratios as follows:

y x y
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
r r x

It is also important to be aware of the following fact:

x2 + y2 = r 2

● x and y can be either positive or negative based on the position of x and y on the Cartesian
plane.
● r is always positive.

16

 EXAMPLE 14

Calculate the values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in each of the following sketches without the use of a
calculator.

(a) y (b) y
(3 ; 4) (−12 ; y)

13

θ
θ
x x

y y

LE
(c) θ (d) θ
x x

17 10

(x ; −15) (8 ; y)

Solution
MP
(a) x2 + y2 = r 2 (b) x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ 32 + 42 = r 2 ∴ (−12)2 + y 2 = 132
∴ r 2 = 25 ∴ y 2 = 25
∴r =±5 ∴y =±5
∴r =5 r >0 ∴y =5 y > 0 (from the sketch)

y 4 y 5
sin θ = = sin θ = =
r 5 r 13
x 3 x −12 12
cos θ = = cos θ = = =−
r 5 r 13 13
SA

y 4 y 5 5
tan θ = = tan θ = = =−
x 3 x −12 12

(c) x2 + y2 = r 2 (d) x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ x 2 + (−15)2 = 172 ∴ 82 + y 2 = 10 2
∴ x 2 = 64 ∴ y 2 = 36
∴ x =±8 ∴y =±6
∴ x =−8 x < 0 (from the sketch) ∴y =−6 y < 0 (from the sketch)

y −15 15 y −6 6
sin θ = = =− sin θ = = =−
r 17 17 r 10 10
x −8 8 x 8
cos θ = = =− cos θ = =
r 17 17 r 10
y −15 15 y −8 8
tan θ = = = tan θ = = =−
x −8 8 x 6 6

17

 In the previous example, you would have noticed that some of the trigonometric ratios were
negative. The following diagram illustrates where the different ratios are positive or negative:
y
y + y +
sin θ = = =+ sin θ = = =+
r + x− x+ r +
x − x +
cos θ = = =− y+ y+ cos θ = = =+
r + r +
r+ r+
y + y +
tan θ = = =− tan θ = = =+
x − x +
x
y − y −
sin θ = = =− x− sin θ = = =−
r + x+ r +

LE
x − y− y− x +
cos θ = = =− cos θ = = =+
r + r+ r+ r +
y − y −
tan θ = = =+ tan θ = = =−
x − x +

We can summarise this in the so-called CAST diagram:

90°
MP
II I

S A
180° 0° / 360°

T C
III IV
270°

The letters A, S, T and C indicate which ratio(s) are positive in each quadrant:
SA

In quadrant I: All trig ratios are positive.

In quadrant II: Sin is positive and all other ratios are negative.
In quadrant III: Tan is positive and all other ratios are negative.
In quadrant IV: Cos is positive and all other ratios are negative.
We can use the CAST diagram, together with the definitions of the three ratios, to determine the
values of trigonometric expressions, without using a calculator:

EXAMPLE 15

4
If cos θ = − and θ ∈ (0° ; 180°), determine the value of 4 tan θ − 5 sin θ without the use of a
5
calculator and with the aid of a diagram.

18

 Solution

Identify the quadrant

90∘
4 II I
● cos θ = − which is negative.
5 & &
cos is negative in II and III ! # S A
180∘ 0∘ /360∘
% θ ∈ (0° ; 180°). T C
This is true in I and II !&# III IV
270∘

Draw the diagram in II and determine the values of x, y and r

LE
y

5 (r)
4 x
● cos θ = − . x = − 4 and r = 5. 3

● Calculate y: x2 + y2 = r 2
5
∴ (−4)2 + y 2 = (5)2
∴ y2 = 9 θ
∴y =±3
−4 x
∴y =3
MP
Use the diagram to calculate the value of 4 tan θ − 5 sin θ

4 tan θ − 5 sin θ

( −4 ) (5)
3 3
=4 −5

=−6

EXAMPLE 16

12
SA

If 5 tan θ − 12 = 0 and sin θ < 0, determine the value of + 169 cos2 θ, without the use of a
sin θ
calculator and with the aid of a diagram.

Solution

Identify the quadrant

● 5 tan θ − 12 = 0 90∘
12 II I
∴ tan θ = which is positive.
5 S A
tan is positive in I and III ! # 180∘ 0∘ /360∘
&
T C &
% sin θ < 0
This is true in III and IV !&# III IV
270∘

19

✔︎✔︎
✔︎✔︎

✔︎

✔︎

 Draw the diagram in III and determine the values of x, y and r .

y
θ
−5
5 (x)
12 y x
● tan θ = . x = − 5 and y = − 12.

13
● Calculate r: x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ (−5)2 + (−12)2 = r 2
∴ r 2 = 169 −12
∴ r = ± 13
∴ r = 13

Use the diagram to calculate the value of the expression asked :

LE
12
+ 169 cos2 θ
sin θ

( 13 )
2
12 −5
= −12
+ 169
13

( 169 )
−12 25
= 12 ÷ + 169
13
13
MP
= 12 × + 25
−12
= − 13 + 25
= 12

EXERCISE 7

(a) Calculate the values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in each of the following sketches without the
use of a calculator:

(1) y (2) y
SA

(8 ; 6) θ
x

θ
x (1 ; 3)

(3) y (4) y
(−4 ; y) θ
x
5
13
θ
x
(−12 ; y)

20

 (5) y (6) y
θ θ
x x

17 2

(x ; − 8) (x ; − 3)

(7) y (8) y
(5 ; y) (x ; 4)

LE
13 5

θ
θ
x x

12
(b) If tan A = and A ∈ (0° ; 180°), determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
5
aid of a diagram, the value of
MP
(1) sin A (2) 1 − cos2 A (3) 13cos Α + 5 tan Α

−8
(c) If sin B = and 90° < B < 270°, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
17
aid of a diagram, the value of
(1) cos B (2) 17 cos B − 15 tan B (3) cos2 B − sin2 B

4
(d) If cos θ = and θ ∈ (180° ; 360°), determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
5
aid of a diagram, the value of
3
SA

(1) 5 sin θ + 4 tan θ (2) + 5 cos θ

sin θ
(e) If 2 tan β = − 1 and 0° < β < 180°, determine, without the use of a calculator and with
the aid of a diagram, the value of
(1) cos β (2) sin2 β + 1 (3) 5 sin β − 5 cos2 β

(f) If 13 sin α − 5 = 0 and cos α < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
aid of a diagram, the value of
(1) cos α − tan α (2) 169(cos2 α − sin2 α)
(g) If 15 tan x − 8 = 0 and sin x < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
aid of a diagram, the value of
15 1
(1) 17 sin x − (2) tan2 x +
cos x cos2 x

21

 SPECIAL ANGLES

The trigonometric ratios for most angles cannot be calculated precisely (in terms of fractions,
decimals or surds). There are some angles for which the values of the trigonometric ratios can be
calculated exactly and without using a calculator. These angles are called the special angles:

0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°

The following diagram shows the (x ; y) coordinate pairs at 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. On this
diagram r = 2 everywhere:

y
( 0; 4)

LE
90° ( 1; 3)

60° ( 2; 2) r =2

45°
( 3; 1)
30°
MP
0° ( 4; 0)
x

This diagram, along with the definition of the trigonometric ratios on the Cartesian plane, can be
used to calculate the values of the trigonometric ratios of the special angles:

EXAMPLE 17

Calculate the values of the following trigonometric ratios without the use of a calculator.
SA

(a) sin 45° (b) cos 30° (c) tan 60°

Solution

(a) At 45°: (b) At 30°: (c) At 60°:

x= 2 x= 3 x =1
y= 2 y =1 y= 3
r =2 r =2 r =2

y 2 x 3 y 3
sin 45° = = cos 30° = = tan 60° = = = 3
r 2 r 2 x 1

22

 The ratios of the special angles can be used to simplify more complex expressions:

EXAMPLE 18

Calculate the value of the following expressions without the use of a calculator.

sin2 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°

(a) (b)
cos2 45° − 1 sin 90°

Solution

sin2 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°

(a) (b)
cos2 45° − 1 sin 90°

LE
( )
2 3 3
3 ×
1 2
2 = 2
=

( )
2 2
2
2
−1 3
2
=
3 1
4
= 2 3
−1 =
4 2
3
MP
4
= 1
−2
3 −2
= ×
4 1
3
=−
2

EXERCISE 8
SA

(a) Calculate the values of the following trigonometric ratios without the use of a calculator:

(1) sin 0° (2) cos 45° (3) tan 30°

(4) sin 30° (5) cos 90° (6) tan 0°
(7) sin 90° (8) cos 0° (9) tan 45°
(10) sin 60° (11) cos 60° (12) tan 90°

(b) Calculate the values of the following expressions without the use of a calculator:

(1) tan 45° + sin 30° − cos2 60° cos 30°

(2)
tan 60°
sin 60° ⋅ cos 60° tan 45° ⋅ sin 30° ⋅ cos 30°
(3) (4)
tan 60° ⋅ tan2 30° tan 30°
sin 45° ⋅ cos 45° sin 60° + cos 30°
(5) (6)
tan 30° ⋅ tan 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°

23

 THE RECIPROCAL RATIOS

There are three more trigonometric ratios called the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent, defined
as follows:

Cosecant Secant Cotangent

hypotenuse r hypotenuse r adjacent x
cosec θ = = sec θ = = cot θ = =
opposite y adjacent x opposite y

y (x ; y)

LE
hypotenuse
opposite r

θ θ
x
adjacent

From the definitions above, it is clear that the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent are the
reciprocals of the sine, the cosine and the tangent respectively:
MP
1 1 1
cosec θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

Because of this fact, the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent are called reciprocal ratios.

We can apply the definitions above to determine the values of the reciprocal ratios in triangles:

EXAMPLE 19
M
In the sketch alongside, P̂ = θ, MN = 7 units, NP = 24 units
SA

and MP = 25 units.
7 25
Write down the values of the following trigonometric ratios:

(a) cosec θ (b) sec θ (c) cot θ θ

N 24 P

Solution

(a) cosec θ (b) sec θ (c) cot θ

hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
= = =
opposite adjacent opposite
25 25 24
= = =
7 24 7

24

 We can also evaluate expressions that include the reciprocal ratios of special angles, by using the
special angles diagram and the definitions:

y
r
cosec θ =
( 0; 4) r=2 y
90° ( 1; 3)

60° ( 2; 2) r
sec θ =
45° ( 3; 1) x

30°
x
cot θ =

LE
0° ( 4 ; 0 ) y
x

EXAMPLE 20

Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:

sec 45° ⋅ cot 30° cosec 60° ⋅ sin 90°

(a) (b)
sin 45° ⋅ tan 60° tan 30° ⋅ sec 60°
MP
Solution
sec 45° ⋅ cot 30° cosec 60° ⋅ sin 90°
(a) (b)
sin 45° ⋅ tan 60° tan 30° ⋅ sec 60°
2 2
2
×
3 × 2
1 3
=
2 = 1 2
2 3 × 1
2
× 1
3

( 3 ) ( 3 )
2 1
( 2 1 )
2 3 2⋅ 3 = ×1 ÷ ×2
= × ÷
2
SA

2 2
2 3 2 = ÷ =1
= × =2 3 3
2 2⋅ 3

Although the calculator doesn’t have cosec, sec and cot buttons, we can use the fact that these ratios
are the reciprocals of sin, cos and tan to calculate expressions containing these ratios:

1 1 1
cosec θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

EXAMPLE 21

Calculate the values of the following trigonometric expressions. Round your answer to two decimal
places.

(a) sec 34° (b) cosec 67° + sec 28° (c) cot2 42°

25

 Solution

(a) sec 34° (b) cosec 67° + sec 28° (c) cot2 42°

( tan 42° )
2
1 1 1 1
= = + =
cos 34° sin 67° cos 28°
= 1,21 = 2,22 = 1,23

We can also solve equations containing the reciprocal ratios:

EXAMPLE 22

Determine the value of θ in each of the following equations. Round your answers to one decimal
place. The angle is acute in each case.
9

LE
(a) cot θ = 2 (b) cosec 2θ = (c) 2 sec(θ − 20°) = 3
7
Solution

(a) cot θ = 2 9 (c) 2 sec(θ − 20°) = 3

(b) cosec 2θ =
1 7 2
∴ =2 1 9 ∴ =3
tan θ ∴ = cos(θ − 20°)
∴ 1 = 2 tan θ sin 2θ 7
∴ 2 = 3 cos(θ − 20°)
1 ∴ 7 = 9 sin 2θ
2
∴ tan θ = 7 ∴ cos(θ − 20°) =
MP
2 ∴ sin 2θ = 3
∴ θ = 26,6° 9
∴ θ − 20° = 48,1896°
∴ 2θ = 51,05755°
∴ θ = 68,2°
∴ θ = 25,5°

EXERCISE 9

(a) In sketch alongside, T̂ = α, ST = 6 units and R

RS = 8 units.
(1) Calculate the length of RT.
SA

(2) Determine the values of the following

6
trigonometric ratios:
(i) cosec α (ii) sec α
(iii) cot α α
S T
8

(b) In the sketch alongside, two of the sides of the triangle

have lengths 5 units and 13 units. The angles β and θ
θ are indicated on the sketch. Determine the values
of the following trigonometric ratios:
(1) cot β (2) sec β 5
13
(3) cosec β (4) cot θ
(5) sec θ (6) cosec θ β

26

 (c) The right-angled triangle alongside has sides of lengths m

α
m, n and p units. The angles α and β are shown.

Write down the values of the following trigonometric n

ratios in terms of m, n and p: p
(1) cosec α (2) sec α (3) cot α β
(4) cosec β (5) sec β (6) cot β

(d) If A = 76° and B = 15°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
decimal places:

(1) sec(A + B) (2) cosec A − cosec B (3) cot A cot B

( 2 )
sec A 3B
(4) (5) cosec (6) 3 − cot2 A

LE
cot B
3
(7) 4 sec B (8) cosec (2A − 3B)

(e) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round your answers to three
decimal places. The angle is acute in each case.
12 6
(1) cosec x = (2) cot x = (3) 3 sec 2x = 5
7 7
(4) 9 cot 3x − 4 = 0 (5) 2cosec (x + 25°) = 3 (6) 2 sec(4x − 10°) − 7 = 0
MP
(f) Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:
cosec 45° ⋅ cot 60° cosec 30° ⋅ sec 60°
(1) (2)
cos 45° ⋅ tan 60° cot 45° ⋅ sec 0°
cosec 60° ⋅ sec2 60° cot 60° ⋅ cot2 30°
(3) (4)
cot 30° ⋅ cosec 90° cosec 60° ⋅ sec 60°

APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY IN TWO DIMENSIONS

ANGLES OF DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION

SA

The following diagrams illustrate the meaning of the terms angle of depression and angle of
elevation:

A A
Angle of depression of B from A

Angle of elevation of A from B

B B

We will now apply the trigonometric ratios, as well as the concepts of angle of depression and angle
of elevation to practical problems in two dimensions:

27

 EXAMPLE 23

In the diagram below, two people, one standing at C and one standing at D, look up at a 10 m tall
flagpole. The angle of elevation of the top of the flag pole (A) from C is 42°. The angle of
depression of D from the top of the flag pole (A) is 23°.

A E
23°

10 m

LE
42°
B C D
MP
(a) Determine the size of D̂ .

(b) Calculate the distance CD between the two people, correct to two decimal places.

Solution

(a) D̂ = 23° (alt ∠'s; AE ∥ BD)

(b) In ΔABD : In ΔABC :

AB AB
tan 23° = tan 42° =
SA

BD BC
10 10
∴ tan 23° = ∴ tan 42° =
BD BC
10 10
∴ BD = ∴ BC =
tan 23° tan 42°
∴ BD = 23,57 m ∴ BC = 11,11 m

CD = BD − BC
= 23,57 − 11,11
= 12,46 m

∴ The distance between the two people is 12,46 m.

28

 EXERCISE 10

Round all answers to two decimal places in this exercise.

(a) The angle of elevation of the top of a cliff (L) from L

a child playing on the beach at M is 27°.
After the child runs x metres to N,
the angle of elevation is 65°.
The height of the cliff is 30 m. 30 m
Calculate the value of x,
the distance the child ran. 27° 65°
M N P
x

LE
(b) The angle of elevation from
a sailboat at T to the top of a R
100 m tall cliff (R) is 58°. 17°
The angle of depression
from the top of the cliff
to another sailboat at U 100 m
is 17°.

(1) Determine the size 58°

of Û . S T U
MP
(2) Calculate the distance TU
between the two ships.

(c) Large ships must drop more than one anchor A

to remain stationary. At this point, the ocean 35° 40°
is 200 m deep. The angle of depression from
a ship at A to its first anchor at B is 35°
200 m
and the angle of depression to its
second anchor at C is 40°.
SA

(1) Calculate the lengths of the B C D

two anchor ropes AB and AC.

(2) Calculate the distance BC between the two anchors.

(d) In the diagram alongside, a person at W

T
is standing 35 m away from the base
of a cliff at V. The angle of elevation of
the top of the cliff (U) from the person is 28°.
U
The angle of elevation to the top of a light
house (T) from the person is 39°.

(1) Calculate the length a zip line would

have to be to reach from the top of
39° 28°
the cliff at U to the person at W. W V
35 m
(2) Calculate the height UT of the tower.

29

 (e) The angle of elevation from a diver at I F G H

to a swimmer on the surface at G is 66°. 31°
The distance between the diver and this
swimmer is 16 m. The angle of depression 16 m
from a swimmer at F to the diver at I is 31°.

(1) Calculate the depth HI of the diver below

the surface of the water.
(2) Calculate the distance between the diver at I 66°
I
and the swimmer at F.
(3) Calculate the distance FG between the two swimmers.

CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION EXERCISE

LE
(a) In ΔABC, Â = α, Ĉ = β, AB = 21 units and A 21 B
α
AC = 29 units. Determine the value of
(1) sin α (2) tan α
(3) cos α (4) cosec β
(5) cot β (6) sec β 29
β
(b) In sketch alongside, R̂ = θ, T̂ = γ, RS = a units, R
C
ST = b units and RT = c units. Write down the θ
values of the following trigonometric ratios in
MP
terms of a, b and c: a c
(1) sin γ (2) cos γ
(3) tan γ (4) cosec θ
(5) sec θ (6) cot θ γ
S T
b
(c) Determine the length of PR in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to one
decimal place.
13 Q
(1) Q P (2)
48°
SA

R 64°
P R
(d) Determine the size of α in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to two
decimal places.

(1) P 14 Q (2) P
α

7
23
α
Q R
R 12
30

 (e) In the diagram below CBD ̂ = 22°, CAB ̂ = 46°, CD = 5 cm, AB ⊥ BC and BC ⊥ CD.
Calculate the length of AC, correct to two decimal places.
A B
46°

22°

C 5 cm D

LE
(f) In the diagram below, Â = β, Ĉ = α, DC = 12 cm, AC = 15 cm, AB = 10 cm and
AD ⊥ BC.
A

β
10 cm 15 cm

α
MP
B C
D 12 cm
Calculate the sizes of α and β, correct to one decimal place.

(g) If A = 71° and B = 32°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
decimal places:
(1) tan(A + B) (2) sin A − sin B (3) cos 2B − 2
3
(4) 3 cos A tan B (5) sin A (6) tan2 B + cos3 A
2
(7) (8) cosec A + sec B (9) cot 3B
sin B
SA

(10) 2 sec A − 1 (11) cosec 2 B (12) sec A

1 cosec A cot A
(13) (14) (15)
cot B 3 sec B
(h) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round your answers to two
decimal places. The angle is acute in each case.
4
(1) sin x = (2) 2 tan x = 3 (3) 9 cos x − 5 = 0
11
1
(4) cos 2x = (5) tan(x − 15°) = 3 (6) 3 tan(2x + 12°) − 5 = 0
4
11
(7) 3 sin(x + 10°) = 2 (8) 2 cos 4x − 1 = 0 (9) sec x =
10
9
(10) 3cosec x = 4 (11) 4 cot x − 9 = 0 (12) cosec 3x =
7
(13) sec(x − 30°) = 4 (14) 3cosec 2x − 5 = 0 (15) 2 cot(x + 20°) − 7 = 0
31

 (i) If 5 cos θ − 3 = 0 and θ ∈ (180° ; 360°), determine, without the use of a calculator
and with the aid of a diagram, the value of 5 sin θ + 9 tan2 θ.

(j) If 2 tan x − 1 = 0 and cos x < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the aid
4
of a diagram, the value of 5 cos x + .
sin2 x
(k) Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:
sin 90° ⋅ sin 45° tan 45° − cos 60°
(1) (2)
cos 45° ⋅ tan2 30° sin 60° ⋅ cos 30°
tan 30° ⋅ cosec2 45° sec 60° ⋅ cot 45°
(3) (4)
cos 0° ⋅ cot 60° sin 30° + cosec 90°

LE
(l) A person standing at the top of a U
building at U looks down at two 47°
of her friends standing at S and T.
The angle of depression of S from
U is 47° and the angle of elevation
50 m
of U from T is 38°. The distance
between the top of the building and
the person at S is 50 m. 38°
R S T
MP
(1) Calculate the height RU of the building, correct to two decimal places.
(2) Determine the distance ST between the two people on the ground, correct to two
decimal places.
b
(m)* If tan θ = and 0° < θ < 90°, determine the value of cos θ in terms of a and b.
b2 − a2
t 1
(n)* If cosec α = + and α ∈ (0° ; 90°), determine the value of sec α + tan α in terms
2 2t
of t.
SA

(o)* If cos x + sec x = p, determine the value of the following in terms of p:

(1) cos2 x + sec2 x (2) cos3 x + sec3 x (3) cos x − sec x

̂ = 90°. P
(p)* In the diagram alongside, P̂ = α and PQR
QS = x units, Ŝ = β and QRS ̂ = 90°. α

x sin β
(1) Show that PQ = .
tan α
(2) Calculate the length of PQ,
correct to two decimal places,
if α = 52°, β = 39° and x = 12 units. Q R

x
β
S

32

 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
——————————————————————————————

Probability
————————————————————————————————————————

In the study of probability, we assign values to our level of certainty about things, based on
mathematical principles.

THE PROBABILITY SCALE

A probability is a number in the interval [0 ; 1]. A probability of 0 indicates that something is

impossible and a probability close to 0 that it is unlikely. A probability of 1 indicates that

LE
something is certain and a probability close to 1 that it is likely.

0 1 1 3 1
6 2 4

The water of A die A coin At least one The temperature

the sea turns lands lands tail when two in Gqeberha will
into orange on 2 on coins are be above −20∘C
MP
juice heads tossed tomorrow

1
A probability can be expressed as a common fraction (for example ), a decimal fraction (for
2
example 0,5) or a percentage (for example 50%).

TERMINOLOGY

Experiment: In probability theory, any action, situation or set of circumstances that leads
to different possibilities is called an experiment.

Outcomes: The different ways an experiment can turn out are called the outcomes of
SA

the experiment. All outcomes of an experiment are equally likely.

Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample
space. The sample space is normally denoted by the letter S.
Event: A subset of the sample space, consisting of outcomes that satisfy a
particular condition, is called an event. An event is normally denoted by a
capital letter (A, B, C etc.) If the actual outcome of an experiment is one of
the outcomes of an event E then we say that event E has taken place.

THE PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT

The probability of an event is calculated as follows:

Number of outcomes in the event n(E)

Probability of an event = P(E) =
Number of outcomes in the sample space n(S)

 EXAMPLE 1

A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled.

(a) Write down the sample space in set form.
(b) If A is the event in which the die lands on an even number and B is the event in which the
die lands on a number greater than 4,
(1) write down events A and B in set form, listing all their outcomes.
(2) calculate the probabilites of events A and B.

Solution

(a) S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}

(b) (1) A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {5 ; 6}

LE
n(A) 3 1 n( B) 2 1
(2) P(A) = = = P( B) = = =
n(S) 6 2 n(S) 6 3

EXAMPLE 2

A coin is tossed twice. Each coin lands on either heads (H) or tails (T). The following events are
defined:

X = {The coin lands on heads twice}

Y = {The coin lands on tails exactly once}
MP
Z = {The coin lands on heads at least once}

(a) Write down the sample space in set form.

(b) Calculate

(1) P( X ) (2) P( Y ) (3) P(Z)

Solution

(a) S = {HH ; HT ; TH ; TT}

(b) (1) X = {HH}

SA

∴ n( X) = 1
n( X) 1
∴ P( X ) = =
n(S) 4

(2) Y = {HT ; TH}

∴ n( Y ) = 2
n( Y ) 2 1
∴ P( Y ) = = =
n(S) 4 2

(3) Z = {HH ; HT ; TH}

∴ n(Z) = 3
n(Z) 3
∴ P(Z) = =
n(S) 4

 CALCULATING PROBABILITIES WHEN ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IS GIVEN

The probability of an event depends on the information we have. Sometimes we obtain

additional information about the outcome of the experiment (without knowing the actual
outcome). This could change the sample space and could lead to new probabilities for certain
outcomes or events. The new sample space is sometimes called the reduced sample space (Sr).

EXAMPLE 3

The names of 7 people are placed in a hat and one name is drawn at random from the hat.
The names and sexes of the 7 people are as follows:

Name Sex

LE
Cindy Female
Lebo Female
Lucas Male
Yesheni Female
Thabang Male
Leonard Male
MP
Amy Female

(a) Determine the probability that the name drawn belongs to a male person.

(b) Suppose it is known that the name drawn starts with the letter L.
(1) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(2) Taking this new information into account, what is the probability that the name
drawn belongs to a male person.
Solution
n( Male) 3
SA

(a) P( Male) = =
n(S) 7

(b) (1) Sr = {Lebo ; Lucas ; Leonard}

(2) In the new sample space:

Male = {Lucas ; Leonard}

n( Male) 2
P( Male) = =
n(Sr ) 3

Note: In this example, we see that the additional information given actually changed the
probability of an event.
3 2
The probability of the name being male changed from (≈ 43%) to (≈ 67%) when
7 3
we took the additional information (that the name starts with an L) into account.

 THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF AN EVENT

When an experiment is repeated many times, the number of times a certain event takes place is
called its frequency. When the frequency is divided by the number of times the experiment was
repeated, the result is called the relative frequency of the event:

Frequency of the event f

Relative frequency of an event = RF =
Number of times the experiment was repeated n

When the experiment is repeated many times, the relative frequency should eventually approach
the theoretical probability (calculated probability) of the event.

LE
EXAMPLE 4

A coin is tossed 100 000 times. The coin lands on heads 49 716 times. Calculate the relative
frequency of the event {coin lands on heads} and establish whether it approximates the
theoretical probability.

Solution
f 49 716
Relative frequency: RF = = = 0,49716
n 100 000
MP
n( Heads) 1
Theoretical probability: P( Heads) = = = 0,5
n(S) 2

We see that the relative frequency is very close to the theoretical probability as expected.

EXAMPLE 5

A six-sided die is rolled 12 000 times. Approximately how many times do you expect the die to
land on a factor of 6?

Solution
SA

S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}

Factors of 6 = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 6}

n( Factors of 6) 4 2
Theoretical probability: P( Factors of 6) = = =
n(S) 6 3

We expect the relative frequency to be approximately equal to the theoretical probability:

f f 2
RF = = ≈
n 12 000 3
2
∴f ≈ × 12 000 = 8000
3
We expect the die to land on a factor of 6 approximately 8000 times.

 EXERCISE 1

(a) A standard six-sided die is rolled. Let A be the event in which the die lands on an odd
number and B the event in which the die lands on a number less than 5.

(1) Write down the sample space in set form.

(2) Write down the events A and B in set form, listing all the outcomes in each event.
(3) Write down the value of n(A).
(4) Calculate P(A).
(5) Calculate the probability of B.

(b) Eight cards, each marked with one of the letters A to H, are placed in a hat. A card is
drawn from the hat at random.

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Let X = {B ; D ; F ; G ; H} and Y = {A vowel letter is drawn}.

(1) Write down the sample space in set form.

(2) Write down the value of n( X).
(3) Calculate P( X).
(4) Calculate P( Y ).

(c) For a certain experiment, the following events are defined:

• M = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
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• N = {f ; g ; h}
1
It is given that P( M ) = .
3
Calculate

(1) n(S)
(2) P( N )
(3) n( X) if X is an event with P( X) = 0,4

(d) 50 tickets were sold in a competition. Each ticket has a number from 1 to 50 on it.
A number from 1 to 50 is randomly selected and the owner of the ticket with that number
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on wins a tablet. Liam bought 10 tickets. Let E be the event in which Liam wins the
tablet.

(1) Write down the value of

(i) n(S)
(ii) n( E)

(2) What is the probability that Liam will win the tablet?

(3) Suppose only 30 of the 50 tickets were sold.

(i) If a number is still selected from 1 to 50, calculate the probability that
no one will win the tablet.
(ii) If a number is instead selected from only the 30 tickets that were sold,
calculate the probability that Liam will win the tablet.

 (e) An octahedral (eight-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 8, is rolled.
(1) For this experiment,
(i) write down the sample space in set form
(ii) determine the probability that the die lands on a number less than 4.
(2) Suppose it is known that the die landed on an odd number.
(i) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, calculate the probability that the
die landed on a number less than 4.

(f)* Three different coins are flipped. Each coin lands on either heads (H) or tails (T).
(1) Write down the sample space.
(2) Calculate the probability that

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(i) all three coins land on tails.
(ii) exactly two coins land on heads.
(ii) at least two coins land on tails.
(3) Suppose it is known that the first coin lands on tails.
(i) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, calculate the probability that at
least two coins land on tails.

(g)* A couple has 2 children. Assuming that each child is either male or female
(1) what is the probability that both children will be female?
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(2) what is the probability that both children will be female if it is known that the first
child is female?
(3) what is the probability that both children will be female if it is known that at least
one child is female?

(h) A dodecahedral (twelve-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 12, is rolled 24 000 times and
it landed on 7 exactly 5 344 times.
(1) Calculate the relative frequency of the event {die lands on 7}. (4 decimals)
(2) Does the evidence suggest that the die is fair? Motivate.
(3) The event E is defined by E = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5}.
Assuming that the die is in fact fair, how many times would you expect E to take
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place?

(i) There are 52 cards in a standard deck of cards of which 13 are hearts. A card is selected
from the deck at random, returned, and then the deck is reshuffled. This process is
repeated 50 000 times.
(1) Which of the following do you consider the most reasonable number of times a
card of hearts will be selected? Motivate your answer with a suitable calculation.
A 31 210 B 2003 C 12 685 D 25 443
(2) If this experiment were repeated 72 000 times, how many times would you expect
a card of hearts to be selected?

(j)* An experiment was repeated 120 000 times and the event X took place 80 000 times.
(1) Calculate the relative frequency of X.
(2) If there are 800 outcomes in the sample space of the experiment, estimate n( X).
(3) If this experiment were repeated 33 000 times, how many times would you expect
X to take place?

 VENN DIAGRAMS

A Venn diagram is a visual representation of events in a sample space. We usually represent the
sample space with a rectangle and events with circles:
S Sample Space
E Event

There are three types of Venn diagrams:

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• Venn diagrams showing the actual outcomes.
• Venn diagrams showing the number of outcomes.
• Venn diagrams showing probabilities.

EXAMPLE 6

A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled. E is the event in which the die lands on a
number less than 3.

Represent this information on a Venn diagram showing

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(a) the outcomes (b) the number of outcomes (c) probabilities

Solution

(a) S (b) S (c) S

E E E
3 5 1
1 2 2
2 3
4 3
4 6

DERIVED EVENTS
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New events can be formed from existing events by using the concepts of complement (‘not’),
intersection (‘and’) and union (‘or’):
THE COMPLEMENT OF AN EVENT

The complement of an event A is the event consisting of all outcomes that are in the sample
space, but not in A. We write the complement of A as not A.
S
A

not A

For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number, then:
S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6} A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} not A = {1 ; 3 ; 5}

 THE INTERSECTION OF TWO EVENTS

The intersection of two events, event A and event B, is the event consisting of all outcomes that are
in both A and B simultaneously. We write this intersection of event A and event B as A and B.
S
A B

A and B

For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number and B is the

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event that the die lands on a prime number, then:
A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {2 ; 3 ; 5} A and B = {2}

THE UNION OF TWO EVENTS

The union of two events, event A and event B, is the event consisting of all outcomes that are in at
least one of these events. The union consists of outcomes that are either in A, or in B, or in both.
This basically means that we put all of the outcomes of A and B together by uniting them into one
set. We write the union of event A and event B as A or B.
S
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A B

A or B

For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number and B is the
event that the die lands on a prime number, then:
A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {2 ; 3 ; 5} A or B = {2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}
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EXAMPLE 7

For a certain experiment, with sample space S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h}, the following

events are defined:

• X = {b ; c ; d ; e ; f }
• Y = {c ; e ; f ; g}

(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.

(b) Write down the following events in set form, listing all the outcomes in each event:
(1) not X (2) not Y
(3) X and Y (4) X or Y

(c) Determine
(1) n(not X) (2) P(not Y)
(3) P(X and Y) (4) P(X or Y)

 Solution

(a) S
X Y
b c When completing a Venn diagram,
e g always start with the intersection.
d f
a h

(b) (1) not X = {a ; g ; h} (2) not Y = {a ; b ; d ; h}

(3) X and Y = {c ; e ; f } (4) X or Y = {b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g}

n(not Y ) 4 1

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(c) (1) n(not X) = 3 (2) P(not Y ) = = =
n(S) 8 2
n( X and Y ) 3 n( X or Y ) 6 3
(3) P( X and Y ) = = (4) P( X or Y ) = = =
n(S) 8 n(S) 8 4

EXAMPLE 8

In a group of 50 people, 28 can speak Setswana and 40 can speak isiZulu. There are 25 of these
people who can speak both these languages.
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(a) Draw a Venn-diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each region.
(b) A person is chosen from this group at random. The following events are defined:
• T = {The person chosen can speak Setswana}
• Z = {The person chosen can speak isiZulu}
Calculate
(1) P(T) (2) P(Z) (3) n(not T)
(4) P(not Z) (5) P(T and Z) (6) P(T or Z)

Solution
(a) S
1 Start at the intersection
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T Z
2 1 3 2 28 − 25 = 3
3 25 15
3 40 − 25 = 15
4
7 4 50 − 3 − 25 − 15 = 7

n(T) 28 14 n(Z) 40 4
(b) (1) P( T ) = = = (2) P(Z) = = =
n(S) 50 25 n(S) 50 5
n(not Z) 3+7 1
(3) n(not T) = 15 + 7 = 22 (4) P(not Z) = = =
n(S) 50 5
n(T and Z) 25 1
(5) P(T and Z) = = =
n(S) 50 2
n(T or Z) 3 + 25 + 15 43
(6) P(T or Z) = = =
n(S) 50 50
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 EXAMPLE 9

The following Venn diagram shows two events, A and B, and the probability associated with
each region:
S
A B

x 0,2 0,3

0,4

(a) Calculate the value of x.

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(b) Determine
(1) P(A) (2) P(B)
(3) P(not A) (4) P(not B)
(5) P(A and B) (6) P(A or B)
(7) P(not(A and B)) (8) P(not(A or B))

(c) If n(A or B) = 24, calculate the value of

(1) n(S) (2) n(not A)
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Solution

(a) x + 0,2 + 0,3 + 0,4 = 1

In a Venn diagram of probabilities, all the
∴ x = 1 − 0,2 − 0,3 − 0,4
separate probabilities always add up to 1.
∴ x = 0,1

(b) (1) P(A) = 0,1 + 0,2 = 0,3 (2) P( B) = 0,2 + 0,3 = 0,5

(3) P(not A) = 0,3 + 0,4 = 0,7 (4) P(not B) = 0,1 + 0,4 = 0,5
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(5) P(A and B) = 0,2 (6) P(A or B) = 0,1 + 0,2 + 0,3 = 0,6

(7) P(not(A and B)) = 0,1 + 0,3 + 0,4 (8) P(not(A or B)) = 0,4
= 0,8

n(A or B) n(not A)
(c) (1) P(A or B) = (2) P(not A) =
n(S) n(S)
24 n(not A)
∴ 0,6 = ∴ 0,7 =
n(S) 40

∴ 0,6 ⋅ n(S) = 24 ∴ n(not A) = 0,7 × 40 = 28

24
∴ n(S) = = 40
0,6

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 EXERCISE 2

(a) For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h ; i ; j},

A = {a ; c ; d ; f ; h ; i} and B = {a ; b ; d ; f ; i}.
(1) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Write down the following events in set form, listing all the outcomes in each
event:
(i) not A (ii) not B (iii) A and B
(iv) A or B (v) not(A and B) (vi) not(A or B)
(3) Determine
(i) n(A) (ii) P(not B) (iii) P(A and B)
(iv) n(not(A or B))

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(b) A dodecahedral (12-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 12, is rolled.
Let X = {Multiples of 3}, Y = {Factors of 9} and Z = {Multiples of 5}.
(1) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Determine
(i) n(X) (ii) P(Y) (iii) P(Z)
(iv) P(not X) (v) P(X and Y) (vi) P(Y and Z)
(vii) P(X or Y) (viii) n(X or Z) (ix) P(not(Y or Z))
(x) P(not(X and Z))

(c) The following Venn diagram shows how many Grade 10 learners in a certain school take
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(or don’t take) the subjects Geography (G) and Accounting (A):
S
G A

10 30 20

90

(1) How many Grade 10 learners are there in the school?

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(2) A learner is chosen at random from this group. Calculate

(i) P(A) (ii) n(not G) (iii) P(G and A)
(iv) n(G or A) (v) P(not(G and A)
(3) How many of these Grade 10 learners take neither Geography nor Accounting?
(4) What is the probability that a randomly chosen Grade 10 learner from this group
take at least one of these two subjects?

(d) In a survey, where 300 people were interviewed, it was found that 165 enjoy watching
Cricket, 45 enjoy watching both Cricket and Rugby and 40 don’t enjoy watching either of
these two sports. A person is randomly selected from all the people that participated in the
survey. Let C = {enjoys watching Cricket} and R = {enjoys watching Rugby}.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each
region.
(2) Calculate
(i) n(R) (ii) P(not R) (iii) P(C and R)
(iv) P(C or R) (v) n(not(C and R)) (vi) P(not(C or R))

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 (e) The following Venn diagram shows two events, A and B, and the probability associated
with each region:
S
A B

0,3 0,1 0,4

(1) Calculate the value of q.

(2) Determine
(i) P(A) (ii) P(B) (iii) P(not A)

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(iv) P(not B) (v) P(A and B) (vi) P(A or B)
(3) If n(A) = 12, calculate the value of
(i) n(A or B) (ii) n(not(A and B))

(f) If P( B) = 0,56, P(A and B) = 0,11 and P(A or B) = 0,79, calculate the value of
(1) P(A) (2) P(not(A and B)
(3) n(not(A or B)) if n(S) = 400.

(g) The following sketch shows a partially completed Venn diagram for events A and B:
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S
A B

0,15

0,04

It is also given that P(A and B) = x and P(A) = 3x.

(1) Fill in the probabilities of the missing regions in terms of x.
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(2) Calculate the value of x.

(3) Determine the value of
(i) P(A) (ii) P(B) (iii) P(not(A and B))
1
(h)* In the following Venn diagram, P( Y ) = and the probability represented by the shaded
2
2
region is :
3
S
X Y

(1) Determine P(X or Y).

(2) Determine P(X and Y) if n( X) = 21 and n( Y ) = 14.

12

 PROBABILITY RULES

THE GENERAL RULE

The following rule is valid for any two events A and B:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)

This rule is called the general rule of probability and is the most important formula in probability
theory. It is always valid.

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Where does this rule come from?

A B P(A) = a + x P(B) = x + b

a x b P(A and B) = x

P(A or B) = a + x + b
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If we add P(A) and P(B), the intersection is included twice:
P(A) + P(B) = (a + x) + (x + b)
= a + 2x + b

If we subtract the intersection from the sum of P(A) and P(B), we get:
P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) = (a + 2x + b) − x
= a+x +b
= P(A or B)
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The general rule can also be stated in terms of the number of outcomes instead of probability:

n(A or B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A and B)

THE RULE OF COMPLEMENTS

For any event A and its complement not A, the following applies:

P(A) + P(not A) = 1

∴ P(not A) = 1 − P(A) and P(A) = 1 − P(not A)

The two rules above can greatly simplify the process of calculating probabilities as illustrated in
the following examples:

13

 EXAMPLE 10

If P(A) = 0,7, P( B) = 0,5 and P(A and B) = 0,4, calculate

(a) P(A or B) (b) P(not A)

(c) P(not(A or B))

Solution

(a) P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B) (b) P(not A) = 1 − P(A)

∴ P(A or B) = 0,7 + 0,5 − 0,4 = 0,8 ∴ P(not A) = 1 − 0,7 = 0,3

(c) P(not(A or B)) = 1 − P(A or B)

∴ P(not(A or B)) = 1 − 0,8 = 0,2

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EXAMPLE 11

Given two events, X and Y, such that P(not X) = 0,25, P( Y ) = 0,2 and P( X or Y ) = 0,8.

(a) Calculate
(1) P(X) (2) P(X and Y)

(b) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
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Solution

(a) (1) P( X) = 1 − P(not X) = 1 − 0,25 = 0,75

(2) P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − P( X and Y )
∴ 0,8 = 0,75 + 0,2 − P( X and Y )
∴ P( X and Y ) = 0,75 + 0,2 − 0,8 = 0,15

(b) S
1 Start at the intersection
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X Y

2 1 3 2 0,75 − 0,15 = 0,6

0,6 0,15 0,05
3 0,2 − 0,15 = 0,05
4
0,2 4 1 − 0,8 = 0,2

EXAMPLE 12
1 7 5
For two events M and N: P( M ) = , P( M or N ) = and P(not(M and N)) = .
2 10 6
(a) Calculate P(N).

(b) Draw a Venn diagram showing events M and N in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
14

 Solution

5 1
(a) P( M and N ) = 1 − P(not (M and N)) = 1 − =
6 6
P( M or N ) = P( M ) + P( N ) − P( M and N )

7 1 1
∴ = + P( N ) −
10 2 6
7 1 1 11
∴ P( N ) = − + =
10 2 6 30

(b) S

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M N

1 1 1
3 6 5

3
10
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EXERCISE 3

(a) If A and B are two events, such that P(A) = 0,6, P( B) = 0,3 and P(A and B) = 0,2,
calculate
(1) P(A or B) (2) P(not A)
(3) P(not B) (4) P(not(A or B))

(b) X and Y are two events with P( X) = 0,5, P( Y ) = 0,6 and P( X or Y ) = 0,9.
(1) Calculate
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(i) P(not Y) (ii) P(not(X or Y))

(iii) P(X and Y) (iv) P(not(X and Y)

(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.

(c) If P( M ) = 0,35, P( M and N ) = 0,2 and P( M or N ) = 0,85, calculate

(1) P(not M) (2) P(not N)

1 3 1
(d) Given two events, A and B, such that P(A) = , P(not B) = and P(A and B) = .
3 4 6
(1) Calculate
(i) P(B) (ii) P(A or B)

(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.

15

 (e) Q and R are two events such that P(Q) = 0,5, P( R) = 0,3 and P(not(Q or R)) = 0,4.
(1) Calculate P(Q and R).
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events Q and R in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
5 7 3
(f) Given P(not X) = , P( X or Y ) = and P(not(X and Y )) = .
8 8 4
(1) Calculate P(not Y).
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.

(g) Two events, A and B, are such that P(A) = 5x, P( B) = 4x, P(not(A and B)) = 0,9 and

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P(A or B) = 0,8.

(1) Solve for x. (2) Calculate P(not B).

(h) Two events, X and Y, are such that P( X and Y ) = 0,3, P(not(X or Y)) = 0,1 and
P( Y ) = 2P( X). Calculate P(X).

(i) A smoke detector system in a large warehouse uses two devices, A and B. If smoke is
present, the probability that it will be detected by device A is 0,92 and the probability that
it will be detected by device B is 0,98. The probability that it will be detected by both
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devices is 0,94. If smoke is present, what is the probability that the smoke will not be
detected?

(j) In a group of 50 people, 21 own a laptop and 25 own a tablet. 17 of these people don’t
own any one of these devices. How many of these people own
(1) at least one of these devices? (2) both these devices?

SPECIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EVENTS

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

Mutually exclusive events are events that have no outcomes in common and therefore cannot
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take place simultaneously. On a Venn diagram, mutually exclusive events are represented by
circles that don’t intersect:

S
A B

Mutually exclusive events have no intersection and therefore:

P(A and B) = 0

16

 Remember that the general rule applies for any two events A and B:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)

Now, for mutually exclusive events:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − 0

and therefore: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

EXAMPLE 13

Two mutually exclusive events, A and B, are such that P(A) = 0,25 and P( B) = 0,45.

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(a) Write down the value of P(A and B).
(b) Calculate P(A or B).
(c) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.

Solution

(a) 0
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(b) P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)
∴ P(A or B) = 0,25 + 0,45 − 0 = 0,7

(c) S
A B

0,25 0,45

0,3
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EXAMPLE 14

For two events, X and Y: P( X or Y ) = 0,7 and P(not Y ) = 0,4.

Calculate P( X) if

(a) P( X and Y ) = 0,1.

(b) X and Y are mutually exclusive.

Solution

(a) P( Y ) = 1 − P(not (Y)) = 1 − 0,4 = 0,6 (b) P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − 0

P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − P( X and Y ) ∴ 0,7 = P( X) + 0,6

∴ 0,7 = P( X) + 0,6 − 0,1 ∴ P( X) = 0,1
∴ P( X) = 0,7 − 0,6 + 0,1 = 0,2

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 EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS

Exhaustive events are events which together cover the entire sample space:

A B

If two events, A and B, are exhaustive, their union is equal to the sample space, and therefore:

P(A or B) = 1

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COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS

Complementary events are events that are both mutually exclusive and exhaustive:

S
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A B

If A and B are complementary, P(A and B) = 0 and P(A or B) = 1.

Combined with the general rule, P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B), this gives:

1 = P(A) + P( B) − 0

and therefore: P(A) + P(B) = 1

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If A and B are complementary, then B = not A and so this gives us the familiar rule of
complements:

P(A) + P(not A) = 1

EXAMPLE 15
2
Two events, A and B, are complementary, with P(A) = .
7
(a) Write down the value of
(1) P(A and B) (2) P(A or B)
(b) Calculate P(B).

18

 Solution

(a) (1) 0 (2) 1

(b) P(A) + P( B) = 1
2
∴ + P( B) = 1
7
2 5
∴ P( B) = 1 − =
7 7

EXAMPLE 16

For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g}. The following

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events are defined:

X = {a ; b ; c ; d} Y = {c ; d ; e ; f ; g} Z = {e ; f }

(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.

(b) Which pair(s) of these events (X, Y and Z) are
(1) mutually exclusive? (2) exhaustive?

Solution

(a) S (b) (1) X and Z

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a c e
Z (2) X and Y
f
X d g Y
b

EXAMPLE 17

For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8}. The following

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events are defined:

A = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5} B = {6 ; 7 ; 8} C = {2 ; 3 ; 4}

(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.

(b) Which pair(s) of these events (A, B and C) are
(1) mutually exclusive? (2) exhaustive? (3) complementary?

Solution

(a) S (b) (1) A and B

6 B and C
2 3
C (2) A and B
4 7
A B
1 5 8 (3) A and B

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 SUMMARY OF RULES

GENERAL RULE RULE OF COMPLEMENTS

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) P(A) + P(not A) = 1

P(A or B) = 1 P(A and B) = 0 ∴ P(not A) = 1 − P(A)

if exhaustive if mutually exclusive

Complementary events are both mutually exclusive and P(A) = 1 − P(not A)

and exhaustive.

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EXERCISE 4

(a) A and B are mutually exclusive events, with P(A) = 0,2 and P( B) = 0,4.
(1) Write down the value of P(A and B).
(2) Calculate P(A or B).

(b) For two mutually exclusive events, X and Y, P(not X) = 0,3 and P( X or Y ) = 0,8.
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(1) Calculate P(Y).
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
1 1
(c) Two events, A and B, are such that P(A) = and P( B) = .
2 3
Calculate P(A or B) if
1
(1) P(A and B) = .
6
(2) A and B are mutually exclusive.
SA

(d) Given P( M or N ) = 0,6 and P(not N ) = 0,65.

Calculate P(M) if
(1) M and N are mutually exclusive.
4
(2) P(not(M and N)) = .
5
(e) A and B are complementary events, with P(A) = 0,32. Calculate P(not B).

(f) Given two events, X and Y, such that P( X) = 0,3 and P( Y ) = 0,7.
Determine P(X and Y) if
(1) X and Y are complementary.
(2) P(not(X or Y)) = 0,2.

(g) If A and B are exhaustive events, such that P(A) = 0,7 and P( B) = 0,6, calculate
P(A and B).

20

 (h) Consider the following Venn diagram, showing the outcomes in events M, N and T of an
experiment with sample space S:

S
M = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
f
a d
T
b g N = {d ; e ; f ; g ; h}
M N
e
c h
T = {a ; b}

(1) Which pair(s) of these events (M, N and T) are

(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive?
(2) Write down

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(i) P(M and N) (ii) P(N and T)
(iii) P(N or T) (iv) P(M or N)

(i) A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled. The number facing up is recorded.
The following events are defined:
A = {Odd numbers} B = {Even numbers} C = {Prime numbers} D = {4}
(1) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Which pair(s) of these events (A, B, C and D) are
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive?
MP
(iii) complementary?
(3) Write down
(i) P(A and C) (ii) P(A and B)
(iii) P(A or B) (iv) P(C or D)

(j) A traffic light shows green for 2 minutes, amber for 20 seconds and red for 100 seconds
and then it repeats the cycle. A motorist arrives at the traffic light at a random time.
R = {Light is RED} A = {Light is AMBER} G = {Light is GREEN}
L = {Legal to go} = {AMBER or GREEN}
U = {Unsafe to go} = {RED or AMBER}
SA

(1) Calculate
(i) P(R) (ii) P(G)
(iii) P(L) (iv) P(U)
(2) Are the events L and R
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive? (iii) complementary?
(3) Are the events L and U
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive? (iii) complementary?
(4) Are the events R and G
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive? (iii) complementary?
(5) Write down the value of
(i) P(L or R) (ii) P(L and R)
(iii) P(L or U) (iv) P(R and G)
(6) Calculate
(i) P(R or G) (ii) P(L and U)
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 MORE ADVANCED INTERSECTIONS AND UNIONS

INTERSECTIONS

• A and (not B)
Also called ‘only A’
To find A and (not B):
A B A B
- Mark each region in A with
- Mark each region in (not B) with
- A and not B is the region with
both and

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• (not A) and B
Also called ‘only B’
To find (not A) and B:
A B A B
- Mark each region in not A with
- Mark each region in B with
- (not A) and B is the region with
both and
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• (not A) and (not B)
Also called ‘not(A or B)’ or ‘neither A nor B’

To find (not A) and (not B):

A B A B
- Mark each region in not A with
- Mark each region in not B with
- (not A) and (not B) is the region
with both and
SA

Summary of intersections

All the possible intersections divide the sample space into four separate regions:
S

A B

only A A and (not B) A and B (not A) and B only B

(not A) and (not B) neither A nor B

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 UNIONS

• A or (not B)
To find A or (not B):
A B A B
- Mark each region in A with
- Mark each region in (not B) with
- A or not B is the region with
either or or both

• (not A) or B
To find (not A) or B:
A B A B

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- Mark each region in not A with
- Mark each region in B with
- (not A) or B is the region with
either or or both

• (not A) or (not B)
Also called ‘not (A and B)’ or ‘not both’
To find (not A) or (not B):
MP
A B A B
- Mark each region in not A with
- Mark each region in not B with
- (not A) or (not B) is the region
with either or or both

EXAMPLE 18

If P(A) = 0,4, P(not B) = 0,45 and P(A and B) = 0,3, determine

(a) P(B) (b) P(A or B)

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(c) P((not A) and B) (d) P(A or not B)

(e) P(only A) (f) P(not A or not B)

Solution

(a) P( B) = 1 − P(not B) (b) P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)

= 1 − 0,45 = 0,55 = 0,4 + 0,55 − 0,3 = 0,65

(c) not A B (d) A not B

S S
A B A B

0,1 0,3 0,25 0,1 0,3 0,25

0,35 0,35

P((not A) and B) = 0,25 P((A or not B) = 0,35 + 0,1 + 0,3 = 0,75

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 (e) The region only A is shaded (f) not A not B

S S
A B A B

0,1 0,3 0,25 0,1 0,3 0,25

0,35 0,35

P(only A) = 0,1 P((not A or not B) = 0,1 + 0,25 + 0,35 = 0,7

EXAMPLE 19

There are 150 learners in Grade 10 in Sunshine High School. 60 of these learners take History,

LE
70 take Life Sciences and 65 take neither of these two subjects.
(a) How many of these learners take
(1) at least one of these two subjects? (2) both these subjects?
(b) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each
region.
(c) How many of the Grade 10 learners from Sunshine High School take exactly one of these
two subjects?
(d) Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen Grade 10 learner from Sunshine High
MP
School
(1) doesn’t take both these subjects. (2) takes History, but not Life Sciences.

Solution

(a) (1) n(At least one) = n(S) − n( Neither) = 150 − 65 = 85

(2) Let H = {Takes History} and L = {Takes Life Sciences}
n( H or L) = n(At least one) = 85
n( H or L) = n( H ) + n( L) − n( H and L)
∴ 85 = 60 + 70 − n( H and L)
SA

∴ n( H and L) = 60 + 70 − 85 = 45
(b) S
H L

15 45 25

65

(c) n( Exactly one) = n(only H ) + n(only L) = 15 + 25 = 40

15 + 25 + 65 7 45 7
(d) (1) P(not both) = P(not (H and L)) = = (Alt: 1 − = )
150 10 150 10
15 1
(2) P( H and not L) = =
150 10

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 EXERCISE 5

(a) A and B are two events with P(A) = 0,7, P( B) = 0,4 and P(A and B) = 0,3. Calculate
(1) P(not A) (2) P(A or B)
(3) P(A and (not B)) (4) P((not A) or B)
(5) P((not A) and (not B)) (6) P(only B)
(b) In a survey of 80 people, 70 indicated that they like ice cream (I), 58 that they like frozen
yoghurt (F) and 56 that they like both ice cream and frozen yoghurt.
(1) How many of these 80 people like
(i) at least one of these two desserts?
(ii) neither of these two desserts?
(2) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each

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region.
(3) Calculate the probability that a person chosen at random from this group likes
(i) frozen yoghurt, but not ice cream.
(ii) only ice cream.
(iii) exactly one of these two desserts.
(c) For a certain experiment:
• X = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
• not X = {f ; g ; h}
• X and Y = {d ; e}
MP
• X or Y = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f }
(1) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Write the following events in set form, listing the outcomes in each event:
(i) (not X) and Y (ii) X or not Y
(iii) (not X) and (not Y) (iv) (not X) or (not Y)
(3) Determine
(i) n(X and not Y) (ii) P(Y or not X)
(d) M and N are two events with P(not M ) = 0,48, P( M and N ) = 0,4 and
P( M or N ) = 0,78. Calculate
SA

(1) P(M) (2) P(N)

(3) P((not M) and N) (4) P(M or not N)
(5) P(only M) (6) P((not M) or (not N))
(e) If P( X) = 0,38, P( Y ) = 0,45 and P(not(X or Y)) = 0,4, calculate
(1) P(X and not Y) (2) P((not X) or Y)
(f) In a group of 200 people, 75 can speak Afrikaans (A), 160 can speak isiZulu (Z) and 175
can speak at least one of these two languages.
(1) How many of these people can speak both of these languages?
(2) Calculate the probability that a person chosen from this group at random can
speak
(i) neither Afrikaans nor isiZulu.
(ii) isiZulu, but not Afrikaans.
(iii) exactly one of these two languages.
(iv) at most one of these two languages.

25

 (g) X and Y are two events with P( X) = 0,25, P(only Y ) = 0,2 and P( X and Y ) = 0,15.
Calculate
(1) P(only X) (2) P(X or Y)
(3) P(not(X or Y)) (4) P(Y)
(5) P(X or not Y) (6) P((not X) or (not Y))

(h) A and B are two events such that P(A and not B) = 0,3, P(A and B) = 0,21 and
P(A or B) = 0,93. Calculate
(1) P(only B) (2) P((not A) and (not B))
(3) P(B or not A) (4) P((not A) or (not B))
(5) P(A) (6) P(B)

(i) In a group of 60 teenagers,

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• 10 can play the guitar (G) and the piano (P).
• 12 can play the guitar, but not the piano.
• 30 can play neither the guitar nor the piano.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each
region.
(2) How many of these teenagers can play
(i) the piano?
(ii) exactly one of these instruments?
MP
(3) Calculate the probability that a teenager chosen from this group at random can
play
(i) only the piano.
(ii) at least one of these two instruments.

(j)* A and B are two events such that P( B or not A) = 0,8, P( B) = 0,5 and
P( B and not A) = 0,4.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
(2) Determine
(i) P(not A) (ii) P(A or not B)
SA

CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION EXERCISE

(a) A tetrahedral die with four faces, marked 1 to 4, is rolled. It lands with three of its
faces facing upwards. The outcome is obtained by adding the numbers on these three
faces. Event E is defined as E = {The result is greater than 6}.
(1) Write down the sample space.
(2) Write down event E in set form, listing all its outcomes.
(3) Calculate the probability of event E.
(4) The experiment is repeated 8 000 times and it is found that the result is greater
than 6 exactly 6 031 times.
(i) Calculate the relative frequency of event E for these 8 000 trials.
(ii) Does this outcome seem realistic? Explain.
(5) If the experiment is repeated 12 000 times, how many times would you expect
event E to take place?

26

 (b) The sample space of an experiment is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h ; i ; j}.
X = {a ; f ; h ; j} and Y = {d ; f ; h ; i ; j}.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram of X and Y, in the sample space, showing
(i) outcomes (ii) numbers
(iii) probabilities
(2) Write the following events in set form, listing their outcomes:
(i) not X (ii) X and Y
(iii) X or Y (iv) not(X or Y)
(v) (not X) and Y (vi) (not X) or (not Y)
(3) Determine the value of
(i) P(X) (ii) n(not(X and Y))
(iii) n(X or (not Y)) (iv) P((not X) and (not Y))

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(4)* Suppose the experiment was done and it is known that event Y took place. What
is the probability that event X also took place?

(c) Two events, A and B, with P( B) = 0,5 are shown in the following Venn diagram of
probabilities:
S
A B

x ? y
MP
0,4

(1) Write down the value of

(i) P(A or B) (ii) x
It is now given that y = 0,3.
(2) Write down the value of
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A)
(iii) P(A and not B) (iv) P((not A) and (not B))
(3) Determine
SA

(i) P(B or not A) (ii) P((not A) or (not B))

(4) If n(S) = 20, determine the value of n(not(A or B)).

(d) Given two events, A and B, such that P(not A) = 0,4, P( B) = 0,51 and
P(A and B) = 0,21. Calculate
(1) P(not B) (2) P(A)
(3) P(A or B) (4) P(not(A or B))
(5) P((not A) and B) (6) P(A or not B)
(7) P((not A) and (not B)) (8) P((not A) or (not B))

(e) K and L are two events with P( K) = 0,4, P(not L) = 0,7 and P( K or L) = 0,47.
(1) Calculate
(i) P(K and L) (ii) P(only L)
(iii) P(K and not L) (iv) P((not K) or L)
(2) If n( K) = 120, determine the value of n(L).

27

 (f) If P( X or Y ) = 0,75, P(not(X and Y)) = 0,95 and P( Y ) = 3P( X), calculate P(not X).

(g) Two events, A and B, are such that P(not A) = P(A or B) = 0,7. Calculate P(B) if
(1) P(A and B) = 0,15. (2) A and B are mutually exclusive.

(h) Given that P( M ) = 0,8. Calculate P(N) if

(1) M and N are complementary.
(2) M and N are exhaustive and P( M and N ) = 0,6.

(i) Of the Grade 10 learners in a certain school, 30% take Science, 50% take Accounting
and 40% take Maths Literacy. There are no learners that take both Science and Maths
Literacy. All learners take either Maths Literacy or Mathematics, but no learner takes
both. All learners take at least one of the two subjects — Mathematics and Accounting.
A learner is chosen randomly from the school. The following events are defined:

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Sc = {The learner takes Science} A = {The learner takes Accounting}
ML = {The learner takes Maths Literacy} M = {The learner takes Maths}
(1) From the events Sc, A, ML and M, list all the pairs that are
(i) mutually exclusive. (ii) exhaustive.
(iii) complementary.
(2) Determine P(Sc or ML).
(3) What is the probability that the selected learner takes
(i) Mathematics? (ii) both Accounting and Mathematics?
MP
(4)* Is it true that every learner who takes Maths Literacy takes Accounting as well?
Explain.
(5)* If it is known that the selected learner takes Accounting, what is the probability
that the learner takes Maths Literacy as well?

(j) Given two events, A and B, such that P( B and not A) = 0,27, P(only A) = 0,2 and
P(not(A or B)) = 0,4.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
(2) Determine the value of
SA

(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A)

(iii) P((not A) or B) (iv) P(not(A and B))

(k) A group of 36 teenagers are asked about their use of the social media services Twitter and
Instagram. 19 indicated that they use Twitter and 9 that they use Instagram. A third of
these teenagers indicated that they use neither Twitter nor Instagram.

(1) How many of these 36 teenagers use

(i) at least one of these two social media services?
(ii) both Twitter and Instagram?

(2) Calculate the probability that a teenager chosen randomly from these 36 uses
(i) Twitter but not Instagram?
(ii) only Instagram?
(iii) exactly one of these two services?
(iv) at most one of these two services?

28

 (l) The following diagram shows the sex of each of eight applicants (1 to 8) for a certain job
and their fields of study:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Economics Accounting Economics Accounting Economics Accounting Accounting Accounting

An applicant is chosen at random and the following events are defined:

F = {The applicant is female} M = {The applicant is male}

A = {The applicant studied Accounting} E = {The applicant studied Economics}

LE
(1) Calculate
(i) P(not M) (ii) P(M and A) (iii) P(M or A)
(2) If it is known that the chosen applicant studied Economics, what is the probability
that the applicant was Female?
(3) Draw a Venn diagram of outcomes showing only the events F and A. Indicate
the position of each of the applicants (1 to 8) on the Venn Diagram.
(4) Calculate
MP
(i) P(F and not A) (ii) P(A or not F)
(iii) P((not F) and (not A)) (iv) P((not F) or (not A))

3 7
(m)* Given two events, X and Y, such that P( X or not Y ) = , P( Y ) = and
5 10
9
P( X or Y ) = . Calculate
10
(1) P(only Y) (2) P(X and Y)
(3) P(X and not Y) (4) P(X)
(5) P(Y or not X) (6) P((not X) or (not Y))
2
SA

(n)* In a certain experiment, M = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4}, N = {5 ; 6} and P( M or N ) = .

3
(1) Calculate the values of P(M) and P(N).
1
(2) A third event Q is mutually exclusive with M as well as N and P( N or Q) = .
3
Calculate P(M or Q).
2 3
(o)* Two events, A and B, are such that P( B) = P(A), P(A or B) = and
5 5
P(A and B) = P(A) × P( B). Calculate P(A). Hint: Let P(A) = x.

(p)* Given that P(A) = 0,6. Explain why A and B cannot be

(1) mutually exclusive if P( B) = 0,5.
(2) exhaustive if P( B) = 0,3.
(3) complementary if P( B) = 0,7.
(4) complementary if P( B) = 0,2.

29

 (q)* Draw a Venn diagram of two events A and B such that

(1) P(A and B) = P(A) (2) P(A or B) = P(A)
(3) P(A and (not B)) = P(A) (4) P(A or (not B)) = P(A)

(r)* A certain board game can either be won (W), lost (L) or drawn (D). The outcome of the
game is completely random and not based on skill. Lesego plays his opponent twice.
(1) Write down the sample space.
(2) What is the probability that Lesego will win at least one game?
(3) Suppose it is known that at least one game was a draw.
(i) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, what is the probability that
Lesego won a game?
(4) Suppose it is known that the first game was a draw. What is the probability that
Lesego won a game?

LE
(s)* Two dice are rolled. The result is recorded in the form (x ; y), where x represents the
number the first die lands on and y the number the second die lands on. The sample space
is as follows:
S = { (1 ; 1); (1 ; 2); (1 ; 3); (1 ; 4); (1 ; 5); (1 ; 6);
(2 ; 1); (2 ; 2); (2 ; 3); (2 ; 4); (2 ; 5); (2 ; 6);
(3 ; 1); (3 ; 2); (3 ; 3); (3 ; 4); (3 ; 5); (3 ; 6);
(4 ; 1); (4 ; 2); (4 ; 3); (4 ; 4); (4 ; 5); (4 ; 6);
(5 ; 1); (5 ; 2); (5 ; 3); (5 ; 4); (5 ; 5); (5 ; 6);
(6 ; 1); (6 ; 2); (6 ; 3); (6 ; 4); (6 ; 5); (6 ; 6) }
MP
(1) What is the probability that the sum of the numbers that the two dice land on will
be
(i) 2? (ii) 3?
(iii) 4? (iv) k if k ≤ 7 and k ∈ ℕ?
(v) 8? (vi) 9?
(vii) 10? (viii) k if k > 7 and k ∈ ℕ?
(2) If it is known that the sum of the numbers that the two dice landed on was 7, what
is the probability that the product of the two numbers was a factor of 12?

(t)* A dart is thrown at random onto square ABCD in the following sketch.
SA

APRQ, LMCK and LXRY are squares. AP = 8 cm, PB = 2 cm and BM = 4 cm.

A P B

L X M

Q Y R

D K C

(1) Calculate the probability that the dart will land in

(i) square APRQ. (ii) square LXRY.
(2) Suppose that it is known that the dart landed in square APRQ. What is the
probability that it landed in square LMCK?
30