M Abdul Rehman

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 A single phase ac power system consists of a generator
connected through a pair of wires (a transmission line) to a
load.
 Figure (a) depicts a single phase two wire system, where Vp
is the magnitude of the source voltage and φ is the phase.
 What is more common in practice is a single-phase three-wire
system, shown in Fig. (b).

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 It contains two identical sources (equal magnitude
and the same phase) which are connected to two loads
by two outer wires and the neutral.
 For example, the normal household system is a single-
phase three wire system because the terminal voltages
have the same magnitude and the same phase.
 Such a system allows the connection of both 120-V
and 240-V appliances.
 Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at
the same frequency but different phases are known as
polyphase.

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 Figure (c) shows a two-phase three-wire system, and
Fig. (d) shows a three-phase four wire system.
 As distinct from a single-phase system, a two-phase
system is produced by a generator consisting of two
coils placed perpendicular to each other so that the
voltage generated by one lags the other by 90◦.

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 By the same token, a three-phase system is produced
by a generator consisting of three sources having the
same amplitude and frequency but out of phase with
each other by 120◦.
 Since the three-phase system is by far the most
prevalent and most economical polyphase system,
discussion in this chapter is mainly on three-phase
systems.
 Three-phase systems are important for at least three
reasons.

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 First, nearly all electric power is generated and
distributed in three-phase, at the operating frequency
of 60 Hz (or ω = 377 rad/s) in the United States or 50
Hz (or ω = 314 rad/s) in some other parts of the
world.
 When one phase or two-phase inputs are required,
they are taken from the three phase system rather than
generated independently.
 Even when more than three phases are needed such as
in the aluminum industry, where 48 phases are
required for melting purposes—they can be provided
by manipulating the three phases supplied.

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 Second, the instantaneous power in a three-phase
system can be constant (not pulsating).
 This results in uniform power transmission and less
vibration of three-phase machines.
 Third, for the same amount of power, the three-phase
system is more economical than the single-phase.
 The amount of wire required for a three-phase system
is less than that required for an equivalent single-
phase system.

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 Terminals a and a, for example, stand for one of the ends
of coils going into and the other end coming out of the
page.
 Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-
phase ac generator (or alternator)
 The generator basically consists of a rotating magnet (called the
rotor) surrounded by a stationary winding (called the stator).
Three separate windings or coils with terminals a-a, b-b, and c-c
are physically placed 120◦ apart around the stator. 1

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 As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field “cuts” the flux from the
three coils and induces voltages in the coils.
 Because the coils are placed 120◦ apart, the induced voltages in
the coils are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 120◦.
 Since each coil can be regarded as a single-phase generator by
itself, the three-phase generator can supply power to both
single-phase and three-phase loads.

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 A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources
connected to loads by three or four wires (or transmission
lines).
 A three-phase system is equivalent to three single phase
circuits.
 The voltage sources can be either wye-connected as shown in
Fig. (a) or delta-connected as in Fig. (b).

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 Let us consider the wye-connected voltages in Fig. (a) for now.
 The voltages Van, Vbn, and Vcn are respectively between lines
a, b, and c, and the neutral line n.
 These voltages are called phase voltages.
 If the voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency
ω and are out of phase with each other by 120◦, the voltages are
said to be balanced.

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 Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of
phase with each other by 120◦.
 Since the three-phase voltages are 120◦ out of phase with each
other, there are two possible combinations.

where Vp is the effective or rms value.

 This is known as the abc sequence or positive sequence.
 In this phase sequence, Van leads Vbn, which in turn leads Vcn.

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 This sequence is produced when the rotor rotates
counterclockwise.

 This is called the acb sequence or negative sequence.

 For this phase sequence, Van leads Vcn, which in turn leads
Vbn.
 The acb sequence is produced when the rotor rotates in the
clockwise direction.

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 The phase sequence is the time order in which the voltages
pass through their respective maximum values.
 The phase sequence is determined by the order in which the
phasors pass through a fixed point in the phase diagram.
 Reminder: As time increases, each phasor (or sinor) rotates
at an angular velocity ω. In Fig. (a), as the phasors rotate in
the counterclockwise direction with frequency ω, they pass
through the horizontal axis in a sequence abcabca....
 Thus, the sequence is abc or bca or cab.

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 Similarly, for the phasors in Fig. (b), as they rotate in the
counterclockwise direction, they pass the horizontal axis in a
sequence acbacba....
 This describes the acb sequence.
 The phase sequence is important in three-phase power
distribution.
 It determines the direction of the rotation of a motor connected
to the power source, for example.

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 Like the generator connections, a three-phase load can be either
wye-connected or delta-connected, depending on the end
application.
 Figure (a) shows a wye-connected load, and Fig. (b) shows a
delta-connected load.
 The neutral line in Fig. (a) may or may not be there, depending
on whether the system is four- or three-wire.

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 A wye- or delta-connected load is said to be unbalanced if the
phase impedances are not equal in magnitude or phase.
 A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are
equal in magnitude and in phase.
 For a balanced wye-connected load,
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = ZY
where ZY is the load impedance per phase.
 For a balanced delta-connected load,
Za = Zb = Zc =
 where is the load impedance per phase in this case.

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 wye-connected load can be transformed into a delta connected
load, or vice versa.
 Since both the three-phase source and the three-phase load can
be either wye- or delta-connected, we have four possible
connections:
 • Y-Y connection (i.e., Y-connected source with a Y-connected
load).
 Y- connection.
 - connection.
 -Y connection.

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 Determine the phase sequence of the set of voltages
van = 200 cos(ωt + 10◦),
vbn = 200 cos(ωt − 230◦),
vcn = 200 cos(ωt − 110◦)

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 A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced
Y-connected source and a balanced Y-connected load.
 Consider the balanced four-wire Y-Y system of Fig., where a Y-
connected load is connected to a Y-connected source.
 We assume a balanced load so that load impedances are equal.

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 Although the impedance ZY is the total load impedance per
phase, it may also be regarded as the sum of the source
impedance Zs , line impedance Z, and load impedance ZL for
each phase, since these impedances are in series.
 As illustrated in Fig. Zs denotes the internal impedance of the
phase winding of the generator; Z is the impedance of the line
joining a phase of the source with a phase of the load; ZL is the
impedance of each phase of the load; and Zn is the impedance
of the neutral line.

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 Thus, in general
ZY = Zs + Z + ZL
 Zs and Z are often very small compared with ZL, so one can
assume that ZY = ZL if no source or line impedance is given.

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 In any event by lumping the impedances together, the Y-Y
system in last Fig. can be simplified to that shown in Fig. given
below

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 Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to-
neutral voltages) are

 The line-to-line voltages or simply line voltages Vab, Vbc, and

Vca are related to the phase voltages. For example,

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 Thus, the magnitude of the line voltages VL is √3 times the
magnitude of the phase voltages Vp, or

 Also the line voltages lead their corresponding phase voltages

by 30.
 Figure (a) also shows how to determine Vab from the phase
voltages

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 Fig. (b) shows the same for the three line voltages. Notice that
Vab leads Vbc by 120◦ , and Vbc leads Vca by 120◦ , so that the
line voltages sum up to zero as do the phase voltages.

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 Applying KVL to each phase, we obtain the line cur-rents as

 the voltage across the neutral wire is zero.

 The neutral line can thus be removed without affecting the
system.

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 In long distance power transmission, conductors in multiples of
three are used with the earth itself acting as the neutral
conductor.
 Power systems designed in this way are well grounded at all
critical points to ensure safety.
 While the line current is the current in each line, the phase
current is the current in each phase of the source or load.
 In the Y-Y system, the line current is the same as the phase
current.
 We will use single subscripts for line currents because it is
natural and conventional to assume that line currents flow from
the source to the load.

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 An alternative way of analyzing a balanced Y-Y system is to do
so on a “per phase” basis.
 We look at one phase, say phase a, and analyze the single-
phase equivalent circuit in Fig. The single-phase analysis yields
the line current Ia as

 From Ia, we use the phase sequence to obtain other line

currents.
 Thus, as long as the system is balanced, we need only analyze
one phase.
 We may do this even if the neutral line is absent, as in the three-
wire system.

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 Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y
system of Fig.

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 The three-phase circuit in Fig. balanced; we may replace it with
its single-phase equivalent circuit such as in Fig. given in the
question.
 We obtain Ia from the single-phase analysis as

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 The balanced Y-∆ system consists of a balanced Y-connected
source feeding a balanced ∆ -connected load
 The balanced Y-delta system is shown in Fig. , where the source
is wye-connected and the load is ∆ connected.
 There is no neutral connection from source to load for this case.

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 Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages are again

 line voltages are equal to the voltages across the load

impedances for this system configuration.
 From these voltages, we can obtain the phase currents (have the
same magnitude but are out of phase with each other by 120◦.)

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 Another way to get these phase currents is to apply KVL.
 For ex-ample, applying KVL around loop aABbna gives

 The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by

applying KCL at nodes A,B, and C.

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 Also, the line currents lag the corresponding phase currents by
30◦, assuming the positive sequence.
 Figure is a phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between
the phase and line currents.

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 An alternative way of analyzing the Y- ∆ circuit is to transform
the ∆ -connected load to an equivalent Y-connected load.
 Using the ∆ -Y transformation formula

 After this transformation, we now have a Y-Y system

 The three-phase Y- ∆ system can be replaced by the single-
phase equivalent circuit in Fig.

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 A balancedabc-sequence Y-connected source with Van
= is connected to a ∆ -connected balanced
load(8+j4)ohm per phase. Calculate the phase and line
currents.

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 A balanced ∆-∆ system is one in which both the
balanced source and balanced load are ∆ -connected.
 The source as well as the load may be delta-connected
as shown in Fig. 12.17.
 Our goal is to obtain the phase and line currents as
usual.

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 Assuming a positive sequence, the phase voltages for
a delta-connected source are

 The line voltages are the same as the phase voltages.

 From Fig. assuming there is no line impedances, the
phase voltages of the delta-connected source are equal
to the voltages across the impedances;

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 Since the load is delta-connected just as in the
previous section, some of the formulas derived there
apply here.
 The line currents are obtained from the phase currents
by applying KCL at nodes A, B, and C.

 Also each line current lags the corresponding phase

current by 30◦; the magnitude IL of the line current
is√3 times the magnitude Ip of the phase current,

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 An alternative way of analyzing the ∆ - ∆ circuit is to
convert both the source and the load to their Y
equivalents
ZY =Z ∆ /3.

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 A balanced ∆ -connected load having an impedance
20−j15 ohm is connected to a ∆ -connected, positives
sequence generator having Vab = V. Calculate
the phase currents of the load and the line currents.

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 A balanced ∆-Y system consists of a balanced connected
source feeding a balanced Y-connected load.
 From figure assuming the abc sequence, the phase voltages of
a delta-connected source (i.e. the line voltages as well as the
phase voltages)are

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 We can obtain the line currents in many ways. One
way is to apply KVL to loop aANBba in Fig.
 The phase currents are equal to the line currents.

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 A balanced Y-connected load with a phase resistance
of 40 ohm and a reactance of 25 ohm is supplied by a
balanced, positive sequence ∆-connected source with
a line voltage of 210 V. Calculate the phase currents.
Use Vabas reference.

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 We begin by examining the instantaneous power
absorbed by the load.
 This requires that the analysis be done in the time
domain.
 For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are

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 The total instantaneous power in a balanced three-
phase system is constant
 It does not change with time as the instantaneous power of each
phase does.
 This result is true whether the load is Y- or ∆ -
connected.
 Since the total instantaneous power is independent of
time, the average power per phase Pp for either the ∆ -
connected load or the Y-connected load is p/3, or

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 As Vp, Ip, VL, and IL are all rms values and that θis
the angle of the load impedance or the angle between
the phase voltage and the phase current.
 A second major advantage of three-phase systems for
power distribution is that the three-phase system uses
a lesser amount of wire than the single-phase system
for the same line voltage VL and the same absorbed
power PL.
 We will compare these cases and assume in both that
the wires are of the same material (e.g., copper with
resistivity ρ), of the same length, and that the loads are
resistive (i.e., unity power factor).

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 For the two-wire single-phase system in Fig. (a),
IL=PL/VL, so the power loss in the two wires is

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 Last equation shows that the single-phase system uses
33 percent more material than the three-phase system
or that the three-phase system uses only 75 percent of
the material used in the equivalent single-phase
system.
 In other words, considerably less material is needed to
deliver the same power with a three-phase system
than is required for a single-phase system.

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 Refer to the circuit in Fig. determine the total average
power, reactive power, and complex power at the
source and at the load.

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 A three-phase motor can be regarded as a balanced Y-
load. A three-phase motor draws 5.6 kW when the line
voltage is 220 V and the line current is 18.2 A.
Determine the power factor of the motor.

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 Two balanced loads are connected to a 240-kV rms 60-
Hz line, as shown in Fig. (a). Load 1 draws 30 kW at a
power factor of 0.6 lagging, while load 2 draws 45
kVAR at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Assuming the
abc sequence, determine:
 (a) the complex, real, and reactive powers absorbed by the
combined load,
 (b) the line currents, and
 (c) the kVAR rating of the three capacitors -connected in
parallel with the load that will raise the power factor to 0.9
lagging and the

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 An unbalanced system is caused by two possible
situations:
 (1) the source voltages are not equal in magnitude and/or differ in
phase by angles that are unequal, or
 (2) load impedances are unequal.
 An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage
sources or an unbalanced load.
 Unbalanced three-phase systems are solved by direct
application of mesh and nodal analysis.
 Figure shows an example of an unbalanced three-phase
system that consists of balanced source voltages (not
shown in the figure) and an unbalanced Y-connected load
(shown in the figure).

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 Since the load is unbalanced, ZA, ZB, and ZC are not
equal.
 The line currents are determined by Ohm’s law as

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 This set of unbalanced line currents produces current in
the neutral line, which is not zero as in a balanced system.
 Applying KCL at node N gives the neutral line current as

 In a three-wire system where the neutral line is absent, we

can still find the line currents Ia, Ib, and Ic using mesh
analysis.
 At node N, KCL must be satisfied so that Ia+Ib+Ic =0 in
this case.
 The same could be done for a ∆ -Y, Y- ∆ , or ∆ - ∆ three-
wire system.

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 In long distance power transmission, conductors in
multiples of three (multiple three-wire systems) are
used, with the earth itself acting as the neutral
conductor.
 To calculate power in an unbalanced three-phase
system requires that we find the power in each phase.
 The total power is not simply three times the power in
one phase but the sum of the powers in the three
phases.

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 The unbalanced Y-load has balanced voltages of 100 V
and the acb sequence. Calculate the line currents and
the neutral current. Take
ZA=15 ohm,
ZB=10+j5 ohm,
ZC=6−j8 ohm.

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 For the unbalanced circuit in Fig. find:
 (a) the line currents,
 (b) the total complex power absorbed by the load, and
 (c) the total complex power supplied by the source.

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