Nurturing AmbitionsGP_3070 + Head offics B-32, Shivalik Main Road, Malviya Nagar, New Delhi-110017 + Sales oftics Tel 3-48, Shivalik Main Road, Malviya Nagar, New Delhi-110017 11-26691021 / 26691713 ‘Typeset by Disha DTP Team ALL RIGHTS RESERVED © Copyright Publisher ‘No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without prior permission of the publisher. The author and the ‘publisher do not take any legal responsibilty for any errors or misrepresentations that might have crept in. We have tried ‘and made our best efforts to provide accurate up-to-date information in this book. For further information about the books from DISHA, Log on to www.dishapublication.com or email to info @dishapublication.comCONTENTS 1. Computer Fundamentals 1-20 ae Computer Organization & Architecture 21-46 3. Data Structures 47-64 4. Complier Design 65-76 5. Data Communication and Networking 77-106 6. Operating System 107-132 7. Database Management System 133-160 8. Software Engineering 161-176 9. Programming in C/C++ 177-196 10. Digital Electronics 197-212 11. Web Technologies 213-230 Specialist IT Officer Practice Set-1 ps.1-ps.4 Specialist IT Officer Practice Set-2 ps-5-ps-8 Specialist IT Officer Practice Set-3 Ps-9-ps-13ozoe"d9.‘C= Commonly; O - Oriented; M - Machine; P - Particularly, U- Used; T-for Trade, E -ducation; R - and Research, In this age of computers there is no such activity that eannot be achieved without computers. Computer has become an indispensable and multipurpose tool. We are breathing in the ‘computer age and gradually computer has become such a desire necessity of lif that itis difficult to imagine life without it This chapter will help youto gain an understanding ofthe basic as well, as advanced concepts of computers. CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SYSTEM ‘A computer isan advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes this data under the control ‘ofset of instructions called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future reference and usage. Storage ‘Avbasic computer system ‘Toknow about the working ofa computer, first need to understand various terms such as Data, Processing and Information. First of all, lets start with three basic terms: 1. Data: Data isa collection of basic fats and figure without ‘any sequence. This data is also called as raw data. When the ‘data is collected as facts and figures, there is no meaning to it, at that time, for example, name of people, names of ‘employees ete 2 Processing : Processing isthe set of instructions given by the user tothe elated data that was collected earlier to output ‘meaningful information. The computer does the required processing by making the necessary calculations, ‘comparisons and decisions. 3. Information: Information isthe end point or the final output Of any processed work. This meaningful output data is called information. CHARACTERSTICS OF COMPUTER ‘The major characteristics ofcomputers are the following ‘© Speed : A powerful computer is capable of executing about 3 million calculations per second. ‘© Accuracy : A computer’s accuracy is consistently high if there are errors, they are due to errors in instructions given by the programmer. ‘© Reliability : ‘The output generated by the computer is very reliable as long asthe data is reliable. ‘+ Memory/Storage Capacity : The computer can store large volumes of data and makes the retrieval of data an easy task. ‘+ Versatility: The computer can accomplish many different things, It can accept information through various input-output devices, perform arithmetic and logic ‘operations, generate a variety of outputs in a variety of forms, ete ‘* Automation: Once the instructions are fed into computer it ‘works automatically without any human intervention ‘+ Diligence : A computer will never fail to perform it task due todistraction or laziness. © Convenience : Computers are usually easy to access, and allow people to find information easily that without a ‘computer would be very difficult, ‘+ Flexibility : Computers can be used for entertainment, for business, by people who hold different ideals of who have varied goals. Almost anyone can use a computer, and computers can be used to assist with almost any ‘oa GOALS OF COMPUTERS LL _Problem-solving techniques using the computer 2 Analysis of complex problems and the synthesis of solutions. 3. Comprehension of modern software engineering principles. 4. Avast breadth and depth of knowledge in the discipline of, computer science.z= ‘COMPUTER CAPABILITIES Like all machines, computer needs to be directed and controlled imorder to perform atask succesfully Until such times. program is prepared and stored in the computer's memory, the computer “knows absolutely nothing, not even how to acceptor reject data, Even the most sophisticated computer, no matter how capable its, must be told what to do. Until the capabilites and the limitations of computer are recognized, its usefulness cannot be thoroughly understood Inthe first place, it should be recognized that computers are capable of doing repetitive operations. A computer ean perform similar operations thousands of times, without becoming bored, tied, oF even careless. Secondly, computers can process information at extremely rapid rates. For example, modern computes can solve certain classes of arthmetie problems millions of times faster than a skilled ‘mathematician. Speds fr performing decision-making operations ae comparable to those for arithmetic operations but input-output ‘operations, however, involvemechanieal motion and hence require ‘more time. On atypical computer system, cards are read at an average speed of 1000 card per minute and as many a 1000 ines canbe printed atthe same rate ‘Thirdly, computes may be programmed to calculate answers to whatever level of acuracy is specified by the programmer. In spite of newspaper headlines such as “Computer Fails, these Tachinesare very accurate and reliable especially when the number of operations they can perform every second is considered. Because they are man-made machines, they sometimes ‘malfunction or break down and have tobe repaired, However, in ‘ost instances when the computer fils, tis due to human error and isnot the fault ofthe computer at all. Inthe fourth plac, general-purpose computerscan be programmed to solve various types of problems because of their Hlexbility. One ofthe most important reasons why computers are so widely tse today is that almost every big problem can be solved by solving a numberof itl problems-one afer another. Finally, computer, unlike a human being, has no intuition. A person may suddenly ind the answer toa problem without working ‘ut too many ofthe details, but a computer can only proceed asit hasbeen programmed to. HISTORY OF THEDEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS Inbeginning, there were no computers. To add or subtract, man used his fingers and toes. Abacus is known to be the first ‘mechanical calculating device, The main purpose of abacus was that additions and subtraction coud be performed quickly. Abacus ‘was developed by the Egyptians inthe 10th centuary B.C, butthe final structure vas given inthe [2th centuaryA.D. bythe Chinese ceducationists, Abacus is made up of a frame in which rods are fitted across with rounds beads siding on the rod. NAPIER [Napier’s Bones in an Abacus invented by John Napier Napier’s sed the bone rod for counting purpose where numbers were ‘minted on ther. With the help ofthese ods one could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division sped ‘Computer Fundamentals PASCAL'S CALCULATOR CALLED ‘PASCALINE? In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding machine called Pascal’s calculator, which represents the position of digit withthe help of gears init, Though these machines ‘were early forerunners to computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. LEIBNIZ CALCULATOR Leibniz was successfully introduced asa calculator onto the market in the year 1646, It was designed further in 1673 but it took until 1694 to complete. The calculator could perform the basic ‘mathematical operations such as add, subtract, multiply, and divide, Wheels were placed at right angles which could be displaced by a special stepping mechanism, ANALYTICAL ENGINE “THE FIRST COMPUTER” This analytical engine, the first fully-automatic calculating ‘machine, was constructed by British computing pioneer Charles Babbage (1791-1871), who first conceived the idea of an advanced calculating machine o calculate and print mathematical tables in 1812. This Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, «control flow in te form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making ithe first design for a general-purpose computer that could be deseribed in modern terms as Turing- ‘machine and could execute a program stored in memory step by step. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS Clasifiation T ised on Historical [Technology] [Size and] development used — | capacity Purpose FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1942-1955) ‘The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC. (Universal Automatic Computer), The first generation computers ‘were used during 1942-1955, They were based on vacuum, tubes, Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and, UNIVACL. Advantages: ‘© Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days, ‘© Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers. ‘© These computers could ealeulate data in millisecond. Disadvantages: ©The computers were very large in size. ‘© They consumed a large amount of energy. © Non-portable ‘© Limited commercial use + Very slow speed ‘© Used machine language only. ‘© Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage, GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals ‘SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1955-1964) ‘The second generation computers used transistors. The size of, the computers was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with transistors. The examples of second generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 et. Advantages: ‘© Smaller in size as compared tothe first generation computers. ‘© Used less energy and were not heated ‘+ Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds ‘© Used ster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disk, printer ete. ‘© Used Assombly language instead of Machine language. Disadvantages: ‘© Cooling system was required ‘© Constant maintenance was required ‘© Only used for specific purposes ‘© Costly and not versatile ‘THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1964-1975) ‘The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (1C), The first IC was invented and used in 1961. The size ofan IC is about % square inch. A single IC chip may contain thousands of| transistors. The computer became smaller in size, faster, more reliable and less expensive. The examples of third generation ‘computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVACAC 9000 ete An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, Js.a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny Fesistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated, Advantages: ‘© Smaller in size as compared to previous generations. © Morereliable © Used less energy. ‘© Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds. Disadvantages ‘© Airconditioning was required. © Highly sophisticated technology required for the ‘manufacturing of IC chips. FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS (1975-PRESENT) ‘The fourth generation computers started withthe invention of, ‘Microprocessor. The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs ‘The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very Large Seale Integration) circuit was designed. It greatly reduced the size of computer. The size of modern Microprocessors is usually ‘one square inch. Itcan contain millions of electronic circuits. The ‘examples of fourth generation computersare Apple Macintosh & IBMPC. Advantages: More powerful and reliable than previous generations. ‘Small in size Fast processing power with less power consumption Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold Cheapest among all generations Alltypes of High level languages can be used in this type of computers = Disadvantage: ‘* The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors. FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS (PRESENT & BEYOND) ‘Scientists are working hard on the S* generation computers with {quite few breakthroughs, It is based onthe technique of Artificial Intelligence (Al). Computers can understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. [BM Watson computer is one example that outsmarts Harvard University Students TYPES OF COMPUTER ‘Computers can be classified according tothe following types: BASED ON WORK ANALOG The analog computers are computer systems that measure variations in quantities such as temperature, voltage, speed, et. ‘Analog computers are known to measure the data that varies continuously. Other examples of analog computers include Voltmeter and Ammeter. DIGITAL Digital computers are the computer systems that count things by ‘manipulation of certain discontinuous numbers and letters through representation of binary digits (also called bits) in contrast to analog computers that measures the variations in quantities). In ‘other words texts and graphics are treated numerically ‘Today the digital computers have replaced the analog ones, Examples of digital computers are desktop, personal computers, ‘workstations tablet PC ete HYBRID Hybrid computers as the name suggests are a good mix ofanalog aswell as digital computers, using an analog computer front-end, ‘hich is then fed into a digital computer’s repetitive process. Hybrid computers are used for scientific calculations, in defence and systems, BASED ON PURPOSE ‘On the basis of purpose, computers are categorised as following (GENERAL PURPOSE, ‘These computers are designed to work on different types of applications. In these types of computers the programs are not stored permanently rather programs are input a the time oftheir ‘execution. Personal computers, including desktops, notebooks, ‘smart phones and tablets, are all examples of general-purpose ‘computers. Various tasks can be accomplished by using general, purpose computers : For example writing and editing (word processing), manipulating different facts and figures in various databases, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific calculations controlling organization's security system, electricity ‘consumption, building temperature eteSPECIAL PURPOSE Speval-Purpose computers ae task specifi computes and are signed to solve a particular problem. They ar also known as dedisated computers, because these computers are dedicated 1 perform a single particular tsk epetitvely, Examples of such computer systems inlude the trafic control sytem ,they are also used in video games navigational ystems in an aiveral ‘weather forecasting, stelite launch racking, exploration, and inautomative industries, keepingtime ina digital vate, or Robot helicopter. BASED ON MEMORY SIZE AND PERFORMANCE ‘Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows — MICRO COMPUTER ‘A microcomputer isa computer that uses a microprocessor as its ‘central processing unit. Microcomputers are physically smaller in, size as compared to mainframe and minicomputers, Many ‘microcomputers when equipped with a keyboard and sereen for input and output respectively can be used as personal computers (nthe generic sense). Microcomputers are easier to use and also inexpensive as the memory used by them ic., microprocessors and semi conductors have become cheaper in the last few years E.g.: The various micro computers widely available are IBM pes, APPLE mac ete:the small types of pes like the palmtop and handheld are now becoming available. MINICOMPUTER It is a midsize computer. In the past few years the difference ‘between large minicomputers and small mainframes has decreased significant ust ike the distinction between small minicomputers, and workstations, A minicomputer can support upto 200 users at the same time, E.g.: The various machines widely available are vax series 8200 and 8300, honeywell(xps-100), e's series 36 level 20,50,60 galaxy 21, he-4, neleo-5000 and others. MAINFRAME, ‘Mainframe computers known as the “Big Iron” are computers, that are used primarily by corporate and governmental, ‘organizations, Modern mainframe design is generally defined by the following features: ‘© High reliability and security ‘+ Extensive input-output facilites wit the ability to offload to separate engines '* Strict backward compatibility with older version of software SUPERCOMPUTER ‘Supercomputer is a term used for one of the fastest computers, that exist today. They are deployed for specialized applications that require processing of highly critical data and immense amounts of mathematical calculations. Eg, : Weather forecasting requires a supercomputer ‘Computer Fundamentals ‘= PARAM is a series of supercomputers designed and assembled by the Centre for Development of Advanced ‘Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, India. The latest machine in the series is the PARAM Yuva IL ‘© China’s vast Tianhe-2 is the fastest supercomputer in the ‘world PERSONAL COMPUTERS Personal Computers are computers that are designed for an individual user. These computers are small and a relatively ‘cheaper. In price, personal computers can range anywhere froma few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds, Personal ‘Computers use the microprocessor technology as they enable ‘manufactures to put an entire CPU onto one chip. They serve ‘myriad purposes and can be put to use by various businesses for ‘word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. People across the globe use internet for playing games, surfing net and, ‘other online applications a their homes and personal use ‘TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS Personal computers can be classified on the basis ofits size.‘There are two basic types of the traditional designs ie the desktop ‘models and tower models. There are several variations on these ‘two basic types also. ‘Tower model ‘This model of personal computer refers toa computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and other mass storage devices, are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet Desktop model Desktop model means computer that are designed to fit ‘comfortably on top of'a desk, with the monitor siting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers as compared tothe tower ‘model are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrowand tall, ‘Notebook computer Also called ultra book. These are extremely popular because they are extremely lightweight and portable. Because of their small size typically less than 6 pounds or lesser than that they have become so popular. These flat-panel technologies can produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen, The quality of notebook. display sereens also differs considerably. Modern notebook computers are very similar to personal computers in terms of computing power. Laptop computer Laptop are now a days also called notebook computers “These are small and portable You can make them sit on your lap and, ‘work on them ‘Subnotebook computer ‘Subnotebook computers are portable computers that are even, lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. They are light weight because they use a small keyboard and screen as compared to.a notebook computer. GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals ‘Hand-held computer ‘These computers are portable enough to be carried in one's hand. ‘They ae extremely convenient fr use but due to extremely small size of their keyboards and sereens they have still not succeeded into replacing notebook computers. Palmtop, These computers as the name suggest fit in your palm, Due to extremely small size their use is limited to phone books and calendars Ppa PDA's have electronic pens rather than keyboards for inputs unlike laptop. They also incorporate handwriting recognition features. and voice recognition technologies i.e can also react to voice input, PDAs arealso called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers ‘Smart phones ‘Smart phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and a smal pe. They may use a pen or may have a small keyboard ‘They can be connected othe internet wirelessly. Apple, Samsung, Sony are some manufacturers of smart phones. USES OF COMPUTERS ‘Computers have their application or utility everywhere. Some of the prominent areas of computer applications are IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION ‘Computers have taken the edueation systems in the entire world toa different level altogether. Following are the uses of eomputers ineducation- 1. Making classrooms effective: The traditional classes have ‘became modern and high-tech with the advent ofcomputers, Students now see multimedia presentations, clips, images, ete. with the help of computers. This gives them a better experience of education as compared to the monotonous blackboard teaching. This way, the power of students to remember oF recollect the taught concepts increases as the classroom learning becomes interesting. | Computers not only strengthen the traditional education system but also provide a new mode of pursuing educational courses and degrees, This mode is called as online training mode ofeducation. Online eduation system offers several benefits to the students which they can’tavail in traditional education sytem, 3. Helpsin research work : Computershelp students of schools, colleges and universities in their research works. Gone are the days when students would go to libraries, and other Knowledge processing units to complet their research work. With the help of computers students now pursue their research work with ease and get ample amount of information forthe same with easy clicks. ‘THE FIELD OF OFFICE 1. Document Management system : Document Management system consists of different applications like word processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets ete. Word Processing s used to create documents electronically. Iti used to produce high-quality letters, proposals, reports ‘and brochures ete Desktop Publishing : is used to make these documents attractive with photas and graphics et. it is used to publish ‘the documents. Spreadsheet Application: is used to maintain records and calculate expenses, profits and losses. It is also used to perform mathematical, statistical and logical processing. 2. Office Support System: Itisused to coordinate and manage the activities ofa workgroup. The members ofa workgroup ‘can share their work and coordinate with one another. ‘Groupware and desktop organizers are examples of this system, IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE 1, Hospital Administration : Hospital is an important ‘organization, We can use computer for the administration of | hospital. We can computerize the accounting, payroll and stock system of the hospital. We can keep the record of different medicines, their distribution and use in different wards ete. 2. Recording Medical History : Computer can be used tostore ‘medical history of patients. We can store important facts about patients in computer we can keep record if his past treatment, suggested medicines and their results. Such systems can be very effective and helpful for doctors. 3. Monitoring systems : Some serious patients must be ‘monitored continuously, Monitoring is needed especially in operation theatres and intensive care units, Many computerized device are use to monitor the blood pressure, heartbeat and brain ofthe patients. 4, Life Support System: life support systems are used tohelp the disabled persons, Many devices are used that help deaf Person to hear, scientists are trying tocreatea device tohelp blind person to see. ‘5. Diagnosis of Diseases : Different software are availabe to store data about different diseases and their symptoms. Diagnosis of disease is possible by entering the symptoms of a patient. Different computerized devices are used in laboratories for different tests of blood, IN THE FIELD OF DEFENCE There are many uses computers in defence such as: |. Computers are used totrack incoming missles and help slew ‘weapons systems onto the incoming target to destroy them. 2. Computers are used in helping the military find out where all, their assets are (Situational Awareness) and in ‘Communications/Battle Management Systems, 3. Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of| getting equipment to and around the battlefield 4. Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help tun the platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms ‘5. Computers are used as gateways between different computer networks and to host security functions (crypto systems),ABBREVIATIONS ABR ‘ADC Ajox ‘ALGOL, ALU ‘AMD Available Bit Rate Analog -To - Digital Converter ‘Asynchronous Java Seript and XML Algorithmic Language Arithmetic and Logie Unit ‘Advanced Micro Devices ‘Application Programming Interface ‘American Standard Code for Information Inter change Application Service Provider Asynchronous Transfer Mode Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code Binary Coded Decimal Bit Error Rate Binary File Descriptor Border Gateway Protocol binary Binary Automatie Computer Basic Input Output System binary digit Binary large object Web Loz bit mapped Bootstrap Protocol bits per second Computer-Aided Design (Computer-Aided Engineering Computer-Aided Instruction (Computer-Aided Translation Carbon Copy Compact Dise ‘Compact Dise Recordable ‘Compact Dise Read-only Memory Compact Dise Revritable Computer Graphics Colour Graphics Array (Common Gateway Interface Common internet File system Command Line Interface (Computer Numerical Control ‘Common Business-Oriented Language Central Processing Unit Cathode Ray Tube ‘Common System Interface Computerised Tomography Client-To-Client Protocol Computational Tree Logic Clear To Send Digital-To-Analog Converter Directory Access Protocol Databse Database Administrator Database Management System Direct Clent-o-Client Double Data Rate Data Eneryption Standard Data Flow Diagram Distributed File System Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language DMA. FAT FAQ ‘Computer Fundamentals Dynamic Link Library Digital Light Processing. Direct Memory Access Disk Operating System Dots Per Inch Digital subscriber Line Digital Versatile Dise Digital Video Dise Digital Versatile Dise-Rewritable Digital Visual Interface Digital Video Recorder Extensible Authentication Protocol Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory Enhanced Graphies Array Exterior Gateway Protocol electronic ID card Executable and Linkable Format Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory Executable File Allocation Table Frequently Asked Questions Floppy Disk Controller Floppy Disk Drive First In First Out Floating Point Unit File System File Transfer Protocol File eXchange Protocol Gigabit Gigabyte Graphics Interchange Format Garbage In, Garbage Out Graphics Processing Unit Graphical User Interface Hard Disk Drive High Definition DVD Hardware Deseription Language Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Transfer Protocol International Business Machines Internet Control Message Protocol Internet Cache Protocol Internet Explorer Instant Messaging Internet Message Access Protocol Inpuy/Output Internet Protocol Internet Relay Chat Interrupt Request International Organisation for Standardisation Internet Service Provider Interrupt Service Routine Information Technology International Telecommunication Union Joint Photographic Experts Group Java Users Group Kilobit Kilobyte GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals Kilohert. Local Area Network Lastin First Out Least Significant Bit Metropolitan Area Network Megabit Megabyte Master Boot Record Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Million Instructions Per Second “Multipurpose Intemet Mail Extensions Multi-Media Extensions Multiple-Image Network Graphics Motion Pictures (Coding) Experts Group Most Significant Bit Microsoft Disk Operating System Network File System Network Operating System (Windows) New Technology Object-Oriented Programming Operating System Open- Source Sofware Peer-To- Peet Personal Area Network Password Authentication Protocol Personal Computer Peripheral Component Interconnect PinGrid Array Programmable Interrupt Controller Program for Internet News & Email Programmed Input/ Output Plug-and-Play Point-to-Point Protocol Power Supply Unit Quality of Service Redundant Array of Independent Disks RAM Random Access Memory RDBMS = Relational Database Management System ROM Read Only Memory RTOS > Real Time Operating System SAN Storage Area Network SATA > Serial SCSI Small Computer System Interface SDL. Simple Direct Media Layer SDRAM = Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol SPL Serial Peripheral Interface Qu. Structured Query Language TP. Transmission Control Protacol TCPAP ~ Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol TIF True Type Font Try Teletype UAC User Account Control UART © Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter UEFL Unified Extensible Firmware Interface uw User Interface WL Upload ups ‘Uninterruptible Power Supply URL Uniform Resource Identifier USB. ‘Universal Serial Bus Ver variable eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language eXtensible Markup Language Year Two Thousand Zero Insertion Force Socket IMPORTANT TERMS Access Time: Access time is the time from the start of one ‘access of the storage device tothe time when the next access can be started ‘Accessory: An Accessory is a device attached to a host ‘computer, but not part of it, and is more or less dependent on the ‘host It expands the host's capabilities, but does not form part of the core computer architecture -Examplesare computer printers, mage scanners, tape drives, ‘microphones, loudspeakers, webcams, and digital cameras. ‘Active Cell: The cell that continues the value being used or ‘modified in aspreadshect program, and that ishighlighted by the cell pointer. Also known as current cell ‘Active Window : The window in Microsoft Windows with ‘which the user may interact, ‘Accumulator: The computer register in which the result of ‘an arithmetic of logic operation is formed (related to arithmetic and logic unit Algorithm: Algorithm give the computational steps for the particular problem that take some finite input and give the desired output. ‘Analog: A continuous waveform signal that can be used 10 represent such things as a sound, temperature, and velocity ‘Analog Computer: A computer in which numerical data are represented by measurable physical variables, such as electrical “Antivirus: Computer antivirus refersto a software program ‘that can protect your computer fom unwanted viruses and remove any that penetrate your computer's defenses, ‘Arithmetic Logic unit (ALU): Anarithmeticlogicunit(ALU) isthe part ofa computer processor (CPU) that caries out arithmetic, and logie operations on the operands in computer instruction words, Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence (Al) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that ‘aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as “the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent isa system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success, vB Visual Basie VBA Visual Basic for Applications VES Visual Basi seript ves. Virtual File System VGA Video Graphics Array VLAN Virtual Local Area Network vM Virtual Memory ‘voD Video On Demand vor Voice over Internet Protocol VN ‘Virtual Private Network vr Video Terminal WAN Wide Area Network ‘WAP Wireless Application Protocot Wii Wireless Fidelity WIMAX : Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access WLAN = Wireless Local Area Network WoL Wake-on-LAN WOM = Wake-on-Modem WWW = World Wide Web XHTML XML Yok airsASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): ASCH, code for information exchange between computers made by different companies; ting of inary digits represents each character, used in most microcomputers. ASCIL aretwo type: 1. ASCII, 3, ASCI-8 Assembly Language: A programming language that isonce removed fom acompute’s machine language. Machine languages consist entirely ofaumbers and is almost impossible for humans toread and write. Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine language, bu they enable a programmer touse names instead of numbers. ‘Ausiliary Memory: “A high-speed memory bank used in ‘mainframes and supercomputers Itisn0t dite addresabe by the CPU; rather, itfnetions like a disk. Data are transfered from auxiliary memory to main memory oer a high-bandwidth channel Backup: A backup or the process of backing. up means ‘making copies of data which may be used o restore the original data after a data loss event. Bandwidth: In computer networking and computer science, bandwidth, network bandwidth, data bandwidth or digital ‘bandwidth isa bit rate measure of available or consumed data communication resources expressed in bts/second or multiples ot (kilobit/s, megabits/sete) ‘BIOS: Basic Input Output System. This is the basic set of instructions that tll the computer how to act. Most computers hhave these instructions built into @ chip that plugs into the motherboard Bar Code: A bar code (often seen asa single word, barcode) isthesmall image oflines (bars) and spaces that isafixed to retail store items, identification cards, and postal mal to identity a particular product number, person, or leation Binary: Computers are based on the binary numbering system, which consists of just two unique numbers, 0 and | jometri Device: Biometrics (or biometric authentication) consists of methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon ‘ne or more intrinsic physical or behavioral aits Bitmap : In computer graphs, a bitmap or pixmap isatype cofmemory organization or image file format used to store digital images. Bluetooth : Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (sing short wavelength radio transmissions inthe ISM band fiom 2400-2480 Milz) between ixed and mobile devies, creating personal area networks (PANS) with high levels of security. ‘Booting : To boot (as a verb, also "to boot up") a computer isto load an operating sjstem into the computers main memory ‘or random access memory (RAM). Browse : In database systems, browse means to view data “Many database systems support a special browse mode in which you can flip through fields and records quickly. Usually, you cannot modify data while you ae in browse mode. ‘Bug: A software bug is the common term used to describe an error, law, mistake flue, or fault in computer program or system that produces an incorest or unexpected result, oreauses itto behave in unintended ways. Byte: Byte isa unit of digital information in computing and {elecommunications that most commonly consists of eight its CDROM (Compact isk- Read Only Memory) atype of cptcal disk capable of storing large amounts of data — upto 1GB, although the mast common size is 700 MB (megabytes). CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable): type of CD disk that «enables you to write onto it in multiple sessions ‘Computer Fundamentals Central Processing Unit (CPU) : The CPU is the computer's control center. Think of it as the brain that does all the thinking (computation; thus itis called the Central Processing Unit. The actual CPU is about 4 em square, yeti isthe most critical part of the computer. Having a fast CPU (speed measured in Megallertz, ‘or Gigahertz) greatly aids inthe overall speed of your computer, CMOS = Acronym for "Complimentary Metal Oxide ‘Semiconductor’. CMOS computer cirut consumes very little ‘power and is used in computers to keep track of the system setup information, data, time, type of disk and hard drives, ec, that a ‘computer has installed. Compressed File: Computer files that have been reduced in size bya compression program. Such programs are available for all computer systems. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The Central Processing. Unit (CPU) isan electronic component that interprets and caries ‘out the instructions of any application that runs on a computer. It is the place where all the computing is done. Data: Representation of Raw facts. The raw material of information Database: ‘The integrated data resource for a computer-based information system, DDR: This isa new type of RAM called Double Data Rate RAM. Itisused in some of video cards such asthe Nvidia GeForce cards, Desktop: The screen in Windows upon which icons, ‘windows, a background, and so on are displayed. Desk Top Publishing (DTP): Software that allows users to produce near-typeset-quality copy for newsletters, advertisements, and many other printing needs, all from the confines of microcomputer, Dial up: A dial-up Internet account allows you to use a ‘computer with a modem and appropriate software to connect to the Internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ‘The software “dials” the ISP's access numbers and you can then send, e-mail, browse the World Wide Web or engage in other Internet, activites. Digital: Term used to describe any information that has been translated into a coresponding series of Isand Os, any information text, sound, image, color ete. may be digitized. Digital Computer: A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digital usualy inthe binary number system. Digital Video! Versatile Disk (DVD): The successor technology to the CD-ROM, that can store up to 10 gigabytes or more Disk: A magnetically encoded storage medium in the form ‘ofa plate (also called a platter). Disk Operating System (DOS): A disk operating system ‘manages disks and other system resources. It isa subset of OSes, sort ofan archaic term forthe same. MS-DOS is the most popular rogram currently calling itselfa DOS. CPIM was the most popular prior to MS-DOS. Domain Names: A name given to a host computer on the Intemet; E-mail domain names are good examples ofdomain names (or example in bijendra@kbscontent com, the domain name is "kbscontent com’) Downloading: Retrieving a file or group of files from the Internet so that they can be stored on a local hard drive. By accessing a page, you have, in fact, downloaded all the information, ‘onthe page o that it can be viewed and interpreted by your web browser GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals Eleetronie Mail: When message is ent, the message is, sent fist tothe SMTP ever, which acts as an “outbox” for users ‘The message i then relayed tothe appropriate mal server, which can be found listed after the @ symbol inthe recipients E-mail address, The message then waits on that server until the reipient accesses the message, Ethernet: A transport method (protocol) used to connect computers toa LAN (Local Area Network) and exchange data File: (1) collection of elated records, (2) Anamed area on 4 disk-storage device that contains a program or digitized information (text, image, sound, and soon). (3) component of an overal program or application. Font: Ina simplistic sense, a font can be thought of asthe physieal description ofa character set, While the character set will deine what sets of bits map to what letters, numbers, and other symbols the font will define what each letter, number, and other symbol looks ike Format: (1) Noun: The logical or physical arrangement of the tracks and sectors ona floppy diskette or a hard disk, To be usable, a disk must be formatted so that the tracks and sectorsare Iaid out in a manner compatible with the operating sytem in use (@) Verb: To prepare a disk or disket, diving it into sectors, so that it is ready to receive data Gigahertz: One gigahertz is equivalent o 1000 megahertz, «1,000,000, 000 hertz Hacker: An individual with vast experience with security protocols who attempts to illegally access secure servers in an attempt to download private information, damage systems, or act in some other way to "fee information”. Hard Copy: A readable printed copy of computer output ard Disk: Hard disk (internal) isa permanent fileand data storage device housed in a computer ease Hardware: Collective tem for any computer-related object that ean be touched physically Hexadecimal Number System: A numeric notation system with a base of 16 different symbols frequently used to specify addresses in computer memory. In hexadecimal notation, the decimal numbers 0 through 15 are represented by the decimal digits 0 through 9 and the alphabetic “digits” A through F(A decimal 10, B=decimal 11, et.) Can be formed as two4-bit binary ‘numbers from an 8-bit binary number split into two parts Home Page: The Web page which isthe starting point for accessing information at a site or in a particular area, Jost: A computer, attached to a network which provides serviees to another computer beyond simply storing and forwarding information lyper Text Markup Language: Thisis the code by which ‘web pages are created so they ean be graphically organized in various ways. The web browser downloads the text ofthe HTML file, and then decodes the text into what youccan see here. Many books and online manuals are availabe to anyone wishing to lear this code. ‘Acronyms for "Hyper Text Mark-up Llanguage" which is sed to format information so that it can be structured and made accessible to the World Wide Web. HTTP: Acronym for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol” The protocol that forms the basis of World Wide Web technology. HTTP isthe set of rules governing the software that transports hyperlinked files along the Internet. Information Technology (IT): including ICT (Information and Communication Technology) isthe application of appropriate (enabling) technologes to information processing. Inputioutput (UO): A generic reference to input and/or output toa computer IP: Acronym for "Internet Protocol’ The standard protocol used by systems communicating across the Internet. IP Address: A digital code that precisely locates a computer ‘connected tothe Internet. MAC: Short for " Macintosh"; the other type of personal ‘computer, manufactured by Apple Computer Inkjet Printer:A non-impact printer in which the print head ‘contains independently controlled injection chambers that squirt ink droplets on the paper to form letters and images Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): A digital ‘elecemmunications standard for data delivery ver twisted-pair lines ‘with transmission speeds upto 128 Kbps (two 64 Kbps line pairs), Interface: (1) A specific hardware or software connection. (2) Making two devices capable of communication. Used most ‘often to refer to the design of hardware and software that allows ‘connection of network components and transfer of information, Internet: Internet is the largest wide area network in the ‘world which links millions of computers. Through internet information can be shared, business can be conducted and, research can be done. IPAddress (Internet Protocol Address): Auniquenumerical Internet address identifying any piece of equipment hooked up tothe Internet, Intranet: An Intemet-like network whose scope is restricted tothe networks within a particular organization, “Java: Java isa programming language and hasa “sandboxed” ‘code interpreter which permits programs to be downloaded to C's from the Web, but isolates these applications from access to ‘other applicationsrunning on the PC. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): A bit-mapped file format that compresses image size Jukebox: A storage device for multiple sets of CD-ROMs, tape cartridges, or disk modules enabling ready access to vast ‘amounts of online data Keyboard: is one of computer components which used 10 input data toa computer. I is called an input device Laptop: Laptop is smal and lightweight computer in which all the main parts ae fitted into single unit, It is designed to be ‘carried around. Particularly, itis ideal for travelers, journalists, commentators and professionals who want to work both at the office and home. LCD: Acronym for "Liquid Crystal Display”. It is the technology used for displays in notebooks and monitors for ‘computers. ‘Linux: An open source spinoff ofthe UNIX operating system ‘that runs on a number of hardware platforms and is made available far free over the Internet Local Area Network (LAN) : Many multiple-computer homes have found ways to link their computers through a central device called a "hub”. This way, each computer can share information directly, without the need to transfer data via a portable storage device like a floppy disk. A properly set up LAN can also permit the connected computers to access the Internet through a single Internet account, Log on & Log off: Each server that is accessed must have ‘some way toensure security of their sensitive information. Thus, servers restrict access by forcing users to “log on’ with either‘personal access codes or anonymously, Anonymous access usually requires the individual's e-mail address and the user's IP address also logged. Once the desired information has been obtained, the user can "log off”, disconnecting aocess tothe server. Machine Language: Machine language consists of the raw ‘numbers that can be directly understood by a particular processor. [Each processor's machine language will be diferent from other processors’ machine language. Although called "machine Janguage’, itis not usually what people think of when talking, about computer languages. Machine language dressed up with ‘mnemonics to make it abit more human-readable iscalled assembly language. ‘Mainframe Computer: A large computer that can service ‘many users simultaneously in support of enterprise-wide applications, ‘Memory: One ofthe essential components ofa computer’s ‘central processing unit.. Memory is the area where information, and programs ae actively processed, Microcomputer: A small computer; for instance a Personal ‘Computer or alaptop. “Microprocessor: A computer on a single chip. The central processing component of a microcomputer. “Modem: Modem isa telecommunication device that converts digital signals to analog and vice versa Itis used in dial-up internet ‘connection to connect a telephone line o'a computer. Monitor: The high-resolution TV-like device that displays ‘your computer's output. Today's manitorshave much better quality displays than any TV is capable of producing, Motherboard: is the core of a computer system. It is the circuit board where al other parts connect. Itcommunicates and controls the overall system. Nomotherboard means no computer system, ‘M3 : this stands for "MPEG I Audio Layer- 3" and is a digital. compressed music ile (their file namesalways end with an ‘mp3 extension), MP3 files are often downloaded or exchanged between people online. “MPEG: Acronym for "Motion Picture Experts Group" A video file compression system which is used on the web, ‘Mouse: A small, handheld device attached to @ computer, includes one or more buttons that allow the usr to select graphics fortext onscreen, Multimedia application: Computer applications that involve the integration of text, sound, graphics, motion video, and animation, “Multitasking: The concurrent execution of more than one program at atime Offline: Pertaining to data that is not accessible by, oF hardware devices that are not connected to, a networked computer system, Online (a) Noun: Pertaining todata and/or hardware devices accessible to and under the control of a networked computer system. (b) Adverb: Connected. You are online ifyouare working on {your computer while it is connected to another computer. Your printer is online iit is connected to your computer and ready to accept data ‘Operating System or Platform : Operating systems create fan environment in which a user and hardware interact to each ‘other. These terms refer to the software that your computer uses, to operate (otherwise known as your OS) and not toa manusturer ‘or company: Windows 2000, Windows XP, and OSX (Mac) are ‘common platforms. ‘Computer Fundamentals Password: Password is a series of characters, digit and special symbol used to protect resources in a computer from, ‘unauthorized access. It is one of the ways to secure computer information ftom unauthorized users Peripheral: A physical device (such as printer, scanner, or disk subsystem) that is externally attached to.a workstation oF to the network, Plugin: A helper application that works within a browser. It adds more functionality toa browser; commonly associated with the Netscape Navigator browser software, Personal Computer: small computer designed for use by an individual, a microcomputer, Processor: The logical component of a computer system that interprets and executes program instructions. Program:(1) Noun: Computer instructions structured and ‘ordered in a manner that, when executed, causes a computer to perform a particular function. (@) Verb: ‘The at of producing computer sofware to perform ‘some application Programming: The act of writing a computer program. Programming language: A language programmers useto ‘communicate instructions to a computer. RAM: Acronym for "Random Access Memory”, Random ‘Access memory, the computer's "short term" memory is used ‘whenever an action is performed by a program. Itisalso called the “active memory". RAM is what the computer uses to run all, applications. RAM is usually specified in Megabytes or MB. (The ‘other kind of memory dealers refer tois"storage” memory or hard drivesize. itusually is specified in Gigabytes or GB, ROM: Acronym for "Read Only Memory", in which information is saved once and can never be altered For example. CD-ROM drives read information saved on compact disks (CD'3). ACD-ROM drive ean read that information, but cannot make ‘changes to it. For that you need a CD- RW drive. Some ROM is, built nto your computer tohelp it get started when you turn ton. Scanner: A scanner isapiece of hardware that will examine ‘picture and produce a compute file that represents what it sees, ‘Adigital camera isa related device. Each has its own limitations. Search Engine: A tool used which matches key words you center with tiles and deseription on the Internet. It then displays the matches allowing you to easily locate a subject. Similar toa card catalog, but not as efficient. Common search engines are ‘Webcravwier, Yahoo, Alta Vista, Infoseek, Google and Lycos, Server: A computer of its software that "serves" other computers by administering network filesand network operations. ‘Three types of Internet servers are Web servers, e-mail servers, and Gopher servers. Surfing: The random, aimless exploration of web pages achieved through following links that look interesting within a document Software: Software is the set of instructions developed by programming language which tells a computer what todo. System software : controls the overall operation of a ‘compuier. Some of the activities include managing system memory, controlling system resources, executing computer hardware functions and interfacing a user with computer hardware and applications, Unix: UNIX isa family of OSes, each being made bya different ‘company or organization but all offering a very similar look and, fel GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals Upload: The process of transferring information from one ‘computer to another, generally fom aclient toa server, For example, {you upload a file from your computer to. server or the internet, USB: Acronym for "Universal Serial Bus”. Thisisa style of port connection that is used by many peripheral devices such as Palm Pilots, phones, scanners, printers et. This type of onnection, ismuch faster than more traditional kinds of connections such as serial and parallel ports. URL: Acronym for "Uniform Resource Locator” The specific path toa World Wide Web fle, including filename and extension ‘UPS: "Uninterruptible Power Supply”. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) ia device that allows your Computer to keep running for atleast short time when the primary power source isles. Virus: A virus i a program that will sec to duplicate itself in memory and on disks, but in a subtle way that will not, immediately be noticed. A computer on the same network as an infected computer or that uses an infected disk (even a floppy) or that downloads and runs an infected program can itself become infected WAN: Acronym for "Wide Area Network". Alarger computer network that is geographically dispersed, such as one that stretches across a university campus, Web Page: A single screen (document) on a Web site Webcasting: "Webcasting" isaterm that describes the ability to use the Web to deliver delayed versions of sound or video broadcasts Website: The location of published hypertext content. Physically, a Website can occupy an entire Web server or a part, ‘of a server; or it can be spread out among different servers as Tongas its sections are all linked directly, to the same home page. WLAN: Acronym for "Wireless Local Area Network", In a ‘wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point isa station, that transmits and receives data, sometimes refered to as a transceiver. ‘World Wide Web or WWW: Thisis the part ofthe Internet that you acces. The World Wide Web isso named because each page in the WWW has links to other pages, which have links to ‘other pages, and soon, creating what could visually be seen as a -web-likenetwork oflinks, SOFTWARE Software is a general term which is used to describe the instructions that are given toa computer. ‘These instructions can beeither a single programme or a group of programmes, ‘TYPES OF SOFTWARE. Software is generally classified into three specific categories in the computer world: 1 System software 2 Application software 3 Uiility software 1, System software: This consists of all the programmes, languages and documentation supplied by the manufacturer ofthe computer. This type of software is required to use the computer efficiently and conveniently. These programmes allow the application developer to write and develop their ‘own programmes. Application software: These programmes are developed by the user in order to perform some specific function for the organisation. For example, a payroll system to compute the salaries ofthe employees of an organisation is termed as an application software 3. Utility software: Utility software may be considered as an, application software or a system software which is very often used in the development ofa programme, PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES A programming language consists of words, symbols and usage rules pertaining to the grammar that permits people to ‘communicate with the computer. Understanding of computer software isimperfect without basic knowledge of programming, languages. Programming languagesallow the programmers and tend users to develop the programmes that are executed by the ‘computer. Many programming languages exist in the world today. Each one of the languages have their own unique vocabulary, ‘grammar and usage, Some of these languages have been created to serve a special purpose while others are more_ flexible and ‘general purpose and are suitable for many types of applications. However in general, programming languages must cater tothe following tasks: — input output ~ text manipulations calculations — logic“ comparison = storage! retrieval CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES. Machine Languages: Machine language is the lowest form ‘of computer language. Programmes were only written in binary based machine level language in the first generation ‘computers. The computer understands this language only at its lowestlevel ‘An instruction perpared in machine language has two parts 1. Op-code: This is the frst part and isthe command or operation ‘and ites the computer what function to perform. 2 Operand: The second part ofthe instruction isthe operand, and it tells the computer where fo find or store the data or instructions that are to be manipulated. The number of ‘operands in an instruction varies from computer to computer. In a single operand machine, the binary equivalent of "ADDO48I" could cause the value ina storage location 0481 tobe added toa value stored inthe arithmetic & logic unit. ‘The single operand format is popular in the smallest ‘microcomputers whereas the two operand structure is found inmost other machines ‘The se of instructions in a machine level language can be divided into four categories 1. Arithmetic—add, subtract, multiply and divide 2 Control load, store, jump instructions 3. Input output ~ Read and write 4. Direct use— Halt, start and end "Noarithmetic or comparison operations are done inthe primary ‘memory ofthe computer. Instead it is done in the ALU special register called accumulator. Thus if we need toadd two numbers, ‘we require one instruction which will order the control unit to place a nuber in the accumulator and another instruction to ‘identify the operation of addition. ‘Symbolie/ Assembly Languages: In order to reduce the burden, ‘symbolic languages, commonly known as assembly languages were developed in 1950's forthe second generation computers.‘Assembly language permits the use of symbols or mnemonics ‘which are two or three letter abbreviations forthe function to be performed bythe instruction These are then translated by using symbolic equivalence table, to control repisters etc. So, she disadvaniage of using binary language has been removed Funetions of Assembler @TheAssembler translates the function code into its machine code equivalent (i ttassigns absolute addresses to any symbolic address or Fabel names. (i tplaces each instruction in central memory (iv) It identities indirect adresses fom direct addresses and sets the appropriate bit in the address portion of the instruction. (¥)Itehecks the syntax ofeach instruction and generates error messages. (It provides, optionally, a cross reference table between all symbolic names and their absolute addresses (i) tt informs the control unit to exceute the program after all errors have been corrected Advantages o Assembly languages @ They save time and reduce detail as compared to machine language (@) Lesser numberof errors are made and eros are easier to detect (a Assembly programs are easier to modify than machine language programs Disadvantages of Assembly Language (Writing a code is time consuming. (i) Assembly languages are machine dependent. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES The disadvantages of using assembly language brought about the development of higher level languages. Unlike the assembly ‘programs, high level language programs may be used different types of machines with little modification, High level Ianguages are easier to learn than symbolic languages. They require less time to writ, are easier to maintain, provide better documentation and 40r 5 low-level instructions are reduced toa single high level, ‘Computer Fundamentals statement, Some of the popular high level languages are given in, the table below, Language Meaning [Main Application Are Scientific & | FORTRAN] — Formula Translator Eee : Common Business : CoBoL | Oriented Language Commercial ALGOL | Algorithmic Language| Scientific RPG. Report Generator ‘Commerical AL, Programming | the Sharing System Language PLA | Programming Language| The Sharing Sytem Beginners All Symbolic = lene Instruction Code =e pAscaL | Named after the French] Teaching Philosopher MEMORY ORGANISATION ‘Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is, to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored, The memory is divided into large numberof small parts, Each partis called eell. Each location or cell has a unique address, ‘which varies from zero to memory size minus one. ‘Memory is primarily of twotypes: 1. Primary Memary/Main Memory 2 Secondary Memory PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY) ‘Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which ‘computer is currently working. It has limited capacity and data gets lost when power is switched off. tis generally made up ofsemiconductor device. These memories, are notas fast as registers, The data and instructions required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. Itis divided into two subcategories: RAM and ROM, COMPARISON BETWEEN RAM & ROM Description RAM ROM [Random Acoess Memory or Ram isa form of data Read-only memory or ROM is also aTorm of data storage that can be accessed randomly’at any time, in_ storage that can not be easly altered or reprogrammed [Definition any order and from any physical locaton, allowing {Stores instructions that are not necessary for rebooting [quick access and manipulation, lup to make the computer operate when itis switched ott They are hard wired. [Stands for [Random Access Memory [Read-only memory ise IRAM allows the computer to read data quickly to ran JROM stores the program required to initially Boot the lapplications. It allows reading and writing [computer. tt only allows reading [RAMs volaile Le. is contents are Tost when the ICs non-volatile re. is contents are reamed even When Volatitity levice is powered off ne device is powered off. [Types [The two main types of RAM are static RAM and |The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM and ldynamic RAM. EEPROM, GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals (RAM (Random Access Memory) ‘There are two types of Random Access Memory or RAM, each has its own advantages and disadvantages compared tothe other ‘A. SRAM (Saatic RAM) B_DRAM (Dynamic RAM) ‘COMPARISONBETWEENSRAM (STATICRANDOMACCESS MEMORY) AND DRAM (DYNAMICRANDOMACCESS MEMORY): |Synchronous SRAM Pipeline Burst SRAM. ‘SRAM DRAM [Definition tw a type of RAM, SRAM essentially uses It alo a ype of RAM, DRAM makes use oF latches to store charge. |capacitors to store bits in the formof charge Speed Faster [Slower Size Bigger [Smaller (Cost [More expensive per bit less expensive per bit (Capacity (ame [Less [Sto 1Otimes more than SRAM technology) [Applications [Generally mn smallerappheations ike CPU |Commonly used as the main memory ih Jeache memory and hard drive buffers. personal computers Types [Asynchronous SRAM Fast Page Mode DRAM Extended Data Out DRAM [Synchronous DRAM Power Consumption [Less [More Gi) ROM (Read Only Memory) ROM has further classified into three types. Each type has unique characteristics, bu all types of ROM ‘memory have two things in common they are Data stored in these chips is non-volatile ie itis not lost ‘when power isremoved. Data stored in these chipsis either unchangeable or requires «special operation to change, Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) : This orm of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write data/program on it by using special devices. However, once the program or data is written in PROM chip, it cannot be changed If there isan error in writing instructions or data in PROM, the error cannot be erased, PROM chip becomes. unusable. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) Thistype of ROM can have its contents erased by ultraviolet light and then reprogrammed by uset/manufacturer. This procedure can be carried out many times; however, the constant erasing and rewriting will eventually render the chip useless. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) : This type of ROM works in a similar way to Flash memory in that itean its contents can be ‘lashed! for erasure ad then written to without having to remove the chip from its environment. EEPROMsare used to storea computer system’s BIOS, and can be updated without returning the unit to the factory: In many cases, BIOS updates can be carried out by computer users wishing a BIOS update ‘SECONDARY MEMORY (AUXILLARY MEMORY) ‘The size ofthe main memory is very small iflarge data need tobe stored init. Further, the main memory is volatile in nature i. the contents are lost when power supply is stopped. To overcome these another memory is used in a computer system called c secondary memory or the auxiliary memory. This is large as well, as non-volatile in nature. This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. ‘These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary _memories are first transferred to main memory and then CPU can, access i. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, et. MEMORY MANAGEMENT TABLE Approximate ctl Values Tait | Abbreviation | Approsimate | Aetal Be fb (eommon'b) Vorl yw | icapiary Bis Ikiobyes |e Toon res | Tor bytes Megabte [MB |A" [7 mnition bytes |_1024 KB Gaabyte Jou | 8°" Crhor estes [ozs at Freabyie Irn Tinton bytes | 1028 68 Pebyte [es To1s Bytes [1004 7B Ba Bye |e Tors Bytes [10248 Zena Byes [ew 021 Bytes | 102468 Yous Byte [vB : 102428 [Bont Bye [os = Tiearv IMPORTANT MEASUREMENT: 1Bit= Binary digit “Tet Bit is short for Binary dit INible™ 4 Bits 8bis= 1 Byte=2 Nibble‘Computer Fundamentals 4 9. nL n xercise ‘What i called asthe main folder on a storage device? (@) Plate () Interface (©) Root Directory __(@)__ HomePage (©). None ofthese RAMis, and (@) volatile, temporary (b) nonvolatile, permanent (©) nonvolatile, temporary (4) volatile, permanent (©) None ofthese Which is notan item of hardware? (@)AnMP3 file (0) A keyboard (©) Amonitor (@) Amouse (©)_ None ofthese ‘The box that contains the central electronic components of the computer is (@)_ motherboard (b)_ system unit (©) peripheral (2) input device (©) None ofthese Which type of device i a computer monitor? (a) Input (b) Output (©) Processing (@) Software (e) None of these How many options docs a binary choiee offer? (@) One (b) Two (©) Theee (4) Iedepends on the amount of memory inthe computer (©) None of these ‘The largest storage device inside the computer is (@) CDROM (©) ZipDisk (©). Super Disk (@) Hard Disk (©) None of these The. indicates how much data a particular storage ‘medium can hold. (@)_ access. (b) capacity (©) memory (@) storage (©). None of these ‘A program that converts a high-level language source file intoa machine-language file is called (@) translator (b) assembler (©) compiler (@) linker (6) None of these ACD-ROMdise (@)_ cannot be erased and rewritten (b) has more storage capacity than a CD-R (6) holds less data than a floppy disk (@)_can be written to only once (©) None of these ‘Thesmallest unit of information a computer can understand and process is known as a @) dist © Hilobyte (© bit (@ byte (©), None of these PC stands for (@)_ Personal Comprehension (b) Personal Computing (©). Personal Computer 1B. 18, 16. 1”, 19. 20, a (@)_ Personal Calculations (©) None of these ‘Compatibility in regard to computers refers to, (@) the software doing the right job forthe user (b) it being versatile enough to handle the job (6). the software being able to run on the computer (@ software running with other previously installed software (©) None of these The primary output device for computers is 2 (@) video monitor (b) printer (©) keyboard (@) mouse (©) None of these The name ofthe location of a particular piece of data is its @ adress (6) storage site (6), None of these ‘A device that is connected to the motherboard is. (@) called anexternal device (b) called an adjunct device (6) calleda peripheral device (@) connected using ribbon cable (©) None of these ‘The first computers were programmed using, (@) assembly language (b) machine language (©) spaghetti code (4) source code (©) None of these Provide the means to move the pointer on the sereen and give information to the computer by clicking the buttons on the (6) memoryname (@ data location (@) “scanner (6) mouse (©) keyboard (@)_ program (©) None of these Secondary storage (@) does not require power (b) does not use magnetic media (6) consists of four main types of devices (@) doesnot store information for later retrieval (©). None of these ‘A device that provides emergency power to your computer, conditions the voltage, and protects against powers surges. iscalled a (@) PSU=Power Supply Unit o) © @ © Housing all hardware, software, storage, and processing in ‘one site location is called (@) time-sharing (b) adistributed system (6). centralized processing (@) A host computer (©) None of these GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals 22, A.computer works on the ‘number system, (@) binary (©) octal (6) decimal (@) hexadecimal 2B. 4, 25. 6. 2. 28, 29, 3 2. (©) None of these ‘The physical component of a computer system is. (@) Software (b) Hardware (©) ALU (@) Control Unit (©) None of these ‘Toaccess a mainframe or supercomputer, users often use & @ terminal (6). desktop (©) None of these ‘What characteristic of read-only memory (ROM) makes it useful? (@) ROM information can be easily updated (b) ROM provides very large amounts of inexpensive data storage (©). Data in ROM is nonvolatile, that is, it remains there ‘even without electrical power (@_ ROM chips are casily swapped between different (©) None of these brands of computers ‘The central processing unit contains which ofthe following asa component? (@) Memory Regulation Unit (6) FlowContrl Unit (©) Arithmetic Logie Unit (@) Instruction Manipulation Unit (©) None ofthese “Memory unit is one part of the (@) Control unit (b) Central Processing Unit (©) Input device (@) Output device (©) None ofthese ‘Acharacter of information is represented by a(n). (@) byte () bit (6) field (4) attribute (6) None of these Which device is used as the standard pointing device in a Graphical User Environment? (@) Keyboard (@) Mouse (©) joystick (@) Trackball (©) None ofthese Te simultaneous execution of two or mor instructions is called (@) sequential access (b) reduced instruction set computing (©) multiprocessing (@) diskmirrorng (©) None ofthese Multiprogrammingsystems (@) Areeasier to develop than single programming systems (b)_ Execute each jo faster (6) Executemore jobs the same time period (@)_ Use only one large mainframe computer {@)_None ofthese Which device can understand the diffrence between data (b) node (@)_ handheld and programs? (@) Input device (b) Output device (6) Memory (@)_ Microprocessor (©) None of these 37. 39, a 2. ‘Which of the following devices have a limitation that we can ony ead it buteannot ease or modify i? (@) TepeDrive (b) Hard Disk (©) CompactDisk __(@)_ Floppy Disk (© CDROM ‘Which ofthe following isnot an output device? @) Ploter (b) Printer (© Monitor (@ Mouse (©) None ofthese Datathat scoped fiom an application isstoredin the (@) driver (0) clipboard (©) terminal (@) prompt (©) None ofthese Every component of your computer is either (@)_ software or CPURAM (©) input devices or output devices (©) application software or system sofware (0) hardware or software (©) None ofthese Which of the following is the storage area within the computer itself which holds data only temporarily as the computer processes instructions ? (@) Theharddisk ——(b)_-mainmemory (©) Trecontrol unit (€)_ read-only memory (©) None ofthese The general erm “peripheral equipment” is used for (@) any device that is attached to computer sytem (©) large-scale computer systems (©) aprogram collection (@) other office equipment not associated with a desktop computer (©) None ofthese Ifamemory chip is volatile, itil (@) explode ifexposed thigh temperatures (©) ose its contents if power to its turned oft (6) be used for data storage only (@) be used to both read and write data (©) None ofthese Input, output, and processing devices grouped together represent a(n) (@) mobile device (6) information processing eyele (©) cireuit board (8) computer sytem (©) None ofthese ‘Which ofthe following sytem component isthe brain of the computer? (@) Circuit board () CPU (©) Memory (@) Network card (€)_ None of these ‘This component is required to process data into information and consists of integrated circuits. (@) Harddisk (b) RAM ©) @U (@ ROM (©) None of these Computers manipulate data in many ways, and this ‘manipulation is called (@)_ utilizing (©) upgrading (©) None of these ©) batching (@ processing4 a. 9. sh. 2 isthe result produced bya compute @ Daa () Memory (©) Output (@ Input (©) None of these A is a device that not only provides surge protection, but also furnishes your computer with battery backup power during @ power outage (@) surge strip (b) USB © Urs (@) battery strip (6) None of these When you save to this _ your data will remain intact even when the computer is turned off (@) RAM (b) motherboard (©) secondary storage device (@)_ primary storage device (e) None of these The motherboard i the (@) circuit board that houses peripheral devices (b) same asthe CPU chip: (©) the first chip that is aoessed when the computer is tured on (@) circuit board that contains CPU and other chips (©) None ofthese The term designates equipment that might be added toa Sompaer system to enhance ts functionality: (@) digital device (6) system add-on (© diskpack (8) peripheral device (e) None of these Approximately how many bytes make one Megabyte ? (a) One Thousand (b) Ten Thousand (c) One Hundred (a) One Million (©)_ None of these Adis’ content that is recorded atthe time of manufature andthat cannot be changed or erased by the use i. (@)_ read-only (b)_-memory-only (©) run-only (@)_write-only (€) None ofthese A computer is a large and expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing data for hundreds or thousands of users (@)_ server (6) desktop (6) None ofthese ‘When a computer runs a program, the through the program's sequence of insiructions. (@) AMD (b) ASCIL ©) GU (@) transistor (©) None of these ‘The computer needs additional components called to.accomplish its input, output, and storage functions. (@) mice (b). specifications (©) architecture (@)_ peripherals (©) None of these isa type of high-speed memory that a processor jam access more rapidly than RAM (@) Cachememory (b) Magnetic-storage (6). Read-only memory (ROM) (@) Solid state storage (©) None ofthese (b)_maintiame (@) tablet processes 55. s7. 58. 59, 60. a. a. 6. 64, ‘Computer Fundamentals hard drives are permanently located inside the ‘stem unit and are not designed to be removed, unless they need tobe repaired or replaced. (@) Static (b) Internal (©) Extemal (@) Remove (©) None of these ‘Which ofthe following controls the manner of interaction ‘between the user and the operating system ? (2). User interface (b) Language translator (©) Platform | (@) Screen saver (©) None of these ‘The piece of hardware that converts your computer’ digital data toan analog signal that can travel over telephone lines iscalled a (a) redwire (©) tower (©) None ofthese is the part of the computer that does the ‘arithmetical calculations (b) blue cord (@)_ modem (@) Memory (0) os (©) GU @ aw (©) None of these The CPU, alsocalled the ‘when talking about PCs, does the vast majority ofthe processing for a computer. (@) macroprocessor. = (b) RAM (©) Memory System (4) microprocessor (©) None of these ‘A.computer’s type, processor, and operating system define its (@)_ brand (6) platform (©) None of these ‘The part of the CPU that accesses and decodes program instructions and coordinates the flow ofdata among various system components is the (@) ALU (©) megahertz (6) None of these ‘What i the difference between a CD-ROM and a CD-RW? (2) They are the same-just two different terms used by different manufacturers (®) ACD-ROM can be written o and aCD-RW cannot (6) ACD-RW can be written to, Buta CD-ROM ean only beread from (@)ACD-ROM holds more information than a CD-RW ()__ None of these Adisk’s content that is recorded at the time of manufacture and that eannot be changed or erased by the user is. (@)_ memory-only (b)wnite-only (6) read-only (@) run-only: (©) None of these Distributed processing involves (2) solving computer component problems from a different ‘computer (6) solving computing problems by breaking them into smaller parts that are separately processed by different ‘computers. (©). allowing users to share files on a network (@) allowing users toaccess network resources away from the office (©) None of these (0) size (@) speed (6) control unit (4) motherboard GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals 65, Where is data saved permanently? (@) Memory (b) Storage (©) GU (@) Printer o. 6, nn B. ™ 1. 16. (©) None of these Which is not a basic function of a computer ? (@) Copy text (b) Accept input (6) Process data (@) Store data (©) None of these The is the box that houses the most important parts ofa computer system. (@)_ software (©) input device (©) None of these Peripheral devices such as printers and monitors are considered to be (b) hardware (@)_ system unit (@) hardware (b) software (©) data (@) information (€)_ None of these Data means the given toa computer. (@) information (b) input (©) values (@) raw facts (©) None of these is the device which moves cursor around the Sereen faster than using key strokes? (@) Joy stick (b) Keyboard (©) Mouse (@) Pointing device (©) None of these hhas no ability to process or store data ‘Terminal (b)_ Intelligent terminal (©) Adumbterminal —(€)_Super terminal (©) None of these can process or store on its own, at Teast toa limited extent (@) Inclligentterminal —(b) “Terminal (6). Sereen (@)_Adump terminal (©) None of these CPU stand for (@) Central processing unit (b)- Central protecting unit (©) Computer processing unit (@)_ Cental program unit (©)_None ofthese VDI refersto (@) vital data transfer (©) video desk terminal (©) None ofthese A is an electronic device that executes the instructions in a programme. @) Gadget (©) Computer (©) Electronic instrument (d) Device (©) None ofthese The physical pars f' computer are known as (@) software () data (©) hardware (@) information (©) None ofthese ‘What makes a computer powerful? (@) Speed (0). Reliability (©) Storage capacity (@)_Allofthe above (©) None ofthese (b) virtual data transfer (@) video display terminal a1. 2. 85. 87. 89, ee ers (a) Arithmetic operations (b) Logical operations (c) Storage operations (d) All of the above laces ey ieee ees Se ES () None of these Seen ne fess hace eee ele (©) None of these es eee eens Se eee cea a 8 artes Rinne (©) None of these eer epoca @ CU (b) Memory (©) Storage @ File (©) None of these Data becomes ‘when it is presented in a format that people can understand and use. (@)_ processed (b) graphs (©) information (@) presentation (©) None of these ‘The term designates equipment that might be added to a computer system to enhance its functionality. (@)- digital device (b) system add-on (©) disk pack (@) peripheral device (©) None of these A ia microprocessor - based computing device. (@) personal computer (b)_mainffame (©) workstation (@) server (©) None of these RAM can be thought ofa the for the computer's processor, (@) factory (©) operating room (©) waitingroom (c) None of these To move acopy ofa file from ane computer to anather over a communication channel iscalled? (@) Filetanser (b) Fileeneryption (©) Filemoditicaton _(@) File copying (c) None of these What kind memory is both static and non-volatile? (@ planning room (@) RAM (b) ROM (©) BIOS (@) CACHE (©) None of these The is the amount of data that a storage device ‘ean move fom the storage medium to the computer per second. (@) data migration rate (©), datatransfer rate (©) None of these (b) data digitizing rate (@) data access rate90, a 100. 101. 102. ‘A device, which is not connected to the CPU, is called (@) landTinedevice (©) Offline device (6) None of these ‘Whats the other name for programmed chip? (b) On-line device (@) Device (@) RAM (b) ROM (©) Lsic (@) PROM (©). None of these You use a(n) . Such as a keyboard or mouse, 0 input information. (@) output device (b) input device (©) storage device (©) None of these provides process and memory management Services that allow two or more tasks, jobs or programs 10 run simultaneously. (@) Multitasking (©) Multiprocessing (©) None of these ‘Thetask ofperforming operations like arithmetic and logical ‘operations is called (@)_ processing device (b) Multithreading (@) Multicoputing (@)_ Processing @) Storing (©) Baiting (@ Sorting (©) ALU ‘The ALU and Control Unit jointly are known as (@)_ RAM (0) ROM © cru @ (©) None ofthese RAMisanexampleof (@) Secondary memory (b) (©) Mainmemory @ (©) None ofthese Magnetic disk isan exampleof (@) Secondary memory (b) (©) Main memory @ (©)_None of these Each memory cell has a unique number assigned to it which Primary memory ‘Both (a) and (b) Primary memory Both (a) and (b) is called as the of the cell (@) Address (6) Register (©) Number (@ Path (@)_None ofthese RAM isalso called as (@) Read/Write Memory (b) Long Memory (©) Permanent Memory (4) Secondary Memory (@) None ofthese A stores data or information temporarily and passes it on as directed by the control unit (@) Address (b) Register (©) Number (@) Memory (©) None ofthese Which ofthe following is NOT one of the four major data processing functions ofa computer? (@) gathering data (©) processing daa into information (6) analyzing the data or information (@)_ storing the data or information {@) None ofthese AL of the following are examples of storage devices EXCEPT (@) hard diskdrives —(b) printers 103. 104. 108. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110, m. m2. 113, 4, ‘Computer Fundamentals (©) Sloppy disk drives (@) CD drives (©). Pen drives ‘The CPU and memory are located on the: (@) expansion board (b)- motherboard (©) storage device (@)_ output device (©) display board ‘A computer program that converts an entire program into ‘machine languageat one time is called a/ an (2) interpreter (b) simulator (©) character (number (©) Compiler Computers process data into information by working, exclusively with (2) multimedia (©) characters (©) None of these (b) words (@) binary numbers ‘Where does most data go first within a computer memory hierarchy? (@) RAM () ROM (©) BIOS (@) CACHE (€) None of these ‘Which of the following are computers that can be carried around easily ? (2) Minicomputers (©) PCs (6) None of these ‘The basic goal of computer process isto convert data into @) files (b) tables (©) information (graphs (©) None of these ‘Which of the following refers to the fastest, biggest and ‘most expensive computers ? (2) Personal Computers (b) Supercomputers (©) Laptops (@ Notebooks (©) None of these ‘A central computer that holds collections of data and ‘programs for many PCs, workstations and other computers isa(n) (@) supercomputer (©) Supercomputers (@) Laptops (b) minicomputer (©) laptop (@) server (6) None of these ‘A —— is an electronic device that process data, converting it into information, (@) computer (b) processor (©) case (@ stylus (©) None ofthese Personal computers ean be connected together to form a (@) server (6) supercomputer (©) network (@) enterprise (©) None ofthese Portable computer, also known aslaptop compute, weighing between 4 and 10 pounds is called (@) general-purpose application (©) Intemet (©) scanner (printer (6) notebook computer ‘Which of the following isthe fastest type of computer? (@) Laptop (b) Notebook (6) Personal computer (€)_ Workstation (©) Supercomputer GP_3070‘Computer Fundamentals 11S, A computer system (@) hardware () software (©) peripheral devices (@) All ofthese (©) None of these 116, A personal computer is designed to meet the computing, reeds of a(n) (@) individual (b) department (©) company (a) cit (©) None of these 117, Super computer developed by Indian scientists. (@) Param (b)- Super301 (©) Compaq Presario (d) CrayYMP (©) BlueGene 118, A computer used at supermarkets, departmental stores and restaurantetcis called terminal (@) P-O-S (Point ofSsle) (6) Dumb (©) Intelligent (@) Smart (©) calculating Supercomputers (@) are smaller in size and processing capability than ‘mainframe computers (6). arecommon in majority of households (6) contain thousands of microprocessors (@) are rarely used by researchers due to their lack of ‘computing capacity (©) areof the same size as lapops Which of the following groups consist of only input devices? (@) Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor (6) Mouse, Keyboard, Printer (©) Mouse, Keyboard, Plotter (@)_ Mouse, Keyboard, Scanner (©) None ofthese Which of the following groups consist of only output devices? (@)_ Scanner, Pinter, Monitor (6). Keyboard, Printer, Monitor (©) Mouse, Printer, Monitor (@) Plotter, Printer, Monitor (©) None of these ‘What isthe function of the Central Processing Unit of @ Computer? (@) Creates invoices (6). Performs calculations and processing (©). Deletes Data (@) Corrupts the data (©) None ofthese Which ofthe following istrue about GUIs? [IBPS SO 2012} (@ They make computers easier to use for nonprofessionals (6) They use icons and menus that users can select with a (6) Both a) and(b) (@)_Allofthe above (©) None ofthese Which of the following describes programs that can run independently, travel from system to system, and disrupt 19. 120, m1. 2. 123. 14, computer communications? [IBPS $0 2013] (@) Trojans (6) Viruses (6) Ialers (@)Droppers (©) Worms 128. While searching a website, you have been unable to find information that wason the site several months ago, What ‘might you do to attempt to locate that information? [IBPS SO 2013] (2) Visit Googles cached page to view the older copy (b) Forget about as theres no wayto find this information (©) Visita partner site ofthe organization to see iit isthere (@) Use the wayback machine (©) None of these ‘Where are cookies stored? [IBPSSO 2013] (2) Onthe server system (b)_Inweb xml (©) Ontheelient system () In FITML (©) None of these How is power supplied to a low-power USB device? (2) Through a power cable [IBPSSO 2013] (b) Fromanexternal power supply (©). Directly from the computer's power supply (@) Through the USB cable (©) None of these ‘When you are selecting a mouse fora particular computer system, what is he most important consideration? [IBPS SO 2013] (2) The type of drivers that come with the mouse. (b) The length of the mouse cord (©). The type of connector the mouse is equipped with (@) The number of buttons the mouse has (6c) None of these 129. Programs that automatically submit your search request 10 several search engines simultaneously are called [BPS SO 2013] (b) Webcrawlers @ Hits 126. 127. 128. (2) Metasearch engines (©). Spiders (€) None of these ‘Which ofthe following file format supports in windows 7” @) BSD (b) NTFS [IBPSSO 2014) © ExT (@ All ofthe above (©) None of these 130. 131, What is modified when changing the system start-up boot sequence ? [IBPSSO 2014] (@) BIOSICMos (b) COWFIGSys (©) Autoexec.bat (6) None of these 132, Which of the following is not a type of database? (@), Hierarchical (b) Network [SBLSO 2014] (©). Relational (Transition (©) None of these (@ COMMAND.Com 133. Computer read which type code [SBISO 2014] (@) Binary code (b) English eter (©) Character (@ Integer (6) None of these 134, Which ofthe following isa function of e-mail system? UBPSSO 2015] (@) Composition (b) Transfer (©), Reporting (@) All ofthe above (6) None of these 138. Sendinga ie from your personal computer's primary memory ‘or disk toanother computer i called? [IBS SO 2015], (@) Uploading (6) hang on | (©) logging on (@) downloading (©) None of theseEE ‘Computer Fundamentals Answers & Explanations 4 ‘Which employs graphic element (such as dialog boxes, databases. icons, menus, scroll bars, etc.) GUI elements are usually 133. (a) A computer can store and process the data in two state ‘en oF stylus. It was designed to help a non technical od are | and Osespectively Binary code is acomputer 132. @ One way to classify different types of databases is by 435, (a) Uploading refers to sending data from local system to ‘their “data model”, A data model describes the structure remote system such as server or client. GP_3070‘THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Itrefers asa set of attributes ofa system as seen by programmer, ‘Computer architecture refers to those parameters of'a computer system that are visible toa programmer or those parameters that havea direct impact onthe logical exccution ofa program, Examples, ‘of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent different data types, I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory. Examples ofthe Architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to present the data types, Input ‘Output mechanism and technique for addressing memories. ‘Computer organization refers tothe operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control signals, interfaces between the computer and peripherals, and the memory technology used, Examples of Organizational atributes include ‘Hardware details transparent tothe programmer such as control, signal and peripheral, It deals with all physical components of computer systems that interact with each other to perform various functionalities. The ower level of computer organization is known as micro architecture which is more detailed and concrete. VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE ‘A Von Neumann-based computer is a computer that: '* Uses a single processor. '* Uses one memory for both instructions and data. A von Neumann computer cannot distinguish between data and instructions in a memory location! It'knows' only because ‘of the location ofa particular bit pattern in RAM, ‘© Executes programs by doing one instruction after the next ina serial manner using a fetch-decode-execute eye, ‘CPU was made up of 4 important components: © TheALU. cpu © Theregisters. oo —, © Thecontrolunit. [TAS .t TAS ‘* TheRAMormemory A model ofa Von Neumann ‘computer system VON NEUMANN COMPONENT (CPU (Central Processing Unit) ‘The CPU, or Central Processing Unit, isthe name given to the ‘component that controls the computer and works on the data. It ccan be spt up into four subcomponents: Adlagrammatl representation ofthe 4 main parts ofa CPU. ‘We know a fewthings from before about the Von Neumann CPU. 1. TheALU, orArithmetic Logie Unit ‘Aon Neumann CPU has an ALU, This is the part ofthe (CPU that performs arithmetic and logic operations on data and acts ste revolving forthe CP, eting data enter and leave the CPU, Wealso know that CPUs have ‘word size! ‘This is the number ofits that canbe added for example, in nego The bigger aCPUS word siz, te morebitsitcan work con in one cock eyele and the more work you can get done 2 ‘TheContrl Unit ‘AVon Neumann CPU has a control unit The control unit is in charge of ‘fetching each instruction that needs to be executed in a program by issuing control signals to the hardware. Itthen decodes the instruction and finally issues ‘more control signals tothe hardware toactually execute it 3. Registers ‘A Von Neumann CPU has registers. These are very fast ‘memory circuits. They hold information such asthe address of the next instruction (Program Counter), the current instruction being executed (Curtent instruction Regist), the data being worked on and the results of arithmetic and logical operations (Accumulator), information about the last operation (Status Register) and whether an interupt hashappened (Interrupt Register). Registers are covered in alot more detail later inthis chapter 4. TheClock Instructions are carried out to the beat othe clock! Some instructions take one beat and others more than ane beat. Very roughly speaking, te faster the clock, the more clock beats you have per second so the more instructions pet section you can doand te faster your computer will go.RAM (Random Access Memory) RAMismade up oflots ofboxes that can store abit pattem. Each box has a unique address. A memory address might store an instruction (which is made up ofan operator and an operand) o it, ‘might store just a piece of data. A Von Neumann computer can't, tell the difference between the bit patterns as such, but "knows indirectly because of where the bit pattern is stored in RAM. Pre- Von Neumann computers used to spit up memory into program ‘memory and data memory and this made computers relatively ‘complex. Von Neumann was the first to realise that there was actually no difference between the nature of an instruction and thenature ofa piece of data. One important function of an operating system is to manage memory and to keep track of the RAM. addresses of applications as well as any data, ‘Computers have an address bus, so that the CPU ean address cach individual memory location in the RAM, for example, when it ‘wants to store apiece of data o retrievea piece of data, The data, itself is moved about between devices on a data bus. There is «alsoa control bus, to generate signals to manage the whole process. ‘Computer Organization & Architecture Vo(InpavOutpaty ‘A computer needs peripherals for inputting and outputting data 1 needs to be able to read data into itself and send data out. It reads data in and sends data out through its /O ports. A port is simply @ gateway, like @ port used for shipping, Just like every port used for ships needs its own harbour master, so every 1/0. port needs to be managed. An I/O controller isthe term used to describe the /O port along with the circuits that manage data into and out ofthe port. It allows you to connect up any /O device to the PC and transfer data in to or out ofthe computer. You wouldn't ‘want fo connect an I/O device directly to a CPU because you ‘would have to redesign the CPU every time a new type of device ‘came along. Besides, a new type of device might need different voltages and control signals from the CPU, again necessitating a CPU redesign. The /O controller acts. as an interface to overcome. these problems. Refining the diagram we saw in the previous chapter on CPUs, we now have: Conot bus Mili, Central Processing Unit Keyboard Keyboard 110 controler Registers Control Unit ALU 4 . dO vouro oy controller Address bus neste Floppy drive loppy dis Primary memory (RAM) LS Flonpy deve | Flop disk ‘A computer system showing the MO controllers, A-computer system showing the 1/0 controllers. ‘There are a whole range of other 1/O controllers we could have included, We could have shown ones for devices such as a ‘mouse, a MIDI deviee, a printer, a DVD player, a SCSI device as, used with many scanners or a network card, toname just a few. ADDRESSING MODES “The opcode field of an instruction specifies the operation to be performed e.g. addition, subtraction, complement etc. Most, instructions need operands, so we need to specify where the ‘operands are in memory for an instruction, This is called the addressing of the data, Addressing mode refers to the system hhow the bits of an address field are interpreted to find the ‘operands. In other words the way the operands are chosen during program execution is referred to as the addressing mode of the system, A typical instruction has the following format : Opcode ‘Address Field ‘Theaddress field in a typical instruction formats relatively smal ‘We need toreference a large range oflocations in main memory. Fortis theno. ofits in address ficld ae sometimes insufficient. For example ifaddress field has 7 bits then itcan only diflerentiate between 27 different addresses, Ifthe main memory has more than 27128 words, then we need different approach to address all words of the memory. To achieve this different addressing schemes have been employed, Following addressing schemes, are commonly used: Implied Mode Immediate Mode Direct Addressing Indirect Addressing mode Register mode Register Indirect Addressing mode Indexed Addressing ae eene GP_3070‘Computer Organization & Architecture A single computer can use multiple addressing modes fr different, instructions. Here the question is, How does it differentiate ‘between these addressing modes? Most common approach is to "use one of more bits as “MODE FIELD” in instruction format. The value of the MODE FIELD determines that which addressing mode isto be used for a particular instruction ‘There bits in the address field may be interpreted as operand or location. If address is not required for an instruction then corresponding bits may designate an operand itself. If an instruction requires address the address field may designate a ‘memory address ora processor register. Atypical instruction format with mode fields given below : Ee aT restricted in its use: Although, the address value can be oes ee ees Instruction “CHA Mode Field ‘Opcode Addressfield | 4, Although most addressing modes need the address field ofthe instruction, there are two modes that need no address at all. These are the “implied mode” and “immediate mode”. 1. Implied Mode : There are some instructions that need no, operand at all. For such instructions the operands are interpreted automatically by the definition ofthe instruction itsel£ For example, the instruction “Complement AC" isan implied mode instruction because the data in the AC register is to be complemented and no need to specify where the data resides. All register reference instructions that use Accumulator (AC) are implied mode instructions. Zero address instructions in a computer based on stack ‘organization are also implied mode instructions wire the operands are always fetched ffom the top of the stack 2 Immediate Mode : Many times the instructions need constant operands. Rather than specifying addresses, the ‘operand itself can be provided at the address field ofthe instructions. Such scheme is called Immediate Mode 5, addressing. This is automatically fetched from memory when the instruction itself is fetched. Since the operand is directly available in the instruction itself, no extra memory reference is needed to feich the ‘operand, thereby reducing the execution time. However, the disadvantage is that only a constant can be supplied as an ‘operand using this method. Also the value of the constant is limited by the size ofthe address fel, Instruction Format Opeode Operand Immediate Mode Example: MOV RD 100) (An Immediate instruetion for loading a constant “100” into 6, register R2) 3. Direct Addressing Another method for specifying an ‘operand in memory is by giving its full address of main memory. Indirect Addressing Mode : In this mode that address is stored at the address field of the instruction where the address of the operand is located. For Example, Let the ‘operand is located at address 500. Now there is another memory word at address 400 whose value (i.e. data stored at it)is 500, So, in Indirect addressing mode the value 400 will, be stored at the address field of the instruction, Following figure will make itmore clea Instruction Memory 500 400) inect Addressing Register Addressing : Register addressing is similar to the above discussed direct addressing, The difference between both i that in this case the address field specifies register instead of a memory location, Because registers are so important (due to fast access and short addresses) this addressing mode is the most common one on most ‘computers. This is often used by modern compilers for code ‘optimaztion e.g. To store those variables of loop that are accessed frequently (c.g. loop counters). This addressing ‘mode is known simply as register mode. Instruction Register Mode Register Indirect Addressing: This mode is similar tolndirect addressing mode discussed above, In this mode also, the ‘operand being specified comes from memory of goes 10 ‘memory, bu its address provided in the instruction is not absolute as in direct addressing. Instead, the address isined isa vegiser which is identified by Une address 7. field of the instruction. So, in other words the operands are found at some address and this address stored ina register which is identified by the address field of the instruction, Tnstruction Memory CAE All addressing modes with examples ‘Computer Organization & Architecture Indexed Addressing . In many eases its youd wo reference ‘memory words at a known offset from an address stored in register, Addressing memory by giving a register (explicit ff implicit) plus a constant offset is called indexed addressing. This is specially useful while accessing, clements of an array in a loop. To see how that works, consider the following example, We have One one- dimensional array °X” of 300 numbers, and we wish to find largest number in the array. In this ease we an put the base address of X in one register R, and then step through its clements one by one by adding fixed constant offset to address stored in register R. The fixed constant is equal 10 the size of one element of the aay. [Addressing mode] Example instruction Meaning When used Immediate Add RS, #3 Regs [R4] < Regs [RA] +3 _ | For constants Direct or Add RI,(1001) | Regs [Ri] — Regs [RI] ‘Sometimes wseful for accessing static data absolute +Mem [1001] | address constant may need to be larg. Memory AGIRI, @(R3)—_ | Rews [RI] — Regs [RI] TERS isthe address ofa pointer P then indirect + Mem|Mem|Reas[R3}}}| mode yields *p Register ‘Add RA, RS Regs [RA] — Regs [RA] When a value isin a register + Regs(R3] Register AGARE (RY Regs [RA] « Regs [RA] “Accessing using a pointer or a compound indirect +Mem[RegsIRIT]_| address Indexed ‘Add R3,(RI+R2) | Regs [R3] — Regs [R3] Sometimes useful in array addressing + Mem[Regs[R1] + Regs [R2]]] RI = base of aay; R2= index amount MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS 1. DATATRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS, ‘A Computer need to perform various different kind of tasks. To perform these diverse tasks, a computer needs various instructions that interact with low level hardware. For example to set some color on a part of display screen a computer need an instruction ‘To read a single character from a keyboard the computer nocd ‘other instruction. Similarly to perform arithmetic and logical ‘operations like addition, subtraction, complement ete it needs a set of instructions. Although different computer have different Data transfer instructions are used to transfer of data from ‘one address to another without changing the contents, ‘Mostly the transfer of data occurs between two registers of the processor, between main memory (often called RAM) and the registers of processor and between processor registers and 1/0 Devices, Following data transfer instructions are commonly used Data Transfer Instructions instruction set, yet the basie instruction are more or less same, the difference lies between the binary encoding ofthe instructions ‘on different machines. Forex. Bitsequence10011001" may mean, ADDITION on a machine while “Complement operation” on the ther. In any case there is a set of basic operations that most ‘computers include in their instruction set. We can classify the instructions of a eomputer in following types Name | Memonie ‘Operation Toad TD [Transfers daa Toma memory Tsation oa processor reise, Sore Transfers daa tom a prowessor eer Joa memory location Move [MOV Transfers data between resersepiaer low beeen Memon-Register 1. Data transfer instructions Trchange | XCH swaps data Between reiste-e5Se7 JoR between Meman-Register 2. Data manipnlation instructions 3. Programeontrol instructions Instructions that perform arithmetic, logic, and shift operations are called Data Manipulation Instructions, Instructions like ‘Conditional Branch, Jump instruction, subroutine call re included in Program control instructions that provide decision-making, capabilities and change the path taken by the program when ‘executed inthe computer. Tapa TX [Transers a rom STDIN oa processor resister ‘uipat | OUT [Transters dit rom a processor Ei lo stDour’ Pash | PUSH — [Pushes the data For a rgiaer onto fs memory stack Por POP Pops the daa fom amenery sak ni sore toa register GP_3070‘Computer Organization & Architecture STDIN = Standard input device of computer (Mostly keyboard) *STDOUT = standard output device of computer (Mostly display screen) Mnemonics are symbols used to represent various instructions. An instruction can be specified in various addressing modes. Asa specific case, the immediate mode is recognized from a pound sign “#” placed before the operand, For example the LOAD to AC instruction can be used in eight different addressing modes as follows: ight Addressing Modes for the Load Instruct Mode ‘Assembly Register Transfer Coavention Directaddress [DADR___ AC MADR] Indirect address. LD@ADR_- AC-M[M[ADR)J Relative address LDSADR_- AC MPC-+ADR] Immediate operand LD¥NBR — AC-NBR Indexaddressing — LDADR(X) AC M[ADR* XR] Register DRI ACERI Register indirect LD(RI). AC MRI] Autoinerement — LD(RI}+ —AC-MIRI}, RIERI+1 Abbreviations used has meaning as follows : ADR= address, NBR=number/operand, X=index register, AC=Aceumulator, Ri=General purpose register, @=indirect addressing mode, lative address to the PC, DATA MANIPULATION INSTRUCTIONS ‘Data manipulation instructions perform various operations on data and provide the computational capabilities for the computer, We can further classify the Data Manipulation Instructions in following 3 types Arithmetic Instructions Itincludes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, Following table shows various arithmetic instructions in a ‘ypical computer: ‘Typical Arithmetic Instructions Name Maemonie Therement INC Decrement Dec Add ADD Subtract suB Multiply MUL Divide Div ‘Add with carry ‘ADDC Subtract with borrow SUBB Negate(2’scomplement) NEG Overflow and Underftow : If increment operation is applied toan n-bit register whose al its contain ‘I’, the result after increment operation would not fit into that register. After ‘nerement ll bits ofthe register wil contain ‘0’ Thisiscalled overflow of the data (Overflow of the data) un un un un + T 00000000 00000000 ‘Similarly, ifdecrement operation is applied to an n-bit register ‘whose all bts contain 0”, the operation needs a borrow that isnot available due toall Os. After decrement all bits of the register will contain ‘Is’, This is called underflow of the data (Cnderflow ofthe data) 1 0000 0000» 000-000 1 Tr TT T Tr Theaithmeti instructions may have different variants on a typical computer. For example the “ADD” instruction may have following 3 variants For binary integers, For floating point operands, and For decimal operands. Carry resulting from any arithmetic instruction (like as discussed in OVERFLOW) is stored in a special “Carry Flip-Flop” that enables the system to use it for the instruction “Add with Carry” that performs the addition of two operands along, ‘with the previous cary. Similarly, the “subtract with borrow” instruction subtracts two words and a borrow which may hhave resulted from a previous subtract operation. The negate instruction forms the 2's complement ofa numb, effectively reversing the sign of an integer when represented in the signed-2's complement form. Logical and Bit Manipulation Instructions Logical instructions include bitwise AND, bitwise OR ete Logical and bit manipulation instructions in a typical computer areas follows. ‘Typical Logical and Bit Manipulation Instructions Name Mnemonie ‘Clear aR ‘Complement com AND AND. oR oR Exclussive OR XOR Clear carry arc Set carry SEIC ‘Complement carry come Enable interrupt a Disable interrupt DL ‘The CLR instruction replaces all the bits of the operand (register) with 0. The COM (Complement) instruction exchanges Os with Is and vice-versa, The AND, OR, and XOR instructions produce the corresponding logical ‘operations on individual bits ofthe operands.ruth tables explains AND, OR and XOR operations RI RIANDR2 | RIORR? | RINORR? ope 0 7 2 ot 2 7 T To 0 T i isa T T 0 Other bit manipulation instruction has following effects: © Clear Carry (CLRC) : clear the carry bitto0 © Set Carry (SETC) : Setsthe carry bitto 1 © Complement Carry (COMO): inverts the value ofthe carry bit ‘© Enable Interrupt: enables the interrupt mode ‘© Disable Interrupt: disables the interrupt mode 3. Shift Instructions These instructions are used to move the bits ofa Memory ‘Word or register ina particular directions. Shift instructions hhave many variants like: logical shifts, arithmetic shifts, or circular shifts. In either ease the shift may be tothe right or tothe leR. Various shift instructions in atypical computer ‘Computer Organization & Architecture bit position iy treated adjacent to the leflmest bit ‘Concept is similar toa circular queue, in which the elements that get deleted from one end of the queue inserted at the other end of the queve. Another variants of circular shifts are RORC and ROLC. A rotate-let ‘through carry (RORC) instruction transfers the carry bit into the rightmost bit position of the register, transfers the leimost bit position into the carry, and at ‘the same time, shifisthe entire register tothe left Similar concept could be applied tothe ROLC as wel Following examples will make circular shifts more clear: Before Shit op popopi fo [After Rotate right (ROR) ofoffofotr [Afier Rotate left (ROL) tofot fol [Before Shit [1 ]0]0]t py] latter RORC [0 [1 [0 [0 oft lanier RoLC [o[o[t [0 ofel 4 ALU (ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT) ALU, the Arithmetic and Logical Unit ofthe Central Processing Units that pat ofthe computer that actually performs arithmetic, ae eee and logical operations on data, Other parts ofthe system (like Control Unit, Registers, Memory and U0 devices), hoststhe data — — that is brought tothe ALU for computation. ALU performs the Logical shiftright SHR required operation on the data and then the results are taken back Logical shift et su to other parts of the system. ALU contains various electronic ‘Avithmeti shift right SHRA circuits required to perform various Arithmetic (e-2 addition, ‘Arithmeti shit et SHLA subtraction etc) and Logieal (eg. AND, OR, Complement ete) Rotateright ROR operation Rotate left ROL Following block diagram shows the Input and Output ofan ALU Rotateright through carry RORC Rofateleft through carry ROLC Control Flags ()Logieal Shifts: These instructions insert 0 atthe last unit ALU bit position and shift al the bits ofthe memory word in — LL reginers specified direction by on bt positon. Example: 1. Logical Shift Right: Beforeshift: 1001 1010 110 1111 After Shift: 0100 1101 OOLI O11 2 Logical Shift left: Beloreshift: 1001 1010 0110 1111 ‘After Shift: 0011 0100 1101 1110 (©) Arithmetic shifts: These instructions are meant for signed-2's complement numbers, These instructions preserve the sign bitin the leftmost positon. Incase of Arithmetic shif right (SHRA), while shifting of individual bits, the sign bit is also shifted to the right together with therest of the number, but the sign bit tselfremains unchanged. In case of arithmetic shift left (SHLA) 0 is inserted atthe last bit position and is identical tothe logical shif-Let instruction (©) Circular Shifts : These instructions treat the bit sequence asa circular list. It means that the rightmost ‘Data are presented tothe ALU in registers, and the results ofthe ‘operation are also stored in registers. To perform a microoperation, the contents of specified registers are placed inthe inputs ofthe ALU, ALU performs the required mierooperation and the result is then transferred to a destination register. These registers are temporary storage locations, within the processor that are ‘connected by signal paths tothe ALU. The control unit provides signals that control the operation of the ALU and the movement, of the data into and out of the ALU. There are various control, variable called “flags” that can be set by the ALU after it performs the required operation on the data, For example an overflow flag cean be set by ALU if the result of an operation has bigger size then a register can hold. The registers that hold the operands, the registers that hold the result ofthe operation performed by the ‘ALU and the registers that hold the “lags”, All resides within the CPU. GP_3070‘Computer Organization & Architecture (One stage of arithmetic loi hi ws ‘rithmic lo ae 1 MUX E One stage of Tope erat oe ee sh ‘The ALU shown in figure has two components : One to perform, Arithmetic operation and other to perform Logical operations. D, isoutput of Arithmetic subunit while E, is output of logical subunit, ofALU. Inputs A; and B, are supplied tothe both components of ER TET Seeroeserte ata ie encom Srteertnel capa anlLoged Gap fy hese Stee aeeice ntearated ss cearaue Tight operation and shift-left operation the other two data inputs ‘A, (for the shift-right operation) and A,, , (for the shift-left ae nctuneconietweaen Pee et eases Pe ne See cha ramen eecer sea Rina ears ae eaes sacl ied cers ania ase Bateman gee meee enue pone bamerep oven enere esterase mentees chemo ened ee eam eeeeerea seas fee ae see reece a ae incbou acy mia sta hobs pesos Sitmersatieceeed ants ereeuneey Sutaeienrareneenaiecriecias eraser te momenta iano Funtion Table for Arithmetic Logie Shift Unit Operation select 35 3 3 Function Operation 0 0 0 0 Transfer A Increment A Addition Ada with carry Subtract with borrow Subtraction Decrement Transfer A AND oR XOR Complement Shiftright into F Shift left A into (CPU CONTROL DESIGN Design of Control Unit ‘The bits ofthe microinstructions consist of various fields. These fields include opcode field, mode field and address field. The ‘opcode field provides control btso perform some microoperations like addition, complement et, in the system. The mode field bits specify the addressing mode using which the address field is to be interpreted, The address field is used to specify the operand, or the address ofthe operand either directly or indirectly. Opeode | Moderiend | Address neta (A Typical Instruction Format)‘The number of bits inthe Opeode field can be reduced by grouping ‘mutually exclusive variables into fields and encoding the k bitsin, cach field to provide 2* microoperations. Each field requires a decoder to produce the corresponding control signals. This ‘method requires additional hardware outside to the control, ‘memory. As the signals passes through this additional hardware, itincreases the delay time of the control signals. ‘The nine bits ofthe Opcode field are divided into three subfields ‘of thre bits each. ‘The control memory output of each subfield ‘must be decoded to provide the distinet microoperations. The ‘outputs ofthe decoders are connected to the appropriate inputs in the processor unit. Above Figure shows the three decoders Each ofthe throe fields ofthe microinstruction presently available inthe output ofcontrol memory are decoded with a3 x 8 decoder toprovide eight outputs. Each outputs is connected to the proper circuit to initiate the corresponding microoperation As shown in, below Fig, outputs 5 and 6 of decoder Fare connected to the load input of AR so that when either one of these outputs is active, information from the multiplexers is transferred toAR. The ‘multiplexers select the information fiom DR when output is active and from PC when output Ss inactive. The transfer into AR occurs ‘witha clock pulse transition only when output 5 or output 6 ofthe decoder is active. egies From From PC" RWo 10) fLoat FCTAR DRIAR The other outputs of the decoders that initiate transfers between registers must be connected in a similar fashion. The control, signals come from the outputs ofthe decoders associated with the symbols AND, ADD, and DRTAC, respectively. The other ‘outputs ofthe decoders that are associated with an AC operation, must also be connected tothe arithmetic logic shift unitin a similar fashion, @P_3070 ‘Computer Organization & Architecture MEMORY INTERFACE ‘The data and address buses conneet memory chips (RAM and ROM) to the CPU. Some bitsin the address bus are used toselect, ‘oncof the many memory chips while other bits select the memory ‘word in the selected chip, Memory chips may be connected tothe CPUas follows 18-8 y ‘ape ROM “Memory connection tothe CPU ‘This configuration gives a memory capacity ofS12 bytes(128x4) of RAM and 512 bytes of ROM. ‘The low order bits (1-7) in the address bus are used to select one of 128 possible bytes addresses, ‘The bits 8 and 9 in the address bus are used to select a particular RAM chip using a 2x4 decoder. The output of the decoder is connected CSI input ofevery RAM chip. Following table shows hhowa particular RAM chip is selected based on values of 8 and 9 bits in the address bus s" bitin | 9" bitin | RAMchip address bus_| address bus | Selected 0 0 [PRAM Gnip| 0 1" ram chip! t 0 _|s RAM chip! L 1 |e" Ram chip!‘Computer Organization & Architecture ‘Adress bus lines! to9 are applied tothe input adress of ROM ‘without going through the decoder. Te 10! bitin the address tus is used 1 decide that operation is performed on RAM or ROM. Itis clear from above figure that if 10 bit is, inputs in all RAM chips wil become O and all RAM Chips will be enabled, however input in ROM chip wil become I and it wil be in high impedence state. In other case if 10" bit is 1, inputs in all RAM chips will become I andall RAM Chips will be disabled, however inputin ROM wil beeome 0 and ROM will be enabled. Thiscan be tabulated as fllows Value of 10% in address bus _| Active Chip 0 RAM 1 ROM The RD (READ) and WR (WRITE) outputs that work as the control signal are applied atthe inputs ofeach RAM chip, The CSI input in the ROM is connected tothe RD contrat line forthe ROM chip to be enabled only during a READ operation “The data bus ofthe ROM is unidirectional with only capability to perform READ operation (output data). On the other hand, the data us connected to the RAMS is bidirectional ie. itean transfer information both from CPU to Memory (Write Operation) and fiom Memory to CPU(READ Operation), ‘When the 10" bit is equal to 0, ie. when RAM is enabled the ‘operations on different inputs can be summarized by the following table CSI_CS2_ RD WR Memoryfunction State of data bus 70» » Inhibit Tiigh-impedance 0 1 x Inhibit High-impedance 10 0 0 Inhibit _-High-impedance 10 0 1 Write Input data to RAM 10 1 Read Output data from RAM L__1__*__*__Inhibit__High-impedance ‘When the 10" bit is equal to 1, ie, when ROM is enabled the ‘operations on different inputs can be summarized by the folowing table =a EXTERNAL DEVICES “The input—output subsystem provides communication between the CPU andthe external devices. A computer needs programs and data for processing and then it ned to display the results obtained by processing. The most common way to fed data to the computers through the keyboard. Other common external devices are display unt, scanner, mouse, printers, magnetic disks and tapes et. INPUT—OUTPUT INTERFACE UO interface provides a msthod for transfering information between CPU and external devices The UO interfice resolves the differences hat exit betwoun the epuand each External devie. “Themajorditfrencesare: |. Conversion ofsignals between CPU and external devices 2. Synchronization issues duetothe sped diffrence between CPUextremely faster) and external devices (very slow) 3. Data codes and formats in External devices diffe from the ‘word forma inthe CPU and memory. 4. Dilfeence in operating modes external devices with each other. VO bus consists of data lines, adress lines, and conto ines Each interface decodes the adres and contol eeived from the VO bus, interprets them forthe external device, and provides signals forthe device contraller along with synchronization, To communicate witha particular device, the processor places device address on the adres lines. When the interface detects itsowm adress onthe adres ln, it activates the path between thebuslines andthe device hat itcontrls. The CPU also provides 4 fimcton code inthe conrllins. Te selected interface responds tothe fietion code (VO Commands) and proceeds to execute it YO Commands are classified as control, statu, data output and data input. A conto commands issued to atvae the Extemal device andt inform it what odo. A satus eommand is used to text various status conditions inthe interface andthe external device. A data output command causes the interface to respond ty transferring data from the businto one ofits registers. Incase of data input command, th interface receives an tem of dala fom the external device an paces it ints blr ester, The processor checks ifdata are availabe by means ofa satus command and then issues a data input command. The interface places the data Ce ed See Tiimemer | onthe data lines, where they are acepted by the processor. ox Highness se Highton ' sabe i a Tigh iets TEL Same SoWe note that ROM is only enabled when CSI=1, CS3=0 and RD input is enabled. READ Operation is performed on ROM in, this case, ROM is disabled or data bus isin high impedence state inall other cases. We also note that when the chip is not enabled either CS1=0 or=1, the value of RD input becomes insignificant ‘which is denoted by “X" in the above table.ISOLATED VERSUS MEMORY-MAPPED V0 Inthe computers in which one common lin suse t ransr éatabewsen memory 10 and the CPU, amsmory transfer and an VO nse is distinguished by separate read and writ lines ‘The CPU enables one of two posible read or writ ines to spesly whether the address on he adres ines for a memory word orf an ntrie register The IO read and U0 write contl lines ae enabled during an VO transfer. The memory read and emery wie cont ines re enabled during amemory transfer In this tem all UO interface adresses re slated from the memory adresses, so itis refered to asthe isolated UO method. The isolated UO method isolates memory and 110 adresses so that memory adres values are not affected by imrfiee address assignment since cach has is own adress space Inthe Memory-Mapped organization, same address spaceis used for both memory and VO. The computer treats an interface register as being part ofthe memory system, The assigned addresses for imterface registers cannot be used for memory words, which reduce the memory address range available, In a memory-mapped VO ‘organization there are no specific input or output instructions, ‘The CPU can manipulate VO data residing in interface registers, ‘with the same instructions that are used to manipulate memory ‘words. So, the computers with memory-mapped 1/O can use _memory-type instructions to access /O data. Itallows the computer touse the same instructions for either input—output transfers or for memory transfers. For example, the load and store instructions used for reading and writing from memory can be used to input and output data fom I/O registers. This reduces the size ofthe instruction set ofthe computer. MODES OF DATA TRANSFER ‘Data transfer between CPU and 1/0 devices can be done in many ‘ways which are called modes of data transfer, Following modes are used ina typical computer 1. Programmed LO: Programmed 1/0 operations are based on the concept of constant monitoring of the external devices by the CPU. In the programmed 1/0 method, the CPU stays in a program loop until the HO unit indicates that itis ready for data, transfer. Disadvantage is that it keeps the processor busy needlessly. Dawes | Meee | vous fates] Came] | ou ae eve pac [F F=Fasba ‘Computer Organization & Architecture | Read data resister Check flag bit =1 Read sauus register Transfer data to memory Gperation complete? Continue ‘with program Flowchart for CPU program to input data, {Interrupt Initiated VO: In this mode, the interface keeps monitoring the device and informs the CPU when its ready to transfer data. CPU does not constantly monitor the flag. The flag is set by the interface when its ready to transfer data, When the lag is set, the CPU is interrupted from executing the current program and isinformed thatthe flag has been set. The CPU goes to take care ofthe input or output transfer. After the transfer is completed, the CPU returns to the previous program to continue what it was doing before the interrupt "The CPU responds to the interrupt signal by storing the return address from the program counter into memory stack and then contol branches toa service routine that processes the required VO transfer. The branch address can be chosen by one ofthe two methods: Vectored interrupt and Non- ‘Vectored interrupt. In vectored interrupt, the source that initiates the interrupt, supplies the branch information to the CPU. This information iealled the Interrupt Veetor. “The interrupt vector is either the first address of the 1/0 service routine OR itis an address that points to a location in memory where the beginning address of the VO service routine is stored. In Non-Vectored interrupt, the branch address is always assigned ta fixed location in memory. Priority Interrupt In atypical computer system more than one /O devices are attached to the computer, with each device being able to originate an interrupt request. The first task ofthe interrupt system is to identify the source of the interrupt. There is GP_3070‘Computer Organization & Architecture also the possibility that several sources will request service simultaneously. In this ease the system must also decide which device to service first. A privity interrupt isa system that establishes a priority over the various sources to determine which interrupt isto be serviced first when two ‘or more interrupt arive simultaneously. The sytem may also determine which conditions are permitted to interrupt the computer while another interrupt is being serviced. igher-peiority interrupt levels are assigned to requests which, if delayed or interrupted, could have serious consequences. Devices with high-speed transfers such as magnetic disks are given high priority, and slow devices such as keyboards receive low prioity. When two devices interrupt the computer atthe same time, the computer services the device, with the higher priority fist 3. Direet Memory Access: The disadvantage of above modes is that all data must go through the CPU. Although CPU iss fast at computations itis relatively very slow when it comes to large amount of data transfer. So if data is transferred between main memory and VO devices without going through CPU, high speed- up can be achieved, which isthe essence ofthe “Direct Memory Access (DMA)" mode. In DMA, the /O device controls the buses and direetly transfers the data to and fiom main memory and CPU as no contol over it The CPU inititsthe trans by supplying theintertae with the starting address and the numberof words needed tobe transferred and then proceeds to execute other tasks. When the transfer is made, the DMA requests memory eyees through the memory bus. When the request is granted by the memory controller, the DMA transfers the data dretl into memory. Following Diagram shows the CPU bus signals for DMA transfers Indicetion Multiple ‘operands ‘operation decoding, Instrction complete, fetch next instruction Return for string or vector data Diagram shows the CPU bus signals for DMA transfers: Bus Request—+ [Bie DBUS + Address Bus anus |—+ Daa Bus ru Rp | + Read BusGrant «—| no wR fee write DMA conirotier requests the CPU toleave contral of buses using BR input. On this request the CPU stops executing. the current task and blocks Address bus, Data bus, Read Tine and write lines. Then CPU activates BG input to inform DMA controler that it ean now use the buses. Now, the DMA controller takes over the control ofall buses to perform data transfers between U/O devices and main memory. After the data transfer is completed, it disables the BR line. The (CPU potest and disables the BG lineand takes over the control ‘ofall buses and resumes the execution where it stopped INSTRUCTION PIPELINE “There are various ways in which performance ofa computer system ‘canbe improved, This includes using faster hardware, developing faster algorithms, code optimization by the compiler. Orgnizational approaches like Using multiple CPUs, Using multiple registers Using ‘various levels in memory hierarchy have also been used to improve the performance. Instruction pipelining isalso an organizational, approach which is commonly used in modern systems to improve the performance. Instruction pipelining is similar to the use ofan assembly line in a production factory In an assembly ine a product ‘202s through various mutually exclusive stages of production Products at various stages can be done simultaneously ‘To apply this concept to instructions, we note that, infact, an instruction has a number of tages, Indirection Multiple No intertup Instruction Cycle State Diagram In above figure the instruction eycle has been divided in separate tasks. Ths is similar toa factory assembly line. Sowe may apply the concept of pipelining. We can subdivide the instruction processing into two stages: fetch/decode and execute instruction. ‘There are times during the execution ofan instruction when main ‘memory is not being accessed. This time could be used to fetch ‘the next instruction in parallel with the execution of the current ‘one, Consider the following figurewe rst stage fetches an instruction, ln Ue next step, while Ue second stage is executing this instruction, the first stage takes advantage ofany unused memorycycls o fetch the next instruction the fetch and execute stages were of equal duration, the instruction cycle time would be halved. However, there aretwo problem that ‘may arise: firstly, the execution time will generally be longer than, the fetch lime, Execution will involve reading and storing operands and then executing it, Thus, the fetch stage may have to wait for some time before it can proceed further. And secondly, a conditional branch instruction makes the address of the next instruction to be fetched unknown, In this ease the fetch stage ‘must wait until it receives the next instruction address from the execute stage Instruction Instuction Result Fetch Execute (a) Simplified view Wait fal Fetch Newaddress We Instruction Result Instruction { — Discard () Expanded view ‘Two-Stage Instruction Pipelines Instruction | Instruction 2 Instruction 3 Instruction $ Instruction 5 Insnetion6 Instruction 7 Instruction 8 | Instruction 9 ‘Computer Organization & Architecture ‘The execute stage may then have to wait while the next instruction is fetched. The common approach isto let the fetch stage get the next instruction in memory after the branch instruction. Ifthe branch is not taken, no time is lost Ifthe branch is taken, the fetched instruction must be discarded and a new instruction fetched, While these factors reduce the potential effectiveness of the two-stage pipeline, some speedup occurs. [Now if we further subdivide these two stages into smaller parts, ‘we may achieve more speedup. Let us consider the following decomposition of the instruction processing, ‘* Fetch instruction (FI: Read the next instruction) ‘© Decode instruction (DI: decoding the opcode and operands specified) ‘© Calculate effective address of each operand (CO = it may include register indirect, indirect, or other forms of address calculation) ‘© Fetch operands from memory FO) ‘© Execute instruction (EI : Perform the indicated operation, and store the result) Write operand (WO : Storethe result in memory) ‘This division leads to almost equal duration of various stages. Following Figure shows that a six-stage pipeline can reduce the ‘execution time for 9 instructions fiom 54 time units to 14 time units. 8 [9 fro nf 23 fis [the six stages are not of equal duration, there will be some waiting involved at various pipeline stages, as discussed before forthe {two-stage pipeline. Another difficulty isthe conditional branch instruction, which can invalidate several instruction fetches, Following Figure illustrates the effects ofthe conditional branch. GP_3070‘Computer Organization & Architecture branches and interrupts Instruction | Instruction 2 Instruction 3 Instruction 15 Instruction 16 Time 2)3 Pe bueanaties 4 5 6 | Baleteae | ee : ‘The Effect ofa Conditional Branch on Instruct [Inthe Figure time diagram for instruction pipeline operation, assume that instruction 3 isa conditional branch to instruction 15. Until the instruction is executed, there is no way of knowing which instruction will come next. The pipeline, in this example simply loads the next instruction in sequence (instruction 4) and proceeds as discussed above, In Figure 3, the branch is not taken, and we get the full performance benefit of the pipelining, In-Figure 4, the branch is taken. Ths is not determined until the end of time t= 7. Here, the pipeline is cleared ofthe instructions and at timet= 8, instruction 15 enters the pipeline. No instructions complete during time units 9 through 12; this is the performance penalty incurred Following flowchart indicates the logic needed for pipelining to account for fT co. r | op Lee 51 | ination q Ute Le Wri re WO | peranis q Ep ‘SicStage CPU Instruction Pipeliné So, Instruction pipelining isa powerful technique for enhancing performance but requires careful design toachieve optimum results, ‘with reasonable complexity, ‘CACHE MEMORY Aswe know CPU is much faster than memory: The prablem comes, intothe picture when the CPU issues a memory request, it will not ‘get the data it need for many CPU cycles. The slower the memory the more cycles the CPU will have to wait. This problem can be ‘overcome by introducing a small and very fast memory near the (CPU. The small, fast memory is called Cache Memory. Thebasic idea behind a cache is simple: Keep those memory words in cache that are heavily required by CPU e.g. A loop counter. When the CPU needs a word, it first looks inthe cache. Only ifthe word is rot there does it go to main memory. Ifa substantial fraction of the words ae in the cache, the average access time can be greatly reduced. ‘Spatial Locality: Ifa given memory references toaddress, itis ‘very likely thatthe next memory reference willbe near address A ‘A simple example isthe program itself. Except for branches and procedure calls ie. Jump instructions, instructions are fetched fiom consecutive locations in memory. Tis is called the “Principle ‘of Spatial Locality” ofthe programs, ‘Temporal Locality: Ifa memory word is referenced at time, itis ‘very likely that same word would be referenced in near future. For ‘example, in case of loops same instructions are executed again and again, loop counter wil be required again and again and so ‘on. This iscalled “Principle of Temporal Locality”.