Modular Course, Seminar Workshop

and Training
 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
18- units Modular Course/ Seminar Workshop/ Training

Course Title:
CHILD AND FAMILY COUNSELING (Module 3)
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Guidance and Counseling Defined
2. Objectives, Scope, Basic Assumptions & Principles of Guidance
3. The Need for Guidance
4. The Learners Characteristics and Target Areas of Guidance Needs
5. Guidance Services
6. Counseling (Functions, Setting, Phases/Process, Position)
7. Areas and Types of Guidance
8. Characteristics of an Effective Counselor
9. Counseling Skills
10. Counseling Approaches
a. Adlerian Counseling (Alfred Adler)
b. Person-Centered Counseling (Carl Rogers)
c. Psychodynamic Counseling
d. Gestalt Therapy
e. Reality Therapy
f. Behavioral Counseling
g. Rational-Emotive Therapy
h. Cognitive Behavior Modification Approach
i. Multimodal Counseling
j. Language Therapy for Children with Behavior Problems
11. Functions of Testing in Counseling
12. Ethical Considerations in Counseling
Lesson 1: Guidance and Counseling Defined

Guidance and Counseling Defined

Guidance and counselling have, in all places, been a vital aspect of higher education. One of the
purposes of education is to help the individual in becoming a useful member of society. If an
individual receives education without proper guidance and counseling, he is not able to develop
his personality fully.
MEANING OF GUIDANCE
1.Some form of help and assistance given to an individual to solve their problems.
2.Guidance as the promotion of the growth of the individual in self-direction.
3.Guidance helps the individuals to adjust to the environment.
DEFINITION
1. Guidance as a process through which an individual is able to solve their problems and pursue a
path suited to their abilities and aspirations. JM Brewer.
2.Guidance is a continuous process of helping the individual development in the maximum of
their capacity in the direction most beneficial to himself and to society
3. Guidance is an educational service designed to help students make more effective use of the
schools training programmed. - Educational point of view
NEEDS FOR GUIDANCE
Guidance based upon the fact, human being needs help. Everyone needs assistance at some time
in his life, some will need it constantly while others used in only at rare.
These reasons are of the following three kinds:
a) Psychological reasons
b) Sociological reasons
c)Educational reasons
COUNSELLING MEANING OF COUNSELLING
Counseling is a specialized service of guidance, and it is an enabling process designed to help
through learning to take responsibility and to make decisions for himself / herself. It is a helping
relationship which includes:
1.Someone seeking help
2. Someone willing to give help
 3. Capable or trained to help  In a setting that permits, help to be given and received.
‘Counselling’ denotes, “Giving of advice”.
DEFINITION
“Counselling is a method that helps the client to use a problem- solving process to recognize and
manage stress and that facilitates interpersonal relationships among client, family and health care
team”.
BASIC COMPONENT OF COUNSELLING
1.Rapport
2.Communication
3.Understanding
4.Change in feeling and expressions
5.Planning of counseling interview

Lesson 2: Objectives, Scope, Basic Assumptions & Principles of

Guidance
OBJECTIVES OF GUIDANCE
• To help individual to understand and accept the positive and negative aspects of his personality,
interests, aptitudes, attitudes etc.
• Provide a wide choice and opportunities
• Help make adjustment in the new life situation.
• Help in facing the challenges of life and manage tensions by realizing and accepting the facts. •
Help in solving social and personal problems and be able to adjust with oneself and the
environment.
AIMS OF GUIDANCE
• Exploring Self
• Determining Values
• Setting Goals
• Improving Efficiency
• Building Relationship
• Accepting Responsibility for the Future
PURPOSE OF GUIDANCE
• To enable the individual or person to be matured, socially responsible, economically self-
sufficient and ultimately to be self-directing citizen, for that necessary programs are undertaken
for his best development.
• It enables the individual/person to take right decision in each and every stage of his life by
overcoming the necessities and incorporating the necessities.
To achieve of self-sufficiency in each and every aspects of life, the individual/person is helped to
analyze his self clearly i.e. his strength, limitation, interests, aptitudes, abilities, potentialities etc.
Guidance is organized with the help of different services to provide realistic information about
potentialities of the individual and the opening of the world of work in which he is best fitted for.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF GUIDANCE
• Race, color and sex have little as no relation to aptitude and abilities.
• Many crises cannot be successfully met by student without assistance.
• The school is in a strategic position to give the assistance needed.
• Variations within the individual are significant.
• Abilities already existing in individual are not usually specialized.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
• Principle of All-Round Development of the Individual
• Principle of Human Uniqueness
• Principle of Holistic Development
• Principle of Cooperation
• Principle of Continuity
• Principle of Adjustment
• Principle of Individual Needs
• Principle of Expert Opinion
• Principle of Evaluation
• Principle of Responsibility
• Principle of Periodic Appraisal
Lesson 3: The Need for Guidance
Guidance certainly has an enormous need in every individual’s life. Below are some factors which
highlight the need for guidance:

Different stages of development- The division of an individual’s life can take place into various
stages. These stages are infant, childhood, pre-adolescent, adolescence and manhood. So, an
individual needs guidance in every stage of life. Maximum guidance is required during the
adolescence stage.

Differences among persons- Psychology inform us that no individuals are alike. Furthermore, no
two individuals get similar opportunities in life. Therefore, every individual requires guidance, in
order to find out the most suitable profession for him.

Career Maturity- Guidance is certainly essential for the development of a positive work attitude.
Furthermore, guidance would help build suitable habits and values towards one’s work or
profession. This is because; guidance increases the awareness of one’s world of work. Also, an
individual is able to plan and prepare for his work or profession efficiently due to guidance.

Educational growth- Guidance certainly helps in the development of educational skills and
abilities. Above all, these skills would facilitate learning and achievement.

We shall highlight the need for guidance considering some reasons and factors:

1. Different stages of development. The bringing up of the human beings can be divided into the
stages of infant, childhood, pre-adolescent, adolescence and manhood. One needs different types
of help to adjust with every stage. The maximum problems are faced at the time of adolescence,
when there are problems due to physical development, mental development, emotional
development and social development.
2. Differences among persons. Psychology reveals that no two persons are alike and no two
people get similar opportunities in life. Hence, every individual needs the help of guidance
service, in order to know the particular kind of profession for which he is most suited.
3. Changing conditions of work. Gone are the days when a child was supposed to take up the
profession of his father for earning his livelihood. Now-a-days professions or occupations have
become so varied and so complex that everyone has at first to get general education and then to
undergo a long training for the profession to be adopted. He has also to get a special education
pertaining to that profession.
4. Educational growth. Guidance is needed for development of abilities and skills facilitating
learning and achievement, and habits and skills for lifelong learning.
5. Career Maturity. Guidance is required for the development of healthy and positive attitudes,
habits, values, etc. towards work through broadening aware of the world of work, planning and
preparing for one’s career.
6. Psycho-social development. Guidance is required for assistance for understanding and
developing a positive self-image and development of social skills for learning an effective and
satisfying personal-social life.
7. Guidance for good family life. It includes working with parents and children for understanding
of family relationship, attitudes towards home and role of family for healthy growth.
8. Guidance for good citizenship. Guidance creates an understanding of socio-cultural values and
awareness of social issues, concerns and problems, overcoming prejudices, developing right
attitudes and values of co-operation, tolerance, righteousness and social justice for peace and
equality. Promoting ideas and values of democratic and secular constitution and promoting unity
and national integration.
9. Guidance for channelization of manpower requirements. Efforts at development and
channelization of individual potential with a view to meeting manpower and social requirements
for national growth and betterment of society.
10. Proper use of leisure time. Today many individuals waste their precious time with a lot of
unhealthy activities. People need to be guided to use their leisure time profitably. Proper
balancing of work and family is also important. Many youngsters roam around the streets with
nothing to do, having no purpose in life, waste away their health and time through drugs, alcohol,
gambling etc. Guidance will help them to make use of their leisure time to achieve happiness, to
enhance their education and career advancement.
11. Lack of Instructions at home. There is a lack of guidance for the young ones at home. In the
past, home acted as the most important agency of informal education. The children followed the
instructions given by parents and elders. Today, many parents are failed in this responsibility.
They are too busy in their work and transfer this responsibility to the teachers who are also not in
a position to guide them with their own responsibilities. So there is a need for guidance cell in
schools.
12. Improvement in the status of women. Due to the influx of women in almost all spheres
including active defense services, more and more women are taking up jobs. Because of the
double responsibility of home and office, women are facing all kinds of trauma, anxiety and
stress. They need guidance to adjust to this changing scenario, especially in a male dominated
society.

Lesson 4: The Learners Characteristics and Target Areas of Guidance

Needs

According to Developmental stage

Infant

Freud: Oral Stage

Erikson: Trust vs Mistrust

Piaget: Sensorimotor
General Characteristics:

• Rudimentary language
• Dependent
• Need security
• Motor Skills develop gradually

Toddlers

Freud: Anal Stage

Erikson: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Piaget: Preconceptual

General Characteristics:

• Curious
• Explorative
• Egocentric
• Imitators

Preschooler

Freud: Phallic Stage

Erikson: Initiative vs Guilt

Piaget: Preoperational

General Characteristics:

• Separation anxiety
• Active imagination
• Play with other kids
• Thinking literal, concrete
• Self-conscious and sensitive
Target Areas of Guidance Needs
Personal

• physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development

• personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends and teachers,
etc.
• deals with the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline etc.
• Opportunities for self-expression

Educational/Academic

• To understand one’s potential and talents/strengths

• To determine learning difficulties
• To assist in making satisfactory progress
• To help child adjust in school, routines, rules and regulations and social life connected with
it
• To help develop good study habits
• To help participate in and out of school activities

Vocational

• love and respect for manual work

• training in use of hands
• spirit of cooperative work
• Sharing
• appreciation for all works
• good interpersonal relationship is to be developed.

Social

problems in adjustment and social relationship

Need help in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group; in developing social
relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others.

Health

The health guidance may be a cooperative effort

conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked.

Health education through formal classes and information

Avocational

The other co-curricular activities play an important role in all-round development of the child
The students need to be properly guided for effective participation in varied types of avocational
pursuits.

Lesson 5: Guidance Services

Characteristics of a Good Guidance Service:

1. Identifiable aids to assist individuals.

2. Involved in achieving goals of education.

3. Provide for competent leadership.

4. Supported by functional preparations for teachers in guidance services.

5. Based on the knowledge of the needs of the pupils and upon competencies of the staff
members.

6. Services made available to all.

7. Needs the cooperation of parents and community.

8. More preventive than curative.

9. Founded on the concept of the totality of the individual.

10. Should be evaluated constantly.

Basic Guidance Services

1. INFORMATION SERVICES

The intentional and purposive delivery of information to students; the primary purpose of which
is to enable students to use said information to reasonably guide their choices and actions inside
and outside of the school. This service makes available to learners certain kinds information not
ordinarily provided through the instructional program or during the regular period of instruction.

Types of Information and Guidance Service Used:

1. Educational Information - valid and usable data about present and probable future educational
requirements.

Examples:
 • Plan and lay-out of school plan
• Policies governing school attendance, uniform, tardiness, etc.
• History and traditions of the school
• Use of the library and other school services

2. Occupational Information - valid and useful data about positions, jobs, and occupations.

Examples:

• Conditions for work

• Duties & requirements for work applications
• Rewards offered
• Existing or predicted supply of/demand for workers.
• Advancement/Promotion patterns

3. Personal-Social Information - valid and usable data about the opportunities and influences of
the human being which will help learners to understand themselves better and improve their
relationship with others.

Examples:

• Boy-girl relationships
• Personal appearance
• Home and family relationships
• Manners and etiquette
• Way of living (health)
• Leisure-time activities
• Social skills

Individual Inventory Services

The process of accumulating and analyzing information about an individual through the use of an
Inventory Form and through routine interview. Data may be used to check for students who may
need counseling or specialized guidance services. Provides a synthesis of information about the
individual which can be used to gain understanding of themselves as a person – their potential
strengths and weaknesses, abilities, interests and needs. Covers the collection, organization and
interpretation of the data about pupils/students.
Lesson 6: Counseling (Functions, Setting, Phases/Process, Position)

What is counseling?

Glanz (1972) – Glenn F. Smith

“Open ended, face to face problem solving situation within which a student with professional
assistance, can focus and begin to solve a problem or problems”.

Rogers (1965) – Carl Rogers

The assistance which comes to a child through face to face contact, with a professionally trained
person in a psychological relationship using either talk or play as the primary medium of
communication.

A relationship in which one of the parties has intent of promoting the growth, development,
maturity and improved functioning of the other.

Nature and functions of counseling

➢ The main objective of counseling is to help client to attain a better mental, emotional, and
physical health. A counselor is the one who can help a person realize a better tomorrow by
attainment of self-confidence, self-development, patience and self-growth.
➢ This is a collaborative process wherein the counselor takes a passive position of listening, as
the counselee is encouraged to articulate himself until he clarifies his thinking to consider
various steps in solving his own problem. The counselor simply facilitates the counselee in
knowing how to face his own difficulty.
➢ Aside from providing change in attitude or behavior in a person, counseling can possibly help
prevent the development of a problem into a more complicated one. This encourages
expression, release of emotion while there is a provision of support in times of problem in
order to stimulate growth of ideas.

Counseling in school setting

The counseling takes place in public and private school settings. Counseling is designed to
facilitate student achievement, improve student behavior and attendance, and help student
develop socially.

(Function, Setting, Phase/ Process & Position)

✓ Introduce yourself.
✓ Be hospitable. Invite client to sit down.
✓ Make sure they are comfortable.
✓ Address the client by name.
✓ Be inviting to a social conversation to help reduce any anxiety they may be feeling.
 ✓ Allow your client to talk about his or her reason for coming in to talk.
✓ Indicate that you are interested in them and what they are going through.

Counseling Position

▪ Sitting – Both must be seated without any table serving a barrier between them. There must
be in a relaxed condition.
▪ Open – The counselor must move his hands and arms open to make the counselee feel
that he is accepted.
▪ Lean – The counselor must not be too stiff. He should be in leaning position to let the
counselee feel that he is cared for.
▪ Eye-to-eye contact – This should be maintained. Eyes are said to be the windows of our
soul. Maintaining this eye-to-eye contact tells of the genuine interest of the counselor to
help.
▪ Relax – The counselor must be relaxed as counselee starts to ask some questions for
clarification while he listens to counselee’s stories between sobs.

The key word is SOLER.

Lesson 7: Areas and Types of Guidance

Guidance mainly divides into 3 types. And these 3 types of guidance are the main tools that guide
a teacher or student in its working. Besides, in this topic, we are going to discuss the type of
guidance that is most important.

Educational Guidance

It refers to that guidance that a child or students need during his school life. Also, it helps them to
solve the problem that they face in school. In addition, it gives all the required details that
children need related to the school they find most suitable. Most noteworthy, education is the
process that guides and directs children for her/his proper development.

Every aspect of school education is strongly related to educational guidance. Moreover, it includes
the aim, objectives, discipline, syllabus, the role of teachers, methods of teaching, and co-
curricular activity.

In addition, these guidelines help in the adjustment of the course of study according to the ability
and skill of the student. This process helps a student to make wise choices in relation to his
education life ahead. Most noteworthy, this process assists a person to plan her/his education plan
and carry it forward without any problem.
Education guidance concerns every related aspect of student education. Also, it aids students to
choose the school, course, study habit, and several others. Besides, it helps in the growth and
development of children.

Vocational Guidance

It refers to that type of guidance in which ordinary information is provided regarding choosing the
occupation. Also, it prepares them for the occupation and helps in entering and progressing.
Besides, it is also known as vocational development. Most noteworthy, in modern education its
perspective is much wider.

This type of guidance helps a person to know her/his strength and weaknesses. Moreover, it helps
them to choose a vocation for better adjustment with every situation. In other words, vocational
guidance helps a person choose his career and other aspects related to it.

It is an assistance that helps students and children to know the world of vocation by getting in the
school. Most noteworthy, it is an early exposure to students about the variety of job choices they
would have later in life. It is a motivation for hard work in school or college studies.

Vocational Guidance help children to know what they are capable of and what they can become
in life. And this ultimately depends on what they are capable to do in their school life. In
addition, they need to be on the right track to prepare them for life.

In short, we can say that it is a universally accepted process that assists an individual to know
her/himself better.

Personal Guidance

It refers to that type of guidance where a person or individual overcome their problem on their
own. Also, it is the assistance that is provided to an individual to solve their social, mental, morals,
health, and ethical problems. Besides, it helps in solving those problems, which we cannot solve
with just vocational and educational guidance.

Personal assistance is of two types written and oral. They help to make an adjustment in our life.
Moreover, it is the guidance they let us know what we are now and what we can become later in
life. Besides, it helps children and student to help them and look at them from the right point of
view.
In the case of personal guidance, we observe that it is not an easy task. And the total development
of an individual’s personality depends on the development of personal habits and attitudes. That’s
why most of the individual face this problem in life.

Lesson 8: Characteristics of an Effective Counselor

7 Characteristics of an Effective Counselor

1. Be organized within your practice.

Effective counselors prioritize organization in their practice, which makes it much easier to
provide effective counseling to both new and existing clients. Organization of paperwork,
scheduling, and proper storing of confidential information will give your clients peace of mind
and confidence in your counseling process. While providing your clientele with a greater sense of
well-being from your organization, an effective and organized counselor will also experience a
greater sense of wellness and balance within themselves, which will allow space for a more
effective counseling process.

2. Practice ethically and professionally.

Due to the power differential that may often be experienced in the counseling relationship, an
effective counselor needs to be able to understand their duties as an ethical professional. Doctoral
and master’s degree programs will include courses focused solely on ethics in healthcare, more
specifically in mental health. Beyond classroom education on ethics, there are many resources for
counselors to understand the ethics of the profession. Some resources include the American
Counseling Association Code of Ethics, ASERVIC competencies, and mental health statutes that
vary from state to state.

3. Educate yourself.

If you are on the path to earn a degree in clinical mental health counseling, you’re already moving
forward with one of the most important, and necessary steps needed to take to become an
effective counselor. Alongside clinical experiences in the counseling field, counselor education
helps mental health professionals be able to extend the scope of their work. Another great way to
gain experience is to attend a counseling conference, such as the ACA Conference. Study hard,
ask a lot of questions, and get all the experience you can while earning your undergraduate,
Master of Arts in Clinical Mental Health Counseling, or doctoral

4. Be confident in your position and responsibility.

Whether you’ve been a licensed professional counselor for 20 years or you’re new to the
profession, you must maintain confidence in your work. A client is looking to you for help, so use
your education and experience assuredly. Good clinical supervision is also suggested and
necessary to maintain competence, and to review situations that may happen in practice that can
lead to further education and confidence in the application of counseling skills.

5. Be respectful and non-judgmental.

According to the ACA Code of Ethics, “Counselors are aware of — and avoid imposing — their
own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors” (A.4.b). As a counselor, you must respect each
client’s beliefs and struggles, and never assert your personal values or beliefs. Self-disclosure must
be used appropriately and in necessary situations to further build out the therapeutic relationship.
Research shows that the therapeutic alliance or therapeutic relationship is one of the strongest
predictors of success. A good therapeutic relationship is often defined as having trust, agreement
on therapeutic goals formulated together on a treatment plan, and a collaborative approach to
working towards those goals.

6. Understand the importance of communication.

Every client is different, you may have some that need time to warm up to you, while some aren’t
afraid to divulge their life story from the start. An effective counselor must understand that
communication needs to be personalized to each client. Interpersonal skills go beyond the
context of therapy itself. Consider differences in ethnicity, culture, background, and be self-aware
of personal biases that may hinder or create barriers within the therapeutic relationship. When
there is a cultural difference, one can combine this characteristic with that of educating oneself,
and seek out the necessary clinical supervision or take an education training to gain the necessary
education to effectively communicate with clients that may have different beliefs or cultural
experiences. If the communication barrier still remains after seeking out supervision and
additional training, an effective counselor must consider the option of a more appropriate referral
outside of one’s private practice.

7. Have a flexible attitude.

When working as an effective counselor, you will have to be accommodating to the

unpredictability of your clientele. Some clients will be late or may cancel, along with clients that
are seeking an emergency session. An effective counselor must possess a flexible attitude and
unconditional positive regard to ensure your clients feel safe and understood, which in turn
becomes beneficial for the development of the therapeutic alliance.
Lesson 9: Counseling Skills

What are counseling skills?

Counseling skills are soft (interpersonal) and hard (technical) attributes that a counselor puts to
use in order to best help their clients work through personal issues and overcome obstacles that
are currently preventing them from living a full and happy life.

Mastering particular counseling skills could make a great difference in whether or not you can
provide your clients with the best opportunities for personal growth.

Examples of counseling skills

Active listening

Active listening is an important skill for a counselor to have. It can be defined as the use of eye
contact, facial expressions and gestures to imply that you are engaged and focused on the
information the other person is saying. It can help a client feel like they've been heard and
validated in the information they chose to share.

Questioning

There are two types of questioning styles that a counselor should be able to utilize—open
questioning and closed questioning. Being skilled in questioning techniques can help a counselor
to better interpret what a client is saying and it can help them think more deeply into their
personal situation as well. Open questioning includes all questioning that is directed toward
gathering more detailed and complex information. Closed questioning is directed toward more
short-ended questions with specific answers.

Note-taking

Counselors should be skilled in organized note-taking techniques in order to record important

points that were discussed during the session and information the client provided. This can be
used for further analysis later on.

Interpretation
Counselors should be able to interpret vague information that a client shares and place it within
the context of what they are going through. Phrases like "I'm just so tired," or "I'm on edge all the
time," constitute further information, and it is up to the counselor to interpret this information.

Nonverbal communication competency

Similar to information interpretation, counselors should be able to identify current attitudes or

feelings based upon the body language that a client uses during the session.

Self-awareness

Counselors need to be aware of how their body language, gestures and tone of voice can affect
their client and their willingness to talk about the situation. Having good self-awareness can keep a
counselor from accidentally exhibiting signs of boredom, frustration or judgment.

Trustworthiness

An important skill for a counselor is to be able to build and maintain trust with their clients. This
can affect a client's willingness to share information.

Empathy

A counselor needs to be able to see a client's situation from their perspective in order to best help
them overcome their obstacles.

Emotional compartmentalization

Another skill that can be specific to counselors is the ability to emotionally compartmentalize
themselves from their clients and maintain professional boundaries in order to continue healthy
client relationships.

Information recall
Counselors should be able to remember information that was shared with them earlier in the
session or from a previous session in order to help guide their questioning toward a particular
client.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality can be seen as a valued skill for a counselor to have as they must respect their
clients and the information they share with them.

Record keeping

Counselors should be able to keep detailed records of their clients, relevant paperwork and
session notes to make sure everything stays up-to-date.

Lesson 10: Counseling Approaches

Adlerian Counseling (Alfred Adler)

Alfred Adler: Theory and Application

Alfred Adler (1870-1937), world renowned philosopher and psychiatrist, stressed the need to
understand individuals within their social context. During the early 1900's, Adler began
addressing such crucial and contemporary issues as equality, parent education, the influence of
birth order, life style, and the holism of individuals. Adler believed that we all have one basic
desire and goal: to belong and to feel significant.

Adler developed the first holistic theory of personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy that
was intimately connected to a humanistic philosophy of living. His lectures and books for the
general public are characterized by a crystal-clear common sense. His clinical books and journal
articles reveal an uncommon understanding of mental disorders, a deep insight into the art of
healing, and a great inspiration for encouraging optimal human development.

According to Adler, when we feel encouraged, we feel capable and appreciated and will generally
act in a connected and cooperative way. When we are discouraged, we may act in unhealthy ways
by competing, withdrawing, or giving up. It is in finding ways of expressing and accepting
encouragement, respect, and social interest that help us feel fulfilled and optimistic.
Adlerian theory and practice have proven especially productive as applied to the growth and
development of children. Adlerians believe that "a misbehaving child is a discouraged child" and
that helping children to feel valued, significant, and competent is often the most effective strategy
in coping with difficult child behaviors.

Adlerian Psychology focuses on people's efforts to compensate for their self-perceived inferiority
to others. These feelings of inferiority may derive from one's position in the family constellation,
particularly if early experiences of humiliation occurred; a specific physical condition or defect
existed; or a general lack of social feeling for others was present.

Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and strategies (one's
life style) that each individual creates in childhood. This cognitive schema and life style serve as
the individual's reference for attitudes, behaviors, and one's private view of self, others, and the
world. It is when we have looked at our early life experiences, examined the patterns of behavior
that repeat themselves in our lives, and the methods by which we go about trying to gain
significance and belonging that healing, growth, and change occur.

As articulated by noted Adlerian psychotherapist Henry Stein, the theory and application of
Adlerian Psychology have as their lynchpins seven critical ideas:

Unity of the Individual

Thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can only be understood as subordinated to the
individual's style of life, or consistent pattern of dealing with life. The individual is not internally
divided or the battleground of conflicting forces. Each aspect of the personality points in the same
direction.

Goal Orientation

There is one central personality dynamic derived from the growth and forward movement of life
itself. It is a future-oriented striving toward a goal of significance, superiority, or success. In mental
health, it is a realistic goal of socially useful significance or superiority over general difficulties. In
mental disorders, it is an unrealistic goal of exaggerated significance or superiority over others.
The early childhood feeling of inferiority, for which one aims to compensate, leads to the creation
of a fictional final goal which subjectively seems to promise future security and success. The depth
of the inferiority feeling usually determines the height of the goal which then becomes the "final
cause" of behavior patterns.

Self-Determination and Uniqueness

A person's fictional goal may be influenced by hereditary and cultural factors, but it ultimately
springs from the creative power of the individual, and is consequently unique. Usually, individuals
are not fully aware of their goal. Through the analysis of birth order, repeated coping patterns,
and earliest memories, the psychotherapist infers the goal as a working hypothesis.

Social Context

As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also a part of larger wholes or systems -- the
family, the community, all of humanity, our planet, and the cosmos. In these contexts, we meet
the three important life tasks: occupation, love and sex, and our relationship with other people --
all social challenges. Our way of responding to our first social system, the family constellation,
may become the prototype of our world view and attitude toward life.

The Feeling of Community

Each human being has the capacity for learning to live in harmony with society. This is an innate
potential for social connectedness which has to be consciously developed. Social interest and
feeling imply "social improvement," quite different from conformity, leaving room for social
innovation even through cultural resistance or rebellion. The feeling of genuine security is rooted
in a deep sense of belonging and embeddedness within the stream of social evolution.

Mental Health

A feeling of human connectedness and a willingness to develop oneself fully and contribute to the
welfare of others are the main criteria of mental health. When these qualities are
underdeveloped, feelings of inferiority may haunt an individual, or an attitude of superiority may
antagonize others. Consequently, the unconscious fictional goal will be self-centered and
emotionally or materially exploitive of other people. When the feeling of connectedness and the
willingness to contribute are stronger, a feeling of equality emerges, and the individual's goal will
be self-transcending and beneficial to others.

Treatment

Adlerian individual psychotherapy, brief therapy, couple therapy, and family therapy follow
parallel paths. Clients are encouraged to overcome their feelings of insecurity, develop deeper
feelings of connectedness, and to redirect their striving for significance into more socially
beneficial directions. Through a respectful Socratic dialogue, they are challenged to correct
mistaken assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, and feelings about themselves and the world.
Constant encouragement stimulates clients to attempt what was believed impossible. The growth
of confidence, pride, and gratification leads to a greater desire and ability to cooperate. The
objective of therapy is to replace exaggerated self-protection, self-enhancement, and self-
indulgence with courageous social contribution.

Person-Centered Counseling (Carl Rogers)

Client-Centered Therapy, also known as Client-Centered Counseling or Person-Centered

Therapy, was developed in the 1940s and 50s as a response to the less personal, more “clinical”
therapy that dominated the field.

Client-centered therapy operates according to 3 basic principles that reflects the attitude of the
therapist to the client.

Why use a person-centered approach?

➢ Used to treat broad range of people.

➢ It has no strict guidelines
➢ Increased capacity to experience and express feelings at the moment they occur; and
openness to new experiences and new ways of thinking about life.
Roles of the counselors
✓ The focus is on the Client- counselor relationship
 ✓ The counselors enter the client’s world
✓ Person-centered counselor takes periodic oral quizzes on how much they are learning and
understanding.
✓ Each child has learned to behave in and acceptable way to avoid certain unwanted
behaviors.
✓ They do this to win their parents love ad approval or avoid this affection being taken away
from them.
✓ Each complies with conditions of worth and self-image is adversely affected.
What is person-centered counseling?
➢ The core purpose of person-centered therapy is to facilitate our ability to self-actualize -
the belief that all of us will grow and fulfill our potential.
SELF- ACTUALIZATION is the most important contributions to Psychology.

Rogerian’s technique are known for:

REFLECTION
➢ This approach facilitates the personal growth and relationships of a client by allowing them
to explore and utilize their own strengths and personal identity.
The self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves.
Humanistic approach has 3 components:
➢ SELF- WORTH / SELF-ESTEEM
➢ SELF- IMAGE
➢ IDEAL SELF
➢ The counselor aids this process, providing vital support to the client and they make their
way through this journey. An individual who is actualizing are:
✓ Open to experience
✓ Existential living
✓ Trust feelings
✓ Creativity
✓ Fulfilled life
CONGRUENCE
➢ Genuineness
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
➢ Accepts and loves the person for what he or she is.
EMPATHY
➢ Without prejudice
➢ Temporarily living in other’s life
BENEFITS OF PERSON-CENTERED THERAPHY
➢ Helps individual of all age with a range of personal issues.
➢ Effective in helping individuals to overcome specific problems.
➢ This approach is not limited to qualified counselors, many people will use the approach in
some form to help guide them through day to day work and relationships.
Person-centered therapy is based on faith in and empowerment of human beings to be joyful,
creative, self-fulfilled and willing and able to connect with others, both socially and emotionally.
 Psychodynamic Counseling

What is psychodynamic therapy?

Psychodynamic therapy can help people improve their quality of life by helping them gain a
better understanding of the way they think and feel. The idea is that this will improve their ability
to make choices, relate to others, and forge the kind of life they would like to live.

Psychodynamic therapy is a talking therapy. This means that it is based on the concept that talking
about problems can help people learn and develop the skills they need to address them.
It is an approach that embraces the multifaceted aspects of an individual’s life. It strives to help
people understand the sometimes unknown or unconscious motivations behind difficult feelings
and behaviors.

How does it work?

Psychodynamic therapy is based on the following key principles:

➢ Unconscious motivations — such as social pressure, biology, and psychology — can affect
behavior.
➢ Experience shapes personality, which can, in return, affect an individual’s response to that
experience.
➢ Past experiences affect the present.
➢ Developing insight and emotional understanding can help individuals with psychological
issues.
➢ Expanding the range of choices and improving personal relationships can help people
address their problems.
➢ Freeing themselves from their pasts can help people live better in the future.
Transference and countertransference are also important. With this approach, the client will
transfer their feelings toward someone onto the therapist, and the therapist will redirect these
feelings back toward the client. It can take place without the client’s awareness, and many
therapists have varying approaches to this concept.

In psychodynamic therapy, the relationship between the therapist and the client is very important.
It provides a container in which people can gain insights into themselves, their pasts, and their
feelings. They can develop a better understanding of how they see the world and the ways in
which all these factors affect their experiences.

With the help of a therapist, people undergoing psychodynamic therapy will work to understand
their feelings, beliefs, and childhood experiences. The goal is to help people recognize self-
defeating patterns, explore new ways of being in the world, and help people feel better.

A psychodynamic approach to therapy can work with individuals, couples, families, and in group
therapy situations.
Because its focus tends to be on relationships and understanding thoughts and feelings, which
people may have avoided confronting, psychodynamic therapy can be time consuming.

Summary
Psychodynamic therapy is a form of talking therapy that has proven effective in helping people
dealing with depression, anxiety, pain, and relationship issues.

This treatment approach helps people see what is behind their problems by giving them a better
understanding of their unconscious feelings, thoughts, and past experiences.

Developing these psychological skills helps people make better choices and feel better in the long-
term.

Gestalt Therapy
Proponents:
Fritz and Laura Perls
• Psycho analyst from Frankfurt and Berlin.
• In 1933 they fled from Nazi Germany and moved to South Africa where they
formulate much off the Gestalt Therapy.
• They eventually moved to New York and wrote the book
on Gestalt Therapy with the anarchist writer and also a gestalt therapist Paul Good Man. (Wulf
1996)
❖ The word “GESTALT” means “whole, configuration, integration, pattern or form”. ¢
Gestalt therapy is a phenomenological-existential therapy founded by Frederick (Fritz) and
Laura Perls in the 1940s.
❖ It is based on the principle that humans are best viewed as a whole entity consisting of
body, mind, and soul, and best understood when viewed through their own eyes, not by
looking back into the past but by bringing the past into the present.
❖ It emphasizes to alleviate unresolved anger, pain, anxiety, resentment, and other negative
feelings, these emotions cannot just be discussed, but must be actively expressed in the
present time. ¢ Perls believed that we are not in this world to live up to others' expectations,
nor should we expect others to live up to ours.
GESTALT VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE:
❖ Gestalt’s basic understanding of the human being is that people can deal with their
problems, especially if they become fully aware of what is happening within oneself and
outside of oneself.
❖ Change happens in a person’s life when he or she can reintegrate a disowned part of the
self-back into the mix of identity
❖ Gestalt is a process of “reowning” parts of the self that have been disowned
❖ Change takes place when a person is more aware of who and what he or she is.
GESTALT VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE:

❖ Living with “masks” and does not promote change

❖ Problems begin when a person tries to be who or what he or she isn’t In fact it promotes
stagnation of the personality
❖ According to Gestalt, the more a person tries to be who they are not, the more they stay
the same

THERAPEUTIC GOALS
• Move towards increased awareness of themselves
• Gradually assume ownership of their experience
• Develop skills and acquire values that will allow them to satisfy their needs without violating the
rights of others
• Become more aware of all of their senses

• Learn to accept responsibility for what they do, including accepting the consequences of their
actions
• Move from outside support toward increasing internal support
• Be able to ask for and get help from others and to give to others
Therapist's Function and Role
• Therapist encourages the present time, Bring the past into the present by re-enacting
it in the present.
• Therapist should focus on the “what” & “how” of a person without asking the “why” questions.
This is to promote an awareness of the moment Questions such as “What is happening now?” or
“What are you feeling in this moment?” are used to intensify the experience of the present &
create awareness “Why” questions lead only toward rationalizations and “self-deceptions” away
from the immediacy of the moment
• Pay attention to the client's body language.
• Focus on the language
KEY CONCEPTS OF GESTALT THERAPY
Gestalt Therapy is another type of counseling that is based upon the existential framework. Key
elements include:
• Phenomenological Basis You are seeking to focus on the client’s perception of reality
• Experiential The client is being asked to come to understand about what and how they are
thinking, feeling, and doing as they interact with the therapist and the other people in the world.
• Existential The person is to take responsibility for their destiny and identity

• Awareness A key element in this theory is helping the client come to an awareness of what he
or she is doing and experiencing
• The Now Our “power is in the present”. The only moment that is significant is the present. For
many people the power of the present is lost.
 • Unfinished Business Feelings about the past are unexpressed For Example: hatred, pain,
anxiety, grief etc. These feelings are associated with distinct memories & fantasies Result:
Unexpressed feelings can result in physical symptoms For Example: Preoccupation, compulsive
behavior & self-defeating behavior etc. So, Gestalt therapists emphasize paying attention to the
bodily experience
THERAPEUTIC METHODS/ TECHNIQUES
• Role-play (Top dog — Underdog)
• The open chair technique
• Dialogue
• Discussing dreams
• Attention to body language
• Fantasy
STRENGTHS
• There is empirical research to support Gestalt Therapy and its techniques.
• Gestalt Therapy is equal to or greater than other therapies in treating various disorders,
Gestalt Therapy has a beneficial impact with personality disorders, and the effects of
therapy are stable.
• Works with the past by making it relevant to the present.
• Versatile and flexible in its approach to therapy. It has many techniques and may be
applied to different therapeutic issues.
Weaknesses
• For Gestalt Therapy to be effective, the therapist must have a high level of personal
development.
• Effectiveness of the confronting and theatrical techniques of Gestalt Therapy is limited and
has not been well established.
• It has been considered to be a self-centered approach which is concerned with just
individual development.
• Potential danger for therapists to abuse the power they have with clients (Corey, 2005).
• Lacks a strong theoretical base.
• Deals only with the here and now.
• Does not deal with diagnosis and testing

Reality Therapy
What Is Reality Therapy and Choice Theory?
Reality therapy is a form of counseling that views behaviors as choices. It states that psychological
symptoms occur not because of a mental health condition, but due to people choosing behaviors
to fulfill their needs.
A reality therapist’s goal is to help people accept responsibility for these behaviors and choose
more desirable actions that enable them to connect with others.
Dr. William Glasser developed this method in 1965. He used reality therapy in psychiatric
hospitals, prisons, and jails. Glasser has written many books on the subject, and the William
Glasser Institute still teaches his methods today.

Though there hasn’t been much research into the effectiveness of reality therapy, it’s practiced in
many cultures and countries. However, members of the psychiatric community have criticized
reality therapy, as it rejects the concept of mental health conditions.

In this article, we’ll explore the ideas behind reality therapy, along with its techniques, benefits,
and criticisms.

Reality therapy and choice theory

Reality therapy is based on choice theory, which Glasser also created.

Choice theory states that humans have five basic, genetically driven needs called “genetic
instructions.” These are:

• survival
• love and belonging
• power or achievement
• freedom or independence
• fun or enjoyment

In choice theory, these needs don’t exist in any particular order. But it does state that our primary
need is love and belonging, which explains why mental health challenges are often related to
relationships.

The theory also states that we choose our behaviors to satisfy unmet needs. And in order to meet
these needs, our behavior must be determined by internal forces. If our behavior is influenced by
external factors like people or situations, it will result in psychological symptoms.

Core ideas of reality therapy

Reality therapy applies the main principles of choice theory. It aims to help you recognize the
reality of your choices and choose more effective behaviors. The key concepts include:
Behavior

Behavior is a central component of reality therapy. It’s categorized into organized behaviors and
reorganized behaviors.

Organized behaviors are past behaviors that you created to satisfy your needs. The therapist will
help you recognize any ineffective organized behaviors.

After identifying ineffective behaviors, you’ll work on changing them into more effective behaviors
or making completely new ones. These are called reorganized behaviors.

By presenting behaviors as choices, reality therapy can help you better manage your life
experiences and actions, according to advocates of the technique.

Control

The choice theory suggests that a person is only controlled by themselves. It also states that the
idea of being controlled by external factors is ineffective for making change.

This concept emerges in reality therapy, which states that behavioral choices are determined by
internal control. A reality therapist works to increase your awareness of these controllable choices.

Responsibility

In reality therapy, control is closely linked to responsibility. According to Dr. Glasser, when
people make poor choices, they are irresponsibly trying to fulfill their needs.

Based on this notion, reality therapy aims to increase your accountability of your behavior.

Action

According to reality therapy, your actions are part of your overall behavior. It also maintains that
you can manage your actions. Hence, the therapist will focus on modifying actions to change
behavior.
The method involves evaluating your current actions, how well they’re satisfying your needs, and
planning new actions that will meet those needs.

Present moment

Reality therapy states that present behavior and actions aren’t influenced by the past. Instead, it
claims that current behavior is determined by the present unmet needs. It uses a “here and now”
approach to responsibility and action.

Behavioral Counseling

What is behavioral therapy?

Behavioral therapy is an umbrella term for types of therapy that treat mental health disorders.
This form of therapy seeks to identify and help change potentially self-destructive or unhealthy
behaviors. It functions on the idea that all behaviors are learned and that unhealthy behaviors can
be changed. The focus of treatment is often on current problems and how to change them.

Who can benefit from behavioral therapy?

Behavioral therapy can benefit people with a wide range of disorders.

People most commonly seek behavioral therapy to treat:

• depression
• anxiety
• panic disorders
• anger issues

It can also help treat conditions and disorders such as:

• eating disorders
• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• bipolar disorder
 • ADHD
• phobias, including social phobias
• obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
• self-harm
• substance abuse

This type of therapy can benefit adults and children.

Types of behavioral therapy

There are a number of different types of behavioral therapy:

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy is extremely popular. It combines behavioral therapy with cognitive
therapy. Treatment is centered around how someone’s thoughts and beliefs influence their
actions and moods. It often focuses on a person’s current problems and how to solve them. The
long-term goal is to change a person’s thinking and behavioral patterns to healthier ones.

Cognitive behavioral play therapy

Cognitive behavioral play therapy is commonly used with children. By watching children play,
therapists are able to gain insight into what a child is uncomfortable expressing or unable to
express. Children may be able to choose their own toys and play freely. They might be asked to
draw a picture or use toys to create scenes in a sandbox. Therapists may teach parents how to use
play to improve communication with their children.

System desensitization

System desensitization relies heavily on classical conditioning. It’s often used to treat phobias.
People are taught to replace a fear response to a phobia with relaxation responses. A person is
first taught relaxation and breathing techniques. Once mastered, the therapist will slowly expose
them to their fear in heightened doses while they practice these techniques.

Aversion therapy
Aversion therapy is often used to treat problems such as substance abuse and alcoholism. It works
by teaching people to associate a stimulus that’s desirable but unhealthy with an extremely
unpleasant stimulus. The unpleasant stimulus may be something that causes discomfort. For
example, a therapist may teach you to associate alcohol with an unpleasant memory.

Behavioral therapy for children

Applied behavior therapy and play therapy are both used for children. Treatment involves
teaching children different methods of responding to situations more positively.

A central part of this therapy is rewarding positive behavior and punishing negative behavior.
Parents must help to reinforce this in the child’s day-to-day life.

It may take children some time to trust their counselor. This is normal.

They’ll eventually warm up to them if they feel they can express themselves without
consequences.

Children with autism and ADHD often benefit from behavioral therapy.

Rational-Emotive Therapy

What is rational emotive therapy?

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a type of therapy introduced by Albert Ellis in the
1950s. It’s an approach that helps you identify irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that
may lead to emotional or behavioral issues.

Once you’ve identified these patterns, a therapist will help you develop strategies to replace them
with more rational thought patterns.

REBT can be particularly helpful for people living with a variety of issues, including:

• depression
• anxiety
• addictive behaviors
 • phobias
• overwhelming feelings of anger, guilt, or rage
• procrastination
• disordered eating habits
• aggression
• sleep problems

What are the principles of REBT?

REBT is grounded in the idea that people generally want to do well in life. For example, you
probably want to achieve your goals and find happiness. But sometimes, irrational thoughts and
feelings get in the way. These beliefs can influence how you perceive circumstances and events —
usually not for the better.

Imagine you’ve texted someone you’ve been dating for a month. You see they’ve read the
message, but several hours pass with no reply. By the next day, they still haven’t replied. You
might start to think that they’re ignoring you because they don’t want to see you.

You might also tell yourself that you did something wrong when you last saw them, you may then
tell yourself that relationships never work out and that you will be alone for the rest of your life.

Here’s how this example illustrates the core principles — called the ABCs — of REBT:

• A refers to the (a)activating event or situation that triggers a negative reaction or response.
In this example, the A is the lack of reply.
• B refers to the (b) beliefs or irrational thoughts you might have about an event or situation.
The B in the example is the belief that they don’t want to see you anymore or that you’ve
done something wrong and that you will be alone for the rest of your life.
• C refers to the (c) consequences, often the distressing emotions, that result from the
irrational thoughts or beliefs. In this example, that might include feelings of worthlessness
or not being good enough.

In this scenario, REBT would focus on helping you to reframe how you think about why the
person didn’t respond. Maybe they were busy or simply forgot to respond. Or maybe they aren’t
interested in meeting you again; if so, that doesn’t mean there’s something wrong with you or that
you will spend the rest of your life alone.

What techniques are used in REBT?

REBT uses three main types of techniques, which correspond with the ABCs. Each therapist
might use a slightly different combination of techniques depending on both their past clinical
experiences and your symptoms.

Problem-solving techniques

These strategies can help address the activating event (A).

They often include working to develop:

• problem-solving skills
• assertiveness
• social skills
• decision-making skills
• conflict resolution skills

Cognitive restructuring techniques

These strategies help you to change irrational beliefs (B).

They might include:

• logical or rationalizing techniques

• guided imagery and visualization
• reframing, or looking at events in a different way
• humor and irony
• exposure to a feared situation
• disputing irrational thoughts

Coping techniques
Coping techniques can help you better manage the emotional consequences (C) of irrational
thoughts.

These coping techniques may include:

• relaxation
• hypnosis
• meditation

Regardless of the techniques they use, your therapist will also likely give you some work to do on
your own between sessions. This gives you a chance to apply the skills you learn in a session to
your daily lie. For example, they might have you write down how you feel after experiencing
something that usually makes you feel anxious and think about how your response made you feel.

Cognitive Behavior Modification Approach

Cognitive behavior modification is a most commonly used intervention in counseling. It focuses

on identifying dysfunctional self-talk in order to change unwanted behaviors. In other words,
behaviors are viewed as outcomes of our own self verbalizations. Hence by changing our self-talk
we can change our behaviour. Cognitive behaviour modification (CBM) was developed by
merging behaviour therapy with cognitive therapy. It is an intervention that combines cognitive
and behavioral learning principles to shape and encourage desired behaviors. Although behaviour
therapy and cognitive therapy are drawn from different theories, each shares an emphasis on
alleviation of symptoms and a focus on the present in developing a course of treatment. In
cognitive behaviour modification, the client is trained to recognize destructive or harmful thought
patterns or behaviors, then replace them with helpful or constructive thoughts and behaviors. To
be more specific, cognitive behaviour modification refers to theoretical and applied orientations
that share three underlying assumptions: (a) an individual’s behaviour is mediated by cognitive
events; (b) a change in mediating events results in a change in behaviour; and (c) an individual is
an active participant in his learning. In short, the cognitive behavioral approach assumes that
individuals have both the capacity and preference for monitoring and managing their own
behaviour (Heflin & Simpson, 1998). In this unit the different techniques of cognitive behaviour
modification will be described.

Multimodal Counseling
Arnold Lazarus created Multimodal Therapy which is based on the need for customized
treatments depending on the patient. The therapist can use various treatment modals by asking
what is best for the individual. It is the therapist's job to tune into the client's being and then study
various modalities. The person who chooses to use the treatment is known as a nonjudgmental
trainer who focuses on the psychoeducation of the patient by using BASIC ID techniques. The
foundation is social learning and communication theories in which the therapist acknowledges
BASIC ID: affective responses, sensory reactions, images, cognitions, interpersonal relationships
and drugs. These are known as modalities and when they are all addressed the client can be
assessed while the therapist builds a customized treatment plan. It is based on recognizing mental
conditions and how they affect the personal responses and emotions.

Goals of Multimodal Therapy

The goal of Multimodal Therapy is to create customized treatment for each patient depending on
their psychological or behavioral problems. Not all clients will benefit from one therapy structure
because everyone has a different perception of life, others and how they deal with trust or
relationships. When therapists can recognize that each patient has a different way of thinking and
feeling they will be more successful in treating the patient's disorder. At times Multimodal
Therapy may also focus on the physiological conditions that the patient is experiencing through
combined treatments if necessary. The treatment will deliberate why there are different forms of
mental health therapy and why finding the right one for the patient may take some analyzing using
BASIC ID. Assuming that every client is going to benefit from a structured therapy contradicts
the need for mental health assistance. This methodology is accurate in the sense that it is open to
changing and using combined treatments to help an individual overcome a unique conflict.
When is Multimodal Therapy Used?
Multimodal Therapy is used then the health care professional is studying and determining the
type of single treatment or combined treatment the patient needs through BASIC ID factors.
Everyone has a different personality type and varying perception. This is necessary when
diagnosing anyone who is suffering from mental or physiological conditions. Although many
people will have a similar structural profile it doesn't mean that their personalities are similar. The
therapist does not have to submit one ideology but strategies toward varying ideologies through a
method that is called technical eclecticism. Multimodal Therapy is used by these specific
therapists every time that they are diagnosing a patient through the use of the BASIC ID factors.
Instead of committing to one strategy they are using formalities from different methods based on
the patient's personality type and behavior.
How Multimodal Therapy Works
Therapy begins when the patient is tested on their emotional responses, sensory displays and how
they interact with other people through behavior, affect, sensations, images, cognition,
interpersonal and drugs. The therapist will use this framework when introducing the client in the
 first session. They will then create a list of their problems and the treatments that can work on
each of them. Since the treatment can be catered to each strategy the overall method is effective.

After the initial assessments have been completed more detailed ones are often performed
through questionnaires. The therapist will diagnose the structural profile of the client and their
actual profile, which is a depiction of the way that they want to be after treatment has been
completed. The therapist will design the treatment by looking into other methods of therapy
freely. It's common that relaxation tapes are used to help the client calm down. The will also look
into activities outside of psychotherapy such as dieting and practicing a healthy lifestyle in dealing
with stress. The method focuses on the pains of the individual and tailors to their needs by
reading mannerisms and behavior.

Unless the client doesn't agree to it, the therapist will tape the sessions and provide a copy of the
tape to the patient. This is effective when they are studying the client's behavior in case there was
something that they missed during the session. Multimodal Therapy is a flexible approach when
treating a patient because it outlines all possibilities. When the session is treating one individual it
could be very short or last for a few hours, depending on the patient's analysis. If they display a
condition that requires more than one treatment the session may be longer so that the therapist
can study the patient furthermore.

Language Therapy for Children with Behavior Problems

What Is Speech-Language Therapy?

Speech-language therapy is the treatment for most kids with speech and/or language disorders.

What Are Speech Disorders?

A speech disorder refers to a problem with making sounds. Speech disorders include:

• Articulation disorders: These are problems with making sounds in syllables, or saying words
incorrectly to the point that listeners can't understand what's being said.
• Fluency disorders: These include problems such as stuttering, in which the flow of speech is
interrupted by unusual stops, partial-word repetitions ("b-b-boy"), or prolonging sounds and
syllables (sssssnake).
• Resonance or voice disorders: These are problems with the pitch, volume, or quality of the voice
that distract listeners from what's being said. These types of disorders may also cause pain or
discomfort for a child when speaking.

What Are Language Disorders?

 A language disorder refers to a problem understanding or putting words together to communicate
ideas. Language disorders can be either receptive or expressive:

• Receptive disorders are problems with understanding or processing language.

• Expressive disorders are problems with putting words together, having a limited vocabulary, or
being unable to use language in a socially appropriate way.
• Cognitive-communication disorders are problems with communication skills that involve
memory, attention, perception, organization, regulation, and problem solving.

What Are Feeding Disorders?

Dysphagia/oral feeding disorders are disorders in the way someone eats or drinks. They include problems with
chewing and swallowing, coughing, gagging, and refusing foods.

Who Gives Speech-Language Therapy?

Speech-language pathologists (SLPs), often called speech therapists, are educated in the study of
human communication, its development, and its disorders. SLPs assess speech, language,
cognitive-communication, and oral/feeding/swallowing skills. This lets them identify a problem
and the best way to treat it.

SLPs have:

• at least a master's degree

• state certification/licensure in the field
• a certificate of clinical competency from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
(ASHA)
An ASHA-certified SLP has passed a national exam and completed an ASHA-accredited
supervised clinical fellowship.

Sometimes, speech assistants help give speech-language services. They usually have a 2-year
associate's or 4-year bachelor's degree, and are supervised by an SLP.

What Do SLPs Do?

In speech-language therapy, an SLP works with a child one-on-one, in a small group, or in a

classroom to overcome problems.

Therapists use a variety of strategies, including:

• Language intervention activities: The SLP will interact with a child by playing and talking, using
pictures, books, objects, or ongoing events to stimulate language development. The therapist may
model correct vocabulary and grammar, and use repetition exercises to build language skills.
• Articulation therapy: Articulation, or sound production, exercises involve having the therapist
model correct sounds and syllables in words and sentences for a child, often during play activities.
The level of play is age-appropriate and related to the child's specific needs. The SLP will show
the child how to make certain sounds, such as the "r" sound, and may show how to move the
tongue to make specific sounds.
• Oral-motor/feeding and swallowing therapy: The SLP may use a variety of oral exercises —
including facial massage and various tongue, lip, and jaw exercises — to strengthen the muscles of
the mouth for eating, drinking, and swallowing. The SLP may also introduce different food
textures and temperatures to increase a child's oral awareness during eating and swallowing.

Why Do Some Kids Need Speech-Language Therapy?

Kids might need speech-language therapy for many reasons, including:

• hearing impairments
• cognitive (intellectual, thinking) or other developmental delays
• weak oral muscles
• chronic hoarseness
• cleft lip or cleft palate
• autism
• motor planning problems
• articulation problems
• fluency disorders
• respiratory problems (breathing disorders)
• feeding and swallowing disorders
• traumatic brain injury

Therapy should begin as soon as possible. Children who start therapy early (before they're 5 years
old) tend to have better results than those who begin later.

This doesn't mean that older kids won't do well in therapy. Their progress might be slower,
though, because they have learned patterns that need to be changed.

Lesson 11: Functions of Testing in Counseling

Counselors use tests generally for assessment, placement, and guidance, as well as to assist clients
to increase their self-knowledge, practice decision making, and acquire new behaviors. They may
be used in a variety of therapies--e.g., individual, marital, group, and family--and for either
informational or non-informational purposes (Goldman, 1971). Informational uses include the
gathering of data on clients, assessing the level of some trait, such as stress and anxiety, or
measuring clients' personality types. The purpose of non-informational tests is to stimulate further
or more in-depth interaction with the client.

Although the published literature on testing has increased, proper test utilization remains a
problematic area. The issue is not so much whether a counselor uses tests in counseling practice,
but when and to what end will tests be used (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 1984).

TESTING PROCESS

Steps involved in the process of using tests in counseling include the following:
-- Selecting the test.
-- Administering the test.
-- Scoring the test.
-- Interpreting the results.
-- Communicating the results.

Selecting. Having defined the purpose for testing, the counselor looks to a variety of sources for
information on available tests. Resources include review books, journals, test manuals, and
textbooks on testing and measurement (Anastasi, 1988; Cronbach, 1979). The most complete
source of information on a particular test is usually the test manual.

Administering. Test administration is usually standardized by the developers of the test. Manual
instructions need to be followed in order to make a valid comparison of an individual's score with
the test's norm group. Non-standardized tests used in counseling are best given under controlled
circumstances. This allows the counselor's experience with the test to become an internal norm.
Issues of individual versus group administration need consideration as well. The clients and the
purpose for which they are being tested will contribute to decisions about group testing.

Scoring. Scoring of tests follows the instructions provided in the test manual. The counselor is
sometimes given the option of having the test machine scored rather than hand scored. Both the
positive and negative aspects of this choice need to be considered. It is usually believed that test
scoring is best handled by a machine because it is free from bias.

Interpreting. The interpretation of test results is usually the area which allows for the greatest
flexibility within the testing process. Depending upon the counselor's theoretical point of view and
the extent of the test manual guidelines, interpretation may be brief and superficial, or detailed
and explicitly theory based (Tinsley & Bradley, 1986). Because this area allows for the greatest
flexibility, it is also the area with the greatest danger of misuse. Whereas scoring is best done by a
bias-free machine, interpretation by machine is often too rigid. What is needed is the experience
of a skilled test user to individualize the interpretation of results.
Communicating. Feedback of test results to the client completes the formal process of testing.
Here, the therapeutic skills of counselors come fully into play (Phelps, 1974). The counselor uses
verbal and nonverbal interaction skills to convey messages to clients and to assess their
understanding of it.

ISSUES IN TESTING

Confidentiality. The ethical and legal restrictions on what may be disclosed from counseling apply
to the use of tests as much as to other private information shared between client and counselor.
The trust issue, which is inherent in confidentiality, is relevant to every aspect of testing. No
information can be shared outside the relationship without the full consent of the client.
Information is provided to someone outside the relationship only after the specifics to be used
from the testing are fully disclosed to the client. These specifics include the when, what, and to
whom of the disclosure. The purpose of disclosure is also shared with the client and what the
information will be used for is clearly spelled out.

Issues of confidentiality are best discussed with the client before conducting any test
administration. There should be no surprises when the counselor asks, at a later time, for
permission to share test results. Clients who are fully informed, before testing takes place, about
the issue of confidentiality in relation to testing are more active participants in the counseling
process.

Counselor Preparation. Tests are only as good as their construction, proper usage and the
preparation of the counselor intending to use them. The skills and competencies counselors need
for using tests in practice are to:

-- Understand clearly the intended purpose of a test.

-- Be aware of the client's needs regarding the test to be given.

-- Have knowledge about the test, its validity, reliability, and the norm group for which it was
developed.

-- Have personally taken the test before administering it.

-- Have been supervised in administering, scoring, interpreting, and communicating results of the
tests to be given.

Supervision in the practice of providing testing services ideally encompasses all of the above areas
of concern. This supervision needs to be conducted by a knowledgeable practitioner with
experience in using tests in clinical practice.

Client Involvement in the Testing Process. Throughout the process of using tests in counseling,
questions about the client's involvement need to be considered. Will the client have a full and
equal partnership with the counselor in deciding on the purpose for which the testing will be
done? Will the client have a say in selecting the specific test to be administered? Will the client's
opinion have a bearing on the interpretation of the test results?

Counseling has developed in recent years into a humanistic partnership in problem solving and
growth. Consistent with this development is the client's participation in decisions regarding all
aspects of the counseling relationship. Testing needs to be included here. The counselor uses
developed counseling skills to determine client readiness for participation in decision making.
Counseling skills will also help determine the client's ability to receive and comprehend results
from the testing. In this regard, clients need to realize that tests are no more than instruments for
furnishing information about themselves, as well as a guide for the counseling process and future
decision making.

The issues of client involvement in the testing process are not clear-cut. Individual assessment of
client readiness needs to precede test usage. The personal counseling skills of the practitioner are
essential to the entire process.

Computerized Testing. Many of the major tests are now available in a computerized format. This
format allows the administration and scoring of the test to occur almost simultaneously. Despite
the access to computers in testing, clients continue to need a counselor ready to assist in
answering questions that may arise. Counselors need to keep in mind that most tests were not
normed using a computer format and that this may affect comparisons of individual scores to the
available norms.

CONCLUSION

Confidentiality, counselor preparation, computer testing, and client involvement are all issues
within the ethical realm. Ultimately, test use by counselors must be seen as an adjunct to the
entire counseling process. Test results provide descriptive and objective data which help the
counselor to assist clients better in making the choices that will affect their lives. In order to make
the best use of available tests in a counseling relationship, the process of testing and the issues
which surround the process must be examined.

Lesson 12: Ethical Considerations in Counseling

Most of us live by a certain set of values that guide our behavior and mark the difference between
right and wrong. These values almost certainly influence how you approach your work as a
counselor.
Following these values might feel natural and even intuitive, and it might feel as though they don’t
warrant closer examination. However, when practicing counseling or psychotherapy, working
without a defined counseling code of ethics is a bit like sailing a ship without using a compass.
You might trust your intuitive sense of direction, but more often than not, you’ll end up miles off
course.

Fortunately, there are a variety of professional organizations that have published frameworks to
help counselors navigate the challenging and disorienting landscape of ethics.

Members of these organizations are often recommended or required to adhere to a framework,

so if you belong to one of them and you’re not familiar with their respective code of ethics, this
should be your first port of call. However, these ethical frameworks are also often available online
for anyone to read, and so you don’t need to join an organization to adhere to its principles.

Each organization takes a slightly different approach to their code of ethics, so you may find it
useful to view several to find one that resonates best with your practice. As an example, the British
Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy (2018) has a framework that emphasizes aspiring
to a variety of different values and personal moral qualities.

Those values include protecting clients, improving the wellbeing and relationships of others,
appreciating the diversity of perspectives, and honoring personal integrity. Personal moral
qualities include courage, empathy, humility, and respect.

These values and qualities are not meant to be strict criteria, and there is no wholly objective way
to interpret them. For example, two counselors might display the same legitimate values and
qualities while arriving at different conclusions to an ethical problem. Instead, they reflect a
general approach to how a counselor should think about ethics.

Nevertheless, this approach to ethics may be overly prescriptive for you, in which case a looser
and more general framework may be better suited to the nature of your practice. Most
professional organizations recognize this, and there is a set of foundational principles that feature
widely across different frameworks and refine the collection of different values and qualities
described above into simpler terms.

These principles are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, fidelity, justice, veracity, and self-
respect (American Counseling Association, 2014; British Association for Counselling and
Psychotherapy, 2018). They are largely consistent across frameworks aside from some minor
variations.

• Autonomy is the respect for a client’s free will.

• Beneficence and non-maleficence are the commitment to improve a client’s wellbeing and
avoid harming them, respectively.
• Fidelity is honoring professional commitments.
• Veracity is a commitment to the truth.
• Justice is a professional commitment to fair and egalitarian treatment of clients.
• Self-respect is fostering a sense that the counselor is also entitled to self-care and respect.
Putting these principles into practice doesn’t require a detailed framework. Instead, as the British
Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2018) recommends, you can simply ask yourself,
“Is this decision supported by these principles without contradiction?” If so, the decision is
ethically sound. If not, there may be a potential ethical issue that warrants closer examination.

Regardless of whether you navigate using values, qualities, or principles, it’s important to be
prepared for how they might be challenged in practice. As explained above, these are not
intended to be strict criteria, and it’s good to foster a healthy amount of flexibility and intuition
when applying your ethical framework to real-life situations.
Course Title:
MANAGEMENT OF PRESCHOOL (Module 3)

Course Outline:

1. Management: Art and Science of Organizing

2. Educator Professionalism

3. Planning and Budgeting

4. Human Resources /Staffing

5. Controlling Conflict and Stress Management

6. Quality Assurance and Sustainability

7. E-learning Trends and Challenges

Lesson 1: Management: Art and Science of Organizing

Management: Art & Science of Organization

MANAGEMENT as a process “consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and

controlling, performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and

resources. “

Firstly, it considers management as a “process” i.e. a systematic way of doing things.

Secondly it states four management activities: Planning, organizing, actuating, and

controlling.

Planning is thinking of an action in advance.

Organizing is coordination of the human and material resources of an organization.

Actuating is motivation and direction of subordinates.

Controlling means the attempt to ensure no deviation from the norm or plan.

Thirdly it states that manager uses people and other resources.

For example, a manager who wants to increase the sales, might try not only to increase the

sales force, but also to increase advertising budget.

And fourthly, it states that management involves the act of achieving the organization' s

objectives.

MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS

*Traditional View Point

• art of getting things done by others

• process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling activities of others
• mobilizing and utilizing physical & human resources for organizational goals
* Modern View Point

• prime mover of organization making it functional and productive

• process of creating conductive and proper internal environment in the organization.
• process of coping with changing external environment achieving by relating strength
and weakness of organization with it.

Management: Art or Science?

Management involves characteristics of both art and science. While certain aspects of

management make it a science, certain others which involve application of skills make it an

art. Every discipline of art is always backed by science which is basic knowledge of that art.

Similarly, every discipline of science is complete only when it is used in practice for solving

various kind of problems. Whereas under “science” one normally learns the “why” of a

phenomenon, under “art” one learns the “how” of it. In the words of Robert H. Hilkert: “In the

area of management, science and art are the sides of the same coin”

In the beginning of development of management knowledge, it was considered as an

art. There was a jungle of management knowledge. Any one used it to get things done in

his own way. But later by codifying and systemizing the management, it became a science

as well as being an art.

Management as an Art

Management as an art has the following characteristics:

Just like other arts it has practical application. The knowledge of management should

be learned and practiced by managers, just as medical or legal practitioners practice their

respective sciences. In this sense, management is an art.

The manager gains experience by continuous application of management

knowledge. This experience helps them to develop more skills and abilities for translating

management knowledge into practice.

Application of management knowledge calls for innovativeness and creativity.

The fourth reason to consider management as an art is that in many

situations, theoretical knowledge of management may not be adequate or relevant for

solving the problem. It may be because of complexity or unique nature of the problem.

Management as a Science

Management as a science has the following characteristics:

Its principles, generalizations and concepts are systematically. In this case the

manager can manage the situation or organization in a systematic and scientific manner.

Its principles, generalizations and concepts are formulated on the basis

of observation, research, analysis and experimentation, as is the case with the principles of

other sciences.

Management as a science has the following characteristics:

Like other sciences, management principles are also based on relationship of cause

and effect. It states that same cause under similar circumstance will produce same effect.

Suppose if workers are paid more (cause), the produce more (effect).

Management principles are codified and systematic, and can be transferred from one

to another and can be taught.

Management principles are universally applicable to all types of organizations.

Management: A profession?

The following criteria identifies the statues of a profession to management:

Profession is a body of specialized knowledge.

Professional knowledge in systemized and codified form can be learned through

formal education system.

A profession emphasizes on having a central body to formulate a code of

behavior for its members.

A profession calls for rendering competent and specialized services to clients.

A profession maintains the scientific attitude and commitment for discovering new

ideas and upgrading in order to improve quality of service and level of efficiency provided to

clients.

A profession requires members to exercise restraint and self-discipline.

Management knowledge meets the first two criteria because it has grown into a

systematic body of knowledge and also it can be acquired and learned through the formal

education.

There is no minimum qualification prescribed either for getting entry in the

management profession or for becoming members of it. In practice, whosoever manages in

known as manager, irrespective of qualifications. Peter Drucker in support of this view says

that “no greater damage could be done to our economy or to our society than to attempt to

professionalize management by licensing managers, for instance, or by limiting access to

management to people with a special academic degree. “

Regarding professional approach, a manager has to continuously strive

for discovering new ideas, relationships and concepts and act in a dynamic and innovative

manner to cope with the changing environment. Even so, managers are not respected as

other professionals like doctors, advocates and chartered accountants.

Management and Administration

There has been a controversy regarding the interpretation of these two terms. There are

different views in this regard:

According to first view (William Newman, Peter Drucker, etc.), there is no basic
difference between the two terms, and they are interchangeable. If there is any difference, it

may perhaps be in their usage in practice. The term administration is used for non-business

activities, and management is used for business activities.

According to second view (Kimball, Brech, other British writers, etc), management is

a more comprehensive term which includes administration. Management involves “thinking”

and administration involves “doing”. Management is responsible for planning and

organizing, and administration is responsible for directing and controlling. Whereas

management refers to a high level of managerial activities such as goal-setting, policy

formulation and strategy making, administration refers to an operative part concerned with

lower level management activities such as execution of policies.

According to third view (Sheldon, Speriegal, Milward, etc), administration is a more

comprehensive term which includes management. Administration involves “thinking” and

management involves “doing”. Administration is a top-level function which concentrates on

determination of plans, policies and objectives, whereas management is a lower level

function which deals with the execution and direction of policies and operations. It does

mean that we need two separate sets of personnel, but each manager performs both the

managerial as well as administrative functions. At top level more, time is spent in

administrative activity and as one moves down, more time are spent in management activity.

Skills of a Manager

The basic skills needed are:

Calmness

Maturity

Friendliness

Tolerance (Acceptance, Patience)

Appreciable (Considerable, Significant)

Tolerable (Acceptable, Supportable)

Adorable

Frank (Honest, Open)

Determined (Strong minded)

Neutral towards means & end etc.

Lesson 1: Educator Professionalism

Educator Professionalism

As a teacher, you play a critical role in helping young people achieve success in the classroom.
A professional demeanor shows you take your responsibilities seriously. Failing to act
professionally sets a bad example and may cause you to lose the trust and respect of students.
Demonstrate professionalism in all aspects of your career to provide your pupils with the best
education possible.

Neat Appearance

A teacher's appearance plays a role in conveying professionalism. A male teacher should wear
dress pants and a polo shirt or button-down shirt, adding a tie or jacket for special occasions.
Female teachers should wear appropriate clothing for the classroom, avoiding short skirts and
revealing tops. Many schools do not allow teachers to display facial piercings, tattoos and
brightly colored hair at work. In addition, teachers should refrain from drinking alcohol or
smoking in the presence of students, and avoid using foul language or acting inappropriately
with colleagues in view or earshot of students.

Positive Interaction with Students

When it comes to interacting with students, teachers must understand there is a fine line
between being a caring adult and being a friend. Professional teachers do not let their desire to
be liked by students get in the way of enforcing classroom and school rules. They do not show
favoritism or discriminate against students. A Dedicated teacher believe all students have the
ability to learn and succeed. Lesson plans and materials are thoughtfully choosing to help make
that happen.

Productive Interaction with Colleagues

Professional teachers strive to interact effectively with one another. Teachers in the same
department may collaborate to share teaching strategies, analyze data and discuss curriculum
issues. Those who teach the same students meet regularly to discuss ways to improve student
performance and make connections between subjects. Strategies are developed to resolve
specific behavior problems. Teachers focused on professionalism are also concerned with the
school community and how they can work with their colleagues to create an environment that
maximizes learning and bolsters achievement. Professional educators do not gossip or
inappropriately share confidential information.

Ongoing Professional Training

Many states require teachers to participate in ongoing professional development programs to

maintain their certification. Teachers committed to professionalism enthusiastically participate
in training to stay abreast of advances in technology and emerging trends in education. They
seek information on best practices and teaching strategies for all types of learners. Other
interests include reading books, magazines and blogs about educational leadership. Some
teachers conduct research to continually improve their teaching methods and support the
performance of their students. Additionally, many attend education conferences and belong to
professional organizations to connect with others in the field.

• Professional educators are value-driven, guided by principles, passion, and a purpose

bigger than themselves.
• Professional educators are need analysts – competent to diagnose and prescribe options for
educational success and significance.
• Professional educators believe their work is a vocation and calling rather than an
occupation where one merely occupies space.
• Professional educators recognize that change is the norm. They are growth-oriented and
consider themselves life-long learners and contributors.
• Professional educators are climate creators, recognizing that the conditions that surround
learning contribute to learning.
• Professional educators are catalysts in promoting calculated risks that advance their
profession and enable everyone access to success.
• Professional educators promote cohesiveness, collaboration, and team-building. They
promote a “we are better together” philosophy.
• Professional educators create a climate of ownership by ensuring that everyone involved in
the educational process is invited to participate.
• Professional educators are accountable to their clients, community, parents and students,
providing a quality educational program for all children.
 • Professional educators belong to an organization that promotes their profession above
personal gain.

Lesson 3: Planning and Budgeting

Planning and Budgeting

“Planning is bringing the future into the present so that you can do something about it now”

-Alan Lakein

What is planning?

The process of setting goals, developing strategies, and outlining tasks and schedules to
accomplish the goals. Strategic planning is the process of identifying a school organization's long-
term goals and objectives and then determining the best approach for achieving those goals and
objectives.

WHY PLANNING?

▪ Ensure effective utilization of the common asset-Time

▪ Predict problems and prepare solutions

▪ Achievement of goals

▪ Accomplishment of shared vision

Phase 1: Planning & Design Team

Phase 2: Data/Information Gathering

Phase 3: Design and Implementation Stage

Data/Information Gathering

The goal during this phase is to gather key data/information that will be necessary to design your
program/system

Design and Implementation Stage

After you have collected data, you are ready to start designing your system. Since the end goal is
creating a coherent, comprehensive system for all children in your community, you need to
consider how children and families will experience this system each step of the way.

1. Meet with Design Team.

2. Start by working on creating a program that you think will best meet the needs and wants of
children and families in your community. Again, while working these out on paper, you
want to ensure alignment among your program and needs at various.

3. After you have created your ideal program/system, you will need to cost it out by using the
Budget.

4. After you have itemized costs, conduct a cost-benefit analysis of each element. Returning to
your data gathering will help you determine what to prioritize. For example, if access is an
 obstacle in your community, transportation may be a priority. If space is an obstacle, you
may determine that you need to target your programming to children with higher needs.

Budgeting

Lesson 4: Human Resources /Staffing

Human Resources /Staffing

Staffing is defined as filling and keeping filled, positions in the organization.

Human resource management in education is very important and toy with it would result in
jeopardy. This is because education personnel are the major instrument for achieving educational
goals and consequently, national development. Human resources are the key to rapid socio-
economic development and efficient service delivery. That’s why this paper stressed that without
an adequate, skilled and well-motivated workforce operating within a sound human resource
management programme, development is not possible. Every educational system at every level
depends heavily on the human resources for execution of its programme. The function of human
resource management in education includes staff maintenance, staff relations, staff development,
procurement of staff and job performance reward. The challenges of human resource
management include poor working condition, problem of staffing, funding, incessant transfer of
teacher among others. To address the identified challenges, the following recommendations were
made. Education should be made attractive by creating a conducive atmosphere for teachers.
More government attention is needed for education sector through improved function as
education remains the basis for the progress of all other sectors of the society. A united salary
structure should be made for all categories of teachers within the education sectors. The paper
equally recommended that standard of education in Nigeria should be up dated to meet the rapid
social changes in our present Nigeria society.

Human Resource Management (HRM, or simply HR) in resource management is a function

designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employer's strategic objectives. HR
is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations, focusing on policies
and on systems. Human Resource Management (HRM)

Human Resource Management also concerns itself with industrial relations, the balancing of
organizational practices with requirements arising from; Human Resource Management (HRM)

School Human Resource Management (SHRM) SHRM are strategies of allocating and
maximizing the utilization of available human resource (human skills) in the most effective
manner among various tasks to achieve School goals and. School Human Resource Management
(SHRM)

School Human Resource Management are activities that are necessary in the maintenance of the
school workforce to achieve its goals are: School Human Resource Management(SHRM)

 Administering Teachers’ & Staffs’ work-life needs.

 Identification of staffing requirements,

 Education & Professional Development,

 Performance appraisal,

 Planning and oversight of payroll & benefit

Lesson 5: Controlling Conflict and Stress Management

Controlling Conflict and Stress Management

Stress is defined as an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical,

psychological and/or behavioral deviations for organizational participants. Stress is the body’s
general response to environmental situations. Stress is not necessarily damaging, bad or to be
avoided.

Conflict: A battle, contest of opposing forces, discord, antagonism existing between primitive
desires and instincts and moral, religious, or ethical ideals. Conflict occurs when two or more
people oppose one another because their needs, wants, goals, or values are different. Conflict is
almost always accompanied by feelings of anger, frustration, hurt, anxiety, or fear.

Traditional View Current View

1) Conflict is avoidable.

2)Conflict is inevitable.

3)Conflict is caused by management

4)Conflict arises from many causes, error including org, structure, In designing organization or by
unavoidable differences in goals, in trouble makers. perceptions & values of specialized personnel
& so on. 3)Conflict disturbs the organization

5)Conflict contributes & detracts & prevents optimal performance. from org. performance in
varying degrees.

6)The task of the management is to

7)The task of the management is to eliminate conflict. manage the level of conflict & its resolution
for optimal org. performance.

8)Optimal org. performance requires

9)Optimal organizational the removal of conflict. performance requires a moderate level of

conflict.
Intrapersonal Conflict

It refers to conflict with in an individual. The reason for intrapersonal conflict

• Frustration
• Numerous roles which demand equal attention but is not possible to devote.
• Goals having both negative & positive aspect
•   Cognitive dissonances. {concerning perception, language, reasoning, and emotion, is
represented and transformed in the brain.}

Interpersonal conflict occurs between two individuals.

The reason for interpersonal conflict
• Disagreements over ideas, interests, events
• Physical and verbal aggression.
  At its most basic, conflict involves a disagreement among parties. In a company, conflict can
occur between individuals or among groups.

Constructive conflict is not identified on the loudness or intensity of people’s voices when
arguing or on the glaring look of people’s faces.   The outcome of constructive conflict is
productive.

Conflict is inevitable, yet it can be controlled and minimized. How an individual or a group
responds to conflict and the behavior towards the situation determines the negative or positive
outcome of the disagreement. If conflict is mishandled or not properly managed by the parties
involved, then an unproductive and unlikely result will be generated.

Conflict management is the practice of identifying and handling conflict in a sensible, fair, and
efficient manner. Conflict management requires such skills as effective communicating, problem
solving, and negotiating with a focus on interests.
Lesson 6: Quality Assurance and Sustainability

Quality Assurance and Sustainability

For every organization to be successful it is essential that user’s requirement is fully met. inspire is
committed in providing the best services possible and needs to be able to demonstrate that it
provides quality services and manage the organization efficiently and effectively.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

• Involves the systematic review of educational provision to maintain and improve its quality,
equity, efficiency.

• it encompasses school self-evaluation, external evaluation (including inspection the

evaluation of teachers and school leaders and student’s assessment.

PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF QUALITY

ASSURANCE

▪ Bring internal benefits to the university, faculty, department school program and the staff.

▪ Bring external benefits to the students and reputation of institution.

▪ Continuously improve themselves, the students and the work of the university continuous
improvement is both medium and outcome of Quality assurance.

▪ Serve accountability and accreditation requirement

▪ Enhance the reputation of faculty/department/school/ university

Sustainability

Sustainability addresses the ongoing capacity of Earth to maintain all life.

Take a whole- institution approach!

Sustainability education is not only about integrating sustainability into the curriculum. it demands
that educational institutions take a holistic approach tore think the curriculum, governance,
campus operations and community engagement.

REORIENT THE CURRICULUM TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY EDUCATION

Organize a conference or workshop to share your findings and engage teachers in a discussion.

Find teachers, professors or faculty deans who want to work with you to reorient their curriculum
towards sustainability.

EMBED SUSTAINABILITY INTO THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE,

POLICY, AND STRUCTURE

Convene a working group to further education for sustainable development.

Develop a clear action with clear projects, responsibilities and a budget to realize innovative
educational initiatives.

TAKE CAMPUS OPERATIONS AS A LIVING LABORATORY FOR LEARNERS TO

LEARN ABOUT SUSTAINABILITY

Realize sustainability projects on campus and have students

study their implementation and impacts as part of course work.

HELP THE LOCAL COMMUNITY TO BE MORE SUSTAINABLE

Empower students to run workshops on sustainability topics for children in school or

kindergarten.
Lesson 7: E-learning Trends and Challenges

E-learning Trends and Challenges

E – learning is defined as acquisition of knowledge and skill using electronic technologies such as
computer and Internet-based courseware and local and wide area networks. Broad definition of
the field of using technology to deliver learning and training programs. Typically used to describe
media such as CD-ROM, Internet, Intranet, wireless and mobile learning. Some include
Knowledge Management as a form of e-learning. The term was introduced in 1995 when it was all
called "Internet based Training"(IBT), then "Web-based Training"(WBT) to clarify that delivery
could be on the Inter- or Intra-net, then "Online Learning" and finally e-learning, adopting the in
vogue use of "e" during the dot com boom. The "e- " breakthrough enabled the industry to raise
hundreds of millions from venture capitalists who would invest in any industry that started with
this magic letter. E-learning is the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and
knowledge. eLearning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the
Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced
or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and
audio. It is commonly thought that new technologies can make a big difference in education. In
young ages especially, children can use the huge interactivity of new media, and develop their
skills, knowledge, perception of the world, under their parents' monitoring, of course. Many
proponents of e-learning believe that everyone must be equipped with basic knowledge in
technology, as well as use it as a medium to reach a particular goal.

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO E- LEARNING

There are fundamentally two approaches to e-learning: Synchronous training and Asynchronous
training. Synchronous Method Synchronous, means "at the same time," involves interaction of
participants with an instructor via the Web in real time. Asynchronous, which means "not at the
same time," allows the participant to complete the WBT at his own pace, without live interaction
with the instructor.

• Virtual Classroom: Virtual classroom duplicates the features of a real classroom online.
Participants interact with each other and instructors online, instant messaging, chat, audio and
video conferencing etc.

• Blended Method: Most companies prefer to use a mix of both synchronous and asynchronous
e-learning methods according to their requirement. It is an amalgamation of synchronous and
asynchronous learning methods. Asynchronous Methods
• Embedded Learning: Embedded learning is information that is accessible on a self-help basis,
24/7. It can be delivered to the place of work, or to mobile learners. Electronic performance
support system (EPSS) is a type of embedded learning. The advantage is that embedded learning
offers learners the information they need whenever they need it.

Of course, a dial-up system of interconnect can be a challenge, and faculty need to determine
options that can be readily received by these users. Technology enabled learning is evolved
through a combination of hardware, software, media delivery system and communication systems
including networking. Desktop, laptop or notepad, palmtop or hand-held computers, electronic
blackboard, electronic writing pads, mouse, trackball, joystick, light pens touch screen, optical
mark / character recognition, bar code reader, digitizing tablet or digitizers and a cursor (puck) or
a pen (stylus), speech or voice input device, printers, scanners, copiers and faxes are some of the
hardware devices. Software‘s includes voice recognition, hand writing recognition, information
management programs, learning packages in removable disks and in hard disks, data base
management and data processing software‘s, information banks (dictionaries, encyclopedias,
almanac, references), digital books, educative games, programmers and languages, skill Training,
self-learning packages, edutainment (education and entertaining) software's, presentations, word
processors, spreadsheets, designers, audio and video animating and editing software.

Delivery systems includes audio and video conferencing aids, dishes and antennas for satellite
communication, web cameras digital video and still cameras, cell phones, speaker phones,
telecommunication linkages, modem, server, LCD and/or D.L.P. Projectors. Some
communication services include, telegraph, dialog (telephony, video telephony, telemetry, teletext,
telex, videotext, facsimile, video surveillance, Electronic Meeting Systems (audio, video,
groupware, teleconferencing.), Retrieval (videotext, broad band), Messaging (voicemail, video
mail, electronic mail), etc. Communication technologies are generally categorized as
asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as electronic mail,
blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. Synchronous activities occur in an online chat session or a
virtual classroom or meeting.

So, we can conclude that the two popular tools for E-learning are Blackboard Inc. and Moodle:

Blackboard Inc. has over 20 million users daily. Offering six different platforms: Blackboard
Learn, Blackboard Collaborate, Blackboard Mobile, Blackboard Connect, Blackboard Transact,
and Blackboard Analytics; Blackboard's tools allow educators to decide whether their program
will be blended or fully online, asynchronous or synchronous. Blackboard can be used for K-12
education, Higher Education, Business, and Government collaboration.

Moodle is an Open Source Course Management System. It is free to download and provides
blended learning opportunities as well as platforms for distance learning courses. The Moodle
website has many tutorials for creating a program or becoming a Moodle student.
Computer-Based Learning (CBL) Computer-based learning (CBL) is the use of computers as a
key component of the educational environment. While this can include the use of computers in a
classroom, the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are
used for teaching purposes.

Computer-Based Training

Computer-based trainings (CBTs) are self-paced learning activities accessible via a computer or
handheld device. CBTs typically present content in a linear fashion, much like reading an online
book or manual. For this reason, they are often used to teach static processes, such as using
software or completing mathematical equations. The term Computer Based Training is often
used interchangeably with Web-based training (WBT) with the primary difference being the
delivery method. Where CBTs are typically delivered via CD-ROM, WBTs are delivered via the
Internet using a web browser. Assessing learning in a CBT usually comes in form of multiple-
choice questions, or other assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as drag-and-
drop, radio button, simulation or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and
recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status.
Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates. CBTs provide
learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom
based instruction. For example, CBTs offer user-friendly solutions for satisfying continuing
education requirements. Instead of limiting students to attending courses or reading printed
manuals, students are able to acquire knowledge and skills through methods that are much more
conducive to individual learning preferences. For example, CBTs offer visual learning benefits
through animation or video, not typically offered by any other means.

Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is one of the most promising innovations to

improve teaching and learning with the help of modern information and communication
technology. Most recent developments in CSCL have been called E-Learning 2.0, but the concept
of collaborative or group learning whereby instructional methods are designed to encourage or
require students to work together on learning tasks has existed much longer. It is widely agreed to
distinguish collaborative learning from the traditional 'direct transfer' model in which the
instructor is assumed to be the distributor of knowledge and skills, which is often given the
neologism E-Learning 1.0, even though this direct transfer method most accurately reflects
Computer-Based Learning systems (CBL).

Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) Technology enhanced learning (TEL) has the goal to
provide socio-technical innovations (also improving efficiency and cost effectiveness) for e-
learning practices, regarding individuals and organizations, independent of time, place and pace.
The field of TEL therefore applies to the support of any learning activity through technology.
SCOPE OF E-LEARNING

E-learning can be examined at two levels. The first one is education and another one is training.
For education can be used at both elementary and higher levels. In training it can be used by
companies to train and upgrade their employees. e-learning permits the delivery of knowledge
and information to learners at an accelerated pace, opening up new vistas of knowledge transfer.
Early adopters are companies that have tried to supplement face-to-face meetings,
demonstrations, training classes and lectures with this technology. ―The adoption of e-learning in
all spheres like corporates, schools, universities, etc. is low at present. The Indian market is not
substantial when compared to the international market. eLearning in India has been most
successful in the corporate segment where it is seen as a means of achieving business goals and
motivating employees. A lot of work has to be done to make e-learning successful for education,
both formal and informal and to cultivate faith of people in online degrees in India apart from the
ones given by renowned institutions like IITs. If e-learning reaches the remote and rural parts of
India, it would be much faster to educate people. One major problem faced by India is that
almost all highly skilled professionals are based in bigger cities that deprive the rural population
from getting educated through them. E-learning simplifies this process by taking the knowledge to
masses provided that there’s internet connectivity available at some nearby area. Even in the area
of higher education, the supply and demand are not balanced. Looking at the population, the
available universities are not enough to accommodate all the people seeking education. At this
point distance education comes in and has already been quite popular. E-learning can play a
major role even here.

PROS AND CONS OF E-LEARNING

Advantages of E-Learning

There are a number of advantages of e-learning. First, we are using state of-the-art technology and
instructional strategies. Cultures can be shared through e-learning. Disabilities can be
accommodated, with or without the knowledge of other participants. Gender may not be an issue,
because in many situations, gender is unknown—or it can be. Because of global access, the
classroom may be the world. Nothing can replace traditional classroom teaching, but e-learning
complements the process and can help reach out to the masses [11]. The biggest advantage of e-
learning lies in its ability to cover distances. For an organization that is spread across multiple
locations, traditional training becomes a constraint. All trainees need to come to a classroom to
get trained. Additionally, the trainee ‘s learning pace is not addressed as all trainees are treated as
having equal abilities and there is little flexibility in terms of timing and completion of the course.
The major advantage is the consistency that eLearning provides. e-learning is self-paced, and
learning is done at the learner ‘s pace. The content can be repeated until it is understood by the
trainee. It can be made compelling and interesting with multimedia, and the trainee can be given
multiple learning paths depending on his or her needs.
Disadvantages of E-Learning

Just as a glass may be half full, it may also be half empty. Which means that, there are also
disadvantages to eLearning. Class members with disabilities may be functioning at a disadvantage
for a number of reasons. Some participants may be technologically challenged and are hesitant to
participate in full. Online discussions may inhibit class members, or they may encourage banter.
One of the common disadvantages to e-learning is that some students, especially those for whom
English is not their native language, have difficulty communicating and being understood.
Another group of students may experience computer or technology anxiety, which may in turn
impact their learning and their final grades.

CHALLENGES IN E -LEARNING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Majority of population staying in rural areas and making them aware about the concept of e-
learning is a major challenge. Lack of infrastructure in terms of connectivity, availability of
Internet, etc. is another issue. The government is taking various measures to improve the
communication systems and new technologies like 3G in the telecom space have already started
to be implemented to make things better.

Social Implications of E-Learning are another segment of study that is very important to be
understood for the success of e-learning in India. The social implications of e-learning may be
categorized into the following types of issues: cultural, gender, lifestyle, geographical,
religious/spiritual, literacy, disabilities, and digital divide [9]. Within the cultural issues category
are content, multimedia, writing styles, writing structures, Web design, and participant roles.
Some content, although crucial to the course, may be either unacceptable or unfavorable with
certain members of the class. If faculties are aware of a sensitive component of the discussion or
material covered, how can that faculty member lead the class to include or exclude the materials?
Even writing styles can impact the process of holding an online course. The students and
instructor need to know the ―rules of the road‖ of written assignments. And, what participant
roles are expected and/or tolerated; and, if the expectations are not met, who is responsible for
keeping discussions and homework on track? Gender issues continue to be a part of class, even
though people are separated by miles and even continents. Possibly it is the instructor ‘s
responsibility to monitor facilitation and rotate leadership roles in groups to assure gender
neutralization. Any behavior issues must be addressed and corrected immediately. Lifestyle
differences take on any number of forms, and the instructor will need to be on guard to assure
equal treatment of class members, regardless of their respective lifestyles and preferences. In
some situations, the students themselves will take on this monitoring role, while in other situations
the instructor must step in. The different strokes for different folks’ adage must be maintained,
preferably with a minimum of disruption to the entire class. Geographical issues and differences
make be very apparent, especially when we are looking at a global perspective. For example, if a
chat room activity is to take place, all impacted time zones need to be accommodated.
Social Implications of E-Learning are another segment of study that is very important to be
understood for the success of e-learning in India. The social implications of e-learning may be
categorized into the following types of issues: cultural, gender, lifestyle, geographical,
religious/spiritual, literacy, disabilities, and digital divide. Within the cultural issue’s category are
content, multimedia, writing styles, writing structures, Web design, and participant roles. Some
content, although crucial to the course, may be either unacceptable or unfavorable with certain
members of the class. If faculties are aware of a sensitive component of the discussion or material
covered, how can that faculty member lead the class to include or exclude the materials? Even
writing styles can impact the process of holding an online course. The students and instructor
need to know the ―rules of the road‖ of written assignments. And, what participant roles are
expected and/or tolerated; and, if the expectations are not met, who is responsible for keeping
discussions and homework on track? Gender issues continue to be a part of class, even though
people are separated by miles and even continents. Possibly it is the instructor ‘s responsibility to
monitor facilitation and rotate leadership roles in groups to assure gender neutralization. Any
behavior issues must be addressed and corrected immediately. Lifestyle differences take on any
number of forms, and the instructor will need to be on guard to assure equal treatment of class
members, regardless of their respective lifestyles and preferences. In some situations, the students
themselves will take on this monitoring role, while in other situations the instructor must step in.
The different strokes for different folks’ adage must be maintained, preferably with a minimum of
disruption to the entire class. Geographical issues and differences make be very apparent,
especially when we are looking at a global perspective. For example, if a chat room activity is to
take place, all impacted time zones need to be accommodated.