Final - RRB - 5 - Geography and Environment

NOTE FOR STUDENTS
REVISION TIME 
With respect to the scheduled Civil Services (Preliminary) Examination, 2023, which is to be
conducted on 28th May, 2023, the time is ripe for targeted revision.
In this regard, students usually search for a comprehensive and complete revision material
addressing their needs in the final preparation of the examination. With time on your side, embark this
journey through Rapid Revision Books.
Rapid Revision books are the series of eight booklets covering the most important scoring portions of
the General Studies (Preliminary) examination to provide confidence boosting edge in the final
preparation.
These books are made available through sincere efforts of SHIELD IAS, Laxmi Nagar, Delhi.
Once done with basic revision of your class notes and standard books, the best way forward for final
round of revision is through Rapid Revision Books.
RAPID REVISION BOOK-5

GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
Highlights of this book:
o Curation of content as per relevance with the coming examination.

o Covers finer and basic revision points.
o Easy to understand.
o Optimum coverage within minimum pages.
o One stop solution for standard content.
o Builds confidence for handling MCQs.
Hence, this book takes care of basic knowledge, alongwith sound mix of relational
understanding, previous years questions and practice questions.
The overall emphasis is on making students confident and mentally relaxed before the examination.
Now, start your final round of revision with RAPID REVISION BOOKS to emerge ahead from your
fellow competitors.
Stay connected.
Best of Efforts and Sound Luck!
From
Shield IAS
RAPID REVISION BOOKS- TITLES
BOOKLET NAME
1 HISTORY 1- ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, ART & CULTURE
2 HISTORY 2- MODERN INDIA
3 INDIAN POLITY AND GOVERNANCE
4 ECONOMY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
5 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
7 IMPORTANT GOVT. SCHEMES
8 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Note: Additional booklet number 9 on important topics of current affairs will be

released in April, 2023.
RECOMMENDATION OF OUR SELECTED STUDENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GEOGRAPHY AND GREEN ENERGY 44
ENVIRONMENT OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY 47

SDG GOAL 7: AFFORDABLE AND 48
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES 01
CLEAN ENERGY
INDIA: BASIC FACTS 01
NET-ZERO 49
ICEBERG 05
COP 27 51
ARCTIC REGION 06
CARBON SINK 55
GLACIERS 08 NATIONAL HYDROGEN MISSION 56
AVALANCHE 10 ARCTIC COUNCIL 60
VOLCANO 11 ARCTIC AMPLICATION 61
VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP 14 LIGHTNING IN ARCTIC 63
EARTHQUAKE 14 ANTARCTIC TREATY 63
CYCLONES INDIAN ANTARCTIC BILL, 2022 65

17
INDIA AND THE ARCTIC 67
TIDAL WAVES 18
HEAT FROM DATACENTRES 70
HIMALAYAS 19
HEATWAVES 71
ARRAVALIS 22 URBAN FLOODING 74
MONSOON 23 CLOUD BURST 75
WESTERN DISTURBANCE 26 CONSERVATION- FLORA AND 77
CLIMATE PROTECTION 27 FAUNA
CLIMATE CHANGE 27 UN DECADE ON ECOSYSTEM 77
RESTORATION
IPCC 30 ENVIRONMENT PERFORMANCE 79
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GREEN 31 INDEX (EPI) 2022
HOUSE GASES IUCN 80
CARBON CREDIT 32 CITES 81
CO2 BUDGET 33
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL 82
METHANE 34 DIVERSITY
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE 34 PROTECTED AREA 84
TECHNOLOGY
SPECIES AND GENUS 85
UNFCCC 37
TYPES OF SPECIES 85
REDD and REDD+ 38 TRAFFIC 86
OZONE LAYER 38 WILDLIFE (PROTECTION ACT), 1972 86
CLIMATE FINANCE 40 WETLANDS 87
GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN 43 Ramsar Convention 88
(GRAP) Montreux record 88
SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2023
Wetlands International 89 PROJECT ELEPHANT 107
Asian Waterbird Census 89 MIKE: GLOBAL EFFORTS 108
National Wetland Conservation 89
ELEPHANT CORRIDORS 109
Programme
Wetland (Conservation and Management) 89 AMUR FALCON 110
Rules BEHLER AWARD 111
INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 90 RED-CROWNED ROOFED TURTLE 111
(ISFR) 2021 (BATAGUR KACHUGA)
NEW RAMSAR SITES 92 NORTHERN RIVER TERRAPIN 111
Tampara Lake 92 (BATAGUR BASKA)
Hirakud Reservoir 93 BLACK SOFTSHELL TURTLE 112
Ansupa Lake 93 (NILSSONIA NIGRICANS)
Yashwant Sagar 93 MANDA BUFFALO 112

Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary 94 GECKO 113
Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex 94 CRIMSON ROSE 113
Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary 94
BLACK PERCHER 114
Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary 95
PYROSTRIA LALLJI 114
Thane Creek 95
POKEWOOD SPECIES 115
Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve 95
WHITEFLIES 115
Shallbugh Wetland Conservation Reserve 96
GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL 116
PROJECT TIGER 96
ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL 117
NTCA 98
RISE IN BUTTERFLY SPECIES 117
SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE 99 INDIAN DESERT CAT 118
SARISKA TIGER RESERVE 100 PANNA TIGER RESERVE 119
SATKOSIA TIGER RESERVE 100 GHARIAL 119
TIGER COUNT IN KARNATAKA INDIAN PANGOLIN 120

101
HORNBILL FESTIVAL 120
BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK 101
LESSER FLORICAN 121
NAGARHOLE TIGER RESERVE 102
CHILIKA LAKE 121
RAIMONA NATIONAL PARK 102 SPOT-BILLED PELICAN 122
DIHING PATKAI NATIONAL PARK 103 SEPTEMERANTHUS PARASITIC PLANT 123
PAKKE TIGER RESERVE 103 DENISON BARB 123
MANAS NATIONAL PARK 104 EASTERN SWAMP DEER 124
ROOT BRIDGES 125
OPERATION OLIVIA 105
NEW PLANT SPECIES 125
KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK 105
BHUNGLOTI CREEPER 126
WORLD RHINO DAY 106 TEMPLE TURTLE 127
WORLD ELEPHANT DAY 107 BIRD ATLAS OF KERALA 127

RAMGARH VISHDHARI SANCTUARY 128 ZABO 139
SIKKIM: FLORA CAPITAL 128 BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION 139
DEEPER BEEL 129 JACKWELL 140
OLIVE RIDLEY AND ARRIBADA 129 RAMTEK MODEL 140
SUNDERBANS 131 PAT SYSTEM 140
CORALS 132 ERI 140
THINGS TO KNOW 134 BIO-DECOMPOSER 140
GEO-TOURISM SITES 134 CIRCULAR ECONOMY 141
MAWMLUH CAVE 134 INDIA PLASTIC PACT 143
MAWBLEI OR GOD’S ROCK 134 SRISAILAM DAM 143
THERRIAGHAT 134 MEKEDATU PROJECT 144
UMANANDA 135 UNCLOS 145
MAJULI 135 ETHANOL 146
CHABIMURA 135 OIL PALM 147
UNAKOTI 135 INDIAN ENVIRONMENT SERVICE 149
SANGETSAR TSO 135 ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING 151
REIEK TLANG 136 HOGENAKKAL WATER PROJECT 152
NAGA HILL OPHIOLITE 136 MICROPLASTICS 152
STROMATOLITE PARK 136 BRAHMANI RIVER 153
LOKTAK LAKE 136 IMPORTANT MAPS 155
TRADITIONAL RAINWATER 136 MOUNTAINS MAP OF INDIA 155
HARVESTING RIVERS MAP OF INDIA 156
JHALARA 136 CLIMATE MAP OF INDIA 157
TALAB /BANDHI 137 SOIL MAP OF INDIA 158
BAWARI 137 MAJOR MOUNTAIN PASSES 159
TAANKA 137 WESTERN GHATS MAP 159
AHAR PYNES 137 TIGER RESERVES MAP 160
JOHADS 137 BIOSPHERE RESERVES MAP 161
PANAM KENI 138 CORAL MAP OF INDIA 162
KHADIN 138 TOP TEN NATIONAL PARKS 163
KUND 138 QUESTIONS
BAOLI 138 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS 163
NADI 138 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 169
BHANDARA PHAD 139 PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Answer Key) 179
ZING 139
KUHLS 139

(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2023)
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
 INDIA: BASIC FACTS
www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 1

o India has a unique culture and is one of the oldest and greatest civilizations of the world.
o It stretches from the snow-capped Himalayas in the north to sun drenched coastal villages of
the south and the humid tropical forests on the south-west coast, from the fertile
Brahmaputra valley on its east to the Thar desert in the west.
o It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq.km.
o India is the seventh largest country in the world and ranks second in population.
o The country stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off as it is by mountains and the sea,
which give her a distinct geographical entity.
o Bounded by the Great Himalayas in the north, it stretches southwards and at the Tropic of
Cancer tapers off into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the east and the
Arabian Sea on the west. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends
between latitudes 8°4' and 37°6' north, longitudes 68°7' and 97°25' east and measures about
3,214 km from north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to
west between the extreme longitudes.
Physical features
o The mainland comprises four regions, namely, the great mountain zone, plains of the
Ganga and the Indus, the desert region and the southern peninsula.
o The Himalayas comprise three almost parallel ranges interspersed with large plateaus and
valleys, some of which, like the Kashmir and Kullu valleys, are fertile, extensive and of great
scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges.
o The high altitudes allow travel only through a few passes, notably the Jelep La and Nathu La
on the main Indo-Tibet trade route through the Chumbi valley, north-east of Darjeeling and
Shipki La in the Satluj valley, north-east of Kalpa (Kinnaur).
o The plains of the Ganga and the Indus are formed by basins of three distinct river systems—
the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They are one of the world's greatest stretches of
flat alluvium and also one of the most densely populated areas on the earth. The desert region
can be divided into two parts—the 'great desert' and the 'little desert'. The great desert
extends from the edge of the Rann of Kutch beyond the Luni river northward. The whole of
the Rajasthan-Sind frontier runs through this. The little desert extends from the Luni
between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to the northern west.
o The Peninsular Plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and the Indus by a mass of
mountain and hill. Prominent among these are the Aravali, Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and
Ajanta. The Peninsula is flanked on the one side by the Eastern Ghats and on the other by the
Western. Between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea lies a narrow coastal strip, while
between Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, there is a broader coastal area. The southern
point of the plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills where the Eastern and the Western Ghats
meet. The Cardamom Hills lying beyond may be regarded as a continuation of the Western
Ghats.
Geological structure
o The geological regions broadly follow the physical features and may be grouped into three
regions: the Himalayas and their associated group of mountains, the Indo-
Gangetic Plain and the Peninsular Shield. The Himalayan mountain belt to the north
and the Naga-Lushai Mountain in the east, are the regions of mountain-building movement.

o The weathering and erosive elements worked on these to produce the relief seen today. The
Indo-Ganga plains are a great alluvial tract that separates the Himalayas in the north from
the Peninsula in the south.
o The Peninsula is a region of relative stability and occasional seismic disturbances.
Highly metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods occur in this area; the rest being covered
by the Gondwana formations, lava flows belonging to the Deccan Trap formation and
younger sediments.
River systems
o The river systems of India can be classified into four groups viz., (i) Himalayan rivers, (ii)
Deccan rivers, (iii) Coastal rivers and (iv) Rivers of the inland drainage basin.
The Himalayan rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore, continuously
flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months, Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall
and rivers swell, causing frequent floods.
o The Deccan rivers on the other hand are rainfed and therefore fluctuate in volume. Many of
these are non-perennial. The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in length
and have limited catchment areas. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams of inland
drainage basin of western Rajasthan are few and far apart. Most of them are of an ephemeral
character. The main Himalayan river systems are those of the Indus and the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna system.
o The Indus, which is one of the great rivers of the world, rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and
flows through India and thereafter through Pakistan and finally falls into the Arabian sea
near Karachi. Its important tributaries flowing in Indian territory are the Sutlej (originating
in Tibet), the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.
o The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna is another important system of which the principal
sub-basins are those of Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which join at Dev Prayag to form the
Ganga. It traverses through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Below
Rajmahal Hills, the Bhagirathi, which used to be the main course in the past, takes off, while
the Padma continues eastward and enters Bangladesh.
o The Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Mahananda and the
Sone are the important tributaries of the Ganga. Rivers Chambal and Betwa are the
important sub-tributaries, which join the Yamuna before it meets the Ganga. The Padma and
the Brahmaputra join at Bangladesh and continue to flow as the Padma or Ganga.
o The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, where it is known as Tsangpo and runs a long distance till it
crosses over into India in Arunachal Pradesh under the name of Dihang. Near Passighat, the
Debang and Lohit join the river Brahmaputra and the combined river runs all along the
Assam valley. It crosses into Bangladesh downstream of Dhubri. The principal tributaries of
Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the
Manas. The Brahmaputra in Bangladesh fed by Teesta, etc. finally falls into the Ganga.
o The Barak river, the head stream of Meghna, rises in the hills in Manipur. The important
tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang, Tuivai, Jiri, Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari,
Langachini, Maduva and Jatinga. Barak continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga-
Brahmaputra joins it near Bhairab Bazar.
o In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flowing generally in the east fall into
Bay of Bengal. The major east flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Mahanadi.
Narmada and Tapti are major west flowing rivers. The Godavari in the southern Peninsula
has the second largest river basin covering 10 per cent of the area of India. Next to it is the

Krishna basin in the region and the Mahanadi is another large basin of the region. The basin
of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan, flowing to the Arabian Sea and of the Cauvery
in the south, falling into the Bay of Bengal are about the same size, though with different
character and shape. A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt
lakes and get lost in sand with no outlet to sea. Besides these, there are the desert rivers
which flow for some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni, Machhu, Rupen,
Saraswati, Banas, Ghaggar and others.
Climate/seasons
o India's climate is affected by two seasonal winds—the north-east monsoon and the
south-west monsoon.
o The north-east monsoon commonly known as winter monsoon blows from land to sea
whereas south-west monsoon known as summer monsoon blows from sea to land after
crossing the Indian ocean, the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.
o The south-west monsoon brings most of the rainfall during the year in the country.
Flora
o India is rich in flora. Available data place India in the tenth position in the world and fourth
in Asia in plant diversity. With a wide range of climatic conditions from the torrid to the
arctic, India has rich and varied vegetation, which only a few countries of comparable size
possess. India can be divided into eight distinct floristic regions, namely, the western
Himalayas, the eastern Himalayas, Assam, the Indus plain, the Ganga plain, the Deccan, the
Malabar and the Andamans.
o The western Himalayan region extends from Kashmir to Kumaon. Its temperate
zone is rich in forests of chir, pine, other conifers and broadleaved temperate trees. Higher
up, forests of deodar, blue pine, spruce and silver fir occur.
o The characteristic trees of this zone are high-level silver fir, silver birch and junipers. The
eastern Himalayan region extends from Sikkim eastwards and embraces Darjeeling,
Kurseong and the adjacent tracts. The temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, maples,
rhododendrons, alder and birch. Many conifers, junipers and dwarf willows also grow here.
o The Indus plain region comprises the plains of Punjab, western Rajasthan and northern
Gujarat. It is dry, hot and supports natural vegetation. The Ganga plain region covers the area
which is alluvial plain and is under cultivation for wheat, sugarcane and rice. Only small
areas support forests of widely differing types.
o The Deccan region comprises the entire table land of the Indian Peninsula and supports
vegetation of various kinds from shrub jungles to mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar
region covers the excessively humid belt of mountain country parallel to the west coast of the
Peninsula.
Faunal resources
o India is very rich in terms of biological diversity due to its unique bio-geographical location,
diversified climate conditions and enormous eco-diversity and geo-diversity. India's immense
biological diversity encompasses ecosystems, populations, species and their genetic make-up.
This diversity can be attributed to the vast variety in physiography and climatic situations
resulting in a diversity of ecological habitats ranging from tropical, sub-tropical, temperate,
alpine to desert.

o According to world bio-geographic classification, India represents two of the major realms
(the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes (Tropical Humid Forests, Tropical
Dry/Deciduous Forests and Warm Deserts/Semi-Deserts).
o In the light of Biodiversity Convention, India holds a unique position with the priority of
conservation of natural resources and sustainable development. In fact, within only about 2
per cent of world's total land surface, India is known to have over 7.50 per cent of the species
of animals that the world holds.
 ICEBERG
o Icebergs are pieces of ice that formed on land and float in an ocean or lake. Icebergs come in
all shapes and sizes, from ice-cube-sized chunks to ice islands the size of a small country.
o The term "iceberg" refers to chunks of ice larger than 5 meters (16 feet) across.
o Smaller icebergs, known as bergy bits and growlers, can be especially dangerous for
ships because they are harder to spot.
o The North Atlantic and the cold waters surrounding Antarctica are home to most of the
icebergs on Earth.
How do icebergs form, and where do they go?

o Icebergs form
when chunks of
ice calve, or break
off, from glaciers,
ice shelves, or a
larger iceberg.
o Icebergs travel
with ocean
currents,
sometimes
smashing up
against the shore
or getting caught
in shallow waters.
o When an iceberg
reaches warm
waters, the new
climate attacks it
from all sides.
o On the iceberg
surface, warm air
melts snow and
ice into pools
called melt ponds that can trickle through the iceberg and widen cracks. At the same time,
warm water laps at the iceberg edges, melting the ice and causing chunks of ice to break off.
On the underside, warmer waters melt the iceberg from the bottom up.

Why are icebergs important?

o Icebergs pose a danger to ships traversing the North Atlantic and the waters around
Antarctica. After the Titanic sank near Newfoundland in 1912, the United States and twelve
other countries formed the International Ice Patrol to warn ships of icebergs in the North
Atlantic.
o The International Ice Patrol uses airplanes and radars to track icebergs that float into major
shipping lanes. The U.S. National Ice Center uses satellite data to monitor icebergs near
Antarctica. However, it only tracks icebergs larger than 500 square meters (5,400 square
feet).
o Icebergs can also serve as tools for scientists, who study them to learn more about climate
and ocean processes.
Why do scientists study icebergs?

o Climate scientists study icebergs as they break up for clues to the processes that cause ice
shelf collapse. Scientists have noticed that the way icebergs break up when they reach warmer
waters mirrors the disintegration of Antarctic ice shelves. By studying the factors that cause
icebergs to break up, researchers hope to better understand the influences that lead to ice
shelf breakup, and to better predict how ice shelves will respond to a warming climate.
o Oceanographers follow icebergs because the cold freshwater they contribute to the sea can
influence currents and ocean circulation far away from their origins.
o Biologists study icebergs to find out how they influence ocean life. As icebergs melt, they leak
nutrients into the ocean around them. Recent studies have shown that the water surrounding
icebergs teems with plankton, fish, and other sea life.
 ARCTIC REGION
o The Arctic region, or the Arctic, is a geographic region spreading around the North Pole.
There is no single correct definition of the region as the southern boundary varies.
Key ways to define the Arctic:
o The Arctic Circle (66 ° 33'N) delimits the Arctic in terms of solar radiation.
o In theory, areas north of the Arctic Circle have at least one day without daylight in the winter
and at least one nightless night in the summer. In practice, this does not happen everywhere
because the surface of the earth is uneven, and the light refracts in the atmosphere.
o Based on temperature, the monthly average temperature in the Arctic is below + 10
° C throughout the year, even in summer.
o The forest line follows a temperature-defined area. The forest line is not a narrow line
but a zone tens of kilometres wide between the northern coniferous forest and the tundra. In
this demarcation, the Arctic is predominantly wooded tundra and glaciers.
o Permafrost increases the area of Russian Arctic compared to the other delimitations.
Permafrost is soil that stays frozen for at least two consecutive years.
o The ice cover determines the Arctic nature of marine areas.
o Sea ice is highest in February-March and lowest in September. The surface of the
Arctic ice is monitored almost in real time by satellites.
o Culturally defined, the Arctic covers the homelands of northern indigenous
peoples.

o Political delimitations vary

according to how they serve, for
example, the interests of states
or international cooperation.
o As the climate warms, the Arctic
shrinks if defined by
temperature, forest line,
permafrost, or ice cover. Cultural
and political boundaries also
vary. The Arctic Circle is the
most permanent of the
delimitations, although also the
polar circle moves very slowly
due to the variation of the
Earth's axial tilt.
Interesting facts and figures

about the Arctic
1. The Arctic is regarded as
containing some of the last
physically undisturbed marine
spaces on earth.
2. Shipping (unique ships) within
the Arctic Polar Code area has
increased by 25% over 6 years from 2013-2019. A majority of these vessels are fishing
vessels.
3. The central feature of the Arctic is the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the widest
continental shelf of all the oceans.
4. The Arctic sea ice has diminished from 6,1 million sq.km. in 1999 to 4,3 million
sq.km. in 2019.
5. Boreal forests of the Arctic cover about 17% of the global land area, representing the largest
natural forests in the world.
6. Together with the Antarctic, the Arctic contains the largest freshwater resource on Earth.
7. Seven of the world’s ten largest wilderness areas are located in the Arctic region.
8. The total catch of wild fish in the Arctic mounted to 10% of the world catch .
9. The Arctic as an area is essentially an ocean surrounded by the land north of the Arctic
circle (66032' N) that covers a region of 33 million Km2 , larger than Africa or Asia.
10. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that 30 per cent of the world’s
undiscovered natural gas is in the Arctic, mostly on the continental shelves beneath the
Arctic Ocean.
11. More than 70 per cent of the undiscovered oil resources are estimated to occur in northern
Alaska, the Amerasian Basin, the eastern side of Greenland, the eastern Barents Sea region,
and the Davis Strait of Greenland and Canada.
12. An estimated 84 per cent of the undiscovered oil and gas in the Arctic occurs offshore.
13. The Arctic region is characterized by some of the largest continuous intact ecosystems on
the planet, but is facing increasingly larger threat.

 GLACIERS
o Ice acts like a protective cover over the Earth and our oceans. These bright white spots
reflect excess heat back into space and keep the planet cooler. In theory, the Arctic
remains colder than the equator because more of the heat from the sun is reflected off the ice,
back into space.
o Glaciers around the world can range from ice that is several hundred to several thousand
years old and provide a scientific record of how climate has changed over time.
o Through their study, we gain valuable information about the extent to which the planet is
rapidly warming. They provide scientists a record of how climate has changed over time.
o Today, about 10% of land area on Earth is covered with glacial ice. Almost 90% is in
Antarctica, while the remaining 10% is in the Greenland ice cap.
o Rapid glacial melt in Antarctica and Greenland also influences ocean currents,
as massive amounts of very cold glacial-melt water entering warmer ocean waters is slowing
ocean currents. And as ice on land melts, sea levels will continue to rise.
Difference between sea ice and glaciers

o Sea ice forms and melts strictly in the ocean whereas glaciers are formed on land. Icebergs
are chunks of glacial ice that break off glaciers and fall into the ocean.
o When glaciers melt, because that water is stored on land, the runoff significantly
increases the amount of water in the ocean, contributing to global sea level rise.
o Sea ice, on the other hand, is often compared to ice cubes in a glass of water: when it
melts, it does not directly change the level of water in the glass. Instead, depleting
Arctic sea ice triggers a host of other devastating consequences—from depleting available ice
on which walrus can haul out or polar bears hunt to changing weather systems around the
world by altering the pattern of the Jet stream.
Why are glaciers melting?

o Since the early 1900s, many glaciers around the world have been rapidly melting. Human
activities are at the root of this phenomenon. Specifically, since the industrial revolution,
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions have raised temperatures, even higher in
the poles, and as a result, glaciers are rapidly melting, calving off into the sea and retreating
on land.
o Even if we significantly curb emissions in the coming decades, more than a third of the
world’s remaining glaciers will melt before the year 2100. When it comes to sea ice, 95% of
the oldest and thickest ice in the Arctic is already gone.
o Scientists project that if emissions continue to rise unchecked, the Arctic could be ice free in
the summer as soon as the year 2040 as ocean and air temperatures continue to rise rapidly.

Glacier in Antarctica Sea ice in Finland
Effects of melting glaciers on sea level rise

o Melting glaciers add to rising sea levels, which in turn increases coastal erosion and
elevates storm surge as warming air and ocean temperatures create more frequent and
intense coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons. Specifically, the Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets are the largest contributors of global sea level rise. Right now, the
Greenland ice sheet is disappearing four times faster than in 2003 and already contributes
20% of current sea level rise.
o How much and how quickly these Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melt in the future will
largely determine how much ocean levels rise in the future. If emissions continue to rise, the
current rate of melting on the Greenland ice sheet is expected to double by the end of the
century. Alarmingly, if all the ice on Greenland melted, it would raise global sea levels by 20
feet.
How do melting sea ice and glaciers affect weather patterns?

o Today, the Arctic is warming twice as fast as anywhere on earth, and the sea ice there
is declining by more than 10% every 10 years. As this ice melts, darker patches of ocean start
to emerge, eliminating the effect that previously cooled the poles, creating warmer air
temperatures and in turn disrupting normal patterns of ocean circulation. Research shows
the polar vortex is appearing outside of the Arctic more frequently because of changes to the
jet stream, caused by a combination of warming air and ocean temperatures in the Arctic and
the tropics.
o The glacial melt we are witnessing today in Antarctic and Greenland is changing the
circulation of the Atlantic Ocean and has been linked to collapse of fisheries in
the Gulf of Maine and more destructive storms and hurricanes around the planet.
Effects of melting glaciers and sea ice loss on humans and wildlife
o What happens in these places has consequences across the entire globe. As sea ice and
glaciers melt and oceans warm, ocean currents will continue to disrupt weather patterns
worldwide.

o Industries that thrive on vibrant fisheries will be affected as warmer waters change where and
when fish spawn. Coastal communities will continue to face billion-dollar disaster recovery
bills as flooding becomes more frequent and storms become more intense.
o People are not the only ones impacted. In the Arctic, as sea ice melts, wildlife like walrus are
losing their home and polar bears are spending more time on land, causing higher rates of
conflict between people and bears.
 AVALANCHE
o An avalanche is a mass of snow that slides rapidly down an inclined slope, such as a
mountainside or the roof of a building. Avalanches are triggered by either natural forces
(e.g. precipitation, wind drifting snow, rapid temperature changes) or human activity. In
mountainous terrain, they are among the most serious hazards to human life and property.
Avalanches are sometimes called snowslides.
o An avalanche occurs when stress from the pull of gravity and/or applied load (such
as a skier) exceeds the strength of the snow cover.
o Strength is derived from bonds between snow grains. A slab (a cohesive layer within
the snowpack) avalanche can occur when the following three conditions are present: – A
snow-covered slope – A slab of snow resting on top of a weak layer of snow – A
triggering mechanism.
o About 90% of all avalanches begin on slopes of 30-45 degrees, and about 98% occur on
slopes of 25-50 degrees. Avalanches strike most often on slopes above timberline that face
away from prevailing winds (leeward slopes tend to collect snow blowing from the windward
sides of ridges). However, it is possible for avalanches to run on small slopes well below
timberline, such as in gullies, road cuts, and small openings in the trees.
o Very dense trees can help anchor the snow to steep slopes and prevent avalanches from
starting; however, avalanches can release and travel through a moderately dense forest.
o
Loose Snow Avalanche:
They are common on steep
slopes and are seen after a
fresh snowfall. Since the
snow does not have time to
settle down fully or has been
made loose by sunlight, the
snow-pack is not very solid.
Such avalanches have a
single point of origin, from
where they widen as they
travel down the slope.

Slab Avalanche: Loose Snow

Avalanches in turn could cause a Slab
Avalanche, which are characterized by a
the fall of a large block of ice down the
slopes. Thin slabs cause fairly small
amounts of damage, while the thick ones
are responsible for MANY FATALITIES.
Powder Snow Avalanche: A mix of

the other forms, Loose Snow and Slab.
The bottom half of this avalanche
consists of a slab or a dense
concentration of snow, ice and air. Above
this is a cloud of powdered snow, which
can snowball into a larger avalanche as it
progresses down the slope. The speed
attained by this avalanche can cross 190
miles per hour and they can cross large
distances.
Wet Snow Avalanche: These are quite

dangerous as they travel slowly due to
friction, which collects debris from the
path fairly easily. The avalanche
comprises of water and snow at the
beginning, but understanding of
avalanches has showed us that it can pick
up speed with ease.
 VOLCANO
o Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt on to
the Earth's surface. Many mountains form by folding, faulting, uplift, and erosion of the
Earth's crust.
o Volcanic terrain, however, is built by the slow accumulation of erupted lava.
o The vent may be visible as a small bowl shaped depression at the summit of a cone or shield-
shaped mountain. Through a series of cracks within and beneath the volcano, the vent
connects to one or more linked storage areas of molten or partially molten rock (magma).
This connection to fresh magma allows the volcano to erupt over and over again in the same
location. In this way, the volcano grows ever larger, until it is no longer stable. Pieces of the
volcano collapse as rock falls or as landslides.

How do volcanoes erupt?

o Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises in volcanic vents is known as magma,
but after it erupts from a volcano it is called lava.
o Magma is made of
molten rock, crystals,
and dissolved gas.
The molten rock is
made of the
chemicals oxygen,
silicon, aluminum,
iron, magnesium,
calcium, sodium,
potassium, titanium,
and manganese. After
cooling, liquid
magma may form
crystals of various
minerals until it
becomes completely
solid and forms an
igneous or magmatic
rock.
o Originating many
tens of miles beneath
the ground, magma is lighter than surrounding solid rock. It is driven towards Earth's surface
by buoyancy, it is lighter than the surrounding rock, and by pressure from gas within it.
Magma forces its way upward and may ultimately break though weak areas in the Earth's
crust. If so, an eruption begins.
o Magma can be erupted in a variety of ways. Sometimes molten rock simply pours from the
vent as fluid lava flows. It can also shoot violently into the air as dense clouds of rock
shards (tephra) and gas. Larger fragments fall back around the vent, and clouds of tephra
may move down the slope of the volcano under the force of gravity. Ash, tiny pieces of tephra
the thickness of a strand of hair, may be carried by the wind only to fall to the ground many
miles away. The smallest ash particles may be erupted miles into the sky and carried many
times around the world by winds high in the atmosphere before they fall to the ground.
What are the main types of volcanoes?

o Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are made of small pieces of solid
lava, called cinder, that are erupted from a vent.
o The ground shakes as magma rises from within the Earth. Then, a powerful blast throws
molten rocks, ash, and gas into the air. The rocks cool quickly in the air and fall to the earth
to break into small pieces of bubbly cinder that pile up around the vent.
o They accumulate as a small cinder cone that can be as high as a thousand feet above the
surrounding ground. If the wind is blowing during the eruption, cinder is carried downwind
before its deposited into an oval shape. Eruptions that form cinder cones also feed lava flows

that spread outward from the eruptive vent. When you climb a cinder cone you can usually
find the bowl-shaped crater marking the location of the vent.
o If eruptions of cinder and lava flows happen repeatedly from the same vent, the overlapping
layers can form a composite volcano (stratovolcano).
o Thousands of cinder cones exist in western North America and in other volcanic areas of the
world.
Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

o Some of the Earth's grandest mountains are composite volcanoes—sometimes called
stratovolcanoes.
o They are usually tall with steep even sides and are made out of repeating layers of lava flows,
volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and volcanic bombs. Some composite volcanoes rise over 8,000
feet above their surroundings, but they reach much higher elevations when compared to the
level of the sea (called above sea level).
o Ojos del Salado in Chile is the tallest composite volcano on Earth with a summit elevation
(height above sea level) of 22,615 feet; the tallest in the U.S. is Mount Rainier in
Washington State with a summit elevation of 14,410 feet. Some of the most famous and
beautiful mountains in the world are composite volcanoes, including Mount Fuji in Japan,
Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta in California, Mount Hood in Oregon, and Mount
St. Helens in Washington.
o Stratovolcanoes can erupt with great violence. Stratovolcanoes are considered the
most violent.
Other volcanic landforms

o Besides well-known symmetrical volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan and Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania, volcanic activity is responsible for several other distinctive landforms.
o Calderas: A caldera is a bowl-shaped depression formed when a volcano collapses into
the void left when its magma chamber is emptied. There are three types:
 The first type is a crater lake caldera. This is the result of a stratovolcano collapsing into
its magma chamber during a violent eruption.
 Basaltic calderas have a concentric ring pattern resulting from a series of gradual collapses
rather than a single event. They are often found at the summit of shield volcanoes such as the
craters at the tops of Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
 Resurgent calderas are the largest volcanic structures on Earth. They are the result of
catastrophic eruptions that dwarf any eruptions ever recorded. Yellowstone caldera,
sometimes called a "super volcano," is one example.
o Volcanic plugs: When magma solidifies in the fissure of a volcano the hard dense rock may
form a "neck" that remains when softer surrounding rock has been eroded away.
o Tuff cones: also known as maars, tuff cones are shallow, flat-floored craters that scientists
think formed as a result of a violent expansion of magmatic gas or steam. Maars occur
geologically young volcanic regions of the world such as the western United States and the
Eifel region of Germany.
o Lava plateaus: Shield volcanoes may erupt along lines of fissures rather than a central vent
spilling liquid lava in successive layers. Over time, these layers form broad plateaus such as

the Columbia Plateau. These plateaus are often cut by deep canyons that expose the layers of
rock.
 VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP
 EARTHQUAKE
o An earthquake happens when two blocks
of the earth suddenly slip past one
another.
o The surface where they slip is called the
fault or fault plane.
o The location below the earth’s surface where
the earthquake starts is called the
hypocenter, and the location directly above
it on the surface of the earth is called the
epicenter.
o Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks.
These are smaller earthquakes that happen
in the same place as the larger earthquake
that follows. Scientists can’t tell that an
earthquake is a foreshock until the larger earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake
is called the mainshock.

o Mainshocks always have aftershocks that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that occur
afterwards in the same place as the mainshock. Depending on the size of the mainshock,
aftershocks can continue for weeks, months, and even years after the mainshock.
What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

o The earth has four major layers: the inner core,
outer core, mantle and crust. The crust and the
top of the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface
of our planet.
o But this skin is not all in one piece – it is made up of
many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the
earth. Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep
slowly moving around, sliding past one another and
bumping into each other.
o These pieces are called tectonic plates, and the
edges of the plates are called the plate boundaries.
o The plate boundaries are made up of many faults,
and most of the earthquakes around the world occur
on these faults.
o Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the rest of the plate keeps
moving. Finally, when the plate has moved far enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults
and there is an earthquake.
Why does the earth shake when there is an earthquake?

o While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the rest of the block is moving, the energy
that would normally cause the blocks to slide past one another is being stored up. When the
force of the moving blocks finally overcomes the friction of the jagged edges of the fault and it
unsticks, all that stored up energy is released.
o The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions in the form of
seismic waves like ripples on a pond. The seismic waves shake the earth as they move
through it, and when the waves reach the earth’s surface, they shake the ground and anything
on it, like our houses and us!

How are earthquakes recorded?

o Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs.
o The recording they make is called a seismogram. The seismograph has a base that sets
firmly in the ground, and a heavy weight that hangs free. When an earthquake causes the
ground to shake, the base of the seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does not.
Instead the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all the movement.
o The difference in position between the shaking part of the seismograph and the
motionless part is what is recorded.
How can scientists tell where the earthquake happened?

o Seismograms come in handy for locating earthquakes
too, and being able to see the P wave and the S wave
is important.
o P waves are also faster than S waves, and this fact is
what allows us to tell where an earthquake was. To
understand how this works, let’s compare P and S
waves to lightning and thunder. Light travels faster
than sound, so during a thunderstorm you will first see
the lightning and then you will hear the thunder. If you
are close to the lightning, the thunder will boom right
after the lightning, but if you are far away from the
lightning, you can count several seconds before you
hear the thunder. The further you are from the storm,
the longer it will take between the lightning and the
thunder.
o P waves are like the lightning, and S waves are
like the thunder. The P waves travel faster and shake the ground where you are first. Then
the S waves follow and shake the ground also. If you are close to the earthquake, the P and S
wave will come one right after the other, but if you are far away, there will be more time
between the two.
o P Waves alternately compress and stretch the crustal material parallel to the
direction they are propagating.
o S Waves cause the crustal material to move back and forth perpendicular to the
direction they are travelling.
o By looking at the amount of time between the P and S wave on a seismogram recorded on a
seismograph, scientists can tell how far away the earthquake was from that location.
However, they can’t tell in what direction from the seismograph the earthquake was, only
how far away it was. If they draw a circle on a map around the station where the radius of the
circle is the determined distance to the earthquake, they know the earthquake lies somewhere
on the circle.
But where?
o Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine exactly where the
earthquake was.

o It is called triangulation because a triangle has three sides, and it takes three
seismographs to locate an earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three
different seismographs where the radius of each is the distance from that station to the
earthquake, the intersection of those three circles is the epicenter.
 CYCLONES
About Tropical Cyclone
o Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative
stages of their development.
o They include a number of different hazards that can individually cause significant
impacts on life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds,
tornadoes and lighting. Combined, these hazards interact with one another and
substantially increase the potential for loss of life and material damage.
Characteristics of tropical cyclones

o A tropical cyclone is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans from
where it draws the energy to develop.
o It has a low pressure centre and clouds spiraling towards the eyewall
surrounding the "eye", the central part of the system where the weather is normally calm
and free of clouds. Its diameter is typically around 200 to 500 km, but can reach 1000 km.
o A tropical cyclone brings very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves and, in some
cases, very destructive storm surges and coastal flooding.
o The winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones above a certain strength are given names in
the interests of public safety.
o About 85 tropical storms form annually over the warm tropical oceans of the globe. Among
these, a little more than half (45) become tropical cyclone/hurricane/typhoon.
o Out of the 85 tropical storms, 72% form in the northern hemisphere, and 28% in the
southern hemisphere.
The different terminologies

o In the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the North Atlantic Ocean and the eastern and
central North Pacific Ocean, it is called "hurricane"
o In the western North Pacific, it is called "typhoon"
o In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, it is called "cyclone"
o In western South Pacific and southeast Indian Ocean, it is called “severe tropical cyclone”
o In the southwest Indian Ocean, it is called “tropical cyclone”
Classification of tropical cyclones

o Tropical depression is when the maximum sustained wind speed is less than 63 km/h.
o Tropical storm is when the maximum sustained wind speed is more than 63 km/h. It is
then also given a name.

o Hurricane, typhoon, tropical cyclone, very severe cyclonic storm - depending on the
basin - when the maximum sustained wind speed exceeds 116 km/h or 63 knots.
Naming of cyclones
The WMO/ Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
Panel on Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat, agreed in
principal to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The
naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced from September 2004,
with names provided by eight Members. Since then, five countries have joined the Panel.
o The Panel Member’s names are listed alphabetically country wise.
o The names will be used sequentially column wise.
o The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially
to the last row in the
column thirteen.
o The names of tropical
cyclones over the
north Indian Ocean
will not be repeated,
once used it will cease to
be used again. The name
should be new. It should
not be there in the
already existing list of
any of the RSMCs
worldwide including
RSMC New Delhi.
o The name of a tropical
cyclone from south
China Sea which crosses
Thailand and emerge
into the Bay of Bengal as
a Tropical cyclone will not be changed.
The RSMC New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Center is responsible to name the tropical
cyclones that have formed over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea when they have
reached the relevant intensity.
 TIDAL WAVES
o Tides are the daily rise and fall of sea level at any given place. The pull of the Moon’s
gravity on Earth is the primarily cause of tides and the pull of the Sun’s gravity on Earth is
the secondary cause.
o The Moon has a greater effect because, although it is much smaller than the Sun, it is much
closer. The Moon’s pull is about twice that of the Sun’s.

Daily Tide Patterns

o To understand the tides it is easiest to start with the effect of the Moon on Earth. As the
Moon revolves around our planet, its gravity pulls Earth toward it. The lithosphere is unable
to move much but the water above it is pulled by the gravity and a bulge is created. This bulge
is the high tide beneath the Moon.
o The Moon’s gravity then pulls the Earth toward it, leaving the water on the opposite side of
the planet behind. This creates a second high tide bulge on the opposite side of Earth from
the Moon. These two water bulges on opposite sides of the Earth aligned with the Moon are
the high tides.
o Since so much water is pulled into the two high tides, low tides form between the two
high tides. As the Earth rotates beneath the Moon, a single spot will experience two high
tides and two low tides every day.
o The tidal range is the difference between the ocean level at high tide and the ocean at low
tide. The tidal range in a location depends on a number of factors, including the slope of the
seafloor. Water appears to move a greater distance on a gentle slope than on a steep slope.
Monthly Tidal Patterns

o Waves are additive so when the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon are in the same
direction, the high tides add and the low tides add.
o Highs are higher and lows are lower than at other times through the month. These more
extreme tides, with a greater tidal range, are called spring tides.
o Spring tides don’t just occur in the spring; they occur whenever the Moon is in a new-
moon or full-moon phase, about every 14 days.
o Neap tides are tides that have the smallest tidal range, and they occur when the Earth, the
Moon, and the Sun form a 90 degree angle. They occur exactly halfway between the spring
tides, when the Moon is at first or last quarter.
o How do the tides add up to create neap tides? The Moon’s high tide occurs in the same
place as the Sun’s low tide and the Moon’s low tide in the same place as the Sun’s high tide.
At neap tides, the tidal range relatively small.
o High tides occur about twice a day, about every 12 hours and 25 minutes. The reason is that
the Moon takes 24 hours and 50 minutes to rotate once around the Earth so the Moon is over
the same location 24 hours and 50 minutes later. Since high tides occur twice a day, one
arrives each 12 hours and 25 minutes.
Note: Some coastal areas do not follow this pattern at all. These coastal areas may have one
high and one low tide per day or a different amount of time between two high tides. These
differences are often because of local conditions, such as the shape of the coastline that the
tide is entering.
 HIMALAYAS
Geography
o The Himalayas stretch across the north-eastern portion of India. They cover approximately
1,500 mi (2,400 km) and pass through the nations of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,
Bhutan and Nepal.

o The Himalayan range is

made up of three parallel
ranges often referred to
as the Greater Himalayas,
the Lesser Himalayas,
and the Outer Himalayas.
Ecology
o While intimidating
mountains like Everest
and K2 tend to dominate
our perceptions of the
region, the Himalayas are
rich in biodiversity. Climates range from tropical at the base of the mountains to perennial
snow and ice at the highest elevations.
o These complex and diverse eco-regions are interconnected: an ecological threat to one is
ultimately a threat to many. Here are just a few examples of Himalayan ecology:
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands:
 Western alpine shrubs and meadows can be found between 9,850 and 16,400 ft.
 These areas tend to have cold winters and mild summers that allow for plant growth.
 Rhododendron plants cover the lower shrublands, while the alpine meadows, directly above,
host a range of flora in the warmer months.
 Animals found in this region include the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, musk deer, and
pikas.
Temperate Coniferous Forest:
 In the northeast, temperate sub-alpine conifer forests are found at elevations of 8,200 to
13,800 ft.
 Located in the inner valley area, these forests are protected from harsh monsoon conditions
by surrounding mountain ranges.
 The dominant tree types are pine, hemlock, spruce, and fir. Animals found in this region
include red pandas, takins, and musk deer.
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests:
 Found in middle elevations of 6,600 to 9,800 ft. in the eastern region are broadleaf and
coniferous forests.
 These forests receive almost 80 inches of annual rainfall, mostly during the monsoon season.
 In addition to indigenous oaks and maples, plants like orchids, lichen, and ferns also grow in
the area.
 A huge range of wildlife, including over 500 species of birds, are found here during the cooler
seasons before they migrate to higher elevations to escape the hot summers. This is also the
primary home for golden langur monkeys.
Tropical and Sub-tropical Broadleaf Forests:
 Located at 1,650 to 3,300 ft. along a narrow strip of the outer Himalayan range are the
Himalayan sub-tropical broadleaf forests.

 Here there is a wide range of plant life thanks to the areas varied topography, soil types, and
rainfall levels.
 Forest types include subtropical dry evergreen, northern dry mixed deciduous forests, moist
mixed deciduous forests, subtropical broadleaf forests, northern tropical semi-evergreen
forests, and northern tropical wet evergreen forests. Wildlife includes many threatened
species including tigers and Asian elephants. More than 340 different species of birds can be
found in this region.
Important peaks:
 Mount Everest at 29,029 ft (8,848 m) is not only the highest peak in the Himalayas, but the
highest peak on the entire planet.
 Other famous peaks include Karakora (K2), Kailash, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat,
Annapurna, and Manasklu.
Rivers:
 The Himalayas are the source for the Indus, the Yangtze and the Ganga-Brahmaputra. All
three are major river systems for the continent of Asia.
 The main rivers sourced in Himalayas are the Ganges, Indus, Yarlung, Yangtze, Yellow,
Mekong, and Nujiang.
Glaciers:
 The Himalayas are the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and
the Arctic. There are approximately 15,000 glaciers located throughout the range.
 At 48 miles (72 km) in length, the Himalayan Siachen glacier is the largest glacier outside the
poles.
 Other notable glaciers located in the Himalayas include the Baltoro, Biafo, Nubra, and
Hispur.
Additional Facts:
o The Himalayas are the result of tectonic plate motions that collided India into Tibet.
o Because of the great amount of tectonic motion still occurring at the site, the Himalayas have
a proportionally high number of earthquakes and tremors.

o The Himalayas are one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet.
o The range affects air and water circulation systems, impacting the weather conditions
in the region.
o The Himalayas cover approximately 75% of Nepal.
o Serving as a natural barrier for tens of thousands of years, the range prevented early
interactions between the people of India and the people of China and Mongolia.
o Mt. Everest was named after Colonel Sir George Everest, a British surveyor who was based in
India during the early-to-mid-nineteenth century.
o The Nepalese call Mt. Everest “Samgarmatha” which can be translated as “Goddess of the
Universe” or “Forehead of the Sky.”
o Despite its name, the Snow Leopard – a Himalayan local – is actually most closely related to
the Tiger.
 ARRAVALIS
Large chunks of forests and the Aravalis in Gurugram and Faridabad could lose protection
from construction under the National Conservation Zone, if the provisions in the Draft
Regional Plan-2041 are implemented, fear environmentalists, urban planners and analysts.
o According to the DRP- 2041, the
‘Natural Zone’ (NZ) “is a zone
comprising any natural features
such as mountains, hills, rivers,
water bodies created by the action
of nature.”
o In the previous Plan, this was
defined as the Natural
Conservation Zone (NCZ). In
the new draft, the definition of the
natural features has been tweaked
and restricted to only those that are
notified under certain acts and recognised in land records.
o Environmentalists are worried that this new definition would expel large sections of the
forest land in Gurugram and Faridabad out of the ambit of protected zonefor not meeting the
criteria proposed in DRP.
About Arravalis
o Aravalli Range, also spelled Aravali Range is a hill system of northern India.
o The Aravalli Range is a mountain range in Northern-Western India, running approximately
670 km in a south-west direction, starting near Delhi, passing through southern
Haryana and Rajasthan, and ending in Gujarat.
o The highest peak is Guru Shikhar at 1,722 metres.
o The series of peaks and ridges, with breadths varying from 6 to 60 miles (10 to 100 km), are
generally between 1,000 and 3,000 feet (300 and 900 metres) in elevation.
o The system is divided into two sections: The Sambhar-Sirohi ranges, taller and including
Guru Peak on Mount Abu, the highest peak in the Aravalli Range (5,650 feet [1,722 metres]);
and the Sambhar-Khetri ranges, consisting of three ridges that are discontinuous.

o The Aravalli Range is rich in natural resources (including minerals) and serves as a check to
the growth of the western desert.
o It gives rise to several rivers, including the Banas, Luni, Sakhi, and Sabarmati. Though
heavily forested in the south, it is generally bare and thinly populated, consisting of large
areas of sand and stone and of masses of rose-coloured quartzite.
 MONSOON
o Indian monsoon is the most prominent of the world’s monsoon systems, which primarily
affects India and its surrounding water bodies.
o It blows from the northeast during cooler months and reverses direction to blow
from the southwest during the warmest months of the year. This process brings large
amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.
o At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds
occur at the surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only
to latitudes near 20° N in February, and even then they have a very strong northerly
component. They soon retreat northward, and drastic changes take place in the upper-air
circulation (see climate: Jet streams). This is a time of transition between the end of one
monsoon and the beginning of the next.
o Late in March the high-sun season reaches the Equator and moves farther north. With it go
atmospheric instability, convectional (that is, rising and turbulent) clouds, and rain. The
westerly subtropical jet stream still controls the flow of air across northern India, and the
surface winds are northeasterlies.
Monsoon onset and early developments

o As the high-sun season (that is, the Northern Hemisphere summer) moves northward during
April, India becomes particularly prone to rapid heating because the highlands to the north
protect it from any incursions of cold air. There are three distinct areas of relative upper
tropospheric warmth—namely, (1) above the southern Bay of Bengal, (2) above the
Plateau of Tibet, and (3) across the trunks of the various peninsulas that are
relatively dry during this time. These three areas combine to form a vast heat-source region.
o The relatively warm area above the southern Bay of Bengal occurs mostly at the 500–100-
millibar level. (This atmospheric pressure region typically occurs at elevations between 5,500
and 16,100 metres [18,000 and 53,000 feet] but may vary according to changes in heating
and cooling.) It does not appear at a lower level and is probably caused by the release of
condensation heat (associated with the change from water vapour to liquid water) at the top
of towering cumulonimbus clouds along the advancing intertropical convergence. In contrast,
a heat sink appears over the southern Indian Ocean as the relatively cloud-free air cools by
emitting long-wavelength radiation. Monsoon winds at the surface blow from heat sink to
heat source. As a result, by May the southwest monsoon is well-established over Sri Lanka, an
island off the southeastern tip of the Indian peninsula.
o Also in May, the dry surface of Tibet (above 4,000 metres [13,100 feet]) absorbs and
radiates heat that is readily transmitted to the air immediately above. At about 6,000 metres
(19,700 feet) an anticyclonic cell arises, causing a strong easterly flow in the upper
troposphere above northern India. The subtropical jet stream suddenly changes its course to

the north of the anticyclonic ridge and the highlands, though it may occasionally reappear
southward of them for very brief periods. This change of the upper tropospheric circulation
above northern India from westerly jet to easterly flow coincides with a reversal of the
vertical temperature and pressure gradients between 600 and 300 millibars. On many
occasions the easterly wind aloft assumes jet force. It anticipates by a few days the “burst,” or
onset, of the surface southwesterly monsoon some 1,500 km (900 miles) farther south, with a
definite sequential relationship, although the exact cause is not known.
o Because of India’s inverted triangular shape, the land is heated progressively as the sun
moves northward. This accelerated spread of heating, combined with the general direction of
heat being transported by winds, results in a greater initial monsoonal activity over the
Arabian Sea (at late springtime), where a real frontal situation often occurs, than over the Bay
of Bengal. The relative humidity of coastal districts in the Indian region rises above 70
percent, and some rain occurs. Above the heated land, the air below 1,500 metres (5,000
feet) becomes unstable, but it is held down by the overriding easterly flow. This does not
prevent frequent thunderstorms from occurring in late May.
Peak period
o During June the easterly jet becomes firmly established at 150 to 100 millibars,
an atmospheric pressure region typically occurring at elevations between 13,700 and 16,100
metres (45,000 and 53,000 feet). It reaches its greatest speed at its normal position to the
south of the anticyclonic ridge, at about 15° N from China through India.
o In Arabia, it decelerates and descends to the middle troposphere (3,000 metres [9,800 feet]).
A stratospheric belt of very cold air, analogous to the one normally found above the
intertropical convergence near the Equator, occurs above the anticyclonic ridge, across
southern Asia at 30°–40° N and above the 500-millibar level (6,000 metres [19,700 feet]).
These upper-air features that arise so far away from the Equator are associated with the
surface monsoon and are absent when there is no monsoonal flow. The position of the
easterly jet controls the location of monsoonal rains, which occur ahead and to the left of the
strongest winds and also behind them and to the right.
o The surface flow, however, is a strong, southwesterly, humid, and unstable wind that
brings humidity of more than 80 percent and heavy squally showers that are the “burst” of
the monsoon. The overall pattern of the advance follows a frontal alignment, but local
episodes may differ considerably. The amount of rain is variable from year to year and place
to place.
o Most spectacular clouds and rain occur against the Western Ghats in India, where the
early monsoonal airstream piles up against the steep slopes, then recedes, and piles up again
to a greater height. Each time it pushes thicker clouds upward until wind and clouds roll over
the barrier and, after a few brief spells of absorption by the dry inland air, cascade toward the
interior. The windward slopes receive 2,000 to 5,000 mm (80 to 200 inches) of rain in the
monsoon season.
o Various factors, especially topography, combine to make up a complex regional pattern.
Oceanic air flowing toward India below 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) is deflected in accordance
with the Coriolis effect. The converging moist oncoming stream becomes unstable over the
hot land and is subject to rapid convection. Towering cumulonimbus clouds rise thousands of
metres, producing violent thunderstorms and releasing latent heat in the surrounding air. As

a result, the upper tropospheric warm

belt migrates northwestward from the
ocean to the land. The main body of
air above 9,000 metres (29,500 feet)
maintains a strong easterly flow.
o Later, in June and July, the
monsoon is strong and well-
established to a height of 6,000
metres (less in the far north), with
occasional thickening to 9,000
metres. Weather conditions are
cloudy, warm, and moist all over
India. Rainfall varies between 400
and 500 mm (16 and 20 inches), but
topography introduces some
extraordinary differences. On the
southern slopes of the Khasi Hills at
only 1,300 metres (4,300 feet), where
the moist airstreams are lifted and
overturned, the village of Cherrapunji
in Meghalaya state receives an
average rainfall of 2,730 mm (107
inches) in July, with record totals of
897 mm (35 inches) in 24 hours in
July 1915, more than 9,000 mm (354 inches) in July 1861, and 16,305 mm (642 inches) in the
monsoon season of 1899. Over the Ganges valley the monsoon, deflected by the Himalayan
barrier, becomes a southeasterly airflow. By then the upper tropospheric belt of warmth from
condensation has moved above northern India, with an oblique bias. The lowest pressures
prevail at the surface.
o It is mainly in July and August that waves of low pressure appear in the body of monsoonal
air. Fully developed depressions appear once or twice per month. They travel from east to
west more or less concurrently with high-level easterly waves and bursts of speed from the
easterly jet, causing a local strengthening of the low-level monsoonal flow. The rainfall
consequently increases and is much more evenly distributed than it was in June. Some of the
deeper depressions become tropical cyclones before they reach the land, and these bring
torrential rains and disastrous floods.
o A totally different development arises when the easterly jet moves farther north than usual.
The monsoonal wind rising over the southern slopes of the Himalayas brings heavy rains and
local floods. The weather over the central and southern districts, however, becomes suddenly
drier and remains so for as long as the abnormal shift lasts. The opposite shift is also
possible, with midlatitude upper air flowing along the south face of the Himalayas and
bringing drought to the northern districts. Such dry spells are known as “breaks” of the
monsoon. Those affecting the south of India are similar to those experienced on the Guinea
Coast during extreme northward shifts of the wind belts (see West African monsoon),
whereas those affecting the north are due to an interaction of the middle and low latitudes.
The southwest monsoon over the lower Indus plain is only 500 metres (about 1,600 feet)

thick and does not hold enough moisture to bring rain. On the other hand, the upper
tropospheric easterlies become stronger and constitute a true easterly jet stream. Western
Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia remain dry (probably because of the divergence in this jet) and
thus become the new source of surface heat.
Monsoon withdrawal
o By August the intensity and duration of sunshine have decreased, temperatures begin to fall,
and the surge of southwesterly air diminishes spasmodically almost to a standstill in the
northwest. Cherrapunji still receives over 2,000 mm (79 inches) of rainfall at this time,
however. In September, dry, cool, northerly air begins to circle the west side of the highlands
and spread over northwestern India. The easterly jet weakens, and the upper tropospheric
easterlies move much farther south. Because the moist southwesterlies at lower levels are
much weaker and variable, they are soon pushed back. The rainfall becomes extremely
variable over most of the region, but showers are still frequent in the southeastern areas and
over the Bay of Bengal.
o By early October, variable winds are very frequent everywhere. At the end of the month, the
entire Indian region is covered by northerly air and the winter monsoon takes shape. The
surface flow is deflected by the Coriolis force and becomes a northeasterly flow. This causes
an October–December rainy season for the extreme southeast of the Deccan (including the
Madras coast) and eastern Sri Lanka, which cannot be explained by topography alone
because it extends well out over the sea. Tropical depressions and cyclones are important
contributing factors.
o Most of India thus begins a sunny, dry, and dusty season. The driest period comes in
November in the Punjab; December in central India, Bengal, and Assam; January in the
northern Deccan; and February in the southern Deccan. Conversely, the western slopes of the
Karakoram Range and Himalayas are then reached by the midlatitude frontal depressions
that come from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The winter rains they receive, moderate
as they are, place them clearly outside the monsoonal realm.
o Because crops and water supplies depend entirely on monsoonal rains, it became imperative
that quantitative long-range weather forecasts be available. Embedded in the weather
patterns of other parts of the world are clues to the summer conditions in South Asia. These
clues often appear in the months leading up to monsoon onset. For a forecast to be released
at the beginning of June, South American pressure and Indian upper-wind data for the
month of April are examined. These data, though widely separated from one another, are
positively correlated and may be used as predictors of June conditions. Forecasts may be
further refined in May by comparing rainfall patterns in both Zimbabwe and Java with the
easterly winds above the city of Kolkata (Calcutta) in West Bengal state. In this situation the
correlation between rainfall and easterly winds is negative.
 WESTERN DISTURBANCE
o A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region
that brings sudden winter rain to the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is a
non-monsoonal precipitation pattern driven by the westerlies.

o The moisture in these storms usually originates over the Mediterranean Sea, the
Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
Formation
o Western disturbances originate in the Mediterranean region.
o A high-pressure area over Ukraine and neighbourhood consolidates, causing the
intrusion of cold air from polar regions towards an area of relatively warmer air with high
moisture.
o This generates favourable conditions for cyclogenesis in the upper atmosphere, which
promotes the formation of an eastward-moving extratropical depression.
o Traveling at speeds up to 12 m/s (43 km/h; 27 mph), the disturbance moves towards the
Indian subcontinent until the Himalayas inhibits its development, upon which the depression
rapidly weakens.
o The western disturbances are embedded in the mid-latitude subtropical westerly jet stream.
Impact of Western Disturbances on Indian climate

o Western disturbances are usually associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and
unusual rain.
o Western disturbances, specifically the ones in winter, bring moderate to heavy rain in low-
lying areas and heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.
o They are the cause of most winter and pre-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India.
o Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture, particularly for
the rabi crops.
o Wheat among them is one of the most important crops, which helps to meet India’s food
security.
Are there any ill-effects of Western Disturbances?

o Excessive precipitation due to western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides,
floods and avalanches.
o Over the Indo-Gangetic plains, they occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog.
These conditions remain stable until disturbed by another western disturbance.
o When western disturbances move across northwest India before the onset of monsoon, a
temporary advancement of monsoon current appears over the region.
CLIMATE PROTECTION
 CLIMATE CHANGE
o The Earth's average temperature is about 15C but has been much higher and lower in the
past.
o There are natural fluctuations in the climate but scientists say temperatures are now rising
faster than at many other times.
o This is linked to the greenhouse effect, which describes how the Earth's atmosphere traps
some of the Sun's energy.

o Solar energy radiating back to space from the Earth's surface is absorbed by greenhouse
gases and re-emitted in all directions.
o This heats both the lower atmosphere and the surface of the planet. Without this effect, the
Earth would be about 30C colder and hostile to life.
o Scientists believe we are adding to the natural greenhouse effect, with gases released from
industry and agriculture trapping more energy and increasing the temperature.
o This is known as climate change or global warming.
What are greenhouse gases?
o The greenhouse gas with the greatest impact on warming is water vapour. But it remains in
the atmosphere for only a few days.
o Carbon dioxide (CO2), however, persists for much longer. It would take hundreds of
years for a return to pre-industrial levels and only so much can be soaked up by natural
reservoirs such as the oceans.
o Most man-made emissions of CO2 come from burning fossil fuels. When carbon-absorbing
forests are cut down and left to rot, or burned, that stored carbon is released, contributing to
global warming.
o Since the Industrial Revolution began in about 1750, CO2 levels have risen more than 30%.
The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is higher than at any time in at least 800,000
years.
o Other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide are also released through
human activities but they are less abundant than carbon dioxide.
What is the evidence for warming?
o The world is about one degree Celsius warmer than before widespread industrialisation,
according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
o It says the past five years, 2015–2019, were the warmest on record.
o Across the globe, the average sea level increased by 3.6mm per year between 2005
and 2015.
o Most of this change was because water increases in volume as it heats up.
o However, melting ice is now thought to be the main reason for rising sea levels. Most glaciers
in temperate regions of the world are retreating.
o And satellite records show a dramatic decline in Arctic sea-ice since 1979. The
Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record melting in recent years.
o Satellite data also shows the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is losing mass. A recent study
indicated East Antarctica may also have started to lose mass.
o The effects of a changing climate can also be seen in vegetation and land animals. These
include earlier flowering and fruiting times for plants and changes in the territories of
animals.
How much will temperatures rise in future?
o The change in the global surface temperature between 1850 and the end of the 21st
Century is likely to exceed 1.5C, most simulations suggest.
o The WMO says that if the current warming trend continues, temperatures could rise 3-5C by
the end of this century.

o Temperature rises of 2C had long been regarded as the gateway to dangerous warming. More
recently, scientists and policymakers have argued that limiting temperature rises to 1.5C is
safer.
o An Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report in 2018 suggested that
keeping to the 1.5C target would require "rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in
all aspects of society".
o The UN is leading a political effort to stabilise greenhouse-gas emissions. China emits more
CO2 than any other country. It is followed by the US and the European Union member states,
although emissions per person are much greater there.
o But even if we now cut greenhouse-gas emissions dramatically, scientists say the effects will
continue. Large bodies of water and ice can take hundreds of years to respond to changes in
temperature. And it takes CO2 decades to be removed from the atmosphere.
How will climate change affect us?
o There is uncertainty about how great the impact of a changing climate will be.
o It could cause fresh water shortages, dramatically alter our ability to produce food,
and increase the number of deaths from floods, storms and heatwaves. This is because
climate change is expected to increase the frequency of extreme weather events -
though linking
any single event to
global warming is
complicated.
o As the world
warms, more
water evaporates,
leading to more
moisture in the
air. This means
many areas will
experience more
intense rainfall
- and in some
places snowfall.
But the risk of
drought in
inland areas
during hot
summers will
increase. More
flooding is
expected from storms and rising sea levels. But there are likely to be very strong regional
variations in these patterns.
o Poorer countries, which are least equipped to deal with rapid change, could suffer the most.
o Plant and animal extinctions are predicted as habitats change faster than species can adapt.
And the World Health Organization (WHO) has warned that the health of millions could be
threatened by increases in malaria, water-borne disease and malnutrition.

 IPCC
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body
for assessment of climate change.
o It is a key source of scientific information and technical guidance to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol and Paris
Agreement. The IPCC provides governments at all levels with scientific information they can
use to develop climate policies.
o The IPCC is an organisation of governments that are members of the United
Nations or the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The IPCC currently
has 195 members.
o The IPCC Plenary is the main body of IPCC members. Representatives of IPCC member
governments meet one or more times a year in Plenary Sessions of the Panel. They elect a
Bureau of scientists for the duration of an assessment cycle. Governments and Observer
Organisations nominate, and Bureau members select, experts to prepare IPCC reports.
IPCC’s main activities are to prepare:

o comprehensive Assessment Reports on climate change, its causes, impacts and response
options.
o Methodology Reports which provide practical guidance to Parties to help them prepare
national greenhouse gas inventories.
o Special Reports on topics that inform the Assessment Reports.
o The IPCC does not undertake new research but synthesises published and peer-
reviewed literature to develop a comprehensive assessment of scientific understanding,
published in IPCC Assessment Reports.
o The IPCC’s work is guided by a set of principles and procedures that govern all the main
activities of the organisation. IPCC member governments and observer organisations
nominate experts and the IPCC Bureau selects authors and editors, with expertise in a range
of scientific, technical and socio-economic fields. IPCC reports are the product of multiple
drafting and review processes to promote an objective, comprehensive and transparent
assessment of current knowledge.
o The IPCC was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Sixth Assessment Report

o The IPCC is now in its sixth assessment cycle, in which the IPCC is producing the Sixth
Assessment Report (AR6). It will provide an update on the scientific, technical and socio-
economic aspects of climate change, its causes, potential impacts and response strategies. It
is divided into three main topics with each prepared by a separate Working Group:
 Physical Sciences
 Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability
 Mitigation of Climate Change

Special Reports:
The IPCC delivered three Special Reports between 2018 and 2019:
1. Global warming of 1.5°C assesses literature relevant to global warming of 1.5°C and for
the comparison between global warming of 1.5°C and 2°C above pre-industrial levels. It was
requested by the Parties to the Paris Agreement to inform key aspects of climate policy and
strengthening the global response to climate change.
2. The Ocean and the Cryosphere in a Changing Climate assesses how the ocean and
cryosphere have and are expected to change with ongoing global warming. It also assesses the
risks and opportunities these changes bring to ecosystems and people, and options for
reducing future risks.
3. Climate Change and Land provides information on the impacts of climate change on land
systems and opportunities for action. The report covers climate change and its relevance to
land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in
terrestrial ecosystems.
 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GREEN HOUSE GASES
Concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant greenhouse gas, reached 413.2
parts per million in 2020 and is 149% of the pre-industrial level. Methane (CH4) is 262% and
nitrous oxide (N2O) is 123% of the levels in 1,750 when human activities started disrupting
earth’s natural equilibrium.
About GHGs
o Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are a group of gases that are able to absorb heat in the atmosphere
keeping the earth’s surface warm. This absorbed heat/thermal radiation by the greenhouse
gases is re-radiated back to earth’s surface in all directions. This ability of gases to trap heat
in thermal form and spread evenly at earth’s surface is known as Greenhouse effect.
o The spreading of these greenhouse gases is responsible for the heat required to sustain life on
earth. But the presence of these GHGs in excess enhances the Greenhouse effect which is
creating global warming and consequently climate change.
o Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) are the
primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
o Along with the rapid industrialisation in the 19th and 20th centuries human activities such as
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have increased the level of the presence of these
gases within the earth’s atmosphere.
UNFCCC’s (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) Kyoto Protocol has
recognised six main greenhouse gases primarily responsible for global warming. They are:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs),
Per fluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
o The most dominant greenhouse gas overall is water vapour, but it has a very short
atmospheric lifetime (about 10 days) and is very nearly in a dynamic equilibrium in the
atmosphere, so it is not a forcing gas in the context of global warming.
o CO2 is identified as the dominant greenhouse gas followed by methane and nitrous oxide as
the major forcing contributors to global warming.

o Maximum anthropogenic GHG emissions is from Power stations followed by Industries,

Transportation fuels, Agriculture by-products, Land use and burning, etc.
Green House Gas Sources and Causes
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites,
Methane (CH4)
burning of fossil fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, fertilizer factories.
Nitrous oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Hydro fluorocarbons Used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents and fire
(HFCs) retardants.
Per fluorocarbons Produced as a by-product in aluminium production and
(PFCs) manufacturing of semi-conductors.
Sulphur hexafluoride Used as tracer gas for leak detection, used in electrical transmission
(SF6) equipment
 CARBON CREDIT
o A carbon credit is a tradable permit or certificate that provides the holder of the credit the
right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or an equivalent of another greenhouse
gas – it’s essentially an offset for producers of such gases.
o The main goal for the creation of carbon credits is the reduction of emissions of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from industrial activities to reduce the effects
of global warming.
o Carbon credits are market mechanisms for the minimization of greenhouse gases
emission.
o Governments or regulatory authorities set the caps on greenhouse gas emissions.
o For some companies, the immediate reduction of the emission is not economically viable.
Therefore, they can purchase carbon credits to comply with the emission cap.
o Companies that achieve the carbon offsets (reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases) are
usually rewarded with additional carbon credits. The sale of credit surpluses may be
used to subsidize future projects for the reduction of emissions.
The introduction of such credits was ratified in the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement
validates the application of carbon credits and sets the provisions for the further facilitation of
the carbon credits markets.
Types of Carbon Credits

There are two types of credits:
o Voluntary emissions reduction (VER): A carbon offset that is exchanged in the over-
the-counter or voluntary market for credits.
o Certified emissions reduction (CER): Emission units (or credits) created through a
regulatory framework with the purpose of offsetting a project’s emissions. The main
difference between the two is that there is a third-party certifying body that regulates the
CER as opposed to the VER.

Trading Credits
o Carbon credits can be traded on both private and public markets. Current rules of trading
allow the international transfer of credits.
o The prices of credits are primarily driven by the levels of supply and demand in the markets.
Due to the differences in the supply and demand in different countries, the prices of the
credits fluctuate.
o Although carbon credits are beneficial to society, it is not easy for an average investor to start
using them as investment vehicles. The certified emissions reductions (CERs) are the only
product that can be used as investments in the credits.
o However, CERs are sold by special carbon funds established by large financial institutions.
The carbon funds provide small investors with the opportunity to enter the market.
o There are special exchanges that specialize in the trading of the credits, including the
European Climate Exchange, the NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe exchange, and the
European Energy Exchange.
 CO2 BUDGET

o A CO₂ budget determines how much CO₂ a country or person is allowed to emit in order to
achieve the global climate protection goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C.
o In Germany, German citizens cause an average of 10 tonnes of CO₂ per capita and year.
o In terms of the climate protection target, however, only 1 tonne of CO₂ per person and
year is acceptable.
 METHANE
o Methane (CH4) is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas.
o Methane is also a greenhouse gas (GHG), so its presence in the atmosphere affects the
earth’s temperature and climate system. Methane is emitted from a variety of anthropogenic
(human-influenced) and natural sources. Anthropogenic emission sources include landfills,
oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile
combustion, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes.
o Methane is the second most abundant anthropogenic GHG after carbon dioxide
(CO2), accounting for about 20 percent of global emissions.
o Methane is more than 25 times as potent as carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the
atmosphere. Over the last two centuries, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have
more than doubled, largely due to human-related activities. Because methane is both a
powerful greenhouse gas and short-lived compared to carbon dioxide, achieving significant
reductions would have a rapid and significant effect on atmospheric warming potential.
Who are the biggest methane emitters?

o China, the United States, Russia, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Mexico are estimated
to be responsible for nearly half of all anthropogenic methane emissions.
o The major methane emission sources for these countries vary greatly. For example, a key
source of methane emissions in China is coal production, whereas Russia emits most of its
methane from natural gas and oil systems.
o The largest sources of methane emissions from human activities in the United States are oil
and gas systems, livestock enteric fermentation, and landfills.
 CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE

TECHNOLOGY
o Carbon capture and storage technology (CCS) has been hailed as a key component in the
world’s shift towards renewable energy.
o With global CO2 emissions hitting a historic high, growing by more than 1.3% to a record of
more than 33 billion tonnes, the need for tools that can help limit pollution has never been
greater.
o The Global CCS Institute claims CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in the energy
sector contribute roughly 30% to the amount of the pollutant present in the EU, specifically.
o Renewable energy presents a possible solution to this, but its ability to cater the world’s
power demand, which is expected to rise by 50% by 2030, according to the UK’s Carbon
Capture and Storage Association (CCSA), is up for debate – this is where CCS comes in.

o The International Energy Agency recently concluded that, to meet the goals of the Paris
Agreement, CCS will need to contribute 32% of the extra effort to move from a 2C scenario to
well below 2C.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that without CCS, the
cost of trying to meet global climate change goals will increase by almost 140%.
Here we take a closer look at CCS and how it works.
What is carbon capture and storage technology?

o CCS is a
technology
reportedly
capable of
capturing
up to 90%
of the CO2
emissions
produced
by the
burning
of fossil
fuels to
generate
electricity,
as well as
those used
in
industrial
processes,
and prevent
it from
polluting the atmosphere.
o Fossil fuel power plants can be built with the technology already integrated or it can also
be combined with renewable biomass to create a “carbon-negative” mode the goes
one step further by actually removing CO2 from the planet.
o The Global CCS Institute says there are 18 large-scale CCS facilities currently in operation,
with an additional five under construction.
o Some carbon storage facilities date back multiple decades, such as the Sleipner project in the
North Sea, while others remain under construction, like the Gorgon project in Western
Australia.
o First, CCS involves capturing CO2, before transporting it to be stored in geological rock
formations thousands of metres below the Earth’s surface.
o The initial part of the process involves separating CO2 from the gasses produced in power
generation and industrial processes, such as manufacturing cement or steel, by pre-
combustion capture, post-combustion capture or oxy-fuel combustion.

o The pollutant is then transporting using either a pipeline or a ship in much the same way the
millions of tonnes of CO2 are transported each year for various commercial purposes, chiefly
by countries such as the US.
o It is then stored in depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifer formations, which the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says can retain 99% of the pollutant over
a 1000-year period.
o At every point in the CCS chain, from production to storage, industry has at its disposal a
number of process technologies that are well understood and have excellent health and safety
records
o The commercial deployment of CCS will involve the widespread adoption of these techniques,
combined with robust monitoring techniques and government regulation.
Capturing CO2
Pre-combustion capture
o Pre-combustion systems, as provided by manufacturing companies such as British
engineering firm Costain, convert solid, liquid or gaseous fuel into a blend of hydrogen and
CO2 using processes like “gasification” or “reforming”.
o This can then be used to fuel electricity production, and the CCSA claims it will be able to
power vehicles and provide heating, with extremely low emissions, in the future.
Post-combustion capture
o Post-combustion capture involves capturing the CO2 from the exhaust of a combustion
system and absorbing it into a solvent, before removing and compressing the pollutant
elements.
o CO2 can also be separated using high-pressure membrane filtration, as well as cryogenic
separation processes.
Oxy-fuel combustion
o Using oxy-fuel combustion, oxygen is separated from the air before combustion, with the fuel
then being combusted in oxygen using recycled flue-gas.
o This creates an atmosphere full of oxygen and nitrogen with flue-gases comprising CO2 and
water, allowing for easier purification of the former.
Transporting CO2
o Transporting captured CO2 involves many of the same techniques as used for oil and natural
gas, including road tankers, ships and pipelines.
o Many of the networks in use today have been operational for more than 30 years, providing
safe and regulation-consistent methods of getting the pollutant from A to B.
o The CCSA says: “There is significant potential for the development of local and regional CCS
pipeline infrastructure, leading to CCS ‘clusters’ where CO2-intensive industries could
locate”.
o Developing clusters, where infrastructure can be shared by a number of industrial sources of
carbon dioxide emissions, will result in the most cost-effective way to deliver CCS
infrastructure development and ultimately lower costs to consumers.

Storing CO2
o Storage sites for captured CO2 range from defunct oil and gas fields to underground
saline formations, porous rocks filled with salt water, while it can also injected
into depleting oil fields to increase their output.
o After being injected into such a formation, the CO2 is trapped by a layer of impermeable rock,
known as the cap rock, preventing it from entering and polluting the atmosphere above in a
process referred to as “structural storage.”
o Deep saline aquifers offer the greatest storage capacity over the long term, according to the
CCSA, but remain a relative unknown in many areas.
 UNFCCC
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international
environment treaty opened for signature in 1992. It came into force from 1994. Secretariat is
located in Bonn, Germany. The convention is legally non-binding, but makes provisions for
meeting called protocols where negotiating countries can set legally binding limits.
o It aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The
framework set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and
contains no enforcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific
international treaties (called "protocols" or "Agreements") may be negotiated to set binding
limits on greenhouse gases. Kyoto Protocol was negotiated under this framework.
o One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national
greenhouse inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, which were used
to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol
and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions. Updated inventories must be
regularly submitted by Annex I countries. Annex I, Annex II countries and developing
countries.
Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

o Annex I countries: Industrialized countries and economies in transition.
o Annex II countries: Developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries.
Annex II countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries.
o Non-Annex I countries: Developing countries are not required to reduce emission levels
unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology.
o Setting no immediate restrictions under UNFCCC serves three purposes: i. It
avoids restrictions on their development, because emissions are strongly linked to industrial
capacity; ii. They can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty
meeting their emissions targets; iii. they get money and technologies for low-carbon
investments from Annex II countries; iv. Developing countries may volunteer to become
Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed; v. India is Non Annex party to
UNFCCC.

 REDD and REDD+

o It is a mechanism negotiated under UNFCC since 2005.
o Its objective is to mitigate climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse
gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries.
o Inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the
objectives of the UNFCCC.
o During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol the inclusion of tropical forest management
was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in
establishing – in particular – additionality and leakage (detrimental effects outside of the
project area attributable to project activities).
o India did not participate in UN-REDD.
o REDD+ (Defined in Bali Action Plan, 2007, CoP13)
o What constitutes "+": 1. sustainable management of forests, 2. conservation of forest
carbon stocks and 3. enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
What is the difference between REDD and REDD+?

o REDD = "reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries"
o REDD+ (or REDD-plus) = to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries"
o REDD+ is essentially a vehicle to financially reward developing countries for their
verified efforts to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases through a
variety of forest management option.
o India favours REDD+
 OZONE LAYER
Two facets of Ozone: Near the ground, ozone is an air pollutant that causes lung damage and
asthma attacks. But 10 to 30 miles
above the Earth’s surface (16-48
km), ozone molecules protect life
on Earth. They help shield our
planet from harmful solar
radiation.
o The ozone layer, in the
stratosphere, is where about
90% of the ozone in the
Earth system is found. But
ozone makes up only one to ten
out of every million molecules
in the ozone layer. (The rest of
the molecules are mostly nitrogen and oxygen, like the air we breathe.) There isn't much of
it, but ozone is powerful, able to block the most harmful radiation.

o Ozone absorbs the most energetic wavelengths of ultraviolet light, known as UV-C
and UV-B, wavelengths that harm living things. Oxygen molecules absorb other forms of
ultraviolet light, too.
o Together, ozone and oxygen molecules are able to absorb 95 to 99.9% of the ultraviolet
radiation that gets to our planet. When UV light is absorbed by oxygen and ozone, heat is
generated, which is why the stratosphere gets warmer with altitude.
o Ozone and oxygen molecules are constantly being formed, destroyed, and
reformed in the ozone layer as they are bombarded by ultraviolet radiation (UV), which
breaks the bonds between atoms, creating free oxygen atoms.
o Free oxygen atoms are highly reactive, meaning that they bond easily with other molecules. If
a free oxygen atom bumps into an oxygen molecule (O2), it will form ozone (O3). If a free
oxygen atom bumps into another oxygen atom, it will form an oxygen molecule (O2).
Ozone Holes
o British scientists at Halley Bay, Antarctica have detected a 10% drop in ozone levels during
September, October, and November—the Antarctic spring. Since ozone concentrations over
this region often vary from season to season, the researchers weren't concerned, but record
low ozone levels kept occurring nearly every spring. No one knew why.
o They were the first to find an ozone hole and it would later be identified as the world's largest
ozone hole. An ozone hole is really not a hole but rather a thinning of the ozone layer in
the stratosphere that changes seasonally. At some times of year, the “hole” is larger. At
other times, it’s smaller.
o It wasn't until 1985 that scientists were certain that this was a major problem and it was
human-caused. The culprits were chemical compounds called chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which started to be used in the 1960s in air conditioners, aerosol spray cans, and
industrial cleaning products. They were also used to make Styrofoam. And they were capable
of breaking apart ozone molecules, causing the breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere to
happen faster than it could be built back up.
o UV radiation breaks
a chlorine atom off a
CFC molecule. The
chlorine atom breaks an
ozone molecule apart
into an oxygen
molecule (O2) and a
chlorine monoxide
molecule (ClO). A free
oxygen atom bumps the
chlorine atom out,
forming an oxygen
molecule. This leaves the
chlorine atom free to
attack and destroy
another ozone molecule.

o Once in the atmosphere, CFCs drift slowly upward to the stratosphere, where they are broken
up by ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlorine atoms, which are able to destroy ozone
molecules.
o The seasons have an impact on the Antarctic ozone hole. During the dark winter, air swirls in
a vortex with very low temperatures that cause icy clouds to form. Reactions on the surface of
icy cloud particles release chlorine from chemical compounds like CFCs, into a form that
reacts with ozone. When sunlight returns in the spring, the chlorine begins to destroy ozone.
o There isn’t much ozone depletion in the Arctic because icy clouds are less common and the
vortex normally breaks down several weeks before sunlight returns in the spring.
Solving the Problem of Ozone Destruction

o The Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to address the global problem of ozone
destruction, was signed by more than 70 countries in 1986. It set goals of reducing CFC
production 20% by 1993 and 50% by 1998. Since the agreement was signed, these targets
have been strengthened to call for the elimination of the most dangerous CFCs by 1996 and
for regulation of other ozone-depleting chemicals.
o Scientists detected the problem and identified the cause of the problem. Their evidence
convinced governments around the world to take action to help stop the problem. The global
elimination of ozone-depleting chemicals from the atmosphere will take decades, but we have
made progress on filling in the hole. It was the first time in history that we tackled a global-
scale environmental issue with worldwide cooperation.
 CLIMATE FINANCE
o Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing—drawn from
public, private and alternative sources of financing—that seeks to support mitigation and
adaptation actions that will address climate change.
o The Convention, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement call for financial
assistance from Parties with more financial resources to those that are less endowed and
more vulnerable. This recognizes that the contribution of countries to climate change and
their capacity to prevent it and cope with its consequences vary enormously.
o Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large-scale investments are
required to significantly reduce emissions. Climate finance is equally important for
adaptation, as significant financial resources are needed to adapt to the adverse effects and
reduce the impacts of a changing climate.
o In accordance with the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and
respective capabilities” set out in the Convention, developed country Parties are to
provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties in implementing the
objectives of the UNFCCC. The Paris Agreement reaffirms the obligations of developed
countries, while for the first time also encouraging voluntary contributions by other Parties.
Developed country Parties should also continue to take the lead in mobilizing climate finance
from a wide variety of sources, instruments and channels, noting the significant role of public
funds, through a variety of actions, including supporting country-driven strategies, and
taking into account the needs and priorities of developing country Parties. Such mobilization
of climate finance should represent a progression beyond previous efforts.

o It is important for all governments and stakeholders to understand and assess the financial
needs of developing countries, as well as to understand how these financial resources can be
mobilized. Provision of resources should also aim to achieve a balance between adaptation
and mitigation.
o Overall, efforts under the Paris Agreement are guided by its aim of making finance flows
consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient
development. Assessing progress in provision and mobilization of support is also part of the
global stocktake under the Agreement. The Paris Agreement also places emphasis on the
transparency and enhanced predictability of financial support.
What is the financial mechanism? What are the other funds?

o To facilitate the provision of climate finance, the Convention established a financial
mechanism to provide financial resources to developing country Parties. The financial
mechanism also serves the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
o The Convention states that the operation of the financial mechanism can be entrusted to one
or more existing international entities. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has
served as an operating entity of the financial mechanism since the Convention’s entry into
force in 1994.
o At COP 16, in 2010, Parties established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and in 2011
also designated it as an operating entity of the financial mechanism. The financial
mechanism is accountable to the COP, which decides on its policies, programme priorities
and eligibility criteria for funding.
o In addition to providing guidance to the GEF and the GCF, Parties have established two
special funds—the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed
Countries Fund (LDCF), both managed by the GEF—and the Adaptation Fund (AF)
established under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001.
o At the Paris Climate Change Conference in 2015, the Parties agreed that the operating entities
of the financial mechanism – GCD and GEF – as well as the SCCF and the LDCF shall serve
the Paris Agreement. Regarding the Adaptation Fund serving the Paris Agreement
negotiations are underway in the Ad hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement (APA).
Standing Committee on Finance

o At COP 16 in 2010, Parties decided to establish the Standing Committee on Finance (SCF) to
assist the COP in exercising its functions in relation to the financial mechanism of the
Convention.
o Currently, the SCF has four specific functions:
1. assisting the COP in improving coherence and coordination in the delivery of climate change
financing;
2. assisting the COP in rationalization of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC;
3. supporting the COP in the mobilization of financial resources for climate financing; and
4. supporting the COP in the measurement, reporting and verification of support provided to
developing country Parties.
o The Committee is also tasked to organize an annual forum on climate finance, provide the
COP with draft guidance for the operating entities, provide expert input into the conduct of
the periodic reviews of the financial mechanism and prepare a biennial assessment and

overview of climate finance flows. Furthermore, the SCF is designed to improve the linkages
and to promote the coordination with climate finance related actors and initiatives both
within and outside of the Convention. At the Paris Conference in 2015, Parties decided that
the SCF shall also serve the Paris Agreement.
Long-term climate finance

o The long-term finance process is aimed at progressing on the mobilization and scaling up of
climate finance of resources originating from a wide variety of sources, public and private,
bilateral and multilateral, including alternative sources. The COP decided on the following
activities through to 2020: organization, by the secretariat, of annual in-session workshops;
developed countries providing, on a biennial basis, information on strategies and approaches
for scaling up climate finance; and convening of biennial high-level ministerial dialogue on
climate finance.
o Through the Cancun Agreements in 2010 developed country Parties committed, in the
context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation, to a goal of
mobilizing jointly USD 100 billion per year by 2020 to address the needs of developing
countries. When adopting the Paris Agreement Parties confirmed this goal, called for a
concrete road map to achieve the goal by 2020, and agreed that prior to 2025 the Conference
of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) shall set a
new collective quantified goal from a floor of USD 100 billion per year.
What is the finance portal?

o The UNFCCC website includes climate finance data portal with helpful explanations, graphics
and figures for better understanding the climate finance process and as a gateway to
information on activities funded in developing countries to implement climate action. The
finance portal comprises three modules, each of which includes information made available
by Parties and the operating entities of the financial mechanism.
1. The first module, the National Communications Module, presents information
communicated by contributing countries on the provision of financial resources, in the
context of regular reporting to the Convention.
2. The second module, the Fast-start Finance Module, includes information on resources
provided by developed countries in the context of their commitment to provide
approximately USD 30 billion over the period 2010–2012.
3. The third module, on Funds Managed by the GEF, is a joint effort between the secretariat
of the UNFCCC and the GEF and contains information on climate finance flows of the GEF in
its role as one of the operating entities of the financial mechanism to the Convention.
o Additionally, information on projects and programmes of the Adaptation Fund can be found
in the finance portal. This fund was established under the Kyoto Protocol to finance concrete
adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol.

 GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN (GRAP)

The air quality crisis of Delhi has become an annual affair for the past several years. Around
the onset of the winter season, the government implements its Graded Response Action Plan
(GRAP) for immediate relief from the dropping air quality. However, official data suggested
that Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) deteriorates even when the GRAP is in place.
About GRAP
o Approved by the Supreme Court in 2016.
o GRAP works only as an emergency measure. As such, the plan does not include action
by various state governments to be taken throughout the year to tackle industrial, vehicular
and combustion emissions.
o The plan is incremental in nature — therefore, when the air quality moves from ‘Poor’
to ‘Very Poor’, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed.
o If air quality reaches the ‘Severe+’ stage, the response under GRAP includes extreme
measures such as shutting down schools and implementing the odd-even road-space
rationing scheme.
o GRAP has been successful in doing two things that had not been done before — creating a
step-by-step plan for the entire Delhi-NCR region, and getting on board several agencies: all
pollution control boards, industrial area authorities, municipal corporations, regional
officials of the India Meteorological Department, and others.
o The plan requires action and coordination among 13 different agencies in Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan (NCR areas). At the head of the table is the EPCA,
mandated by the Supreme Court.
o GRAP was notified in 2017 by the Centre and draws its authority from this notification.
Before the imposition of any measures, EPCA holds a meeting with representatives from all
NCR states, and a call is taken on which actions have to be made applicable in which town.
o A blanket ban on the DG sets for Delhi-NCR towns from October 15 onward was announced
last year as well. However, issues were raised by the Haryana power secretary at the time
about deficiencies in the electrical infrastructure in commercial and residential areas
developed by builders in Gurgaon.
Has GRAP helped?

o The biggest success of GRAP has been in fixing accountability and deadlines. For each
action to be taken under a particular air quality category, executing agencies are clearly
marked. In a territory like Delhi, where a multiplicity of authorities has been a long-standing
impediment to effective governance, this step made a crucial difference. Also, coordination
among as many as 13 agencies from four states is simplified to a degree because of the clear
demarcation of responsibilities.
o Three major policy decisions that can be credited to EPCA and GRAP are the closure of the
thermal power plant at Badarpur, bringing BS-VI fuel to Delhi before the deadline set
initially, and the ban on Pet coke as a fuel in Delhi-NCR.
o The initial mandate of the body was to ensure that Delhi’s bus and auto fleet moves entirely
to CNG — a mammoth task that played a crucial role in cleaning Delhi’s air in the late 2000s.

o The body continues to monitor pollution, and assists the Supreme Court in several pollution-
related matters.
ACTIONS UNDER GRAP

Severe+ or Emergency o Stop entry of trucks into Delhi (except essential commodities)
(PM 2.5 over 300 o Stop construction work
µg/cubic metre or PM10 o Introduce odd/even scheme for private vehicles and minimise
over 500 µg/cu. m. for exemptions
48+ hours) o Task Force to decide any additional steps including shutting
of schools
o Close brick kilns, hot mix plants, stone crushers
Severe
o Maximise power generation from natural gas to reduce
(PM 2.5 over 250 µg/cu.
generation from coal
m. or PM10 over 430
o Encourage public transport, with differential rates
µg/cu. m.)
o More frequent mechanised cleaning of road and sprinkling of
water
o Stop use of diesel generator sets
Very Poor
o Enhance parking fee by 3-4 times
(PM2.5 121-250 µg/cu. m.
o Increase bus and Metro services
or PM10 351-430 µg/cu.
m.) o Apartment owners to discourage burning fires in winter by
providing electric heaters during winter
o Advisories to people with respiratory and cardiac conditions
to restrict outdoor movement
o Heavy fines for garbage burning
Moderate to poor
o Close/enforce pollution control regulations in brick kilns and
(PM2.5 61-120 µg/cu. m.
industries
or PM10 101-350 µg/cu.
o Mechanised sweeping on roads with heavy traffic and water
m.)
sprinkling
o Strictly enforce ban on firecrackers
 GREEN ENERGY
o Green energy is any energy type that is generated from natural resources, such as
sunlight, wind or water. It often comes from renewable energy sources although there are
some differences between renewable and green energy, which we will explore, below.
o The key with these energy resources are that they don’t harm the environment through
factors such as releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
o As a source of energy, green energy often comes from renewable energy technologies such as
solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectric power. Each of
these technologies works in different ways, whether that is by taking power from the sun, as
with solar panels, or using wind turbines or the flow of water to generate energy.

What Does it Mean?

o In order to be deemed green energy, a resource cannot produce pollution, such as is
found with fossil fuels. This means that not all sources used by the renewable energy industry
are green. For example, power generation that burns organic material from sustainable
forests may be renewable, but it is not necessarily green, due to the CO2 produced by the
burning process itself.
o Green energy sources are usually naturally replenished, as opposed to fossil fuel sources
like natural gas or coal, which can take millions of years to develop. Green sources also often
avoid mining or drilling operations that can be damaging to eco-systems.
Types: The main sources are wind energy, solar power and hydroelectric power
(including tidal energy, which uses ocean energy from the tides in the sea). Solar and
wind power are able to be produced on a small scale at people’s homes or alternatively,
they can be generated on a larger, industrial scale. The six most common forms are as
follows:
1. Solar Power: This common renewable, green energy source is usually produced using
photovoltaic cells that capture sunlight and turn it into electricity. Solar power is also used
to heat buildings and for hot water as well as for cooking and lighting. Solar power has now
become affordable enough to be used for domestic purposes including garden lighting,
although it is also used on a larger scale to power entire neighbourhoods.
2. Wind Power: Particularly suited to offshore and higher altitude sites, wind energy uses the
power of the flow of air around the world to push turbines that then generate electricity.
3. Hydropower: Also known as hydroelectric power, this type of green energy uses the flow of
water in rivers, streams, dams or elsewhere to produce energy. Hydropower can even work
on a small scale using the flow of water through pipes in the home or can come from
evaporation, rainfall or the tides in the oceans.
4. Geothermal Energy: This type of green power uses thermal energy that has been stored
just under the earth’s crust. While this resource requires drilling to access, thereby calling the
environmental impact into question, it is a huge resource once tapped into. Geothermal
energy has been used for bathing in hot springs for thousands of years and this same resource
can be used for steam to turn turbines and generate electricity. The energy stored under the
United States alone is enough to produce 10 times as much electricity as coal currently can.
While some nations, such as Iceland, have easy-to-access geothermal resources, it is a
resource that is reliant on location for ease of use, and to be fully ‘green’ the drilling
procedures need to be closely monitored.
5. Biomass: This renewable resource also needs to be carefully managed in order to be truly
labelled as a ‘green energy’ source. Biomass power plants use wood waste, sawdust and
combustible organic agricultural waste to create energy. While the burning of these materials
releases greenhouse gas these emissions are still far lower than those from petroleum-based
fuels.
6. Biofuels: Rather than burning biomass as mentioned above, these organic materials can be
transformed into fuel such as ethanol and biodiesel. Having supplied just 2.7% of the world’s
fuel for transport in 2010, the biofuels are estimated to have the capacity to meet over 25% of
global transportation fuel demand by 2050.

Why is it Important?
o Green energy is important for the environment as it replaces the negative effects of
fossil fuels with more environmentally-friendly alternatives.
o Derived from natural resources, green energy is also often renewable and clean,
meaning that they emit no or few greenhouse gases and are often readily available.
o Even when the full life cycle of a green energy source is taken into consideration, they
release far less greenhouse gases than fossil fuels, as well as few or low levels of air
pollutants. This is not just good for the planet but is also better for the health of people and
animals that have to breathe the air.
o Green energy can also lead to stable energy prices as these sources are often
produced locally and are not as affected by geopolitical crisis, price spikes or
supply chain disruptions. The economic benefits also include job creation in building the
facilities that often serve the communities where the workers are employed. Renewable
energy saw the creation of 11 million jobs worldwide in 2018, with this number set to grow as
we strive to meet targets such as net zero.
o Due to the local nature of energy production through sources like solar and wind power, the
energy infrastructure is more flexible and less dependent on centralised sources
that can lead to disruption as well as being less resilient to weather related climate change.
o Green energy also represents a low cost solution for the energy needs of many parts of
the world. This will only improve as costs continue to fall, further increasing the accessibility
of green energy, especially in the developing world.
Which Type Is the Most Efficient?

o Renewable energy sources are currently ranked as follows in efficiency (although this may
change as developments continue):
 Wind Power
 Geothermal
 Hydropower
 Nuclear
 Solar Power
Green Energy vs Clean Energy vs Renewable Energy – What is the Difference?

o Green energy is that which comes from natural sources, such as the sun. Clean energy are
those types which do not release pollutants into the air, and renewable energy comes from
sources that are constantly being replenished, such as hydropower, wind power or solar
energy.
o Renewable energy is often seen as being the same, but there is still some debate around this.
For example, can a hydroelectric dam which may divert waterways and impact the local
environment really be called ‘green?’
o However, a source such as wind power is renewable, green and clean – since it comes from an
environmentally-friendly, self-replenishing and non-polluting source.

 OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Ocean renewable energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea
including wave energy, tidal energy, ocean current energy, salinity gradient energy and
ocean thermal gradient energy.
o Wave Energy: It is generated from the power of waves near their surface. It can be captured
through oscillating water columns, which trap waves in a column and change the air pressure
in the upper portion which drives a turbine.
o Tidal Energy: The Tides in the oceans are caused by the combined effects of gravitational
forces exerted by the Moon, the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Tidal Energy converts the
natural rise and fall of the tides into Electricity.
o Ocean Current Energy: It refers to harnessing the energy of the ocean currents to
generate electricity.
o Salinity gradient energy: Salinity gradient power is the energy created from the difference
in salt concentration between fresh and salt water, e.g., when a river flows into the sea.
Hence, Salinity gradient power plants are based on the natural mixing of fresh and salt water.
o Ocean thermal gradient energy: It is a technology for producing energy by harnessing
the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and deep
ocean waters.
o India has wave energy potential of 40,000 MW, tidal energy potential of 9000
MW and Ocean thermal gradient energy potential of around 180,000 MW.
o Tidal Energy: To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the height of
high tide must be at least five meters more than the low tide. The Gulf of Cambay
and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat with higher tidal ranges are considered to be suitable places
for harnessing tidal energy.
Benefits of harnessing ocean energy

o Optimum utilisation of Potential: India has a long coastline with estuaries and gulfs
where waves and tides are strong enough to move turbines for electrical power generation.
o Reliable and Predictable Power: As tides follow monthly cycle, which are more
predictable in nature, the dependence of tidal energy on rise and fall of tides makes tidal
energy a more uniform, reliable and predictable energy source. Similarly, wave energy is
reliable because of perpetual motion of ocean waves.
o Easier Grid Integration: The power generated from renewable sources such as wind and
solar is dependent on random weather patterns. Hence, the power generated may face grid
integration challenges due to their unpredictable nature. However, ocean energy, being
uniform and reliable does not pose grid integration challenges.
o Seashore protection: The Offshore breakwaters are used along beaches for providing
protection against coastal erosion by the waves. These structures can be combined with tidal
and wave energy projects to reap the dual benefits of sea shore protection and harnessing
tidal / wave energy.
o Higher Energy Density: Water has higher energy density than air i.e. it can store a larger
amount of energy per unit volume as compared to other forms of renewable energy, such as
the wind. Hence, for a given electricity output, tidal turbines can be much smaller than
equivalent wind turbines. Further, it is possible to harness energy at low speeds from wave
and tidal sources as compared to wind which require comparatively higher speeds.

o Less Visual and Noise Impact: Tidal and wave power systems have less prominent visual
impact as compared to wind and solar systems. They require less space as compared to wind
turbine or solar projects. Furthermore, they produce less amount of noise, unlike wind
turbines, which produce aerodynamic noise, thereby avoiding disturbance to the marine
surroundings.
o Socio-economic Impact: Ocean Energy projects provide a number of socio-economic
benefits for the coastal population ranging from local electricity production and
consumption, creation of job opportunities, creation of industrial clusters etc.
 SDG GOAL 7: AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY

o Lack of access to energy supplies and transformation systems is a constraint to human and
economic development. The environment provides a series of renewable and non-renewable
energy sources i.e. solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, biofuels, natural gas, coal,
petroleum, uranium.
o Increased use of fossil fuels without actions to mitigate greenhouse gases will have global
climate change implications. Energy efficiency and increase use of renewables contribute to
climate change mitigation and disaster risk reduction. Maintaining and protecting
ecosystems allow using and further developing hydropower sources of electricity and
bioenergy.
Facts:
o 3 billion people rely on wood, coal, charcoal or animal waste for cooking and heating.
o Energy is the dominant contributor to climate change, accounting for around 60 per cent of
total global greenhouse gas emissions
o Since 1990, global emissions of CO2 have increased by more than 46 per cent.
o Hydropower is the largest single renewable electricity source today, providing 16% of world
electricity at competitive prices. It dominates the electricity mix in several countries,
developed, emerging or developing.
o Bioenergy is the single largest renewable energy source today, providing 10% of world
primary energy supply.
Targets linked to the environment:

1. Target 7.1: By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy
services.
2. Target 7.2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global
energy mix.
3. Target 7.3: By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
4. Target 7.a: By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy
research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and
cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean
energy technology
5. Target 7.b: By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern
and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed
countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in
accordance with their respective programmes of support.

 NET-ZERO
India has promised to cut its emissions to net zero by 2070.
About Net Zero
o Net-zero, which is also referred to as carbon-neutrality, does not mean that a country would
bring down its emissions to zero. Rather, net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions
are compensated by absorption and removal of greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere.
o Absorption of the emissions can be increased by creating more carbon sinks such as forests,
while removal of gases from the atmosphere requires futuristic technologies such as carbon
capture and storage.
o This way, it is even possible for a country to have negative emissions, if the absorption and
removal exceed the actual emissions. A good example is Bhutan which is often
described as carbon-negative because it absorbs more than it emits.
o A very active campaign has been going on for the last two years to get every country to sign on
to a net-zero goal for 2050. It is being argued that global carbon neutrality by 2050 is the
only way to achieve the Paris Agreement target of keeping the planet’s temperature from
rising beyond 2°C compared to pre-industrial times.
What Does It Mean to Reach Net-Zero Emissions?
o We will achieve net-zero emissions when any remaining human-caused GHG emissions are
balanced out by removing GHGs from the atmosphere in a process known as carbon
removal.
o First and foremost, human-caused emissions — like those from fossil-fueled vehicles and
factories — should be reduced as close to zero as possible. Any remaining GHGs would be
balanced with an equivalent amount of carbon removal, for example by restoring forests or
through direct air capture and storage (DACS) technology.
o The concept of net-zero emissions is akin to "climate neutrality."
When Does the World Need to Reach Net-Zero Emissions?

o Under the Paris
Agreement, countries
agreed to limit
warming well below
2 degrees C (3.6
degrees F) and
ideally 1.5 degrees C
(2.7 degrees F).
Climate impacts that
are already unfolding
around the world,
even with only 1.1
degrees C (2 degrees
F) of warming —
from melting ice to
devastating heat waves and more intense storms — show the urgency of minimizing
temperature increase to no more than 1.5 degrees C. The latest science suggests that to meet

the Paris Agreement's temperature goals, the world will need to reach net-zero emissions on
the following timelines as given in image below:
o In scenarios that limit warming to 1.5 degrees C, carbon dioxide (CO2) reaches net-zero on
average by 2050 (in scenarios with low or no overshoot) to 2052 (in scenarios that have high
overshoot, in which temperature rise surpasses 1.5 degrees C for some time before being
brought down). Total GHG emissions reach net-zero between 2063 and 2068.
o In 2 degrees C scenarios, CO2 reaches net-zero on average by 2070 (in scenarios with a
greater than 66% likelihood of limiting warming to 2 degrees C) to 2085 (50–66%
likelihood). Total GHG emissions reach net-zero by the end of the century.
o The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5˚C, from the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), finds that if the world reaches net-zero emissions one-decade sooner,
by 2040, the chance of limiting warming to 1.5 degrees C is considerably higher. The sooner
emissions peak, and the lower they are at that point, the more realistic it is that we achieve
net-zero in time. We would also need to rely less on carbon removal in the second half of the
century.
Do All Countries Need to Reach Net-Zero at the Same Time?
o The timelines above are global averages. Because countries' economies and stages of
development vary widely, there is no one-size-fits-all timeline for individual countries.
o There are, however, hard physical limits to the total emissions the atmosphere can support
while limiting global temperature increase to the agreed goals of the Paris Agreement.
o At the very least, major emitters (such as the United States, the European Union and China)
should reach net-zero GHG emissions by 2050, or it will be hard for the math to work
regardless of what other countries do. Ideally, major emitters will reach net-zero much
earlier, given that the largest economies play an outsize role in determining the trajectory of
global emissions.
How Do We Achieve Net-Zero Emissions?
o Policy, technology and behavior need to shift across the board. For example, in pathways to
1.5 degrees C, renewables are projected to supply 70-85% of electricity by 2050.
o Energy efficiency and fuel-switching measures are critical for transportation.
o Improving the efficiency of food production, changing dietary choices, halting
deforestation, restoring degraded lands, and reducing food loss and waste also
have significant potential to reduce emissions.
o It is critical that the structural and economic transition necessary to limit warming to 1.5
degrees C is approached in a just manner, especially for workers tied to high-carbon
industries.
o The good news is that most of the technologies we need are available and they are
increasingly cost-competitive with high-carbon alternatives. Solar and wind now provide the
cheapest power for 67% of the world. Markets are waking up to these opportunities and to the
risks of a high-carbon economy, and shifting accordingly.
o Additionally, investments will need to be made in carbon removal. The different
pathways assessed by the IPCC to achieve 1.5 degrees C rely on different levels of carbon
removal, but all rely on it to some extent. Removing CO2 from the atmosphere will be
necessary to compensate for emissions from sectors in which reaching zero emissions is more
difficult, such as aviation. Carbon removal can be achieved by several means, including land-
based approaches (such as restoring forests and boosting soil uptake of carbon)

and technological approaches (such as direct air capture and storage, or

mineralization).
Does the Paris Agreement Commit Countries to Achieving Net-Zero Emissions?

o In short, yes.
The Paris Agreement has a long-term goal of achieving "a balance between anthropogenic
emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this
century , on the basis of equity, and in the context of sustainable development and efforts to
eradicate poverty." The concept of balancing emissions and removals is akin to reaching net-
zero emissions.
o Coupled with the ultimate goal to limit warming well below 2 degrees C, and aiming for 1.5
degrees C, the Paris Agreement commits governments to sharply reduce emissions and ramp
up efforts to reach net-zero emissions in time to avoid the worst consequences of climate
change. The Paris Agreement framework also invites countries to submit long-term, low-
emissions development strategies by 2020. These strategies can be a vehicle for setting net-
zero targets and chart how countries aim to make such transitions.
o Commitments to create bold short- and long-term targets that align with a net-zero emissions
future would send important signals to all levels of government, to the private sector, and to
the public that leaders are betting on a safe and prosperous future, rather than one
devastated by climate impacts.
 COP 27
Egypt’s coastal city of Sharm el-Sheikh hosted the 27th session of the Conference of Parties
(COP27) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Highlights of the meeting
o United Nations
Secretary-General
exclaimed that
humanity faces a
stark choice: work
together now to
cut emissions or
condemn future
generations to
climate
catastrophe.
o He also called for a
pact between the
richest and poorest countries of the world to accelerate the transition from fossil fuels and
funding to ensure poorer countries can reduce emissions and cope with the impacts that have
already occurred.
o It was reiterated that the planet is fast approaching tipping points that will certainly make the
climate chaos irreversible.

COP 27 Agenda
o The Sharm-El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to build
resilience for four billion people that are most vulnerable to climate, by 2030.
o Each outcome provides a global solution that can be adopted at a local level in response to
local climate risks like rising climate hazards in the form of floods, heatwaves, droughts, etc.
o These outcomes together present the first comprehensive global plan for both State and non-
State actors on a shared set of adaptation actions that are required to be adopted by the end
of this decade across major impact systems: food and agriculture, water and nature,
coastal and oceans, human settlements, and infrastructure, and including
enabling solutions for planning and finance.
o Climate-resilient, sustainable agriculture increases yields by 17% and

reduces farm-level GHG emissions by 21%, without expansion of the
agricultural frontier.
o Halve the share of food production lost, and per capita food waste (with
Food Security
and respect to 2019).
Agriculture
Systems o Healthy alternative proteins capture 15% of the global meat and seafood
market.
o The global consumption of fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, and legumes

increase by 1.5 times.
Water and o Protection of 45 million hectares (lands and inland waters), 2 billion
Nature hectares sustainable management, and 350 million hectares restoration
Systems of land securing legal indigenous and local communities with the use of

nature-based solutions to improve water security and livelihoods.
o By 2025: financial institutions contribute to halting land conversion by

eliminating commodity-driven deforestation from portfolios and tap into
nature-based solutions investment opportunities of USD 354 billion/year
needed by 2030.
o Water systems are smart, efficient, and robust with a reduction in water
loss through leakage.
o Wastewater systems maximize recycling and reuse alongside natural

wetland filtration with zero environmental spillage.
o Sustainable irrigation systems are implemented across 20% of global

croplands to preserve water availability whilst supporting yield growth.
o 1 billion people have better design, construction, and access to finance to

live in decent, safe homes.
o Smart and early warning systems reach 3 billion people.
o USD 1 trillion investment in nature-based solutions for communities in

Human urban areas.
Settlements
Systems o Harden social infrastructure to ensure access to basic and essential
community services.
o Increased use of waste as a secondary resource boosts the livelihoods of

informal workers and reduces open waste burning by 60%, lowering
pollution levels and improving the health of local communities.
o Invest USD 4 billion to secure the future of 15 million hectares of

mangroves globally through collective action on halting mangrove loss,
restoring half of the recent losses, doubling the protection of mangroves
globally, and ensuring sustainable long-term finance for all existing
mangroves.
Ocean and
Coastal o Halt loss, protect and restore coral reefs to support people in tropical
Systems communities.
o Halt loss, protect, and restore seagrass, marshes, and kelp forests to
support people in temperate communities.
o The urban coastline is protected by grey and hybrid solutions.
o A diverse set of energy generation sources enable affordable access to

electricity for 679 million unconnected people and higher quality access
Infrastructure
Systems for 1 billion underserved people through climate-resilient energy systems.
o 4 billion people with access to clean cooking through at least USD 10

billion/year in innovative finance for clean cooking action worldwide.
o 585 GW of battery storage capacity and extension of transmission and

distribution networks enable decentralized generation and consumption.
o 2 billion people access low-cost, clean vehicles and mobility solutions

through the expansion of affordable public and private transport services.
o Transport infrastructure is resilient to climate hazards through the

adoption of new technology, design, and materials.
o 10,000 cities and 100 regional governments have evidence-based,

actionable adaptation plans.
o 2,000 of the world’s largest companies develop actionable adaptation

plans.
Planning o Universal access to the tools and information required to integrate

climate risks into decision-making from local to global levels.
o Operationalization of National Adaptation Plans and Locally-Led

Principles, enabling adaptation in a country-driven localized, and
consultative manner.
o The private sector integrates physical climate risks into investment

decisions and continues to innovate mechanisms for financing adaptation
and resilience so as to enable the mobilization of the USD 140 to USD 300
billion that will be needed across both public and private sources.
o Public finance actors increase the provision of climate finance and

Finance
allocate 50% of climate funds to adaptation and resilience.
o The global property and casualty insurance sector has an industry

capabilities framework, actively supports project implementation, and
institutionalizes a longer-term industry approach to climate adaptation.
Major initiatives announced in the COP 27 meeting:

International Climate Change University
o The President of Sri Lanka Ranil Wickremesinghe has proposed to set up an international
climate change university in Sri Lanka, with an ancillary institution in the Maldives.
o It was reiterated that Sri Lanka and Maldives as island nations are vulnerable to the adverse
impacts of climate change.
UAE-Egypt Deal
o The United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt have struck a deal on the sidelines of the summit
to develop one of the world’s largest wind farms.

o Once completed, the 10 GW onshore wind project in Egypt will produce approximately
47,790 GWh of clean energy annually. This would offset nearly 9% (23.8 million tonnes) of
Egypt’s current carbon dioxide emissions.
 CARBON SINK
A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases –
for example, plants, the ocean and soil. In contrast, a carbon source is anything that
releases more carbon into the atmosphere than it absorbs – for example, the burning of
fossil fuels or volcanic eruptions.
o Carbon is an element that is essential to all life on Earth. Carbon makes up the fats
and carbohydrates of our food and is part of the molecules, like DNA and protein, that make
up our bodies. Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is even a part of the air we breathe. It is
also stored in places like the ocean, rocks, fossil fuels, and plants.
o The carbon cycle describes the flow of carbon between each of these places. For
example, carbon continually flows in and out of the atmosphere and also living things. As
plants photosynthesize, they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When plants die,
the carbon goes into the soil, and microbes can release the carbon back into the atmosphere
through decomposition.
o Forests are typically carbon sinks, places that absorb more carbon than they release.
They continually take carbon out of the atmosphere through the process of
photosynthesis.
o The ocean is another example of a carbon sink, absorbing a large amount of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere.

o Some processes release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than they absorb. Any
process that uses fossil fuels—such as burning coal to make electricity—releases a
lot of carbon into the atmosphere.
o Raising cattle for food also releases a lot of carbon into the atmosphere. These
processes that release carbon into the atmosphere are known as carbon sources.
o Ideally, the carbon cycle would keep Earth’s carbon concentrations in balance, moving the
carbon from place to place and keeping atmospheric carbon dioxide levels steady. However,
the carbon cycle is changing because of human activity.
Protecting our carbon sinks

The ocean, atmosphere, soil and forests are the world’s largest carbon sinks. Protecting these
vital ecosystems is essential for tackling climate change and keeping our climate stable. But
they’re increasingly under threat.
o Forests: The world’s forests absorb 2.6bn tonnes of carbon dioxide every year. Yet despite
their vital importance, an area the size of a football pitch is destroyed every second. There are
three important strands to this effort: improving laws, empowering forest communities and
fighting illegal logging and trade.
o Soil: The Earth’s soil absorbs roughly a quarter of all human emissions each year, with a
large portion of this stored in peatland or permafrost. But it's under threat from increasing
global demand for food production, chemical pollution and climate change. Need to push for
a reformed agricultural model.
o The Ocean: The ocean has sucked up about a quarter of the carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere since we began burning fossil fuels for energy during the Industrial Revolution.
Phytoplankton are the main reason the ocean is one of the biggest carbon sinks.
These microscopic marine algae and bacteria play a huge role in the world’s carbon cycle
- absorbing about as much carbon as all the plants and trees on land combined.
But plastic pollution in our ocean means plankton are eating micro plastics which is
impacting the rate at which they are trapping carbon in our ocean.
 NATIONAL HYDROGEN MISSION

o National Hydrogen Mission aims to cut down carbon emissions and increase the use
of renewable sources of energy while aligning India’s efforts with global best practices in
technology, policy and regulation.
o The Government of India has allotted Rs 25 crore in the Union Budget 2021–22 for the
research and development in hydrogen energy and intends to produce three-fourths of its
hydrogen from renewable resources by 2050.
o Similarly, the GCC countries have invested heavily in hydrogen energy and are looking at it as
the holy-grail to a cleaner future. This is an opportune time for India and the GCC
countries to strengthen partnership in R&D, production, storage and
transportation of hydrogen energy.
o India should look at enhancing hydrogen cooperation with GCC countries, especially the
front runners, i.e., Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Oman.

Draft Paper
o The NHM, according to a draft paper prepared by the Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE), has identified pilot projects, infrastructure and supply chain, research
and development, regulations and public outreach as broad activities for investment with a
proposed financial outlay of Rs 800 crores for the next three years.
o It aims to leverage the country’s landmass and low solar and wind tariffs to
produce low-cost green hydrogen and ammonia for export to Japan, South Korea and
Europe.
o In this regard, there are immense possibilities for India to collaborate with the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries that have also invested significantly in developing
hydrogen as a future source of energy.
o Geographical proximity and robust trade ties in conventional energy calls for proactive
measures to collaborate with GCC countries especially Saudi Arabia, UAE and Oman for
research and development pertaining to hydrogen energy.
Hydrogen Energy
o Hydrogen is emerging as an important source of energy since it has zero carbon content
and is a non-polluting source of energy in contrast to hydrocarbons that have net carbon
content in the range of 75–85 per cent.
o Hydrogen energy is expected to reduce carbon emissions that are set to jump by 1.5
billion tons in 2021.
o It has the highest energy content by weight and lowest energy content by volume.
o As per International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Hydrogen shall make up 6
per cent of total energy consumption by 2050.
o The Hydrogen Council Report, 2021 also mentions that, global investments on hydrogen
will constitute around 1.4 per cent of the total global energy funding by 2030.
o Hydrogen energy is currently at a nascent stage of development, but has considerable
potential for aiding
the process of
energy transition
from hydrocarbons
to renewables.
Though it is the
most abundantly
available element
on earth,
commercially
viable Hydrogen
can be produced
from hydrocarbons
including natural
gas, oil and coal
through processes
like steam
methane reforming, partial oxidation and coal gasification; as well as from renewables like

water, sunlight and wind through electrolysis and photolysis and other thermo-chemical
processes.
o The current global demand for hydrogen is 70 million metric tons per year, more than 76 per
cent of which is being produced from natural gas, 23 per cent comes from coal and the
remaining is produced from electrolysis of water.
o Hydrogen can be stored in cryo-compressed tanks in gaseous form apart from being kept
in liquefied and solid state. Presently, Hydrogen is mostly used in industry sector
including those dealing with oil refining, ammonia production, methanol production and
steel production. It has huge potential in transportation sector as a direct replacement to
fossil fuels.
o Shipping and aviation have limited low-carbon fuel options available and represent an
opportunity for hydrogen-based fuels.
Hydrogen Energy in India

o Hydrogen is at an early stage of entering the energy sector in India. Government as well as
non-government funding agencies are engaged in R&D projects pertaining to hydrogen
production, storage, utilisation, power generation and for transport applications.
o As early as in 2003, National Hydrogen Energy Board was formed and in 2006 the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy laid out the National Hydrogen Energy Road
Map identifying transport and power generation as two major green energy initiatives.
o India is participating in Mission Innovation Challenge for clean hydrogen and shares the
objective to accelerate the development of a global hydrogen market by identifying and
overcoming key technology barriers to the production, distribution, storage and use of
hydrogen at gigawatt scale.
o By 2050 India intends to produce three-fourths of its hydrogen from renewable resources.
o Presently, more than 100 research groups are focusing on fuel cell technology. There are a
number of foreign and Indian companies that are involved in hydrogen production, storage
or delivery in India, including Praxair (USA), Linde (global-member of hydrogen council),
Inox (Indo-US joint venture), Air Liquide (France), SAGIM (France), Air Products (USA),
Fuel Cell Energy (USA), H2Scan (USA), ITM Power (UK), Heliocentris (Germany), Aditya
Birla, Bhoruka Gases Ltd, Gujarat Alkalies and Chemicals Limited, Gujarat Heavy Chemicals
Ltd, Air Science Technologies and Sukan Engineering Private Limited.
Hydrogen Energy and GCC

o Rich in hydrocarbon resources, currently the GCC countries consume around 7 per cent of
the grey hydrogen sourced from the natural gas. Qatar is the largest consumer of
hydrogen in the region followed by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE and Bahrain.
o UAE and Saudi Arabia, and more recently Oman, have embraced the concept of a hydrogen
economy. They are keen to use it domestically as part of decarbonisation effort as well as
intend to use it as an alternative export commodity. Besides, there are other motivating
factors including energy security and economic diversification.
o GCC countries are at the forefront of cost reductions in renewables and in shaping the energy
transformation within as well as outside the region. According to an IRENA analysis, the
accelerated deployment of renewable energy in the GCC region can reduce emissions of CO2
by 136 million tons.

o Apart from that, there are facilitating factors that make it convenient for the GCC countries to
invest in renewable energy. These countries have the potential to become hydrogen
producers as well as exporters as they have existing industrial capacity and required
capital to invest in the initial infrastructure.
o Second, GCC has abundance of inexpensive land and water along with solar and
wind resources that can help in production of Green Hydrogen.
o Third, the countries are situated in geographical proximity to the emerging and
future markets for cleaner fuel.
o Lastly, the GCC countries can easily be producers of Blue Hydrogen due to availability
of hydrocarbons and the carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS)
capacity.
India–GCC Cooperation
o India and GCC countries share robust energy cooperation. In 2017–18 India imported nearly
53 per cent of its energy from the Persian Gulf, and UAE and Saudi Arabia were third and
fourth largest trading partners of India.
o India and the GCC are natural energy partners and have huge potential for extending
cooperation in cleaner fuels like hydrogen. India has signed MoUs on renewable energy with
most of the GCC countries.
o India’s largest pure-play solar platform Acme Solar Holdings Ltd plans to invest US$ 2.5
billion to manufacture green ammonia and green hydrogen in Duqm and signed an
MoU with the Oman Company for the Development of the Special Economic Zone. The
manufacturing facility will supply green ammonia to Europe, America and Asia region and
will produce 2,200 metric tonnes (mt) of green ammonia per day.
o India is looking at developing Hydrogen collaboration with Bahrain and even invited Bahrain
to participate in the Hydrogen Roundtable in April 2021. The two countries agreed to
engage more in renewable energy capacity-building and focus on cooperation between their
governments as well as the private sector, particularly in the field of solar, wind and clean
hydrogen.
o In 2019, India signed an agreement with Saudi Arabia about cooperation in renewable
energy including hydrogen. The two countries are collaboratively exploring Hydrogen Energy
as a future source of energy. Saudi companies like Alfanar and Aljomaih that have invested in
India’s wind and solar energy projects may be roped in for collaboration on production of
Green Hydrogen.
o Similarly GCC leaders too have stated the importance of clean fuel and their willingness to
collaborate on the hydrogen energy.
o Major prospects of hydrogen collaboration between India and GCC countries are in terms of
investment and technology sharing. One of the major challenges faced by GCC countries in
production of hydrogen fuel is the incompatibility of electrolysers with salt water. Sea water
needs to be desalinised before it becomes feasible for electrolysis. There is a potential
for collaboration between India and these countries on this issue.
o A number of Indian research groups are working on hydrogen generation from sea
water. For instance, Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi is
conducting research on design of electrodes and electrolytes for hydrogen generation using
sea water and Centre for Fuel Cell Technology at the International Advanced Research Centre

for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Chennai is conducting research on sea water
electrolysis.
 ARCTIC COUNCIL
o The establishment of the Arctic Council was considered an important milestone enhancing
cooperation in the circumpolar North.
o In the Ottawa Declaration, the eight Arctic States established the Council as a high-level
forum to provide means for promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the
Arctic States – including the full consultation and full involvement of Arctic Indigenous
communities and other Arctic inhabitants.
o The Arctic Council is the leading intergovernmental forum promoting
cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic states, Arctic
Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in
particular, on issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.
The work of the Council is primarily carried out in six Working Groups:
1. The Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) acts as a strengthening and
supporting mechanism to encourage national actions to reduce emissions and other releases
of pollutants.
2. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) monitors the Arctic
environment, ecosystems and human populations, and provides scientific advice to support
governments as they tackle pollution and adverse effects of climate change.
3. The Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group (CAFF) addresses the
conservation of Arctic biodiversity, working to ensure the sustainability of the Arctic’s living
resources.
4. The Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response Working Group (EPPR)
works to protect the Arctic environment from the threat or impact of an accidental release of
pollutants or radionuclides.
5. The Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Working Group is the
focal point of the Arctic Council’s activities related to the protection and sustainable use of
the Arctic marine environment.
6. The Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) works to advance sustainable
development in the Arctic and to improve the conditions of Arctic communities as a whole.
7. The Council may also establish Task Forces or Expert Groups to carry out specific work.
Member States
Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation,
Sweden and the United States
Permanent Participants
Aleut International Association (AIA), Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), Gwich'in
Council International (GCI), Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Russian Association of
Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), Saami Council (SC)

Observers
o States: France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, People’s
Republic of China, Italian Republic, Republic of Korea, Republic of Singapore, Republic of
India
o Non-Govermental Organizations: Advisory Committee on Protection of the Seas
(ACOPS), Arctic Institute of North America (AINA)—Formerly Arctic Cultural Gateway
(ACG), Association of World Reindeer Herders (AWRH), Circumpolar Conservation Union
(CCU), International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), International Arctic Social Sciences
Association (IASSA), International Union for Circumpolar Health (IUCH), International
Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), Northern Forum (NF), University of the Arctic
(UArctic), World Wide Fund for Nature-Global Arctic Program (WWF)
Chairmanship
o The chairmanship of the Council rotates among the eight member states, each state holding
the position for two years at a time.
o Iceland is currently holding the Arctic Council Chairmanship (2019-2021).
 ARCTIC AMPLICATION
#News: Finnish Meteorological Institute published their study in the Communications Earth
& Environment journal, concluding that the Arctic is heating four times faster than the rest of
the planet.
The warming is more concentrated in the Eurasian part of the Arctic, where the Barents Sea
north of Russia and Norway is warming at an alarming rate — seven times faster than the
global average.
What is Arctic amplification? What causes it?

o Global warming, the long-term
heating of the earth’s surface,
expedited due to anthropogenic
forces or human activities since pre-
industrial times and has increased
the planet’s average temperature by
1.1 degrees Celsius.
o While changes are witnessed across
the planet, any change in the surface
air temperature and the net radiation
balance tend to produce larger
changes at the north and south poles.
This phenomenon is known as polar
amplification; these changes are
more pronounced at the northern
latitudes and are known as the
Arctic amplification.
o Among the many global warming-

driven causes for this amplification, the ice-albedo feedback, lapse rate feedback,
water vapour feedback and ocean heat transport are the primary causes.
o Sea ice and snow have high albedo (measure of reflectivity of the surface), implying that
they are capable of reflecting most of the solar radiation as opposed to water and land. In the
Arctic’s case, global warming is resulting in diminishing sea ice.
o As the sea ice melts, the Arctic Ocean will be more capable of absorbing solar radiation,
thereby driving the amplification. The lapse rate or the rate at which the temperature drops
with elevation decreases with warming.
o Studies show that the ice-albedo feedback and the lapse rate feedback are responsible for
40% and 15% of polar amplification respectively.
o Thawing Permafrost also contributes to Arctic Amplification
o Permafrost is frozen ground that is composed largely of decayed plants. It is full of
carbon because, as part of the photosynthesis process, living plants continuously extract CO2
from the air.
o Scientists once thought that the carbon in permafrost binds tightly with iron and is therefore
safely sequestered from the atmosphere.
o However, in a study published in a journal demonstrated that iron doesn’t permanently trap
CO2.
o This is because, as permafrost melts, bacteria frozen inside the soil activate. They use the iron
as a food source. When they consume it, once-captive carbon is released.
o In a process called photomineralization, sunlight oxidizes the released carbon into CO2.
Wildfires and Arctic Amplification

o As temperatures rise and permafrost thaws and dries out, grasslands become tinderboxes.
o When they burn, the CO2 and CH4 in the vegetation combust. Airborne in smoke, they add to
the atmosphere greenhouse gas load.
Impact on India
o A study found that the reduced sea ice in the Barents-Kara Sea region can lead to
extreme rainfall events in India, in the latter half of the monsoons — in September and
October.
o The study was titled - ‘A possible relation between Arctic Sea ice and late season
Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall extremes’
o The changes in the atmospheric circulation due to diminishing sea ice combined with the
warm temperatures in the Arabian Sea contribute to enhanced moisture and drive extreme
rainfall events.
o According to the World Meteorological Organization’s report, ‘State of Global Climate in
2021’, sea level along the Indian coast is rising faster than the global average rate.
o One of the primary reasons for this rise is the melting of sea ice in the polar regions,
especially the Arctic.

 LIGHTNING IN ARCTIC
o Meteorologists were
stunned when three
successive thunderstorms
swept across the icy Arctic
from Siberia to north of
Alaska, unleashing
lightning bolts in an
unusual phenomenon that
scientists say will become
less rare with global
warming.
o Typically, the air over the
Arctic Ocean, especially
when the water is covered
with ice, lacks the
convective heat needed to
generate lightning storms.
But as climate change
warms the Arctic faster
than the rest of the world,
that's changing, scientists
say.
Tripled in frequency
o Episodes of summer lightning within the Arctic Circle have tripled since 2010, a trend
directly tied to climate change and increasing loss of sea ice in the far north, scientists
reported in a study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. As sea ice
vanishes, more water is able to evaporate, adding moisture to the warming atmosphere.
o These electrical storms threaten boreal forests fringing the Arctic, as they spark fires in
remote regions already baking under the round-the-clock summer sun.
o The paper also documented more frequent lightning over the Arctic’s treeless tundra regions,
as well as above the Arctic Ocean and pack ice. In August 2019, lightning even struck within
100 kilometers of the North Pole, the researchers found.
o In Alaska alone, thunderstorm activity is on track to increase threefold by the end of the
century if current climate trends continue.
 ANTARCTIC TREATY
o The Antarctic Treaty was a treaty signed on December 1, 1959, during the Cold War by 12
countries that had vested interests in Antarctica.
o Those 12 countries were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,
Norway, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

o It entered into force in 1961.

o The treaty provides a framework for international relations concerning Antarctica.
It regulates an entire continent with no local population.
Overview of Antarctic Treaty

o The article aims to
define the Antarctic
Treaty and other
relevant information
related to it, such as the
year it was signed, the 12
original countries that
initially signed it, its
expansion, function,
purpose. It also shines a
light on the issue of
mining surrounding the
continent as natural
resources like oil deplete
increasingly.
o It also briefly explains
the Antarctic Treaty
within the context of
India, when India got
involved, and what
research investigations
the country is focusing
on.
Purpose of Antarctic
Treaty
o The Antarctic Treaty of
1961 was written to
ensure that Antarctica
remained free of any
international sovereignty or dispute by permitting its use strictly for humanitarian purposes
only.
o The treaty states that Antarctica should be used only for the benefit of mankind.
o The main stipulations of this treaty were the ban of military activities and
intervention, nuclear trials, and the disposal of radioactive waste.
o The treaty, however, favours scientific investigations and data exchange as long as
they are conducted without violating any rules based on international order concerning
Antarctica.
o All territorial claims or sovereignty are suspended. Though signed in 1959, the treaty
came into effect on 23rd June 1961.
Antarctic Treaty System

o The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is the governing body that regulates international
relations concerning Antarctica, the only continent without any human population in the
world.
o The treaty designated Antarctica as a haven of scientific research with complete scientific
autonomy and no military intervention.
o All human activities within the continent are regulated through this treaty to ensure safe and
environmentally friendly visits by travellers.
o The treaty applies to areas south of 60 degrees south latitude, including land and ice
shelves.
Conclusion
o The Antarctic Treaty was a paradigm shift and a significant step towards international
relations concerning Antarctica, the continent with no human population.
o The treaty ensures that Antarctica remains free of territorial claim or sovereignty to minimise
conflicts or disputes between nations.
o The treaty also ensured that the continent was demilitarised, and provisions were made for
joint research and potential use.
o The ban on nuclear testing and dumping of radioactive wastes set a beautiful precedent for
environmentally friendly practices. Nations are encouraged to display prudence and
cooperation to prevent conflict from escalating.
 INDIAN ANTARCTIC BILL, 2022

The Bill seeks to give effect to the Antarctic Treaty, the Convention on the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources, and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the
Antarctic Treaty.
o It also seeks to protect the Antarctic environment and regulate activities in the region. Key
features of the Bill include:
Applicability
o The provisions of the Bill will apply to any person, vessel or aircraft that is a part of an Indian
expedition to Antarctica under a permit issued under the Bill.
o Areas comprising of Antarctica include:
 the continent of Antarctica, including its ice-shelves, and all areas of the continental shelf
adjacent to it, and
 all islands (including their ice-shelves), seas, and air space south of 60°S latitude.
Central committee
o The central government will establish a Committee on Antarctic Governance and
Environmental Protection.
o The Committee will be chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.

o 10 members, not below the rank of joint secretary, will be nominated from various Ministries
and organisations such as defence, external affairs, National Centre for Polar and Ocean
Research, and National Security Council Secretariat.
o In addition, two experts from Antarctic environment and geo-political fields will be
nominated by the central government.
o The functions of the Committee include:
 granting permits for various activities,
 implementing and ensuring compliance of relevant international laws for protection of
Antarctic environment,
 obtaining and reviewing relevant information provided by parties to the Treaty, Convention,
and Protocol, and
 negotiating fees/charges with other parties for activities in Antarctica.
Need for permit

A permit by the Committee or written authorisation from another party to the Protocol (other
than India) will be required for various activities such as:
 an Indian expedition to enter or remain in Antarctica,
 a person to enter or remain in an Indian station in Antarctica,
 a vessel or aircraft registered in India to enter or remain in Antarctica,
 a person or vessel to drill, dredge or excavate for mineral resources, or collect samples of
mineral resources,
 activities which may harm native species, and
 waste disposal by a person, vessel or aircraft in Antarctica.
o Before a permit is granted by the Committee, the applicant has to carry out an environmental
impact assessment of the proposed activities.
o Moreover, a permit must not be granted unless a waste management plan has been prepared
for the expedition by the Committee.
Prohibited activities
The Bill prohibits certain activities in Antarctica including:
 nuclear explosion or disposal of radioactive wastes,
 introduction of non-sterile soil, and
 discharge of garbage, plastic or other substance into the sea which is harmful to the marine
environment.
Offences and penalties

The Bill specifies penalties for contravention of its provisions.
o For instance, conducting a nuclear explosion in Antarctica will be punishable with an
imprisonment of 20 years which may extend to life imprisonment and a fine of at least Rs 50
crore.
o Drilling for mineral resources or introducing non-native animals or plants in Antarctica
without a permit will be punishable with imprisonment up to seven years and a fine between
Rs 10 lakh and Rs 50 lakh.

o The central government may notify one or more Sessions Courts to be the
Designated Court under the Bill and specify its territorial jurisdiction to try offences
punishable under the Bill.
 INDIA AND THE ARCTIC

o The Arctic region, or the Arctic, is a geographic region spreading around the North Pole.
There is no single correct definition of the region as the southern boundary varies.
Key ways to define the Arctic:

o The Arctic Circle (66 ° 33'N) delimits the Arctic in terms of solar radiation.
o In theory, areas north of the Arctic Circle have at least one day without daylight in the winter
and at least one nightless night in the summer. In practice, this does not happen everywhere
because the surface of the earth is uneven, and the light refracts in the atmosphere.
o Based on temperature, the
monthly average
temperature in the
Arctic is below + 10 ° C
throughout the year,
even in summer.
o The forest line follows a
temperature-defined
area. The forest line is not
a narrow line but a zone
tens of kilometres wide
between the northern
coniferous forest and the
tundra. In this
demarcation, the Arctic is
predominantly wooded
tundra and glaciers.
o Permafrost increases
the area of Russian
Arctic compared to the
other delimitations.
Permafrost is soil that stays
frozen for at least two
consecutive years.
o The ice cover determines
the Arctic nature of marine
areas.
o Sea ice is highest in February-March and lowest in September. The surface of the
Arctic ice is monitored almost in real time by satellites.
o Culturally defined, the Arctic covers the homelands of northern indigenous
peoples.

o Political delimitations vary according to how they serve, for example, the interests of
states or international cooperation.
o As the climate warms, the Arctic shrinks if defined by temperature, forest line, permafrost, or
ice cover. Cultural and political boundaries also vary. The Arctic Circle is the most permanent
of the delimitations, although also the polar circle moves very slowly due to the variation of
the Earth's axial tilt.
Interesting facts and figures about the Arctic

1. The Arctic is regarded as containing some of the last physically undisturbed marine spaces
on earth.
2. Shipping (unique ships) within the Arctic Polar Code area has increased by 25% over 6
years from 2013-2019. A majority of these vessels are fishing vessels.
3. The central feature of the Arctic is the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the widest
continental shelf of all the oceans.
4. The Arctic sea ice has diminished from 6,1 million sq.km. in 1999 to 4,3 million
sq.km. in 2019.
5. Boreal forests of the Arctic cover about 17% of the global land area, representing the largest
natural forests in the world.
6. Together with the Antarctic, the Arctic contains the largest freshwater resource on Earth.
7. Seven of the world’s ten largest wilderness areas are located in the Arctic region.
8. The total catch of wild fish in the Arctic mounted to 10% of the world catch .
9. The Arctic as an area is essentially an ocean surrounded by the land north of the Arctic
circle (66032' N) that covers a region of 33 million Km2 , larger than Africa or Asia.
10. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that 30 per cent of the world’s
undiscovered natural gas is in the Arctic, mostly on the continental shelves beneath the
Arctic Ocean.
11. More than 70 per cent of the undiscovered oil resources are estimated to occur in northern
Alaska, the Amerasian Basin, the eastern side of Greenland, the eastern Barents Sea region,
and the Davis Strait of Greenland and Canada.
12. An estimated 84 per cent of the undiscovered oil and gas in the Arctic occurs offshore.The
Arctic region is characterized by some of the largest continuous intact ecosystems on the
planet, but is facing increasingly larger threat.
What is the Background?

o India's engagement with the Arctic began when it signed the Svalbard Treaty in 1920 in
Paris between Norway, the US, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great
Britain, and Ireland, and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning
Spitsbergen.
o Spitsbergen is the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago, part of Norway, in the
Arctic Ocean.
o Spitsbergen is the only permanently inhabited part of Svalbard. More than 50% of the land
is covered in ice year-round. Together with the glaciers, it is mountains and fjords that
define the landscape.
o Ever since then, India has been closely monitoring all the developments in the Arctic region.
o India initiated its Arctic research program in 2007 with a focus on climate change in
the region.

o The objectives included studying teleconnections between Arctic climate and

Indian monsoon, to characterise sea ice in the Arctic using satellite data, to estimate the
effect on global warming.
o India also focuses on conducting research on the dynamics and mass budget of Arctic
glaciers and sea-level changes, carrying out an assessment of the flora and fauna of the
Arctic.
Six Central Pillars of India's Arctic Policy

o Science and research.
o Environmental protection.
o Economic and human development.
o Transportation and connectivity.
o Governance and international cooperation.
o National capacity building.
Objectives
o It aims to strengthen national capabilities and competencies in science and exploration,
climate and environmental protection, maritime and economic cooperation with the Arctic
region.
o It seeks to strengthen institutional and human resource capacities within the government
and academic, research and business institutions through inter-ministerial coordination in
pursuit of India’s interests in the Arctic.
o It seeks to enhance understanding of the impact of climate change in the Arctic
region on India’s climate, economic and energy security.
o It aims to promote better analysis, prediction and coordinated policymaking on the
implications of ice melting in the Arctic on India’s economic, military and strategic interests
related to global shipping routes, energy security and exploitation of mineral wealth.
o It seeks to study the linkages between polar regions and the Himalayas and deepen the
cooperation between India and the countries of the Arctic region under various Arctic
forums, drawing expertise from scientific and traditional knowledge.
o The policy also seeks to increase India’s participation in the Arctic Council and improve
understanding of the complex governance structures in the Arctic, relevant international laws
and geopolitics of the region.
Relevance of Arctic for India

o The Arctic region is significant due to the shipping routes that run through it.
o According to an analysis published by the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies
and Analyses, the adverse effects of the Arctic are not just impacting the availability of
mineral and hydrocarbon resources, but also transforming global shipping routes.
o According to the Ministry of External Affairs, India can play a constructive role in securing a
stable Arctic.
o The region holds immense geopolitical importance as the Arctic is projected to be ice-free by
2050 and world powers making a beeline to exploit the region rich in natural resources.

 HEAT FROM DATACENTRES

o A datacentre is a physical facility that organisations use to store their critical
applications and data, process data and disseminate them to users.
o It is designed based on a network of computing and storage resources that enables delivery
of shared applications and data.
o The key components of a datacentre are routers, switches, firewalls, storage systems,
servers, and application-delivery controllers.
o Many large datacentres are located in dedicated buildings. Smaller datacentres may be
situated in specially designed rooms within buildings constructed to serve multiple
functions.
o Since datacentres consume large amounts of energy, it’s important to ensure the physical
structures that house them are well-designed and insulated to optimise temperature controls
and energy efficiency.
o The temperatures recorded in the hot aisles of a datacentre hover between 80 and 115
degrees Fahrenheit, according to Lifeline datacentres, a provider of datacentre facilities
and services.
o Global cybersecurity firm Kaspersky estimates over 75% of a datacentre’s electricity becomes
waste heat.
o It noted that in winter, a datacentre can provide heating up to 85 degrees Fahrenheit, similar
to a gas boiler, with better energy efficiency than a heat pump in a new house.
What’s the scale of their carbon footprint?

o On a global level, datacentres consume around 200 terawatt-hours (TWh) of
electricity, which is more than 1% of the world’s total electricity.
o They contribute to 0.3% of all global CO2 emissions, according to the International
Energy Agency.
o Datacentre energy usage in some countries could increase to 15% to 30% of their total
domestic electricity consumption by the end of the decade, according to predictive models by
Eric Masanet and Nuoa Lei of Northwestern University.
o Ireland’s energy regulator says datacentres could use almost 30% of the country’s electricity
by 2027, endangering climate goals.
What is Microsoft’s plan to cut carbon emission in Finland?

o According to Microsoft, the recycled waste heat, along with other carbon reduction
measures, can help the city of Espoo and its neighbouring communities to reach their CO2
emission reduction targets. It can also help decommission Fortum’s last coal-fired heat unit
in the city.
o The heat recycling system can provide clean heat to homes, businesses and public
buildings in Helsinki, and can reduce up to 400,000 tons of CO2 emissions
annually, according to estimates by Fortum.
o The company highlighted that once the new data centre region’s waste heat capture is in
operation, a total of about 60% of the area’s heating will be generated by climate-friendly
waste heat. Of this, 40% results from the datacentre region and the rest from other waste
heat sources like purified waste water.

o Fortum will capture the excess heat generated by the new datacentre region and transfer the
clean heat from the server cooling process to homes, services and business premises that are
connected to the district heating system.
o District heating is the most popular method of heating premises in Finland. It is a system
of generating heat in a centralised location by capturing heat and then distributing it to
buildings for residential and commercial heating needs. The heat is transferred to customers
as hot water which is pumped through insulated underground pipes.
o The new generation of district heating is based on replacing fossil fuels with flexible
solutions like renewable electricity, heat pumps and waste heat utilisation. Artificial
intelligence will help optimise operations of the entire system.
Which other countries recycle waste heat from datacentres?

o District heating is popular in the Nordic and Baltic countries, as well as in Russia and
China, which have high heat demands during winters.
o Datacentres thrive in cold climates.
o Their location in cold climates helps to cut down on the need to cool server rooms.
o Cold weather is also an asset as technology companies shift to selling their heat which
doesn’t have a lot of demand in hot weather.
Which other companies are doing this?

o Facebook is putting its waste heat to use heating nearby homes in Odense, Denmark.
o Apple is building a datacentre in Denmark and plans to run it with renewable energy and
use waste heat to warm up nearby office buildings.
o Fast fashion retailer H&M has been distributing waste heat to nearby homes in
Denmark since 2013 and has plans to build a new, 1 MW datacentre that will be capable of
heating up to 2,500 apartments at full load.
o An IBM datacentre in Switzerland is heating a nearby community pool.
o In Canada, communications company Quebecor donates its heat to the editorial office of a
local newspaper.
 HEATWAVES
#News: During peak of summer in 2022, the European Space Agency recorded land surface
temperatures nearing 55°C over many parts of northwest India, crossing 60°C in some
pockets.
The five warmest years ever recorded in India have all been in the last decade.
Heatwave
o A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India
during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
o India Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and their
temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from
413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
o This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of
climate change.

Criteria for declaring a heatwave

o The Heatwave is considered when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at
least 40°C for Plains and at least 30°C for Hilly regions.
o If the normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40°C, then an
increase of 5°C to 6°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition.
o Further, an increase of 7°C or more from the normal temperature is considered a
severe heat wave condition.
o If the normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40°C, then an increase of 4°C
to 5°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition. Further, an
increase of 6°C or more is considered a severe heat wave condition.
o Additionally, if the actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of
normal maximum temperature, a heat wave is declared.
o In 2016, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issued
comprehensive guidelines to prepare national level key strategies for mitigating the impact of
heatwaves.
Impacts of Heat Waves In India

o The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different
sectors of the economy.
o For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is
negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
o Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers’
Economic
productivity, impacting the economy.
Impacts
o Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
o Farmers in Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in
their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production
could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
o Livestock is also vulnerable to heatwaves.
o Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperature, lack of
public awareness programmes, and inadequate long-term mitigation
measures.
o According to a 2019 report of the Tata Centre for Development
Human
and the University of Chicago, by 2100, annually, more than 1.5 million
Mortality
people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
o The increased heat will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes,
circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health
challenges.
o The concurrence of heat and drought events are causing crop
production losses and tree mortality.
o The risks to health and food production will be made more severe from
Food
the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced
Insecurity
labour productivity losses.
o These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce
household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-

related deaths, especially in tropical regions.

o Workers in sectors like agriculture and construction will be severely
Impact on
impacted in 2030 because India’s large population depends on these
Workers
sectors for their livelihoods.
o The climate science community has reported overwhelming evidence that
extreme events such as heatwaves are likely to become more intense, more
Weaker
frequent and of longer duration in future unless emissions of greenhouse
Sections to be
gases and aerosols are significantly cut globally.
Specifically
o It is important to remember that heatwaves in India, such as in 2022,
Affected
have the potential to influence thousands of vulnerable and poor people
who contributed very little to the climate crisis.
Long-term strategies does India need to adopt to mitigate the impacts

o As deaths due to heatwaves are preventable, the government must
prioritise preparing a long-term action plan to safeguard human lives,
Heat Waves livestock, and wildlife.
Action Plan o Effective implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction 2015-30 with the State playing a leading role and
sharing responsibility with other stakeholders is now the need of the hour.
o Disseminating public awareness through print, electronic and social
media, providing heat-proof shelter facilities in heatwave prone areas
Public
during summer, easing access to public drinking water, and afforestation
Awareness
programmes in urban and rural areas would help mitigate heat wave
and Early
fatalities.
Warning
o Death from heat waves can be prevented by installing improved early
Systems
warning systems that communicate heatwave threats, recommend
different preventative measures, and constrain disaster impacts.
o National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) should be
implemented in true spirit for inclusive growth and ecological
sustainability.
o Nature-based solutions should be taken into account, not just for tackling
climate change but also doing it in a way that is ethical and promoting
intergenerational justice.
Implementing
o Recognising heat waves as a major disaster is long due. India still
Climate
has a long way to go in building public awareness, particularly on how
Action Plans
individuals and local communities can take care of themselves.
o Declaring heat waves as a natural disaster would help the state and
district administration prepare a heatwave action plan at the regional
level.
o Also, there needs to be clear guidelines regarding when to shut schools or
how long one should stay outdoors if that’s unavoidable.
Sustainable o Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally

Cooling ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat
island for residential and commercial buildings.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that
ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, can be
adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
o A big reason that cities are hotter than rural areas is that they are covered
by dark roofs, roads and parking lots that absorb and retain heat.
Replacing
o One of the long term solutions can be replacing the dark surfaces with
Dark Roofs
lighter and more reflective materials, it will result in a
comparatively cooler environment.
o A dynamic understanding of risks is needed to evaluate whether the crops
Climate- we have relied on so far will also be the ones to provide food and nutrition
Resilient security in future.
Crops o Provisions will have to be made for insurance against crop loss and mixed
cropping should be promoted.
 URBAN FLOODING
o Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built environment,
particularly in more densely populated areas (like cities), caused by rainfall overwhelming the
capacity of drainage systems.
o Unlike rural floods (Heavy rain over a flat or low-lying area), urban flooding is not only
caused by just higher precipitation but also unplanned urbanisation (catchments) that:
 increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times
 increases the flood volumes by up to 6 times.
Causes of urban flooding in India

o In Indian cities and towns, due to increased land prices and less
availability of land in the city centre. New developments are coming up in
low-lying areas, usually as encroachments over lakes, wetlands and
riverbeds.
Encroachments
o Ideally, the natural drains should have been widened (similar to road
on Drainage
widening for increased traffic) to accommodate the higher flows of
Channels
stormwater.
o But on the contrary, there have been large scale encroachments without
widening the natural drains. Consequently, the capacity of the natural
drains has decreased, resulting in flooding.
o Exacerbated by changing climate, resulting in extreme events. The
climate change has caused an increase in the frequency of short
Climate Change duration heavy rainfall leading to higher water run-off.
o Whenever the rain bearing clouds pass over the urban heat
island, the hot air pushes the clouds up, resulting in highly localised

rainfall which may sometimes be of high intensity.

o Water bodies have been used as an attraction for tourism development
for decades. Water plants that reduce the runoff speed are being removed
Unplanned from rivers and lakes for maintaining tourism activity.
Tourism o Throwing non-bio degradable matter into the rivers and lakes
Activities during religious and cultural activities reduces the water quality. In the
event of floods, the suspended particles and pollutants overflow into the
cities posing health risks.
o Unplanned and sudden release of water from dams and lakes lead to
Uninformed
floods in an urban area, without giving the public enough time to
Release of
respond.
Water from
o Example: Chennai Floods 2015 due to release of water from
Dams
Chembarambakkam Lake.
o Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite for use in building construction
deplete the natural bed of the rivers and lakes.
Illegal Mining
o It causes soil erosion and reduces the water retention capacity of the
Activities
waterbody increasing the speed and scale of water flow.
o Example: Jaisamand Lake- Jodhpur, Cauvery river- Tamil Nadu.
Steps taken to Mitigate Urban Flooding
o One of the best solutions to reduce the chances of flooding is to build away from floodplains
and high flood hazard zones. It is a challenging task to identify such zones and water bodies
but using geospatial analysis can lend crucial aid in identifying such areas.
o New construction in flood-prone areas must be strictly monitored and regulated and in areas
where constructions had already finished or rather encroached upon. Structural flood control
measures, like increasing stormwater drainage capacitors, must be taken into account.
o Government initiatives like the Sponge Cities mission and Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) can go a long way in helping civic
authorities to plan cities keeping flood risks in mind. Further, residential and commercial
stakeholders can be further motivated to install green infrastructure options like rain
gardens, green roofs, and rainwater harvesting systems.
o In addition to reducing flood risks, these systems store water for drier seasons and help in
recharging groundwater. It is only prudent to invest in making our cities resilient so that
when disaster strikes, we can bounce back to normal with minimum loss of life and property.
o Along with the government taking these measures, the general public must also be educated
about the dangers of buying houses in low lying areas or near floodplains. Such steps may not
yield immediate results but the steps taken might lead to tangible results in the future.
 CLOUD BURST
o Cloudbursts are short-duration, intense rainfall events over a small area.
o It is a weather phenomenon with unexpected precipitation exceeding 100mm/h over a
geographical region of approximately 20-30 square km.

o In the Indian Subcontinent, it generally occurs when a monsoon cloud drifts

northwards, from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea across the plains then on to
the Himalaya that sometimes brings 75 millimetres of rain per hour.
Occurrence
o The relative humidity and cloud cover is at the maximum level with low temperature
and slow winds because of which a high amount of clouds may get condensed at a very
rapid rate and result in a cloudburst.
o As temperatures increase, the atmosphere can hold more and more moisture and this
moisture comes down as a short very intense rainfall for a short duration probably half an
hour or one hour resulting in flash floods in the mountainous areas and urban floods in the
cities.
Cloudburst are Different from Rainfall

o Rain is condensed water falling from a cloud while cloudburst is a sudden heavy rainstorm.
o Rain over 100mm per hour is categorised as a cloudburst.
o The cloudburst is a natural phenomenon, but occurs quite unexpectedly, very abruptly, and
rather drenching.
Impact of Climate Change

o Several studies have shown that climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of
cloudbursts in many cities across the globe.
o In May 2021, the World Meteorological Organization noted that there is about a 40% chance
of the annual average global temperature temporarily reaching 1.5°C above the pre-industrial
level in at least one of the next five years.
o It added that there is a 90% likelihood of at least one year between 2021 and 2025 becoming
the warmest on record and dislodge 2016 from the top rank.

o It is seen that more cloudbursts are happening in Himalayan region because the decadal
temperature rise in the Himalayan region is higher than the global rate of rising
temperatures.
o Consequences of Cloudbursts: Flash floods, Landslides, Mudflows, Land caving.
Prediction
o There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts because
they develop over a small period of time.
o A very fine network of radars is required to be able to detect the likelihood of a cloud burst
and this would be expensive.
o Only the areas likely to receive heavy rainfall can be identified on a short range scale. Much of
the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the meteorological situations
that favour the occurrence of cloud bursts.
CONSERVATION- FLORA AND FAUNA
 UN DECADE ON ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

o 2021-2030 was declared the Decade for Ecosystem Restoration.
o It called for a biosphere restoration equal to the total land area of China.
o In addition, more stringent efforts towards climate mitigation as well were needed to
preserve the ecological makeup of the earth.
o It was first proposed by El Salvador during the Bonn Challenge meeting in March 2018.
The proposal put forward by El Salvador called for restoration of about 350 million hectares
of degraded ecosystems by 2030.
o About 71 countries supported the proposal during the 73rd session of the United Nations
General Assembly in 2018.
o On 1 March 2019, the UN General Assembly officially adopted the resolution declaring
2021–2030 the UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration.
Rationale
o The aim of the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration is balancing ecological, social and
developmental priorities with the aim of fostering long term resilience.
o Human activities are affecting the capacity of ecosystems to provide these goods and services.
Drivers of biodiversity loss and decline in ecosystem functioning include climate change,
deforestation, desertification and land degradation, freshwater decline, overexploitation,
stratospheric ozone depletion, and pollution.
o It is therefore necessary to preserve the ecosystem for future generations.
Aim of UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration was established in order to:
1. Build a common vision, prioritizing ecosystem restoration from the global to the local
level to accelerate reversal of ecosystem degradation.

2. Mainstream ecosystem restoration in policy and planning to address current

developmental challenges due to land degradation, biodiversity loss, and climate change
vulnerability
3. Foster a holistic approach to achieving international commitments and national

priorities through ecosystem and landscape restoration
4. Enhance cooperation and resource mobilization to increase the flow of financial
resources, technologies, knowledge, and capacity building to countries and jurisdictions
working to meet national goals and international commitments, including the Sustainable
Development Goals, through ecosystem restoration
5. Encourage partnerships and investments, promoting a resilient economy by increasing
support for smallholders’ generation of value from land use products and potential to
contribute to ecosystem restoration
6. Promote cooperation between funds providers, governments, civil society, and
the private sector to help overcome barriers to scaling up resource-efficient productive
systems in association with ecosystem restoration
7. Raise awareness of the importance of functional ecosystems for human well-being and
productive activities, local development and the economic sustainability of society
8. The UN Decade aims to promote a concerted and holistic landscape-focused
approach to the interdependence of ecosystems, human needs, and biodiversity, to
accelerate the progress needed to maintain and restore ecosystems.

 ENVIRONMENT PERFORMANCE INDEX (EPI) 2022

EPI 2022 ranks India right at the bottom among 180 countries based on performance across
parameters related to mitigating climate change, improving environmental health, and
protecting ecosystem vitality.
The report is generally prepared by researchers from Yale and Columbia Universities in
the United States. Denmark is ranked at the top with a score of 77.90, while India
scored 18.90.
About the ranking

o The overall EPI rankings indicate which countries are best addressing the
environmental challenges that every nation faces.
o It provides a way to spot problems, set targets, track trends, understand outcomes, and
identify best policy practices.
o Data and fact-based analysis can also help government officials refine their policy
agendas, facilitate communications with key stakeholders, and maximise the return on
environmental investments.
o The EPI also offers a powerful policy tool in support of efforts to meet the targets of the
UN Sustainable Development Goals and to move society toward a sustainable future.
o The 2022 EPI supports evolving climate policy discussions with a new that projects
countries’ progress towards net-zero emissions in 2050.
o Most low-scoring countries such as Myanmar and Vietnam, are those that have
prioritised economic growth over sustainability, or those that are struggling with civil
unrest and other crises. China and India are projected to be the largest and second-largest
emitters of greenhouse gases in 2050, despite recently promising to curb emission growth
rates.

o Many countries, including India and China, rely heavily on coal to support
economic growth as their population grows. Large-scale fossil fuel combustion adds to the
poor air quality.
o India is home to 21 of the 30 most polluted cities in the world and has an air quality
rated one of the poorest in the world.
o Seven indicators — PM2.5 exposure, household solid fuels, ozone exposure, nitrogen
oxides exposure, sulphur dioxide exposure, carbon monoxide exposure, and volatile organic
compound exposure — are used to determine the air quality in the listed countries.
o China, India, the U.S., and Russia will account for over 50 per cent of residual
global greenhouse gas emissions in 2050.
o Greenhouse gases (GHG) include carbon dioxide, methane, fluorinated gases, and
nitrous oxide. To project GHG emission levels in 2050, the study calculates the average rate
of increase or decrease in emissions over ten years (2010 – 2019) and extrapolates this trend
till 2050.
o India and Indonesia have been identified as the top two generators of marine plastic
waste in the world, while China has managed to decrease its ocean plastic pollution.
o Ocean plastic pollution is measured as an absolute quantity of the amount of plastic
released by a country into the ocean annually.
o Indonesia, India, the U.S., Brazil and Thailand are the top five producers of ocean
plastic pollution and are responsible for 43 per cent of the global total.
 IUCN
o International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in full International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources was formerly called
World Conservation Union.
o It is a network of environmental organizations founded as the International Union for
the Protection of Nature in October 1948 in Fontainebleau, France, to promote
nature conservation and the ecologically sustainable use of natural resources.
o It changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) in 1956 and was also known as the World Conservation Union (IUCN)
from 1990 to 2008. The IUCN is the world’s oldest global environmental organization.
o Its headquarters are in Gland, Switz.
o Through its member organizations, the IUCN supports and participates in environmental
scientific research; promotes and helps implement national conservation legislation, policies,
and practices; and operates or manages thousands of field projects worldwide.
o The IUCN’s activities are organized into several theme-based programs ranging from
business and biodiversity to forest preservation to water and wetlands conservation. In
addition, a smaller number of special initiatives draw upon the work of different programs to
address specific issues, such as climate change, conservation, and poverty reduction.
o The volunteer work of more than 10,000 scientists and other experts is coordinated through
special commissions on education and communication; environmental, economic, and social
policy; environmental law; ecosystem management; species survival; and protected areas.

o All of the IUCN’s work is guided by a global program, which is adopted by member
organizations every four
years at the IUCN World
Conservation Congress.
o The IUCN maintains the
IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, a
comprehensive assessment
of the current risk of
extinction of thousands of
plant and animal species.
The organization also
publishes or coauthors
hundreds of books, reports,
and other documents each
year.
o The IUCN has been
granted observer status
at the United Nations General Assembly.
o The IUCN’s membership includes more than 1,000 governmental and nongovernmental
organizations from more than 140 countries.
o It is governed by a democratically elected council, which is chosen by member
organizations at each World Conservation Congress. The IUCN’s funding comes from a
number of governments, agencies, foundations, member organizations, and corporations.
 CITES
o The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
often referred to as CITES, is an agreement between governments that regulates the
international trade of wildlife and wildlife products—everything from live animals
and plants to food, leather goods, and trinkets.
o It came into force in 1975 with the goal of ensuring that international trade does not
threaten the survival of wild plants and animals.
o There are about 5,800 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants protected by CITES
currently. They’re categorized into one of three appendices, depending on how at risk from
trade they are.
o As of June 2019, CITES had 183 party governments, which must abide by CITES regulations
by implementing legislation within their own borders to enforce those regulations.
o CITES was first conceived of at a 1963 meeting of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the global authority on the conservation status of wild
animals and plants.
What are CITES appendices?

There are three appendices: Appendix I, II, and III. Each denotes a different level of protection
from trade.

o Appendix I includes species that are in danger of extinction because of international

trade. Permits are required for import and export, and trade for commercial purposes is
prohibited.
Trade may be allowed for research or law enforcement purposes, among a few other limited
reasons, but first the source country must confirm that taking that plant or animal won’t hurt
the species’ chance of survival. (This is known as a “non-detriment finding.”)
The Asiatic lion and tigers are two species listed as Appendix I.
o Appendix II includes species that aren’t facing imminent extinction but need
monitoring to ensure that trade doesn’t become a threat.
Export is allowed if the
plant, animal, or related
product was obtained
legally and if harvesting it
won’t hurt the species’
chance of survival.
American alligators are
listed on Appendix II, for
example. They were
overhunted through the
1960s for their skin, but
their numbers are now on
the rise.
CITES Appendix II listing
helps ensure the alligator
skin trade doesn’t become
a threat again.
o Appendix III includes species that are protected in at least one country, when that
country asks others for help in regulating the trade.
Regulations for these species vary, but typically the country that requested the listing can
issue export permits, and export from other countries requires a certificate of origin.
 CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

o The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity
Convention, is a multilateral treaty.
o The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the Earth Summit, in Rio de
Janeiro, in 1992.
o It has three main objectives:
a. To conserve biological diversity;

b. To use its components in a sustainable way;
c. To share fairly and equitably the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

o The CBD was negotiated under the guidance of the United Nations. It was signed by more
than 150 government leaders at the Rio Earth Summit (which official denomination is the
'United Nations Conference on Environment and Development').
o The convention is now one of the most widely ratified international treaties on environmental
issues, with 194 member countries.
o Unlike other international agreements that set compulsory targets and obligations, the CBD
takes a flexible approach to implementation.
o It identifies general goals and policies, and countries are free to determine how they want to
implement them.
The Convention on Biological Diversity has adopted two supplementary

protocols they are:
1. The Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety - The Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety to the
Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of
living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to
another. It was adopted in 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity and entered into force in 2003.
2. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization - The Nagoya Protocol on Access to
Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is a supplementary agreement to the
Convention on Biological Diversity.
o It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three
objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi
Province, Japan, and entered into force in 2014.
o Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The
Strategic Plan consists of 20 new biodiversity targets, termed the 'Aichi Biodiversity
Targets'
 Aichi Biodiversity Targets
The 20 Aichi Targets are divided into 5 sections

o Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming
biodiversity across government and society
o Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
o Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species
and genetic diversity.
o Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
o Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge
management and capacity building.

 PROTECTED AREA
o Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources
is limited.
o The definition has been provided by IUCN in its categorization guidelines for protected areas.
o The term "protected area" also includes Marine Protected Areas, the boundaries of which
will include some area of ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple
countries which remove the borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.
 An area, whether within a sanctuary or not, can be notified by the state

government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its
ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or
importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or
developing wildlife therein or its environment.
National  The state government can fix and alter boundaries of the National Parks
Parks with prior consultation and approval with National Board of Wildlife.
 There is no need to pass an act for alternation of boundaries of National
Parks.
 No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for
the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the
conditions given in the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
 Any area other than area comprised with any reserve forest or the
territorial waters can be notified by the State Government to constitute as
a sanctuary if such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the purpose of
protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
 There is no need to pass legislation (act) by the state assembly to declare a
Wildlife wildlife sanctuary. Fixation and alternation of boundary can be done by
Sanctuaries
state legislature via resolution.
 No need to pass an act for alternation of boundaries. No alternation of
boundaries in wildlife sanctuaries can be done without approval of the
NBWL (National Board of Wildlife).
 Some restricted human activities are allowed inside the Sanctuary
area details of which are given in wildlife protection Act 1972.
 These are terms denoting protected areas of India which typically act as
buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between
established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected
forests of India.
Conservation  Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited
reserves and
and completely owned by the Government of India but used for
community
reserves subsistence by communities and community areas if part of the lands is
privately owned.
 These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around
existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and
land use.

 A marine protected area (MPA) is essentially a space in the ocean where

human activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters -
Marine similar to parks we have on land.
Protected
Areas  These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine
resources by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national
authorities.
 SPECIES AND GENUS

SPECIES GENUS
 Organisms having similar set of DNA  At times it is not possible to identify all
and similar physical and organisms up to the level of the species,
morphological attributes are said to especially the fossilized and extinct ones. In
be of the same species. such case identifying the genus of the
 They have the same number of organism is enough to label it.
chromosomes and thus possess similar  Organisms of different species of the
morphological characteristics. same genus cannot produce a fertile
 The male and female of the offspring if interbred together.
same species can interbreed to  Mule is a product of a donkey and a
produce a fertile offspring of the same horse which are two different species
species. belonging to the same genus.
 There may be many species under the  A genus can have many species.
same genus.
 TYPES OF SPECIES
Flagship species Indicator species Keystone species
 A flagship species is a  It is a species whose  It is a species whose addition or
species chosen to presence indicates the loss to an ecosystem will lead
represent an presence of a set of to major changes in the
environmental other species and ecosystem.
cause, such as an whose absence indicates  This is because certain species are
ecosystem in need of the lack of that entire set considered more important in
conservation. of species. determining the presence of other
 Chosen species could  For example, a species species.
be either vulnerable or might indicate presence Example: All top predators are
attractive or distinct. of environmental considered Keystone Species (tiger,
Example: Indian pollution or arrival of lion, crocodile, elephant) as their
Tiger, African monsoon and so on. addition or removal will distort the
Elephant, Giant Panda Example: Lichens (air existing food chain in the
of China, etc. quality), most ecosystem.
amphibians, fishes, etc.

 TRAFFIC
o The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)
o Found in 1976, TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization working globally on trade
in wild animals and plants in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
o TRAFFIC is a joint programme of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN.
o Traffic is complementary to Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
o TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the
conservation of nature.
o It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and drivers to provide the
leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals and plants.
 WILDLIFE (PROTECTION ACT), 1972

o The Government of India enacted Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 with the objective of
effectively protecting the wild life of this country and to control poaching, smuggling
and illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives.
o The act has six schedules which cover the entire gamut of wild life.
Schedules
 Schedule I and part II of schedule II are the most important sections of the act. These
sections cover animals which are in the category of endangered species. The sections in
this schedule give absolute protection to certain species and these cannot be infringed on any
account.
 Schedule III and IV - These also have roughly the same provisions of Section I and II, but
cover animals that are not in danger of becoming extinct. The penalties under this section are
also less than Schedule I and II.
 Schedule V delineates animals that can be hunted like ducks and deers with the prior
permission of chief wildlife warden.
 Schedule VI concerns cultivation and plant life and gives teeth to setting up more protected
animal parks.
Provisions
o It defines the wildlife related terminology.
o It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc.
o Becoming a party to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna
and Flora (CITES, 1976).
o Launching a “national component of UNESCO’s ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’
(1971).
o Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
o Protection to some endangered plants.

o The act provides for:-

 Central government to appoint Director of Wildlife Preservation
 State Governments to appoint Chief Wildlife Warden, Wildlife Wardens
 Central Zoo Authority
 National Board of Wildlife to be headed by Prime Minister, Vice Chairperson to be Minister
of MOEFCC
 Standing Committee of the National Board of Wildlife to be headed by Minister of MOEFCC
 State Board of Wildlife to be headed by Chief Minister of the State and Minister of Forests
and Wildlife as Vice Chairperson
 Prohibition of hunting of animals provided in Schedule I, II, III and IV except by the process
laid down in the act such as danger to human life, property, or the animal being so disabled
or diseased as to be beyond recovery or killing or wounding in good faith of any animal in
defence of oneself or of any other person, or for education, scientific research etc. However,
usually a permission has to be granted by Chief Wildlife Warden of the state before such
killing takes place.
 National Tiger Conservation Authority to be headed by Minister of MOEFCC
 Tiger conservation foundation to be established by each state for the conservation of tiger.
 Statutory status to Wildlife Crime Control Bureau to be headed by Director of Wildlife
Preservation to deal with wildlife related crimes.
o The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
o There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
o The act bans collection of trophies, taxidermy etc.
o The act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
o It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
o It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several Conservation
Projects for individual endangered species like Lion (1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodile (1974)
and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were stated under this Act.
o The Act is adopted by all states in India except J & K, which has its own Act.
Vermin
 Vermin means wild mammals and birds which are harmful to crops, farm animals or
which carry disease.
 In India, wild animals can be declared as vermin if they have become
 Dangerous to human life or property (including standing crops on any land).
 Become disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery.
 Using these provisions, any animal listed in Schedule I to IV of WPA can be declared vermin
by listing it in Schedule V for a specific period.
 WETLANDS
o Wetlands are transition zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. E.g.
Mangroves, lake littorals (marginal areas between highest and lowest water level of the
lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees

and periodically flooded during high discharge in the river) and other marshy or swampy
areas.
o These habitats experience periodic flooding from adjacent deep water habitats and therefore
support plants and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flooding or water logging.
o Waterlogged soil adapted plant life (hydrophytes) and hydric soils (not enough O2)
are the chief characteristics of wetlands.
o Among the most productive life support, wetlands have immense socio-economic and
ecological importance for mankind. They are crucial to the survival of natural biodiversity.
They provide suitable habitats for endangered and rare species of birds and animals, endemic
plants, insects besides sustaining migratory birds.
Importance
1. Wetlands are indispensable for the countless benefits or “ecosystem services” that they
provide humanity, ranging from freshwater supply, food and building materials, and
biodiversity, to flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate change mitigation.
2. Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, numerous species of native and migratory birds.
3. Important resource for sustainable tourism.
4. Carry out water purification, filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water.
5. Help in nutrients recycling, ground water recharging and stabilization of local climate.
6. Important role in flood mitigation by controlling rate of runoff.
7. Buffer shorelines against erosion and pollutants.
8. Act as genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).
RAMSAR CONVENTION
o The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental
treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
o Ramsar Convention is the only global environment treaty dealing with a particular
ecosystem.
o The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of wetlands covered in its mission,
including lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases,
estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and
human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
o At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use” of wetlands. - Wise use:
maintenance of ecological character within the context of sustainable development.
o At the time of joining the Convention, each Contracting Party undertakes to designate at least
one wetland site for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
o The inclusion of a “Ramsar Site” in the List embodies the government’s commitment to take
the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained.
o The country with the highest number of sites is the United Kingdom.
o The country with the greatest area of listed wetlands is Bolivia.
MONTREUX RECORD
o The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of international
importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely

to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference and

therefore in need of priority conservation attention.
o It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
o The two Montreux Record Sites in India are:
 Loktak Lake (Manipur): Due to deforestation in the catchment area, infestation of water
hyacinth and pollution. The construction of a hydroelectric power plant has caused the local
extinction of several native fish species.
 Keoladeo National Park: Water shortage and unbalanced grazing regime around it. The
invasive growth of the grass and reducing its suitability for certain water-bird species,
notably the Siberian Crane.
WETLANDS INTERNATIONAL
o Wetlands International is a non-profit organization established in 1937 as ‘International
Wildfowl Inquiry’ and HQ in Netherlands.
o It is an independent, not-for-profit organization, supported by government and NGO
membership from around the world.
ASIAN WATERBIRD CENSUS

o Asian Waterbird Census is an annual event across Asia and Australasia for counting
waterbirds in the wetlands.
o This event happens every January. This event is coordinated by Wetlands International and
forms part of global waterbird monitoring programme called the International Waterbird
Census (IWC).
o In India, the AWC is annually coordinated by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
and Wetlands International.
NATIONAL WETLAND CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

o The Government operationalized National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) in
closed collaboration with concerned State Government during the year 1986.
o The scheme aims at Conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country so as to prevent
their further degradation.
o The scheme was initiated to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of
wetlands in the country; to undertake intensive conservation measures in priority wetlands;
to monitor implementation of the programme and to prepare an inventory of Indian
wetlands.
WETLAND (CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT) RULES

 The rules are applicable to three types of wetlands:
 Wetlands of international importance under Ramsar Convention.
 Wetlands notified by central govt based in Union Territories.
 Wetlands notified by State govts located in their respective states.
 The wetland rules follow the “wise use” philosophy of the Ramsar Convention and accord
emphasis on maintaining ecological character and integrity of wetlands in their conservation
and use. Accordingly, the following activities have been prohibited in wetlands:
 12 activities including fishing, boating, dredging, etc. are restricted without prior permission
from the state government.

 Activities prohibited in wetlands include reclamation, constructing permanent structures

within 50 m, setting up or expanding industries, throwing waste, etc.
 An Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is compulsory before undertaking any activity in a
wetland area.
 INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR) 2021

The report showed a continuing increase in forest cover across the country, but a decline in
moderate dense forest and an increase in forest fires.
o The IFSR is an
overall
assessment of
the country’s
forests and is
published every
two years by the
Forest Survey of
India.
o It was published
in 1987 for the
first time and
recently, the 17th
ISFR was
released.
o The ISFR-2021
provides
information on
forest cover,
tree cover,
mangrove
cover, growing
stock, carbon stock in India’s forests, forest fire monitoring, forest cover in tiger
reserve areas, above ground estimates of biomass using SAR data and climate change
hotspots in Indian forests.
o It is the 17th biennial assessment of India’s forests by the Forest Survey of India, an
organisation under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
o The ISFR 2021 presents the latest status of the 'Forest cover' and 'Tree cover' of the
country.
o In addition to the regular chapters, this time round, a special chapter on “Forest Cover
assessment in Tiger reserves and Tiger corridor areas of the country and
decadal change in Forest Cover” has also been included.
o Results of the two special studies namely Above Ground Biomass Estimation using
Synthetic Aperture Radar data (carried out in collaboration with ISRO) and
Climate hot spots in forest areas studies (carried out in collaboration with BITS
Pilani, Goa campus) are also being presented in this report.

o India's progress towards achieving the Nationally Determined Contribution commitments

are also included as part of the chapter on Forest carbon assessment.
Key findings of ISFR 2021

o The biennial forest report has found that there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the total
forest and tree cover of the country, as compared to 2019.
o The total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectares which is 24.62 per cent
of the geographical area of the country. As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an
increase of 2,261 sq km in the total forest and tree cover of the country.
o The increase in the forest cover has been observed as 1,540 sq km and that in tree cover is 721
sq km.
o Top three states showing increase in forest cover are Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km) followed
by Telangana (632 sq km) and Odisha (537 sq km).
o Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by
Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
o In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five states are
Mizoram (84.53 per cent), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33 per cent), Meghalaya (76.00 per cent),
Manipur (74.34 per cent) and Nagaland (73.90 per cent).
o A total of 17 states/union territories’ have above 33 percent of the geographical
area under forest cover. Out of these states and union territories, five namely
Lakshadweep, Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya
have more than 75 per cent forest cover.
o Twelve states and union territories namely Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Goa, Kerala,
Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, Assam,
Odisha, have forest cover between 33 per cent to 75 per cent.
o Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq km in mangrove
cover has been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019. Top three states
showing mangrove cover increase are Odisha (8 sq km) followed by Maharashtra (4 sq km)
and Karnataka (3 sq km).
o Bamboo forests have grown from 13,882 million culms (stems) in 2019 to 53,336 million
culms in 2021.
o Total carbon stock in the country’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tonnes and there
is an increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of the country as compared to the
last assessment of 2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes.
Causes of concern
Forest fires:
o Over 3.98 lakh forest fires were reported in India in the fire season from 2020-2021, more
than double the number of blazes compared to the previous year.
o Among states, the maximum number of fires were observed in Odisha at 51,968, followed by
Madhya Pradesh at 47,795 and Chhattisgarh at 38,106.
o Among districts, the maximum number of such incidents were observed in Gadchiroli in
Maharashtra at 10,577, followed by Kandhamal in Odisha at 6,156 and Bijapur in
Chhattisgarh at 5,499 incidents.

o According to the long-term trend analysis performed by the FSI, nearly 10.66 per cent
area of forest cover in India is under extremely to very highly fire-prone zones.
Decline in natural forests:
o Even though ‘very dense forests’ (with canopy density over 70 per cent) have increased by 501
sq km, 'moderately dense forests' or ‘natural forests’ (with 40-70 per cent canopy density)
have declined by 1,582 sq km.
o When compared with an increase of 2,621 sq km in open forest areas (10-40 per cent
density), the decline of moderately dense forests suggests a degradation of forests in the
country as natural forests are degrading to less dense open forest areas.
Decline in North-eastern forest cover: Even though Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland top the charts in terms of forest cover as percentage
of total geographical area, the five north-eastern states have all shown a loss in forest
cover. The forest cover in the region has shown an overall decline of 1,020 sq km in
forest cover.
Other findings
o The report for the first time has assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the
Gir forest and found that it has increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32 per cent) in tiger corridors
between 2011-2021, but tiger reserves recorded a decline of 22.6 sq km (0.04 per cent).
o The report has found that forest cover has increased in 20 tiger reserves, and decreased in 32
in the last 10 years.
Impact of climate change
o The ISFR 2021 estimates that by 2030, 45-64 per cent of Indian forests will be affected by
climate change and rising temperatures, and forests in all states (except Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura and Nagaland) will be highly vulnerable climate hot spots.
o The report suggests that Ladakh (forest cover 0.1-0.2 per cent) is likely to be the most
affected by climate change.
 NEW RAMSAR SITES

TAMPARA LAKE
o Tampara Lake is among the most prominent freshwater lakes in the State of Odisha
situated in Ganjam district.
o The depression on the ground gradually filled with rainwater from catchment flow and was
called “Tamp” by the British and subsequently termed “Tampra” by the locals.
o The wetland supports at least 60 species of birds, 46 species of fishes, at least 48 species of
phytoplanktons, and more than seven species of terrestrial plants and macrophytes.
o The wetland is an important habitat for vulnerable species such as Cyprinus carpio,
common pochard (Aythya ferina), and river tern (Sterna aurantia).
o With an estimated average fish yield of 12 tonnes per year, the wetland is an important source
of livelihood for the local communities. Along with fishes the wetland also provides
provisioning services like water for agriculture, and domestic use and is a well-known
tourism and recreation site.

HIRAKUD RESERVOIR
o Hirakud Reservoir, the largest earthen dam in Odisha started operating in 1957.
o The reservoir to support a range of floral and faunal species, including several of high
conservation significance.
o Out of the known 54 species of fish from the reservoir, one has been classed as being
endangered, six near threatened and 21 fish species of economic importance.
o Fisheries presently yield a catch of around 480 MT of fish annually and is the mainstay of
livelihoods of 7,000 fisher households. Similarly, over 130 bird species have been recorded at
this site, out of which 20 species are of high conservation significance.
o The reservoir is a source of water for producing around 300 MW of hydropower and
irrigating 436,000 ha of cultural command area.
o The wetland also provides important hydrological services by moderating floods in the
Mahanadi delta, the ecological and socio-economic hub of the east coast of India. Hirakud
reservoir supports abundant tourism, and forms an integral part of the high touristic value
sites located around Sambalpur with over 30,000 tourists annually visiting the site.
ANSUPA LAKE
o Ansupa Lake is the largest freshwater lake of Odisha situated in Banki sub-division of
Cuttack district and has its fame from time immemorial for its scenic beauty, biodiversity,
and natural resources.
o The wetland is an oxbow lake formed by River Mahanadi and is spread over an area of
231 ha. The wetland is home to at least 194 species of birds, 61 species of fishes and 26
species of mammals in addition to 244 species of macrophytes.
o The wetland provides a safe habitat to at least three threatened bird species- Rynchops
albicollis (EN), Sterna acuticauda (EN) and Sterna aurantia (VU) and three threatened fish
species- Clarias magur (Clariidae) (EN), Cyprinus carpio (Cyprinidae) (VU) and Wallago attu
(VU).
o Ansupa lake sustains the freshwater demands of the surrounding areas and also supports the
livelihood of the local communities through fisheries and agriculture. The wetland has
immense recreational and tourism potential as it is a major wintering ground for migratory
birds and is also known for its scenic beauty.
YASHWANT SAGAR
o Yashwant Sagar is one of the two Important Bird Areas (IBA) in the Indore region as
well as one of the most important birding sites in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh.
o Presently, it is mainly used for water supply to the city of Indore and is also being used for
fish culture on a commercial scale.
o Yashwant Sagar reservoir comes under the jurisdiction of Indore City Municipal Corporation.
o Indore which has bagged the title of one of the cleanest cities in India is also often known as
center of economic growth of Madhya Pradesh.
o The catchment area of this wetland is predominantly agriculture. Yashwant Sagar is
considered to be a stronghold of the vulnerable Sarus Crane in central India.
o The lake backwaters have plenty of shallow areas, conducive for waders and other waterfowl.
As the water level recedes, many islands serve as roosting sites for waterfowl. Due to its vast

shallow reed beds, the wetland is considered heaven to a large number of winter migratory
birds.
CHITRANGUDI BIRD SANCTUARY

o Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary, locally known as "Chitrangudi Kanmoli" is located in
Ramanathapuram district in Tamil Nadu.
o The wetland is a protected area since 1989 and declared as Bird Sanctuary, coming under the
jurisdiction of Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Ramanathapuram division.
o Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary is an ideal habitat for winter migratory birds. Around 50 birds
belonging to 30 families have been reported from the site. Out of these 47 are water birds
and 3 terrestrial birds. Notable waterbirds spotted from the site area spot-billed pelican, little
egret, grey heron, large egret, open billed stork, purple, and pond herons.
o Chitrangudi is surrounded by agricultural fields, where different crops are grown throughout
the year. The wetland also supports a number of fishes, amphibians, molluscs, aquatic
insects, and their larvae forming good food sources for arriving waterbirds. Groundwater is
extracted for irrigation around and within the wetland for agricultural purposes.
SUCHINDRAM THEROOR WETLAND COMPLEX

o Suchindrum Theroor Wetland complex is part of the Suchindrum-Theroor Manakudi
Conservation Reserve. It is declared an Important Bird Area and lies at the southern tip of the
Central Asian flyway of migratory birds. It was formed for birds' nesting purposes and
it attracts thousands of birds every year. The total population dependent upon Theroor is
about 10,500 and 75% of the population’s livelihood hinges on agriculture which in turn is
dependent upon the water released from the Theroor tank.
o This is a man-made, inland Tank and is perennial. Copper plate inscriptions from the 9th
century mention Pasumkulam, Venchikulam, Nedumarthukulam, Perumkulam,
Elemchikulam and Konadunkulam. Around 250 species of birds have been recorded in the
area, of which 53 are migratory, 12 endemic, and 4 threatened.
VADUVUR BIRD SANCTUARY

o Vaduvur bird sanctuary spreads over an area of 112.638 ha, is a large human-made
irrigation tank and shelter for migratory birds as it provides a suitable environment for
food, shelter, and breeding ground.
o While these irrigation tanks have socio-economic and cultural significance, very little is
known of their ecological importance. These tanks have the potential to harbor good
populations of resident and wintering water birds but no studies have been done to confirm
this.
o Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii occurred in most of the surveyed tanks.
o Large concentrations of wintering waterfowl such as Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope,
Northern Pintail Anas acuta, Garganey Anas querquedula were recorded in tanks.
o Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary has a diverse habitat including a number of inlets and surrounding
irrigated agricultural fields which provides good nesting and foraging habitats for birds.
Thus, the site provides support to the species listed above during critical stages of their life-
cycle.

KANJIRANKULAM BIRD SANCTUARY

o Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary is a Protected area near Mudukulathur
Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu. India, declared in 1989.
o It is notable as a nesting site for several migratory heron species that roost in the prominent
growth of babul trees there. The breeding population of migratory waterbirds arrive here
between October and February and include: painted stork, white ibis, black ibis, little egret,
great egret.
o The site qualifies as an IBA as the threatened Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis
breeds here. The wetland exhibits rich biodiversity including many globally near-threatened
species like Spot-billed Pelican, Oriental Darter, Oriental white Ibis and Painted Stork and
also commonly occurring shore and water birds like greenshank, plovers, stilts and forest
birds like bee-eaters, bulbuls, cuckoos, starlings, barbets, etc.
o They act as breeding, nesting, roosting, foraging, and stopover sites for the birdsThe wetland
supports IUCN RedList vulnerable avian species like Sterna aurantia (River Tern).
THANE CREEK
o Thane Creek is located in Maharashtra, India. There are several sources of fresh water to the
creek, of which Ulhas River is the largest, followed by many drainage channels from various
suburban areas of Mumbai, Navi Mumbai & Thane.
o It has been declared as Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary. Thane creek is fringed by
mangroves on both banks & comprises around 20% of the total Indian mangrove species.
o The mangrove forest acts as a natural shelter belt & protects the land from cyclones, tidal
surges, seawater seepage & intrusions. The mangrove serves as a nursery for several fishes &
sustains the local fishery.
o The area is an important part of the wetland complex of the Central Asian Flyway of the birds
and has been categorized as an Important Bird Area (IBA). Other than 202 avifaunal species,
the creek also houses 18 species of fishes, crustaceans & molluscs, 59 species of butterflies, 67
species of Insects, and 35 species of phytoplankton, and 24 species of zooplankton & 23
species of Benthos.
HYGAM WETLAND CONSERVATION RESERVE

o Hygam Wetland falls within the River Jhelum basin and plays a significant role as a flood
absorption basin, biodiversity conservation site, eco-tourism site, and livelihood security for
the local communities.
o The wetland is located in the Baramulla district. It serves as an abode to many residents and
migratory bird species. It is also recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA).
o Consequent to the high rate of siltation, Hygam Wetland has lost its wetland characteristics
to a large extent and in many places changed its profile into a landmass. This has resulted in
further loss of habitat conditions to offer a suitable site for visiting migratory birds (Winter/
Summer migrants) and for resident birds as well.
o Hygam Wetland provides a plethora of ecosystem services, these include fish and fiber, water
supply, water purification, climate regulation, flood regulation, and recreational
opportunities. The livelihoods of people living in, and adjoining the fringes of wetlands
depend partially or entirely on wetland ecosystem services.

SHALLBUGH WETLAND CONSERVATION RESERVE

o Shallabug Wetland Conservation Reserve is located in the District Srinagar, UT of J&K.
Large areas of the wetland dry up between September and March.
o The area has extensive reedbeds of Phragmites communis and Typha angustata, and rich
growth of Nymphaea candida and N. stellata on open water. It serves as an abode to more
than four lakh resident and migratory birds of at least 21 species.
o Shallabugh Wetland plays a major role in the natural control, amelioration or prevention of
flooding, It is also important for seasonal water retention for wetlands or other areas of
conservation importance downstream.
o The wetland is important for the recharge of aquifers. A major natural floodplain system.
Shallabugh Wetland provides plethora of ecosystem services, these include fish and fiber,
water supply, water purification, climate regulation, flood regulation, recreational
opportunities. The wetland serves as an important breeding ground for many species of
waterbirds
 PROJECT TIGER
o India is now home to almost 75% of the world’s Wild Tigers. The relative transparency in the
estimation process and the dedication to the project in India of Saving the Tiger is
unparalleled.
o A previous estimation by the data collected, and number of Tigers shot for sport – it was
estimated that, at the beginning of the 20th Century, there likely could have been upwards of
50,000 Tigers in India alone. The continued hunting, poaching and habitat destruction has
decimated their populations and by the 1960’s, wildlife in India had hit rock bottom. They
were treated like vermin, and nearly exterminated.
o It was around 1970, that, a group of conservationists and researchers applied sustained
pressure on the Indian Government. Notable Conservationist Dr.Kailash Sankhla made a
personal appeal to then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi, who turned out to be empathetic
and understanding towards the need to protect India’s Natural Heritage – the oldest heritage
of India.
o Wildlife Protection Act was drawn up in 1972 as a result, and it ended legally, all
hunting in India – and protected individual species by Law.
o Project Tiger was launched subsequently, in 1973, and Dr.Kailash Sankhla was appointed
the 1st Director of Project Tiger in India.
o Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve in Uttarakhand was the 1st Tiger Reserve in India. A
further 8 Tiger Reserves were established with around 9115 sq.km of forests under the wing
of Project Tiger.
o This figure stands today at 71,000 sq.km – a stark improvement from its initial days but
nearly not enough forest cover for a burgeoning country such as India with a beautiful and
rich Natural Heritage.
o Today, there are 53 Tiger Reserves established in India.
Each Tiger Reserve is divided into 02 areas: Core Area and Buffer Area

Core Area /Critical Tiger Habitat

o This is the critical habitat
of surviving Tigers and
prey species which can
support or already support
Tiger populations in the
landscape due to
favourable ecological
conditions having
potential for improving
existing habitat to ensure
long-term success of the
species.
o No human activity save
for conservation-related
or Park-management
related activities are
permitted here. Everyday tasks of wood collection, grazing and utilisation of forest produce is
banned.
o Tourism is permitted, however according to NTCA guidelines, only upto 20% of the
Core Area is available for Wildlife Tourism.
o These areas usually have a legal status of National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary.
Buffer Area
o Demarcated areas adjoining or surrounding the Core Area have been given the status of the
Buffer Area.
o These are peripheral areas of the Core or newly created habitat for wildlife which inevitably
spills over from the declared Core Area.
o However, activities such as livestock grazing, controlled collection of firewood and minimal
use of forest produce for the sake of livelihood by the locals are permitted.
o Forest Check-Posts and Patrolling Camps have been strategically established across Tiger
Reserves in the Core and Buffer Areas to mitigate poaching threats and ensure management
of the reserve and swift action in case of emergency situations.
Village Relocation
o One of the most difficult and herculean of all tasks has been the ongoing Village Relocation
Programmes in Tiger Reserves, ongoing since 1973.
o Voluntary relocation of people and settlements has been one of the major tasks and a massive
challenge ineffective establishment and management of Tiger Reserves across India in
addition to reducing poaching threats and preserving the habitat.
o Many villages were/are situated in the identified Critical Tiger Habitats in India, as well as in
the newly identified Critical Tiger Habitats for the future establishment of Tiger Reserves.
The need to educate the local people of the benefits of relocating/moving away from their
present homes in the Tiger Reserve. Compensatory land or money is provided as aid from the
government along with logistical assistance.
o The challenge of Human Rights, Political pressure and vested interest groups has definitely
ensured that this task be a Herculean effort – however, relatively good governance practices

and diligence of the various Forest Departments has resulted in various positive
breakthroughs for Project Tiger.
Tiger Task Force

o In light of heavy poaching and formation of strong poaching networks by smugglers within
India, a need for greater monitoring and an additional layer of protection was included in the
year 2005.
o Following the exposure by the media and ground-level conservationists on the sudden
disappearance of Tigers in the notable plight of Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan, the then
Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh set up the Tiger Task Force to strengthen
the conservation of the National Animal of India.
o The guiding principles for all the Tiger Reserves in the country by the Tiger Task Force
include : –
 Looking into the various problems of Tiger Conservation and suggesting methods for its
improvement.
 Improving methods to check-poaching of tigers and illegal practices followed in the wildlife
sanctuaries.
 To improve the method of counting and forecasting Tigers.
 To educate the local indigenous population inhabitant in the Reserves towards the
conservation of tigers and preservation of habitat.
 NTCA
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is the Apex body that administers
Project Tiger.
Powers and functions of the National Tiger Conservation Authority as prescribed under
Section 38 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 are as under:-
o To approve the Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by the Individual State Governments.
o To evaluate and assess the various aspects of sustainable ecology.
o Disallowing unsustainable land use for projects such as Mining, Industry and other
such projects within Tiger Reserves.
o Establishment of Standards for Tourism Guidelines within the Tiger Reserves has to be
set by the NTCA. It encapsulates those in the Core as well as the Buffer Area of the Tiger
Reserve.
o To focus on addressing inevitable Human-Animal Conflict scenarios. To ensure due
processes are established on the areas surrounding the National Park, Sanctuaries or Tiger
Reserve to enable co-existence around forest areas.
o To provide information on Protection Measures including the Future Conservation
Plan, Estimation of Tiger Population and its Natural Prey Species, Status of Habitats, Disease
Surveillance, Mortality Survey, Patrolling, reports on any Untoward Happenings and such
Management Aspects as deemed fit in the Future Conservation Plan.
o To approve and co-ordinate Research and Monitoring on ecological aspects of the
Tiger, Prey, Habitat as well as related ecological and socio-economic parameters and their
evaluation.

o To ensure that Tiger Reserves and areas linking a protected area with another,
are not diverted for ecologically unsustainable use, except in absolute public interest; with
approval from the National Board for Wildlife and the advice of the NTCA.
o To facilitate Eco-development and People’s Participation in Biodiversity
Conservation Initiatives as per the approved management plans. Additionally, to support
similar initiatives in adjoining areas consistent with State and Central Laws.
o To ensure critical support including Scientific, Information Technology and Legal
Support for ideal implementation of the Future Conservation Plan.
o To ensure Training and Development of Officers and Staff of Tiger Reserves through
Capacity – building Programs.
o To perform any such other functions to carry out purposes of the Project with regards to
protecting the Tiger and its Habitat.
 SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE

o Similipal, which derives its name from ‘Simul’ (Silk Cotton) tree, is a national park and a
Tiger Reserve situated in the northern part of Orissa’s Mayurbhanj district.
o The tiger reserve is spread over 2750 sq km and has some beautiful waterfalls like Joranda
and Barehipani. The park is surrounded by high plateaus and hills, the highest peak being the
twin peaks of Khairiburu and Meghashini (1515m above mean sea level).
o At least twelve rivers cut across the plain area, all of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. The
prominent among them are Burhabalanga, Palpala Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi and Deo.
o An astounding 1078 species of plants including 94 species of orchids find their home in the
park. The vegetation is a mix of different forest types and habitats, with Northern tropical
moist deciduous dominating some semi-evergreen patches. Sal is the dominant tree
species here. The park also has extensive grasslands that are grazing grounds for many of
the herbivores. These forests boast of many plants that have medicinal and aromatic
properties.
o The park is known for the tiger, elephant and hill mynah. It holds the highest tiger
population in the state of Orissa. 55 species of mammals, 304 species of birds, 60 species of
reptiles, 21 species of frogs, 38 species of fish and 164 species of butterflies have been
recorded from the Park.
o Apart from the tiger, the major mammals are leopard, sambar, barking deer, gaur, jungle cat,
wild boar, four-horned antelope, giant squirrel and common langur. Grey hornbill, Indian
pied hornbill and Malabar pied hornbill are also found here. The park also has a sizeable
population of reptiles, which includes the longest venomous snake, the King cobra and the
Tricarinate hill turtle. The Mugger Management Programme at Ramatirtha has helped
the mugger crocodile to flourish on the banks of the Khairi and Deo Rivers.
History and current status:

o The Tiger Reserve originated as a hunting ground for the surrounding royalty. It was formally
designated a tiger reserve under Project Tiger in May 1973. The Government of Orissa
declared Similipal as a wildlife sanctuary in 1979 with an area of 2750 sq. km.
o Later in 1980, Government of Orissa proposed 303 sq. km of the sanctuary as National Park.
Further in 1986, the area of the National Park was increased to 845.70 sq. km.

o The Government of India declared it as a biosphere reserve in 1994. UNESCO added this
National Park to its list of Biosphere Reserves in May 2009.
o This tiger reserve also comes under Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve that includes the
adjacent Hadgarh and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries.
o Apart from its biodiversity, the region around Similipal forests is home to a variety of tribes.
Prominent among these are Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Bhatudi, Gondas, Khadia,
Mankadia and Sahara. Most of them are settled agriculturists, supplementing their
income by collecting firewood and timber except for the last three who are indigenous
hunter-gatherer communities living primarily off the forest, collecting forest produce. While
the tribes earlier followed a number of traditional conservation practices like closed seasons,
hunting taboos on specific species, maintenance of sacred groves (Jharia) etc., of late, these
practices have been on the decline due to the increasing influence of modern civilization,
increasing human population and decreasing wildlife availability.
 SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

The measures for habitat management for tigers launched about six months ago at the
famous Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan’s Alwar district have started bearing fruit.
The tiger population in the wildlife sanctuary has gone up to 25, while the resources are
being provided to create water holes and develop grasslands for ungulates as a prey base.
o Sariska Tiger Reserve is well nestled in the Aravali Hills covering 800 sq km area
divided into the grasslands, dry deciduous forests, sheer cliffs and rocky
landscape.
o Nearly 90% of the area in the sanctuary is covered with dhok trees accommodating various
wildlife species.
o A variety of other wild animals like the leopard, sambhar, chital, nilgai, four-horned antelope,
wild boar, rhesus macaque, langur, hyena and jungle cats are found in the Sariska Tiger
Reserve apart from the tiger.
o The Sariska National Park is home to India's largest population of peafowl, and
harbours quail, sand grouse, golden- backed woodpeckers and crested serpent eagles, among
other species.
o Also the Siliserh Lake on the edge of the park has a large number of crocodiles.
o The Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary houses the ruins of medieval temples of Garh-Rajor that
date back to the 10th and 11th centuries.
o The Sariska was declared a sanctuary in 1955 and attained the status of a National
Park in 1979.
 SATKOSIA TIGER RESERVE

o Fifteen years after declaration as a tiger reserve and failure of revival of big cat population
through India’s first inter-State tiger relocation programme, the Satkosia Tiger
Reserve (STR) in Odisha has started making efforts afresh to re-establish it as a
tiger habitat.

o The State and Forest department are attempting to relocate inhabitants of three villages from
its core area to create 500 sq km area of inviolate zone for tigers.
o Satkosia Tiger Reserve is a tiger reserve located in the Angul district of Odisha, India
covering an area of 988.30 km²
o The STR was declared as tiger reserve in 2007.
o In 2017, the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) tried to rationalise STR boundary by
excluding 104 villages from its STR’s jurisdiction. The STR had 963.87 sq km where it was
declared as a tiger reserve. Later, forest patches of 172 sq km were proposed to be added to
the STR.
 TIGER COUNT IN KARNATAKA

Bandipur and Nagarahole lead in tiger numbers in the State followed by BRT Tiger
Sanctuary, Bhadra and Kali tiger reserves, as per the ‘Status of Tigers, Co-predators, and
Prey in India’ report.
o In terms of density, Nagarahole has 11.82 tigers per 100 sq.km, while Bandipur has 7.7 tigers
per 100 sq.km.
o BRT has 4.96 tigers per 100 sq.km and Bhadra has a relatively low tiger density pegged at
2.86 in the same area.
o Other forests and sanctuaries where tiger presence has been found in significant numbers
include M.M. Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, Madikeri Wildlife Division, Madikeri Territorial
Division, Virajpet Territorial Division, Koppa Wildlife Division, and Haliyal Forest Division
which is part of Joida taluk of Uttara Karnataka district, among others.
BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK

o Bandipur National Park is a national park covering 868.63 km2 (335.38 sq mi) in
Chamarajnagar district of Karnataka.
o It was established as a tiger reserve under Project Tiger in 1973.
o It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986
o Bandipur National Park is located where the Deccan Plateau meets the Western Ghats,
and the altitude of the park ranges from 680 meters (2,230 ft) to 1,454 meters (4,770 ft).
o As a result, the park has a variety of biomes including dry deciduous forests, moist
deciduous forests and shrublands.
o The park is flanked by the Kabini river in the north and the Moyar river in the
south.
o The Nugu river runs through the park.
o Bandipur has typical tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry and
hot period usually begins in early March and can last till the arrival of the monsoon rains in
June.
o Bandipur supports a wide range of timber trees including: teak (Tectona grandis),
rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), sandalwood (Santalum album V), Indian-laurel (Terminalia
tomentosa), Indian kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), giant clumping bamboo
(Dendrocalamus strictus), clumping bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) and Grewia tiliaefolia.

o Bandipur National Park harbours Indian elephant, gaur, Bengal tiger, sloth bear, mugger
crocodile, Indian rock python, four-horned antelope, golden jackal and dhole.
o Peafowl are among the most commonly seen birds in Bandipur along with grey junglefowl,
crows and drongos.
NAGARAHOLE TIGER RESERVE

o “Nagarahole Tiger Reserve” previously known as Rajiv Gandhi National Park is named after
the stream ‘Nagarahole’ which literally means serpent stream (Nagara – serpent, hole –
stream) in Kannada language.
o The protected area is located in both the districts of Mysuru and Kodagu with an area of
847.981 sq.km
o This park was declared the 37th Tiger Reserve of India in 1999.
o It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
o The Western Ghats Nilgiri Sub-Cluster of 6,000 km2 (2,300 sq mi), including all of
Nagarhole National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee
for selection as a World Heritage Site.
o The Kabini and Taraka reservoirs are large waterbodies located towards the west
and south eastern parts of the park respectively.
o Nagarahole is contiguous with Wayanad wildlife sanctuary (Kerala) to the south and
Bandipur Tiger Reserve to its south eastern parts.
o These forests of Malenad landscape in the western ghats support large assembles of
carnivores and herbivores: Tiger (Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Asiatic Wild
Dog (Cuon alpinus), Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus),
Gaur (Bos gaurus), Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Chital (Axis axis), Muntjac(Muntiacus muntjak)
, Four Horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), Wild Pig (Sus scrofa), Mouse Deer
(Moschiola indica) and South-western langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos).
 RAIMONA NATIONAL PARK

o Raimona in Kokrajhar district has become Assam’s sixth national park.
o The five national parks that existed
prior to the 422 sq. km Raimona are
Kaziranga, Manas, Nameri, Orang
and Dibru-Saikhowa.
o The Raimona National Park is within
the Bodoland Territorial Region.
The area of the park includes the
northern part of the notified Ripu
Reserve Forest (508.62 sq. km),
which forms the western-most buffer to
the Manas National Park that straddles
the India-Bhutan border.
o Raimona was bounded on the west by the Sonkosh river along the Assam-West Bengal
border running southward from the India-Bhutan border and the Saralbhanga river on

the east till it touched the India-Bhutan border on the north and the southern part of the
Ripu Reserve Forest.
o The Pekua river defines Raimona’s southern boundary.
o Raimona also shares contiguous forest patches of the Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and the
Jigme Singye Wangchuk National Park in Bhutan (total area of 1,999 sq. km) creating a
transboundary conservation landscape of more than 2,400 sq. km.
o Raimona is an integral part of the 2,837 sq. km Manas Biosphere Reserve and the Chirang-
Ripu Elephant Reserve.
 DIHING PATKAI NATIONAL PARK

o Dihing Patkai has been created as the seventh
National Park in Assam.
o It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in
2004.
o The 234.26-sq. km Dihing Patkai straddling
eastern Assam’s Dibrugarh and Tinsukia
districts is a major elephant habitat and
310 species of butterflies have been recorded
there.
o The Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary was
declared as Dehing-Patkai Elephant
Reserve under Project Elephant.
o The park has 47 species each of reptiles and
mammals, including the tiger and clouded
leopard.
o Dihing Patkai, in focus a year ago for illegal coal mining in the vicinity, encompasses the
erstwhile Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary, the Jeypore Reserve Forest and the western
block of the Upper Dihing Reserve Forest.
o Short stretches of the Dirak and Buri Dihing rivers have been included in the park.
o The newly-notified national park will be administered by the Soraipung Range of Digboi
Forest Division and Jeypore Range of Dibrugarh Forest Division. Additional anti-poaching
camps and manpower are being provided for intensive patrolling and conservation of the new
park.
 PAKKE TIGER RESERVE

o The 862 km2 (333 sq mi) reserve is protected by the Department of Environment and Forest
of Arunachal Pradesh.
o Pakke Tiger Reserve (declared in 1999 - 2000) lies in the foothills of the eastern Himalaya in
Arunachal Pradesh's Pakke Kessang District.
o It is also known as Pakhui Tiger Reserve.
o It falls within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.

o It is home to over 2000 species of

plants, 300 species of birds, 40 species
of mammals, 30 species of amphibians
and 36 species of reptiles. Many
species of the flora and fauna are
globally threatened, and PTR is one of
the last remaining strongholds left for
these species.
o It is known for its amazing sightings of
four resident hornbill species.
o This Tiger Reserve has won India
Biodiversity Award 2016 in the
category of 'Conservation of
threatened species' for its Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
o Towards the south and south-east, the sanctuary adjoins reserve forests and Assam's
Nameri National Park. To the west, it is bounded by Doimara Reserve Forest with an
area of 216 km2 (83 sq mi) and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary; and to the north by
Shergaon Forest Division.
o The main perennial streams in the area are the Nameri, Khari and Upper Dikorai.
 MANAS NATIONAL PARK

Captive-bred pygmy hogs, the world’s rarest and smallest wild pigs, were released in the
Manas National Park of western Assam. This is the second batch to have been reintroduced
into the wild under the Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP) in a year.
The PHCP is a collaboration among Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust of UK,
Assam Forest Department, Wild Pig Specialist Group of International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Union Environment Ministry and is currently
being implemented by NGOs Aaranyak and EcoSystems India.
o Manas, at the base of foot hills of the Bhutan-Himalayas in the state of Assam, with
unique biodiversity and landscape is one of the first reserves included in the network of tiger
reserve under Project tiger in 1973.
o In 1985, the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary was inscribed as World Heritage Site.
o In 1989, Manas acquired the status of a Biosphere reserve.
o It extends over an area of 2837 Sq. Km from Sankosh river in the west to Dhansiri
river in the east, with a core area of 500 Sq. Km. of the National park, which declared in
1990. The average elevation of the area is 85 m above mean sea level. The river Manas flows
into the national Park from the gorges of Bhutan and split into two major streams of which
the main water course comes out of the National Park about 30 km downstream is known as
‘Beki”.
o About the half of the Park is covered by Grasslands of Terai and Bhabar type, the riparian
areas have colonizing grasslands and woodlands of several species. The thick woodlands are
called Eastern Moist Deciduous Forests of various types. The undergrowths are very thick.
There are more than 650 species of Angiosperms alone. The commonly seen trees are the
Simul, Oxi, Sissoo, Khaie, Gamari, etc.

o Manas is the only landscape in the world where pristine Terai Grasslands are seen
merging with the Bhabar grasslands interspersed with diverse habitats ascending to
Semi-Evergreen forests and then to Bhutan Himalayas. The Biodiversity is very rich here. The
last population of the Pygmy Hog survive in the wilds of Manas and nowhere else in the
world.
 OPERATION OLIVIA
o Operation Olivia was started by the Indian Coast
Guard (ICG), first in early 1980s. This operation
helps in protecting Olive Ridley turtles every
year when they start nesting along Odisha coast
for breeding in months of November to
December. Under it, round-the-clock surveillance
is conducted from November till May through
Coast Guard assets like Fast patrol vessels,
Interceptor craft, Air cushion vessels and Dornier
aircraft.
o These laws and operation are enforced by the Coast Guard which gets power under Orissa
Marine Fisheries Act. Efforts are made at various levels such as:
 Enforcement of use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TED) by trawlers in waters surrounding
nesting areas.
 Prohibition of using gill nets as turtle approaches to the shore to curtail turtle poaching.
About Olive Ridley

o Olive Ridley turtles are listed as vulnerable under International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.
o Sea turtles found in India have been included in Schedule I of Indian Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972.
o They are also listed in Appendix I of Convention of International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora.
o Their mass nesting is called as arribada.
o Gahirmatha, Astaranga coast, mouth of Devi river and Rushikulya are four arribadas sites off
the Odisha Coast in India. Apart from that, Hope Island of Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary in
Andhra Pradesh is also preferred for mass nesting.
 KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

o Kaziranga National Park is a national park in the Golaghat, Karbi Anglong and Nagaon
districts of the state of Assam, India.
o The sanctuary hosts two-thirds of the world's great one-horned rhinoceroses.
o In the year 1985, the park was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
o Kaziranga is home to large density of tigers.

o The park is home to large breeding populations of elephants, wild water buffalo, and swamp
deer.
o Kaziranga is recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International for
conservation of avifaunal species. When compared with other protected areas in India,
Kaziranga has achieved notable success in wildlife conservation. Located on the edge of the
Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, the park combines high species diversity and
visibility.
o Kaziranga is a vast expanse of tall elephant grass, marshland, and dense tropical moist
broadleaf forests, criss-crossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, and the park
includes numerous small bodies of water. Kaziranga has been the theme of several books,
songs, and documentaries. The park celebrated its centennial in 2005 after its establishment
in 1905 as a reserve forest.
o It was formed on the recommendation of Mary Curzon, the wife of the Viceroy of India –
Lord Curzon.
o Flora: Due to the difference in altitude between the eastern and western areas of the park,
here one can see mainly four types of vegetation’ like alluvial inundated grasslands,
alluvial savanna woodlands, tropical moist mixed deciduous forests, and tropical
semi-evergreen forests.
o Kumbhi, Indian gooseberry, the cotton tree, and elephant Apple are amongst the famous
trees that can be seen in the park. Also, a good variety of aquatic flora can be seen in lakes,
ponds, and along the river shores.
o Fauna: The forest region of Kaziranga Park is home to world’s largest population of Indian
Rhinoceros. Other animals that can be seen are Hoolock Gibbon, Tiger, Leopard, Indian
Elephant, Sloth Bear, Wild water buffalo, swamp deer, etc. With increase in tiger population
every year, the government authorities declared Kaziranga as a Tiger Reserve in the year
2006. Also here one can find good number of migratory bird species from Central Asia.
 WORLD RHINO DAY

o Assam marked World Rhino Day —
September 22 — with a special ceremony by
burning a stockpile of nearly 2,500 horns of
the one-horned rhinoceros.
o Rhino horn is used in traditional Chinese
medicine to cure a range of ailments, from
cancer to hangovers, and also as an
aphrodisiac. In Vietnam, possessing a rhino
horn is considered a status symbol.
o Due to demand in these countries, poaching
pressure on rhinos is ever persistent.
What is the purpose of the ceremony?

o The public ceremony at Bokakhat in Kaziranga National Park (KNP) with Chief Minister
Himanta Biswa Sarma as the chief guest has been publicised as a “milestone towards rhino

conservation” aimed at “busting myths about rhino horns”. It’s a loud and clear message to
the poachers and smugglers that such items have no value.
o Thus the case for the destruction of horns — a process that is in compliance with Section
39(3)(c) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
How serious a threat is poaching?

o Several cases of rhino poaching were reported in the years leading up to 2013 and 2014.
These two years witnessed the highest number of incidents in a decade, at 27 in each year.
This has since decreased to 17 in 2015, 18 in 2016, 6 each in 2017 and 2018, and 3 in 2019.
o The one-horned rhino, which was earlier “endangered” as per the IUCN Red List, is now
listed as “Vulnerable.”
o In 2019, the Assam government constituted a dedicated “Special Rhino Protection
Force” to keep a check on rhino poaching and related activities at KNP.
o A March 2018 rhino census pegged the rhino population at 2,413 in KNP, 101 in Orang
National Park, and 102 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, and a more recent count said there
were 43 in the Manas National Park.
 WORLD ELEPHANT DAY

o On 12 August, 2012, the first international Elephant Day was celebrated. Since then, it is
observed annually and this day is dedicated to huge animal protection and
preservation.
o World Elephant Day was conceived by the Elephant Reintroduction Foundation and
filmmakers Patricia Sims and Michael Clark.
o This day makes people understand the need for better protection for wild animals, elephants,
and also to improve the illegal poaching and trade of ivory, better treatment of captive
elephants.
o In the IUCN Red List of threatened species, African elephants are listed as Vulnerable
and Asian elephants as Endangered.
o The goal of World Elephant Day is to create awareness of the urgent plight of African and
Asian elephants, and to share knowledge and positive solutions for the better care and
management of captive and wild elephants.
 PROJECT ELEPHANT
o Project Elephant was launched by the Government of India in the year 1992 as a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme.
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides the financial and
technical support to major elephant range states in the country through Project Elephant.
o The Project is being implemented in 16 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Project Elephant - Objectives

o To protect elephants, their habitat &
corridors.
o To address issues of man-animal conflict.
o Welfare of captive elephants.
Project Elephant - Activities

o Main activities under Project Elephant are
as follows:
 Research on Elephant management related
issues;
 Public education and awareness
programmes;
 Eco-development;
 Veterinary care;
 Elephant Rehabilitation/Rescue
Centers;
 Ecological restoration of existing
natural habitats and migratory routes of
elephants;
 Development of scientific and
planned management for conservation
of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India;
 Promotion of measures for mitigation of man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats
and moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant
habitats;
 Strengthening of measures for the protection of Wild elephants from poachers and unnatural
causes of death.
 MIKE: GLOBAL EFFORTS

o The Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme is an
international collaboration that measures the levels, trends and causes of elephant
mortality, thereby providing an information base to support international decision-making
related to conservation of elephants in Asia and Africa.
o The MIKE Programme was established by the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) by Resolution 10.10
adopted at the tenth Conference of the Parties in 1997.
o There are currently 28 sites participating in the MIKE programme in Asia,
distributed across 13 countries: India has 10 sites, followed by two sites each in Cambodia,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand, and one site each in Bangladesh,
Bhutan, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam.
o In 2017, IUCN was engaged by CITES to implement the MIKE Asia programme in two sub-
regions: South Asia (via the IUCN India Country Office in New Delhi); and Southeast

Asia (through the IUCN Asia Regional Office in Bangkok). This forms part of the wider Asia
Wildlife Law Enforcement and Demand Reduction Management Project funded by the
European Union.
o The main objective of the MIKE Asia programme is to identify spatial, temporal and other
trends in elephant mortalities by collating and analysing data on elephant carcasses (which
are collected by management agencies). Other objectives include support for law enforcement
activities, capacity-building for front-line field staff and limited provision of field equipment
to sites. The program’s analytical outputs and field activities support international decision-
making related to elephant conservation in Asia.
Expected outputs:
o Collation and quality control of annual records of elephant carcasses from MIKE sites in Asia.
o Data analysis to identify patterns at the level of site, local region and country.
 ELEPHANT CORRIDORS
o Elephant corridor is a thin strip of land
that allows elephants to move freely
from one habitat patch to another.
o More than 100 elephant corridors have
been identified by the wildlife trust of
India under National elephant Corridor
project.
Importance of elephant corridors

o To address the development vs.
environment issue which causes habitat
loss to animals.
o To reduce man-animal conflict:
Expanding economic aspirations have
given way to the conversion of many
wetlands into urban centres, roads and
railway projects, infrastructure for
tourism. It has caused reduction of space
available for animals to roam freely. It
arises from man-animal conflict if space
for roaming is not provided for them.
o These corridors/projects are win-win for
both the people and the animal because farming produce in those get destroyed whenever a
herd of animals passes from those areas.
o It can address the poaching issue because now the corridors can be technologically
monitored.
o WLT(world land trust) and other foreign elephant conservation organisations are funding
wildlife trust of India in some corridor formation.

Latest Man-elephant Conflict Examples

o Elephant corridor identified by WWF-India in Wayana for restoration stuck due to non-
cooperation among various government agencies.
o Due to quarrying which has come up on hills adjacent to the 566-hectare Basavanatara forest,
there is very loud noise pollution which causes elephants to stray from their groups
o Parsa East and Kanta Basan’ open cast mine, which consists of a coal washery, involves 1,871
hectares of forest and an elephant corridor.
o Lands owned by the Isha foundation based at the foothills of Velliangiri Mountains are
located in the elephant corridor-Case is under litigation in high court and NGT(National
Green Tribunal).
o Numaligarh Refinery Ltd (NRL) in Assam created a golf course and fenced it with a barbed
wire and wall resulting in deaths of many elephants since then. It is present in elephant
corridor region and also it is a No-development zone.
o Dhanagur elephant corridor, where a farmer was killed and another seriously injured in
separate elephant attacks.
Some Initiative on domestic front

o To swiftly address the man-animal conflict issue, West Bengal government has come up with
Rapid Response Force (RRP) plan which is response team that would be equipped with
forest official, personnel with animal rescue training and equipment, veterinary surgeons and
a smart vehicle with rotating searchlights fitted atop it.
o Another initiative by WB government is Airavat (mythical war elephant and the pet of
Lord Indra), dedicated to reducing man-elephant conflict.
o Radio collar and technological devices for real-time monitoring in Assam and west
Bengal elephant corridors.
 AMUR FALCON
With the arrival of the
migratory Amur falcons to
Tamenglong district of
Manipur for the annual
stopover, State Forest and
Environment Minister
appealed to the people not to
hunt the seasonal visitors.
These falcons visit the
district every year from
breeding grounds in China and Russia before beginning their onward voyage to Africa for the
winter — a journey of more than 30,000 km.
Key Facts
o The Amur Falcon is a fascinating migratory raptor. Every year, the small, resilient birds make
the daring voyage from breeding grounds in Russia and China to winter in southern Africa. It

is supposed that the falcons cross the Arabian Sea during their migration, but much is still
unknown about the patterns of their migration.
o Breeds in South-east Russia and northern China.
o Migrates west through India and across the Arabian Sea to Southern Africa.
o Feeds on dragonflies that follow a similar migration path over Arabian Sea.
o 22,000 km journey (longest sea crossing of any raptor)
o Flyway: East-Asian Australasian and African Eurasian
o IUCN Red List Status: Least Concern
 BEHLER AWARD
o Indian biologist Shailendra Singh has been awarded the Behler Turtle Conservation
Award for bringing three critically endangered turtle conservation species back from the
brink of extinction.
o These are Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga), Northern River
Terrapin (Batagur baska), and Black Softshell Turtle (Nilssonia nigricans)
RED-CROWNED ROOFED TURTLE (BATAGUR KACHUGA)

o Red Crowned Roofed Turtle is one of the 24 species endemic to India, is characterised by the
bright colours such as red, yellow, white and blue on the faces and necks of the males.
o Common Names: Bengal roof turtle, Red-crowned roofed turtle.
Distribution:
o It is a freshwater turtle species found in deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nesting sites.
o The Red-crowned roofed turtle is native to India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
o Historically, the species was widespread in the Ganga River, both in India and Bangladesh. It
also occurs in the Brahmaputra basin.
o Currently in India, the National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary is the only area with
substantial population of the species, but even this Protected Area and habitat are under
threat.
NORTHERN RIVER TERRAPIN (BATAGUR BASKA)

o The northern river terrapin (Batagur
baska), is a species of riverine turtle. It is
one of the most critically endangered
turtle species according to IUCN.
o Habitat: Terrestrial & highly aquatic
(freshwater & brackish); lives in tidal
areas of the estuaries of medium and
large rivers and also in mangrove
habitat.
Habit
o Amphibian. Little known about the natural ecology and behavior of Batagurs, partly because
the highly silted rivers of their habitat make observations particularly difficult.

o Mainly prefers freshwater habitats and go up to brackish river mouths or estuaries in the
breeding season. After laying eggs they return to the freshwater. Individuals known to
undertake massive seasonal migrations of 50 to 60 miles to the sand banks that constitutes
their breeding grounds.
o Diet: Omnivorous- Takes waterside plants and small animals such as clams.
BLACK SOFTSHELL TURTLE (NILSSONIA NIGRICANS)

o Scientific Name: Nilssonia nigricans
o Features: They look almost the same as
the Indian peacock softshell turtle
(Nilssonia hurum).
Habitat:
o A freshwater species and there are 29
species of freshwater turtles and tortoises
found in India.
o They are found in ponds of temples in
north-eastern India and Bangladesh. Its distribution range also includes the Brahmaputra
River and its tributaries.
o Protection Status: IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered; CITES: Appendix I; Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972: No legal protection
o Threats: Consumption of turtle meat and eggs, silt mining, encroachment of wetlands and
change in flooding pattern.
 MANDA BUFFALO
o The Manda buffalo found in the Eastern
Ghat and Koraput plateau in Odisha has
been tagged as the 19th unique breed of
buffaloes found in the country by the
National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources (NBAGR).
o The NBAGR is affiliated with the Indian
Council of Agriculture Research
(ICAR). It gave the indigenous recognition
to this breed after assessing a survey report
submitted by Odisha’s Animal Resource
Development (ARD) and Odisha University of
Agriculture and Technology (OUAT).
o The ARD and OUAT had first identified the germ-plasm of this unique breed through a
survey.
o There are around one lakh Manda buffaloes, which mostly contribute to nutrition needs of
households and also assist in agricultural operations in the hilly terrains of Koraput,
Malkangir and Nabarangpur districts. Besides, these buffaloes are resistant to parasitic
infections and less prone to diseases.

o The average single milk yield of these buffaloes is 2-2.5 litres with more than 8% fat.
However, some of the yield goes up to 4 litres.
o The Manda buffaloes get matured in three years and give birth to the first calf in the fourth
year. During their 20-year life span, they give birth to a calf every 1.5 to 2 years.
 GECKO
o A team of herpetologists have recorded a new species of bent-toed gecko from a wooded
part of the Umroi Military Station in Meghalaya.
o Its scientific name is Crytodactylus exercitus and English name is Indian Army’s bent-
toed gecko.
o Exercitus in Latin means army.
What are Geckos?

o Geckos are reptiles and are found
on all the continents except
Antarctica.
o These colorful lizards have
adapted to habitats from
rainforests, to deserts, to cold
mountain slopes.
o Over a long period of time, geckos
have developed special physical
features to help them survive and
avoid predators.
o Gecko tails serve many purposes.
They help balance their weight as
they climb branches, they act as fuel tanks to store fat, and as camouflage to help them
disappear into their environment.
o Geckos are also able to shed their tails if a predator grabs them.
o Most geckos are nocturnal, which means they are active at night, but day geckos are
active during the day and nibble on insects, fruits, and flower nectar.
o Most geckos make noises such as chirping, barking, and clicking when they are defending
their territory or attracting a mate.
o There are many species of geckos. Depending on the species, their endangered status can
range from least concern to critically endangered.
 CRIMSON ROSE
o The pristine beach of Dhanushkodi at the southern-most tip of the Rameswaram
island in the Indian peninsula has witnessed a rare phenomenon.
o Thousands of Crimson Rose butterflies swarmed all available flowering plants along the
beach. It was their stopover for nectaring, before the butterflies undertook their ultimate
flight towards Sri Lanka, which is around 25 km away from the tip of Dhanushkodi.

About Crimson Rose

o It is a large butterfly with a mix of black, white and crimson colours on its wings and body.
o It is known for crossing the sea to migrate to Sri Lanka.
o Certain other butterfly species found in Tamil Nadu are also known for their migration in
response to the climate and food availability.
 BLACK PERCHER
o Black Percher or Black Ground
Skimmer ( Diplacodes lefebvrii ), a
species of dragon fly, was sighted
for the first time in the Seshachalam
Hill ranges.
o It belongs to the phylum
arthropoda, class insecta and
order odonata.
About Black Percher or Black

Ground Skimmer (Diplacodes
lefebvrii):
o It is a species of dragon fly.
o It is labelled as of ‘least concern’
the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) Red List of threatened species.
o Habitat and distribution: It is a common species native of Africa and southern Eurasia.
It can be found in almost any type of freshwater habitat.
The Seshachalam Hills

o These are hilly ranges part of the Eastern Ghats in southern Andhra Pradesh state,
in southeastern India.
o The ranges are bounded by the Rayalaseema uplands to the west and northwest, and
the Nandyal Valley to the north.
o Tirupati, a major Hindu pilgrimage town is located in the hills.
o Protected reserve forest: In 2010, it was designated as a Biosphere Reserve. It has large
reserves of red sandalwood, which is used in medicines, soaps, spiritual rituals, etc.
 PYROSTRIA LALLJI
o A 15-meter-tall tree that belongs to the genus of the coffee family has recently been
discovered from the Andaman Islands.
o The new species, Pyrostria laljii, is also the first record of the genus Pyrostria in India.
o Plants belonging to genus Pyrostria are usually found in Madagascar but the recently
discovered species is new to science.

o The tree is distinguished by a long stem with a whitish coating on the trunk, and oblong-
obovate leaves with a cuneate base, and was first reported from South Andaman’s
Wandoor forest. The other places in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands where the tree
could be located are the Tirur forest near the Jarawa Rerserve Forest and the Chidia
Tapu (Munda Pahar) forest.
o Pyrostria laljii has been assessed as ‘Critically Endangered’ based on the International
Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List criteria.
o While the genus Pyrostria is not found in India, there are several genera from the family
Rubiaceae that are common in India. These plants, including cinchona, coffee, adina,
hamelia, ixora, galium, gardenia, mussaenda, rubia, morinda, have high potential for
economic value.
 POKEWOOD SPECIES
o A new species of pokeweed named Rivina andamanensis was discovered recently A&N
Islands.
o Pokeweed is a species of open or edge habitats, especially those where birds are able to roost.
It is found at forest edge
o It was found growing under large trees, shaded and rocky areas, along with herbs and
shrubby plants. This discovery of new species, representing the first record of the pokeweed
family Petiveriaceae in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, adds one more family to the
islands’ flora.
o The A&N Islands is a group of 572 islands and islets that are rich and unique in terms of plant
diversity in India. The total number of listed flora on the islands is approximately 3,410 plant
species under 1,281 genera and 303 families belonging to Angiosperms, Gymnosperms,
Pteridophytes, Bryophytes, and Lichens.
 WHITEFLIES
o Whiteflies are soft-bodied,
winged insects closely related to
aphids and mealybugs.
Despite their name, whiteflies
are not a type of fly, though
they do have wings and are
capable of flying.
o Whiteflies can be as small as
1/12 of an inch, are somewhat
triangular in shape, and are
often found in clusters on
the undersides of leaves.
They are active during the day
and will scatter when disturbed,
so they can be easier to spot than some nocturnal insect pests.

o There are hundreds of species of whiteflies, but most affect only a small number of host
plants. However, there are a few whitefly species that affect a wider range of plants, which
make them the most problematic in horticulture.
o These whitefly species include the greenhouse whitefly, bandedwinged whitefly,
giant whitefly, and silverleaf whitefly, among others.
o Whiteflies can be found on a wide variety of plants, from ornamental flowers to warm-
weather vegetables, including tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, and okra. Some species may
attack sweet potatoes, plants from the cabbage family, and citrus trees. Indoors, they will feed
on most common houseplants, especially those with soft, smooth leaves.
o Like aphids, whiteflies use their piercing mouthparts to suck up plant juices and, in turn,
produce a sticky substance known as honeydew.
o Honeydew left on its own can cause fungal diseases such as sooty mold to form on leaves.
o With heavy whitefly feeding, plants will quickly become extremely weak and may be unable to
carry out photosynthesis. Leaves will wilt, turn pale or yellow, growth will be stunted, and
eventually leaves may shrivel and drop off the plant.
Where to find whiteflies on plants

o Whiteflies tend to prefer to feed on new growth, so check around any newly unfurled
leaves first.
o Check the undersides of leaves—especially around the veins—for white insects, even
if they aren’t immediately visible, and feel leaf surfaces for sticky honeydew. If the whiteflies
are feeding, they’ll suddenly all fly off the leaves in a swarm.
o Eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves. This is the beginning of a new generation! When the
eggs hatch, the larvae will look like teeny white ovals without legs; they don’t move but they
immediately start sucking the plant juice. This is why gardeners often miss whiteflies until it’s
too late.
 GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL

o The giant African land snail is a
highly invasive agricultural
pest, known to feed on over 500
varieties of plants.
o They also pose a risk to humans
and animals by carrying rat
lung worm, a parasite that can
cause meningitis in humans.
o The species is native to East
Africa, but it has been widely
introduced to other parts of the
world through the pet trade, as a
food resource, and by accidental
introduction.
o Nonetheless, the species has established itself in some temperate climates and its habitat now

includes most regions of the humid tropics, including many Pacific islands, southern and
eastern Asia, and the Caribbean.
o The giant snail can now be found in agricultural areas, coastland, natural forest,
planted forests, riparian zones, scrub and shrublands, urban areas, and
wetlands.
o The giant African snail is a macrophytophagous herbivore; it eats a wide range of plant
material, fruit, vegetables, lichens, fungi, paper, and cardboard.
o It sometimes eats sand, very small stones, bones from carcasses, and even concrete as
calcium sources for its shell.
o In rare instances, the snails consume each other, snail eggs, and other deceased small
animals such as mice and birds.
 ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL

A tiny snail with a striking, pellucid golden-yellow
shell found in the Edappally canal in Kochi has been
flagged as an invasive species that could play havoc
with native ecosystems.This is the first time that this
snail has been reported in the State.
o ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL (Physella acuta) is
considered native to North America but is now
found in all continents except Antarctica.
o The snail was first reported in India in the early
1990s. It is believed to have reached Kerala
through the aquarium trade, a major vector for invasive species.
o In the Edappally canal, the snail had made its home in a highly polluted reach plagued by
high sedimentation, untreated sewage, commercial effluents, construction wastes and a thick
growth of invasive aquatic weeds.
o Small in size, the snail can grow to 16 mm in height and 9 mm in width.
o The dead, vacant shell is brownish-yellow while that of the live individuals are
translucent golden-yellow with a mottled appearance.
o Physella acuta is easily identified by its sinistral (left-opening aperture) shell.
o Threat posed by invasive species to global biodiversity can be drastic due to their ability to
quickly dominate new environments, endanger native species, even causing serious economic
loss.
 RISE IN BUTTERFLY SPECIES

The four-day butterfly survey was conducted by the Kerala Forest Department and
Travancore Nature History Society (TNHS) Thiruvananthapuram.
o The survey was done in Peechi-Vazhany, Chimmony, and Chulannur Wildlife
Sanctuaries.

o Peechi-Vazhany Wildlife sanctuary had 132 species of butterflies, Chimmony had 116 species,
while Chulannur recorded 41 species.
o The survey added 80 species, almost double, to the older record of Peechi-Vazhany, 33 to
Chimmony, and 41 species to Chulannur.
Butterfly species
o Southern Birdwing, the largest butterfly
in India, and Grass Jewel, the smallest,
were found during the survey.
o Buddha Peacock, the State butterfly of
Kerala, was also recorded.
o Other notable species are Nilgiri Grass
Yellow, Travancore Evening Brown,
Malabar Flash, Orange Tailed Awl,
Southern Spotted Ace and Common Onyx.
o The report of Common Tinsel at Chulannur
was another highlight.
 INDIAN DESERT CAT

An Indian desert cat has been spotted for the
first time in Madhya Pradesh’s Panna Tiger
Reserve (PTR).
About the cat

o It is usually a creature of the Thar desert in
Rajasthan, and inhabits scrub desert areas.
o The cat occurs in arid and semi-arid zones of
western India which includes Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra up
to Pune and Nagpur.
o This cat is found in deserts and can survive
without water.
o The toes of the species have cushion-like hair which help it balance the fluctuating
desert temperatures.
o It can be found mostly in scrub deserts, up to 2,000-3,000 m elevation, mountainous areas
with sufficient vegetation, as well as temperate forests.
o The Asiatic wildcat usually occurs close to water sources but can also live in low-water areas.
It does not seem to avoid cultivated areas and human settlements.
o IUCN Red List: Least Concern
o CITES: Appendix-II

o Wildlife protection Act’s: Schedule-I.
PANNA TIGER RESERVE

o It was established in 1981 and is situated in the Vindhya mountain range in the
northern part of Madhya Pradesh.
o Ken river (a tributary of the Yamuna River) flows through the reserve.
o The region is also famous for Panna diamond mining.
o Ken-Betwa river interlinking project will be located within the tiger reserve.
o The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated
the Panna Tiger Reserve as a Biosphere Reserve in 2011.
o In 2021, it was awarded the Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CAITS)
certificate by the National Tiger Conservation Authority for meeting the established
international standards for tiger conservation and management.
 GHARIAL
Gharial have been successfully
reintroduced in the Beas River of
Punjab where it had become extinct
half a century ago.
o The Beas Conservation Reserve
is a 185-kilometre stretch of the
Beas River located primarily in the
north-west of the State of Punjab.
o The gharial reintroduction in the
Beas Conservation Reserve is an
ambitious programme of the Punjab
government.
About Gharials
o Gharials, sometimes called gavials, are a type of Asian crocodilian distinguished by their
long, thin snouts.
o Population of Gharials are a good indicator of clean river water.
o Gharials are a type of Crocodilians that also includes crocodiles, alligators, caimans, etc.
o India has three species of Crocodilians namely:
 Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)-
Critically Endangered.
 Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): IUCN- Vulnerable
 Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): IUCN- Least Concern
o In comparison to Crocodiles, Gharials are very shy and unharmful species

Beas River
o The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the
southern end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
o It is a tributary of Indus river.
o It meets the Satluj river at Harike in Punjab.
o It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian
territory.
o The river flows through Kullu Valley.
o It forms a gorge at Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar range.
 INDIAN PANGOLIN
o India is home to two species of pangolin.
o While the Chinese Pangolin (Manis
pentadactyla) is found in north-eastern
India, the Indian Pangolin is distributed
in other parts of the country as well as Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
o Both these species are protected and are
listed under Schedule I Part I of the
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and
under Appendix I of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES).
o Commonly known as ‘scaly anteaters’, the toothless animals are unique, a result of
millions of years of evolution.
o Pangolins evolved scales as a means of protection. When threatened by big carnivores like
lions or tigers they usually curl into a ball.
o The scales defend them against dental attacks from predators.
o IUCN status: Endangered
 HORNBILL FESTIVAL
o This is a very popular festival of Nagaland. Often cited as
“festival of all festivals”, the Hornbill Festival is a grand
celebration that is brought to life each year in Nagaland.
o The festival is conducted to encourage inter-tribal
interaction and to promote cultural heritage of
Nagaland.
o The festival gets its name from the Indian Hornbill. The
Hornbill is a common bird among the folklores and
tribes of Nagaland and can be commonly seen prancing
around in the forests of Nagaland.
o The Hornbill festival is celebrated annually. The festival

opens in the first week of December each year. The government of Nagaland organizes the
cultural event.
o The festival is lush with various food fair, games, songs, musical concerts and entertainment
to keep the lively spirits of the celebration going.
o Traditional art work, wood crafts, handy crafts, sculptures, paintings, and wood carvings are
displayed. Sales and exhibition of these art pieces are held. There are also herbal medicine
stalls and display of flower shows.
o There are various food stalls that serve different varieties of food, including the traditional
Naga food which is deliciously indulging.
o People indulge in traditional archery, Naga wrestling, indigenous games, other athletic sports
and other activities.
 LESSER FLORICAN
In a major discovery, the longest in-country migration
route of lesser floricans, the endangered birds of the
bustard group, has been tracked for the first time from
Rajasthan to Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar district.
o The exercise was undertaken in the Shokaliya
landscape of Ajmer district to trace the journey of
lesser floricans from their breeding grounds to their
places of origin.
o The scientific experiment has succeeded in locating a
bird which travelled a distance of 1,000 km after
breeding during the monsoon.
o Lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus), is a small
and slender bird species belonging to the bustard
group, found in tall grasslands.
o For its conservation, Dehradun-based Wildlife
Institute of India (WII) has launched a recovery
programme.
o The endangered bird is observed in Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and some other regions during the monsoon season, when it breeds and
later disappears with its chicks to unknown places.
o IUCN status: critically endangered.
 CHILIKA LAKE
o The vast Chilika Lagoon is situated on the east-coast of India.
o It is the largest brackish Water Lagoon with estuarine character that sprawls along
the east coast.
o It is the largest wintering ground for migratory waterfowl found anywhere on the
Indian sub-continent.

o It is one of the hotspot of biodiversity in the country, and some rare, vulnerable and
endangered species listed in the IUCN Red List of threatened Animals inhabit in the lagoon
for atleast part of their life cycle.
o Chilika supports some of the largest congregation of migratory birds in the country,
particularly during the winter.
o Flocks of migratory waterfowl arrive from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea,
remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and South East Asia, Ladakh
and the Himalayas, to feed and breed in its fertile waters. In 1989-90 an estimated two
million birds visited the Lake.
o Chilika is an integral part of the culture of coastal Odisha.
 SPOT-BILLED PELICAN
o The spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus
philippensis) belongs to the family
Pelecanidae.
o The Spot-billed pelican species is
distributed in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and
Cambodia.
o The adult pelican has a dull white
head and neck.
o The feathers on the hind neck are
curly and form a greyish nape
crest. The tail is brownish. The pouch is
pinkish with speckles. The upper
mandible carries speckles. The tip of the bill is orange. The base of the bill is dark grey and
the orbital patch is pink.
o Habitat: These spot-billed pelican species roost in trees near water bodies such as ponds,
village tanks, lakes, streams and rivers.
o Feeding habits: These spot-billed pelican species feed mainly on fish. They also feed on
crustaceans and small birds.
o Breeding: The breeding season of these pelican species varies between October to May.
 In South India, it coincides with the Northeast monsoon.
 They build nest on low trees. The nest may contain a clutch of three to four white eggs.
o Distribution: The breeding population of these pelican species is limited to India, Sri Lanka
and Cambodia. In the non-breeding season they are recorded in Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand,
Laos and Vietnam.
o Movement Patterns: The pelican species in South India are considered to be sedentary.
Not much is known about their migratory movement. They may locally move for selecting
feeding grounds.
Status and conservation
o These species are threatened by habitat loss, fishing activity in the feeding grounds, poaching
of chicks and eggs, agricultural pollutants and silting up of water bodies.

o The IUCN has listed them as "Near Threatened".
 SEPTEMERANTHUS PARASITIC PLANT

o A new genus of a parasitic
flowering plant has recently been
discovered from the Nicobar group
of islands.
o The genus Septemeranthus
grows on the plant species
Horsfieldia glabra(Blume) Warb.
o The parasitic flowering plants have
a modified root structure spread on
the stem of the tree and are
anchored inside the bark of the
host tree.
o The plant was found on the
periphery of the tropical forest in one of the biodiversity hotspots, the Nicobar group of
islands.
o The genus Septemeran thus has a distinct vegetative morphology, inflorescence architecture
and floral characters.
o The leaves of the plant are heart-shaped with a very long tip and the ovary, fruit and seeds
are ‘urceolate’ (earthen pot-shaped).
o The flowers have five persistent bracts having conspicuous margins.
o The name Septemeranthusis derived from the Latin word ‘septem’ meaning ‘seven’, referring
to the arrangement of flowers.
 DENISON BARB
Denison barb (Miss Kerala), a fish
species, has been included in
Schedule I of the Wild Life
(Protection) Amendment Bill,
2021. However, aquarists and
ornamental fish breeders have
issues with this inclusion.
o Denison barb (Miss Kerala)
is also known as red-line
torpedo barb, or roseline shark.
o It is a native freshwater fish
species, commonly found in
parts of Karnataka and Kerala.
o The fish is featured with red and black stripes on its body.
o IUCN Status: Endangered

o Threats: The fish species is being exploited for the aquarium trade.
What are the issues with the inclusion of Denison barb under Schedule I of the
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Bill, 2021?
o Firstly, the scientific name given to the Denison barb is Puntius denisonii. This is wrong. It
should have been named Sahyadria denisonii.
o Secondly, the inclusion of Denison barb in Schedule I is incorrect as it is commonly found.
 This fish species is found in rivers of Kerala and Karnataka with some of the highest endemic
aquatic fauna in the country.
 The income from the collection of Denison barb for the fish trade acts as an incentive for
fishermen to protect habitats.
 Hence, it would have been preferable to better regulate the trade by including the species in
Schedule IV instead of Schedule I.
 EASTERN SWAMP DEER

The population of the vulnerable
eastern swamp deer, extinct elsewhere
in South Asia, has dipped in the
Kaziranga National Park and Tiger
Reserve.
About Swamp Deer

o The barasingha, also called
swamp deer, is a deer species
distributed in the Indian
subcontinent.
o It differs from all other Indian deer species in that the antlers carry more than three tines.
o Threats: Poaching for antlers and meat, habitat loss.
o Barasingha is the state animal of the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Three subspecies of swamp deer are:

o Western swamp deer is adapted to the flooded tall grassland habitat in the Indo-Gangetic
plain and are found in the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve of Nepal.
o Southern swamp deer has hard hooves and is adapted to hard ground in open sal forest
with a grass understorey survives only in the Kanha National Park. It was reintroduced into
Satpura Tiger Reserve.
o Eastern swamp deer is only found in Assam i.e. it is endemic to Assam.
Protection Status
o It is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red list.
o It is listed on CITES Appendix I.

o In India, it is included under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
 ROOT BRIDGES
UNESCO tag sought
for living root
bridges.
o The Living Root
Bridges are made
from rubber tree roots
also known as Ficus
elastica tree.
o These wonderful
structures have
meticulously grown
over a period of time
and are among the
biggest attractions in
Meghalaya.
o Such a bridge is locally called jingkieng jri.
o The ever evolving Meghalaya bridges are made up of tangled thick roots that provide
formidability to the structure and make it good enough to hold 50 or more people in one go.
o They are grown by trained Khasi and Jaintia tribes who have mastered the art of growing
root bridges across raised banks of streams running through the dense woods of Meghalaya.
o The whole idea of Meghalaya’s living bridges came into the picture some two centuries ago
(180 years precisely) when veterans of Khasi clan living in Meghalaya put rubber tree
roots into hollow canes of Areca nut palm that met halfway across the stream.
o The roots were nurtured and cared properly until they grew enough to reach the opposite
bank, get completely entwined with each other, and make themselves capable enough to carry
heavy weight.
o Once fully grown, these roots last for as long as 500 years. While some of the roots decay
because of their continuous association of water, others grow and make up for the decayed,
thus providing the required stability to the bridge.
o Of all the Living Root Bridges in Meghalaya, the double-decker root bridge in Cherrapunji
and the single-decker root bridge in Shillong are the unique bridges in the world and make
for prime attraction in the Northeast.
 NEW PLANT SPECIES

Researchers have reported two new plant species from the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats
regions in Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad districts.
They have been christened Fimbristylis sunilii and Neanotis prabhuii.

Fimbristylis sunilii Neanotis prabhuii
o Fimbristylis sunilii has been

provisionally assessed as data deficient
(DD) under the IUCN Red List
o Neanotis prabhuii is a prostrate perennial

herb.
o Discovered in the Chembra Peak grasslands of
Wayanad, it hails from the family Rubiaceae
and grows on high-altitude grasslands.
o Neanotis prabhuii grows up to 70 cm in length
and is many-flowered with the petals pale pink
in colour
o Neanotis prabhuii has been categorised data
deficient (DD) in the absence of any detailed
observations and data on populations
 BHUNGLOTI CREEPER
A creeper that once gave a monk’s robe its saffron colour has made a Buddhist village in
eastern Assam’s Charaideo district adopt a forest.
o Bhugloti is a creeper that in combination with the pith of the roots of a jackfruit
tree yields a saffron dye.
o Five years ago, the bhikkhus of a Buddhist monastery in the 152-year-old Chalapather
Shyamgaon had bemoaned the near-extinction of bhungloti, a creeper that in combination
with the pith of the roots of a jackfruit tree yielded a saffron dye for their robes.
o The concern of the monks triggered a movement for conserving the adjoining Chala
Reserve Forest.
o In 2018, the people of ten villages in the vicinity converged to form Chala Village Sanctuary
Conservation Society and 683 hectare reserve forest under the Sivasagar Forest Division was
declared as the Chala Village Sanctuary.
o The Chala Reserve Forest is about 100 metres above sea level, but it houses a few orchids that
are usually found in higher altitudes.

 TEMPLE TURTLE
o Hayagriva Madhava Temple temple in Assam has signed a memorandum of
understanding with two green NGOs, the Assam State Zoo cum Botanical Garden and the
Kamrup district administration for long-term conservation of the rare freshwater black
softshell turtle (Nilssonia nigricans).
o A vision document 2030 was also launched after Turtle Survival Alliance India and
Help Earth signed the pact involving the Hayagriva Madhava Temple Committee. The
temple, revered by both Hindus and Buddhists, is at Hajo, about 30 km northwest of
Guwahati.
o Until sightings along the Brahmaputra River’s drainage in Assam, the black softshell turtle
was thought to be ‘extinct in the wild’ and confined only to ponds of temples in northeastern
India and Bangladesh.
Critically endangered
o The International Union for
Conservation of Nature had in
2021 listed the turtle as ‘critically
endangered’. But it does not enjoy
legal protection under the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972
although it has traditionally been
hunted for its meat and cartilage,
traded in regional and
international markets.
o Various temple ponds in Assam such as that of the Hayagriva Madhava Temple harbour
various threatened species of turtles. Since the turtles are conserved in these ponds only
based on religious grounds, many biological requirements for building a sustainable wild
population have since long been overlooked.
o This multi-stakeholder association (conservation pact) aims to restock the wild with viable,
self-sufficient and genetically pure threatened turtle populations in the region.
 BIRD ATLAS OF KERALA

The Kerala Bird Atlas (KBA), the first-of-its-kind state-level bird atlas
in India, has created solid baseline data about the distribution and
abundance of various bird species across all major habitats giving an
impetus for futuristic studies.
o It was conducted as a citizen science-driven exercise with the
participation of volunteers of the bird watching community.
o KBA was prepared based on systematic surveys held twice over 60
days a year during the wet (July to September) and dry (January to
March) seasons between 2015 and 2020.
o It is arguably Asia’s largest bird atlas in terms of geographical
extent, sampling effort and species coverage derived from the

aggregation of 25,000 checklists.

o It was found that the species count was higher during the dry season than in the wet season
while species richness and evenness were higher in the northern and central districts than in
the southern districts.
o Most of the endemics were concentrated in the Western Ghats while the threatened species
were mostly along the coasts. The KBA is considered to be a valuable resource for testing
various ecological hypotheses and suggesting science-backed conservation measures.
o Among the species, White-cheeked Barbet and House Crow topped the chart.
o The survey, however, ignored the very short duration passage of migrant species like
Eurasian Cuckoo, Amur Falcon etc.
 RAMGARH VISHDHARI SANCTUARY
o After the Centre’s nod for creation of the

Ramgarh Vishdhari sanctuary, the
Rajasthan government is hoping to
develop a tiger corridor connecting three
tiger reserves passing through districts
including Sawai Madhopur, Kota and
Bundi.
o Tiger corridor connecting
Ranthambore, Ramgarh Vishdhari
and Mukundra.
 SIKKIM: FLORA CAPITAL

o Sikkim, the smallest State with less than 1% of India’s
landmass, is home to 27% of all flowering plants found
in the country as per the recent publication by the
Botanical Survey of India (BSI).
o Flora of Sikkim – A Pictorial Guide, lists 4,912 naturally
occurring flowering plants in the tiny Himalayan State.
o The total number of naturally occurring flowering
plants in the country is about 18,004 species, and with
4,912 species, the diversity of flowering plants in Sikkim
is very unique.
o Scientists and researchers behind the publication said
that the State, which is a part of the Kanchenjunga
biosphere landscape, has different altitudinal
ecosystems, which provide opportunity for herbs and

trees to grow and thrive. The State also borders China, Bhutan and Nepal, and the
Darjeeling hills of West Bengal.
o Landscape: From subalpine vegetation to the temperate to the tropical, the State has
different kinds of vegetation, and that is the reason for such a diversity of flora. The elevation
also varies between 300 to 8,598 metres above mean sea level, the apex being the top of Mt.
Kanchenjunga (8,586 metres).
 DEEPER BEEL
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the eco-sensitive zone of
the Deepar Beel Wildlife Sanctuary on the south-western edge of Guwahati.
o Deepor Beel (Beel means wetland
or large aquatic body in
Assamese) located about 10 km
Southwest of Guwahati city is
considered one of the large and
important riverine wetlands in the
Brahmaputra Valley of lower Assam,
India.
o Deepor Beel is an open lake basin
connected with a set of inflow and
outflow channels.
o Deepor Beel has both biological and environmental importance besides being the only major
storm-water storage basin for Guwahati city. It is considered one of the staging sites for
migratory birds in India; and some of the large congregations of aquatic birds in Assam
during winter.
o Because of the richness of avian fauna it enjoyed, Deepor Beel has been selected as one
of the Important Bird Area (IBA) sites by Birdlife International.
o Deepor Beel has also been designated as a Ramsar Site in November 2002.
o The wetland expands up to 30 sq. km in summer and reduces to about 10 sq. km in the
winter. The wildlife sanctuary measures 4.1 sq. km within this wetland.
 OLIVE RIDLEY AND ARRIBADA

o The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as the Pacific ridley sea
turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters,
primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
o In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large groups at
Rushikulya rookery near Gahirmatha in Odisha.
o The coast of Odisha in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley, followed by
the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
o The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, Appendix 1 in CITES, and
Schedule 1 in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

o The Odisha’s Gahirmatha

Marine Sanctuary is
known as the world’s
largest rookery (colony of
breeding animals) of sea
turtles.
Arribada (Mass
Nesting):
o They are best known for
their unique mass nesting
called Arribada, where
thousands of females
come together on the
same beach to lay
eggs.
o They lay their eggs over a
period of five to seven
days in conical nests
about one and a half feet
deep which they dig with
their hind flippers.
Threats
o Marine pollution and
waste
o Human Consumption: They are extensively poached for their meat, shell and leather, and
eggs.
o Plastic Garbage: An ever-increasing debris of plastics, fishing nets, discarded nets, polythene
and other garbage dumped by tourists and fishing workers.
o Fishing Trawlers: Overexploitation of marine resources by use of trawlers often violates the
rule to not fish 20 kilometres within a marine sanctuary.
o There were injury marks on many dead turtles indicating they could have been trapped
under trawls or gill nets.
Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary

o Gahirmatha is the mass nesting spot in Indian Ocean region and the only turtle
sanctuary in Odisha.
o It is the world’s largest nesting beach of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles.
o Gahirmatha was declared a turtle sanctuary in 1997 by the Odisha government after
considering its ecological importance and as part of efforts to save the sea turtles.

o Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is one of the three parts of the Bhitarkanika National
Park. The other two includes the area of Bhitarkanika National Park and the Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary.
 SUNDERBANS
o The Sundarbans is the
biggest delta, back
water and tidal
phenomenon of the
region and thus provides
diverse habitats for several
hundreds of aquatic,
terrestrial and amphibian
species.
o The site includes the
entire landscape of
mangrove habitats
with an adequate
surrounding area of
aquatic (both marine
and freshwater) and
terrestrial habitats, and thus all the areas essential for the long term conservation of the
Sundarbans and its rich and distinct biodiversity.
o The Sundarbans mangrove forest, one of the largest such forests in the world (140,000 ha),
lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal.
o It is adjacent to the border of India’s Sundarbans World Heritage site inscribed in
1987. The site is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small
islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing
ecological processes. The area is known for its wide range of fauna, including 260 bird
species, the Bengal tiger and other threatened species such as the estuarine crocodile and the
Indian python.
o The Sundarbans Reserve Forest (SRF), located in the south-west of Bangladesh
between the river Baleswar in the East and the Harinbanga in the West, adjoining to the Bay
of Bengal, is the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world. The land area, including
exposed sandbars, occupies 414,259 ha (70%) with water bodies covering 187,413 ha (30%).
o The three wildlife sanctuaries in the south cover an area of 139,700 ha and are considered
core breeding areas for a number of endangered species. Situated in a unique bioclimatic
zone within a typical geographical situation in the coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, it is a
landmark of ancient heritage of mythological and historical events. Bestowed with
magnificent scenic beauty and natural resources, it is internationally recognized for its high
biodiversity of mangrove flora and fauna both on land and water.
o The Sundarbans is of universal importance for globally endangered species including the
Royal Bengal Tiger, Ganges and Irawadi dolphins, estuarine crocodiles and the

critically endangered endemic river terrapin (Batagur baska). It is the only mangrove
habitat in the world for Panthera tigris species.
o The Sundarbans provides a significant example of on-going ecological processes as it
represents the process of delta formation and the subsequent colonization of the newly
formed deltaic islands and associated mangrove communities. These processes include
monsoon rains, flooding, delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonization. As part of
the world’s largest delta, formed from sediments deposited by three great rivers; the Ganges,
Brahmaputra and Meghna, and covering the Bengal Basin, the land has been moulded by
tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiology.
o Natural calamities such as cyclones, have always posed threats on the values of the property
and along with saline water intrusion and siltation, remain potential threats to the attributes.
o Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-land interface and
have previously caused occasional considerable mortality among some species of fauna such
as the spotted deer.
o Over exploitation of both timber resources and fauna, illegal hunting and trapping, and
agricultural encroachment also pose serious threats to the values of the property and its
overall integrity.
 CORALS
o Corals are sessile, which means that they permanently attach themselves to the
ocean floor, essentially "taking root" like most plants do. We certainly cannot recognize
them by their faces or other distinct body parts, as we can most other animals.
o Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a large group of colourful and
fascinating animals called Cnidaria. Other animals in this group that you may have
seen in rock pools or on the beach include jelly fish and sea anemones. Although Cnidarians
exhibit a wide variety of colours, shapes and sizes, they all share the same distinguishing
characteristics; a simple stomach with a single mouth opening surrounded by stinging
tentacles.
o Each individual coral animal is called a polyp, and most live in groups of hundreds to
thousands of genetically identical polyps that form a ‘colony’. The colony is formed by a
process called budding, which is where the original polyp literally grows copies of itself.
o Coral are generally classified as either “hard coral” or “soft coral”. There are around 800
known species of hard coral, also known as the ‘reef building’ corals. Soft corals, which
include seas fans, sea feathers and sea whips, don’t have the rock-like calcareous skeleton like
the others, instead they grow wood-like cores for support and fleshy rinds for protection.
o Soft corals also live in colonies, that often resemble brightly coloured plants or trees, and are
easy to tell apart from hard corals as their polyps have tentacles that occur in numerals of 8,
and have a distinctive feathery appearance. Soft corals are found in oceans from the equator
to the north and south poles, generally in caves or ledges. Here, they hang down in order to
capture food floating by in the currents that are usually typical of these places.
More about coral reefs

o Hard corals extract abundant calcium from surrounding seawater and use this to
create a hardened structure for protection and growth. Coral reefs are therefore created by
millions of tiny polyps forming large carbonate structures, and are the basis of a

framework and home for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of other species. Coral reefs
are the largest living structure on the planet, and the only living structure to be visible from
space.
o Coral reefs have evolved on earth over the past 200 to 300 million years, and over this
evolutionary history, perhaps the most unique feature of corals is the highly evolved form of
symbiosis. Coral polyps have developed this relationship with tiny single-celled plants,
known as zooxanthellae. Inside the tissues of each coral polyp live these microscopic,
single-celled algae, sharing space, gas exchange and nutrients to survive.
o This symbiosis between plant and animal also contributes to the brilliant colors of coral that
can be seen while diving on a reef. It is the importance of light that drives corals to compete
for space on the sea floor, and so constantly pushes the limits of their physiological tolerances
in a competitive environment among so many different species. However, it also makes corals
highly susceptible to environmental stress.
o Coral reefs are part of a larger ecosystem that also includes mangroves and
seagrass beds. Mangroves are salt tolerant trees with submerged roots that provide nursery
and breeding grounds for marine life, that then migrate to the reef. Mangroves also trap and
produce nutrients for food, stabilise the shoreline, protect the coastal zone from storms, and
help filter land based pollutants from run off. Seagrasses are flowering marine plants that are
a key primary producer in the food web. They provide food and habitat for turtles, seahorses,
manatees, fish and foraging sea life such as urchins and sea cucumbers, and are also a
nursery for many juvenile species of sea animals. Seagrass beds are like fields that sit in
shallow waters off the beach, filtering sediments out of the water, releasing oxygen and
stabilising the bottom.
o Location-Coral reefs are found throughout the oceans, from deep, cold waters to
shallow, tropical waters. Temperate and tropical reefs however are formed only in a zone
extending at most from 30°N to 30°S of the equator; the reef-building corals prefering to
grow at depths shallower than 30 m (100 ft), or where the temperature range is between 16-
32oc, and light levels are high.
What does a coral reef look like?

It was Charles Darwin who originally classified coral reefs as
to their structure and morphology, and described them as
follows:
o Fringing reefs lie near emergent land. They are fairly shallow,
narrow and recently formed. They can be separated form the
coast by a navigable channel (which is sometimes incorrectly
termed a “lagoon”).
o Barrier reefs are broader and lie farther away from the coast.
They are separated from the coast by a stretch of water which can
be up to several miles wide and several tens of metres deep.
Sandy islands covered with a characteristic pattern of vegetation
have sometimes formed on top of a barrier reef. The coastline of
these islands is broken by passes, which have occupied the beds
of former rivers.
o Atolls are large, ring-shaped reefs lying off the coast,

with a lagoon in their middle. The emergent part of the reef is often covered with
accumulated sediments and the most characteristic vegetation growing on these reefs
consists of coconut trees. Atolls develop near the sea surface on underwater islands or on
islands that sink, or subside.
THINGS TO KNOW
 GEO-TOURISM SITES
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has identified certain geological sites across the
Northeast for promotion of geo-tourism.
o Of the 12 sites in the Northeast, three are in Meghalaya, two each in Assam and Tripura, and
one each in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim.
MEGHALAYA
Mawmluh Cave: Near Cherrapunjee in the
East Khasi Hills district, this cave led
scientists to the Meghalayan Age associated
with a major climatic event – very abrupt,
critical and significant drought and cooling –
4,200 years ago.
A stage of the Meghalayan Age is defined
from a specific level in a stalagmite
from this cave. According to geologists,
speleothems from the cave provide important
records of Holocene paleo-climate and paleo-
monsoon.
The cave is about 55 km from the State capital
Shillong.
Mawblei or God’s Rock: Situated near Syntung Therriaghat: Also in East Khasi Hills
village in East Khasi Hills district, it is a huge district, it is probably one of the best-
balancing rock slanting at an angle of about 45 preserved and most complete Cretaceous-
degrees in the south-southeast direction on a hill Paleogene boundary sections in India.
slope at 1,303 metres above mean sea level Most of the large vertebrates, planktons and
overlooking the Wahrashi River valley. many tropical invertebrates suddenly became
The rock is composed of the reddish-purple extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Mahadek sandstone belonging to the Khasi A new assemblage of ammonites recorded
group of cretaceous age. Thin partings of shale are recently probably represent a few of the last
also observed in the boulder. representatives just before the mass
Mawblei in the Khasi language means God’s extinction in which the complete sub-class
Rock and is a sacred place for the local populace. Ammonidea vanished from the face of the
The rock is about 63 km from Shillong. earth.

ASSAM
Umananda: One of the smallest inhabited islands in the Brahmaputra, Umananda is off the
administrative hub of Guwahati and sports an old Shiva temple. The island is actually an
inselberg, composed of the rocks of the Assam-Meghalaya gneissic complex.
Majuli: A river “island”, among the world’s largest,

Majuli is a district at the mercy of the Brahmaputra.
The river erodes the island every year but also
deposits soil to ensure a constant change in its shape.
The island is also the hub of spiritualism in Assam
because of a number of ‘satras’ or Vaishnav
monasteries established by the 15th-16th century
saint-reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva and his
disciples.
The island is about 330 km east of Guwahati.
TRIPURA
Chabimura: In Gomati district, this site is known for
its panels of rock carving on a steep hill wall on the
bank of river Gomati.
The huge images of Shiva, Vishnu, Karthikeya,
Durga and other gods and goddesses date back to the
15th-16th century and the biggest carved deity is about
20 ft.
The hill range is covered with thick jungles and one can
reach this abode of gods after trekking through the
foliage but rafting or boating on the river is the only
option for a view of the rock-face carvings. The site is
about 82 km from the State capital Agartala.
Unakoti: This site in the Unakoti district has numerous rock-cut sculptures and temples made
between the 7th and 9th centuries. The hilly environs and waterfalls are an added attraction at
Unakoti, which means “one less than a crore”. The place is a historic Shaiva pilgrimage 172 km
from Agartala. The central Shiva head, known as ‘Unakotiswara Kal Bhairava’ is about 30 feet
high, including an embroidered headdress that is 10 feet high.
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Sangetsar Tso: Popularly known as

Madhuri Lake, this waterbody in Tawang
district is close to the border with Tibet and
was formed due to the damming of a river
during a major earthquake in 1950.
The lake is surrounded by a lush valley and
snow-capped mountains.

MIZORAM
Reiek Tlang: About 29 km from State capital Aizawl, this hill is a cuesta formed due to
erosion of the tertiary sand shale alternations.
Cuesta means a ridge with a gentle slope or dip on one side and a steep slope or scarp on
the other. The local authorities host the annual anthurium festival at a heritage village near the
Reiek peak.
NAGALAND
Naga Hill Ophiolite: Geologically referred to as NHO, it is in the Pungro region of Kiphire
district and about 240 km from State capital Kohima.
It refers to the ophiolitic rocks of mantle and oceanic crust percentage at the
continental plate margin with vast potential for intensive research and economic growth.
The NHO consists of a variety of Mesozoic and the subsequently Cenozoic rocks – magmatic,
metamorphic and sedimentary – that originated at the India-Myanmar convergent plate
boundary. It has been assigned ages ranging from Cretaceous to Paleocene.
SIKKIM
Stromatolite Park: At Mamley, about 80 km from State capital Gangtok, this site comprising
stromatolitic (algal) development – boulder outcrops with circular structures – hosted in the
limestone of Buxa Formation was discovered a little over a decade ago.
It provides one of the rare examples of early life on earth in the Sikkim Himalayas. The age of
the Buxa Formation is tentatively assigned as Meso-Neoproterozoic based on the available
evidence of stromatolites and organic-walled microfossils.
MANIPUR
Loktak Lake: About 40 km from State capital
Imphal, this lake in the Bishnupur district is the
largest freshwater lake in the Northeast.
The attractions of this lake are the ‘ phumdis’ or
floating biomass and the ‘phumsangs’ or huts of
fishermen on them.
The Keibul Lamjao National Park, the only
floating wildlife habitat on earth, is on the
southwestern part of the lake and is the last
natural habitat of the sangai or brow-antlered
dancing deer.
 TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING
Jhalara:
are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that have tiered steps on three or four sides. These
stepwells collect the subterranean seepage of an upstream reservoir or a lake.

Jhalaras were built to ensure easy and regular supply of water for religious rites, royal
ceremonies and community use. The city of Jodhpur has eight jhalaras, the oldest being the
Mahamandir Jhalara that dates back to 1660 AD.
Talab /Bandhi:
Talabs are reservoirs that store water for household consumption and drinking purposes. They
may be natural, such as the pokhariyan ponds at Tikamgarh in the Bundelkhand region or
man-made, such as the lakes of Udaipur.
A reservoir with an area less than five bighas is called a talai, a medium sized lake is called a
bandhi and bigger lakes are called sagar or samand.
Bawari:
Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water storage in
the cities of Rajasthan. The little rain that the region received would be diverted to man-made
tanks through canals built on the hilly outskirts of cities.
The water would then percolate into the ground, raising the water table and recharging a deep
and intricate network of aquifers. To minimise water loss through evaporation, a series of
layered steps were built around the reservoirs to narrow and deepen the wells.
Taanka:
Taanka is a traditional rainwater harvesting technique indigenous to the Thar desert region of
Rajasthan. A Taanka is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater from rooftops,
courtyards or artificially prepared catchments flows.
Once completely filled, the water stored in a taanka can last throughout the dry season and is
sufficient for a family of 5-6 members. An important element of water security in these arid
regions, taankas can save families from the everyday drudgery of fetching water from distant
sources.
Ahar Pynes:
Ahar Pynes are traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to South Bihar.
Ahars are reservoirs with embankments on three sides that are built at the end of diversion
channels like pynes.
Pynes are artificial rivulets led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars for irrigation in the
dry months. Paddy cultivation in this relatively low rainfall area depends mostly on ahar pynes.
Johads:
Johads, one of the oldest systems used to conserve and recharge ground water, are small
earthen check dams that capture and store rainwater. Constructed in an area with naturally high
elevation on three sides, a storage pit is made by excavating the area, and excavated soil is used
to create a wall on the fourth side.
Sometimes, several johads are interconnected through deep channels, with a single outlet
opening into a river or stream nearby. This prevents structural damage to the water pits that are
also called madakas in Karnataka and pemghara in Odisha.

Panam Keni:
The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses a special type of well, called the panam keni,
to store water. Wooden cylinders are made by soaking the stems of toddy palms in water for a
long time so that the core rots away until only the hard outer layer remains. These cylinders,
four feet in diameter as well as depth, are then immersed in groundwater springs located in
fields and forests. This is the secret behind how these wells have abundant water even in the
hottest summer months.
Khadin:
Khadins are ingenious constructions designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture.
The main feature of a khadin, also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment that is built
across the hill slopes of gravelly uplands.
Sluices and spillways allow the excess water to drain off and the water-saturated land is then
used for crop production. First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer in the 15th
century, this system is very similar to the irrigation methods of the people of ancient Ur (present
Iraq).
Kund:
A kund is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slope towards the central circular
underground well. Its main purpose is to harvest rainwater for drinking.
Kunds dot the sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat. Traditionally, these well-pits
were covered in disinfectant lime and ash, though many modern kunds have been constructed
simply with cement. Raja Sur Singh is said to have built the earliest known kunds in the village
of Vadi Ka Melan in the year 1607 AD.
Baoli:
Built by the nobility for civic, strategic or philanthropic reasons, baolis were secular structures
from which everyone could draw water. These beautiful stepwells typically have beautiful
arches, carved motifs and sometimes, rooms on their sides.
The locations of baolis often suggest the way in which they were used. Baolis within villages
were mainly used for utilitarian purposes and social gatherings. Baolis on trade routes were
often frequented as resting places. Stepwells used exclusively for agriculture had drainage
systems that channelled water into the fields.
Nadi:
Found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan, nadis are village ponds that store rainwater collected from
adjoining natural catchment areas. The location of a nadi has a strong bearing on its storage
capacity and hence the site of a nadi is chosen after careful deliberation of its catchment and
runoff characteristics.
Since nadis received their water supply from erratic, torrential rainfall, large amounts of sandy
sediments were regularly deposited in them, resulting in quick siltation. A local voluntary
organisation, the Mewar Krishak Vikas Samiti (MKVS) has been adding systems like spillways
and silt traps to old nadis and promoting afforestation of their drainage basin to prevent
siltation.

Bhandara Phad:
Phad, a community-managed irrigation system, probably came into existence a few centuries
ago. The system starts with a bhandhara (check dam) built across a river, from which kalvas
(canals) branch out to carry water into the fields in the phad (agricultural block).
Sandams (escapes outlets) ensure that the excess water is removed from the canals by
charis (distributaries) and sarangs (field channels). The Phad system is operated on three rivers
in the Tapi basin – Panjhra, Mosam and Aram – in the Dhule and Nasik districts of
Maharashtra.
Zing:
Zings, found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect melting glacier water. A network of guiding
channels brings water from the glacier to the tank. A trickle in the morning, the melting waters
of the glacier turn into a flowing stream by the afternoon. The water, collected by evening, is
used in the fields on the following day.
A water official called a Chirpun is responsible for the equitable distribution of water in this
dry region that relies on melting glacial water to meet its farming needs.
Kuhls:
Kuhls are surface water channels found in the mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh. The
channels carry glacial waters from rivers and streams into the fields. The Kangra Valley system
has an estimated 715 major kuhls and 2,500 minor kuhls that irrigate more than 30,000
hectares in the valley.
An important cultural tradition, the kuhls were built either through public donations or by royal
rulers. A kohli would be designated as the master of the kuhl and he would be responsible for
the maintenance of the kuhl.
Zabo:
The Zabo (meaning ‘impounding run-off’) system combines water conservation with forestry,
agriculture and animal care.
Practised in Nagaland, Zabo is also known as the Ruza system. Rainwater that falls on
forested hilltops is collected by channels that deposit the run-off water in pond-like structures
created on the terraced hillsides. The channels also pass through cattle yards, collecting the
dung and urine of animals, before ultimately meandering into paddy fields at the foot of the hill.
Ponds created in the paddy field are then used to rear fish and foster the growth of medicinal
plants..
Bamboo Drip Irrigation:

Bamboo Drip irrigation System is an ingenious system of efficient water management that has
been practised for over two centuries in northeast India. The tribal farmers of the region have
developed a system for irrigation in which water from perennial springs is diverted to the terrace
fields using varying sizes and shapes of bamboo pipes. Best suited for crops requiring less water,
the system ensures that small drops of water are delivered directly to the roots of the plants.
This ancient system is used by the farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black
pepper cultivation..

Jackwell:
The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands lives in a region of rugged topography that they
make full use of to harvest water. In this system, the low-lying region of the island is covered
with jackwells (pits encircled by bunds made from logs of hard wood). A full-length bamboo is
cut longitudinally and placed on a gentle slope with the lower end leading the water into the
jackwell. Often, these split bamboos are placed under trees to collect the runoff water from
leaves. Big jackwells are interconnected with more bamboos so that the overflow from one
jackwell leads to the other, ultimately leading to the biggest jackwell.
Ramtek model:
The Ramtek model has been named after the water harvesting structures in the town of Ramtek
in Maharashtra. An intricate network of groundwater and surface water bodies, this system was
constructed and maintained mostly by the malguzars (landowners) of the region.
In this system, tanks connected by underground and surface canals form a chain that extends
from the foothills to the plains. Once tanks located in the hills are filled to capacity, the
water flows down to fill successive tanks, generally ending in a small waterhole. This system
conserves about 60 to 70 % of the total runoff in the region!
Pat system:
The Pat system, in which the peculiarities of the terrain are used to divert water from hill
streams into irrigation channels, was developed in the Bhitada village in Jhabua district of
Madhya Pradesh. Diversion bunds are made across a stream near the village by piling up stones
and then lining them with teak leaves and mud to make them leak-proof. The Pat channel then
passes through deep ditches and stone aqueducts that are skilfully cut info stone cliffs to create
an irrigation system that the villagers use in turn..
Eri:
The Eri (tank) system of Tamil Nadu is one of the oldest water management systems in India.
Still widely used in the state, eris act as flood-control systems, prevent soil erosion and wastage
of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and also recharge the groundwater.
Eris can either be a system eri, which is fed by channels that divert river water, or a non-
system eri, that is fed solely by rain. The tanks are interconnected in order to enable access to
the farthest village and to balance the water level in case of excess supply. The eri system enables
the complete use of river water for irrigation and without them, paddy cultivation would have
been impossible in Tamil Nadu.
There are several other hyperlocal versions of the traditional method of tank irrigation in India.
From Keres in Central Karnataka and Cheruvus in Andhra Pradesh to Dongs in
Assam, tanks are among the most common traditional irrigation systems in our country.
 BIO-DECOMPOSER
o Bio-decomposer generally, an activator or accelerator is a substance that activates,
accelerates or increases the total output of the process.

o Microbial cultures added to organic materials or residues to hasten their decomposition act
as biological accelerators. Decomposers produce enzymes, which lower the activation
energy necessary to break chemical bonds in organic materials.
o It is formulation of fast decomposing fungus, which converts biomass its includes
grass windrows/clippings, animal wastes, fields straw after crop harvest and weeds, etc. in
fertile humus gradually.
o It will take 60-90 days for conversion of agricultural wastes in powder form.
 CIRCULAR ECONOMY
o A circular economy is restorative and regenerative by design. This means materials
constantly flow around a ‘closed loop’ system, rather than being used once and then
discarded.
o In the case of plastic, this means simultaneously keeping the value of plastics in the
economy, without leakage into the natural environment.
o In short, the circular economy is an economic system in which materials are designed to
be used, not used up. From the outset, products and the systems they sit within should be
designed to ensure no materials are lost, no toxins are leaked, and the maximum use is
achieved from every process, material, and component. If applied correctly, the circular
economy benefits society, the environment, and the economy.
Eliminate the plastics we don’t need.

o Plastic brings many benefits. At the same time, there are some problematic items on the
market that
need to be
eliminated to
achieve a
circular
economy, and
sometimes,
plastic
packaging can
be avoided
altogether
while
maintaining
utility.
o While
improving
recycling is
crucial, we cannot recycle our way out of the plastic issues we currently face. Wherever
relevant, reuse business models should be explored as a preferred solution (or
‘inner loop’ in circular economy terms), reducing the need for single-use plastic packaging.

Reuse models, which provide an economically attractive opportunity for at least 20% of
plastic packaging, need to be implemented in practice and at scale.
o Innovate to ensure that the plastics we do need are reusable, recyclable, or compostable.
This requires a combination of redesign and innovation in business models, materials,
packaging design, and reprocessing technologies.
o Compostable plastic packaging is not a blanket solution, but rather one for specific,
targeted applications, because an effective collection and composting infrastructure is
essential but often not in place.
o Circulate all the plastic items we use to keep them in the economy and out of the
environment.
o No plastic should end up in the environment. Landfill, incineration, and waste-to-energy are
not long term solutions that support a circular economy.
o Governments are essential in setting up effective collection infrastructure, facilitating the
establishment of related self-sustaining funding mechanisms, and providing an enabling
regulatory and policy landscape.
o Businesses producing and/or selling packaging have a responsibility beyond the design and
use of their packaging, which includes contributing towards it being collected and reused,
recycled, or composted in practice.
o In a new plastics economy, plastic never becomes waste or pollution. Three actions are
required to achieve this vision and create a circular economy for plastic. Eliminate all
problematic and unnecessary plastic items. Innovate to ensure that the plastics we do need
are reusable, recyclable, or compostable. Circulate all the plastic items we use to keep them
in the economy and out of the environment.
REUSE

 INDIA PLASTIC PACT

o The India Plastics Pact is an ambitious, collaborative initiative that aims to bring together
businesses, governments and NGOs to reduce, reuse, and recycle plastics in their value
chain.
o Launched on 3 September, the Pact aims to tackle plastic pollution in the country,
bringing together businesses from across the Indian plastics value chain to move towards a
circular plastics system that aims to keep the material in the economy, and out of the
environment.
o India generates 9.47 million tonnes of plastic waste annually, of which 40 per cent goes
uncollected. 43 per cent of all plastics produced in the country are used for packaging, most
of which is single-use.
o The India Plastics Pact will set out to address this through direct actions across four 2030
targets – define a list of unnecessary or problematic plastic and take measures to address
them through redesign and innovation; 100 per cent of plastic packaging to be reusable or
recyclable; 50 per cent of plastic packaging to be effectively recycled, and 25 per cent average
recycled content across all plastic packaging.
o A total of 27 businesses and supporting organisations have joined the Pact as founding
members, including major FMCG brands, manufacturers, retailers and recyclers such as Tata
Consumer Products, Amazon, Hindustan Unilever, Coca Cola India, Mondelez, Godrej,
Marico and ITC.
o The Pact has been developed as a collaboration between WRAP, WWF India, and the
CII. The development received funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI),
with further capital to support delivery being secured from Stewart Investors.
o Following the launch of the Pact in India, collaboration is set to continue between WRAP, the
CII and WWF-India on four key actions – draw up a delivery roadmap; initiate ‘Action
Groups’ to support the targets; scope out the reporting process to develop a baseline; drive
recruitment.
o The India Plastics Pact is the latest to join a growing list of Pacts, including initiatives in
Europe, the US, Canada, South Africa and Chile.
 SRISAILAM DAM
o The inflows into Srisailam
Reservoir have touched 5 lakh
cusecs and the Dam Maintenance
engineers are discharging
5,50,149 cusecs and the quantum
of discharge from the dam is
inching closer to the highest
reached last year 597,440 cusecs
on September 27, 2020.
o The Srisailam Dam is constructed
across the Krishna River in

Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh near Srisailam temple town and is the 2nd largest
capacity working hydroelectric station in the country.
o The dam was constructed in a deep gorge in the Nallamala Hills in between Kurnool and
Mahabubnagar districts.
 MEKEDATU PROJECT
o Mekedatu, meaning goat’s leap, is a deep gorge situated at the confluence of the rivers
Cauvery and its tributary
Arkavathi.
o The Rs. 9,000 crore project aims to store
and supply water for drinking purposes
for the Bengaluru city. Around 400
megawatts (MW) of power is also
proposed to be generated through the
project.
o It was first approved by the Karnataka
state government in 2017.
o It received approval from the erstwhile
Ministry of Water Resources for the
detailed project report and is awaiting
approval from the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC).
o The approval from MoEFCC is crucial
because 63% of the forest area of the
Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary will be
submerged.
o In 2018, Tamil Nadu approached the
Supreme Court (SC) against the project
even if Karnataka had held that it would
not affect the flow of water to Tamil
Nadu.
o In June 2020, during the Cauvery Water Management Authority’s meeting, Tamil Nadu
reiterated its opposition to the project.
Reasons for Opposition by Tamil Nadu:

o Tamil Nadu is opposed to any project being proposed in the upper riparian unless it was
approved by the SC.
o Karnataka has no right to construct any reservoir on an inter-state river without the consent
of the lower riparian state i.e. Tamil Nadu in this case.
o The project is against the final order of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) in
which the SC held that no state can claim exclusive ownership or assert rights to deprive
other states of the waters of inter-state rivers.

o The CWDT and the SC have found that the existing storage facilities available in the Cauvery
basin were adequate for storing and distributing water so Karnataka’s proposal is ex-facie (on
the face of it) untenable and should be rejected outright.
o It has also held that the reservoir is not just for drinking water alone, but to increase the
extent of irrigation, which is in clear violation of the Cauvery Water Disputes Award.
 UNCLOS
o United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, also known as Law of
the Sea divides marine areas into five main zones namely- Internal Waters, Territorial
Sea, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
o UNCLOS is the only international convention which stipulates a framework for state
jurisdiction in maritime spaces. It provides a different legal status to different maritime
zones.
o It provides the backbone for offshore governance by coastal states and those navigating the
oceans. It not only zones coastal states’ offshore areas but also provides specific guidance for
states’ rights and responsibilities in the five concentric zones.
Maritime Zones
Baseline: It is the low-water line along the coast as officially recognized by the coastal state.
Internal
Waters:
o Internal
waters are
waters on the
landward side
of the baseline
from which
the breadth of
the territorial
sea is
measured.
o Each coastal
state has full
sovereignty
over its internal waters as like its land territory. Examples of internal waters include bays,
ports, inlets, rivers and even lakes that are connected to the sea.
o There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters.
o The innocent passage refers to the passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to
peace and security. However, the nations have the right to suspend the same.
Territorial Sea:
o The territorial sea extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.

o A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the earth and is equal to one minute of
latitude. It is slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 land miles or
1.85 km).
o The coastal states have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights
extend not only on the surface but also to the seabed, subsoil, and even airspace.
o But the coastal states’ rights are limited by the innocent passage through the territorial sea.
Contiguous Zone:
o The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines.
o It is an intermediary zone between the territorial sea and the high seas.
o The coastal state has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal,
immigration, sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea.
o Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on the ocean’s
surface and floor. It does not provide air and space rights.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):

o Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that extends
seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines.
Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
o Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural
resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil.
o Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy from the water, currents and wind.
o Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for the above-
mentioned resource rights. It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit
freedom of navigation or overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.
High Seas:
o The ocean surface and the water column beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high seas.
o It is considered as “the common heritage of all mankind” and is beyond any national
jurisdiction.
o States can conduct activities in these areas as long as they are for peaceful purposes, such as
transit, marine science, and undersea exploration.
 ETHANOL
o Ethanol is a renewable fuel made from various plant materials collectively known as
"biomass." More than 98% of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol, typically E10 (10% ethanol, 90%
gasoline), to oxygenate the fuel, which reduces air pollution.
o Ethanol is also available as E85 (or flex fuel), which can be used in flexible fuel vehicles,
designed to operate on any blend of gasoline and ethanol up to 83%. Another blend, E15, is
approved for use in model year 2001 and newer light-duty vehicles.
There are several steps involved in making ethanol available as a vehicle fuel:
o Biomass feedstocks are grown, collected, and transported to an ethanol production facility.

o Feedstocks are converted to ethanol at a production facility and then transported to a fuel
terminal or end-user by rail, truck, or barge.
o Ethanol is blended with gasoline at the fuel terminal to make E10, E15, or E85, and then
distributed by truck to fueling stations. E15 is either sourced directly from a terminal or via a
blender pump from the E10 and E85 tanks at a station.
Fuel Properties
o Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is a clear, colorless liquid. It is also known as ethyl alcohol,
grain alcohol, and EtOH (see Fuel Properties search.)
o Ethanol has the same chemical formula regardless of whether it is produced from starch- or
sugar-based feedstocks, such as corn grain (as it primarily is in the United States), sugar cane
(as it primarily is in Brazil), or from cellulosic feedstocks (such as wood chips or crop
residues).
o Ethanol has a higher octane number than gasoline, providing premium blending
properties. Minimum octane number requirements for gasoline prevent engine knocking and
ensure drivability. Lower-octane gasoline is blended with 10% ethanol to attain the standard
87 octane.
o Ethanol contains less energy per gallon than gasoline, to varying degrees, depending on the
volume percentage of ethanol in the blend. Denatured ethanol (98% ethanol) contains about
30% less energy than gasoline per gallon. Ethanol’s impact on fuel economy is dependent on
the ethanol content in the fuel and whether an engine is optimized to run on gasoline or
ethanol.
Ethanol Energy Balance

o In the United States, 94% of ethanol is
produced from the starch in corn
grain. Energy is required to turn any
raw feedstock into ethanol. Ethanol
produced from corn demonstrates a
positive energy balance, meaning that
the process of producing ethanol fuel
does not require more energy than the
amount of energy contained in the
fuel itself.
o Cellulosic ethanol improves the
energy balance of ethanol because the
feedstocks are either waste, co-
products of another industry (wood, crop residues), or are dedicated crops—such as
switchgrass and miscanthus—with low water and fertilizer requirements compared to corn.
o When biomass is used to power the process of converting non-food-based feedstocks into
cellulosic ethanol, the amount of fossil fuel energy used in production is reduced even
further. Another benefit of cellulosic ethanol is that it results in lower levels of life cycle
greenhouse gas emissions.

 OIL PALM
o A plan cleared by the Union Cabinet to expand domestic palm oil output in ecologically-
sensitive regions could be environmentally
dangerous unless backed by a set of strong
safeguards, experts said, citing disastrous
impacts in growers such as Malaysia and
Indonesia.
o Palm oil is the cheapest edible oil, used
in most foods items, from bread to pizzas.
In recent months, global prices have
surged to multi-year peaks, forcing the
government to cut import duties to make
the fats affordable.
o To cut India’s growing reliance on import of edible oils, the government approved the
“National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)”, allocating ₹11,040 crore
for it. The programme seeks to promote plantations in the northeastern regions, besides the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Problem: Edible oil plantations, as opposed to oilseeds crops, tend to replace natural
tropical forests, depleting biodiversity. Environmental case studies in forested belts of
Sumatra, Borneo and the Malay Peninsula -- which produce 90% of global palm oil – have
found commercial cultivation had decimated swathes of pristine forests, wiping out wildlife,
from orangutans to birds.
o A top expert on sustainable agriculture said it was possible to grow sustainable palm oil, but
certain strict criteria will need to be followed, which he said he hoped to see in the
government’s plan.
o India has become the world’s largest importer of vegetable oils, a base ingredient for cooking
most common dishes. The country meets up to two-thirds of its domestic demand through
imports. In 2020-21, India imported both crude and refined palm oil worth $5.8 billion.
Edible oil is the country’s third most high-value import, after petroleum crude and gold.
o Palm oil, a perennial crop, yields more oil per acre, than say, coconut, but it
requires three times the water. So, it must be grown in rainy areas to avoid groundwater
extraction.
o The new scheme seeks to bring additional 0.65 million hectare under oil palm by 2025-26 to
reach a targeted one million hectare, up from 0.3 million hectare at present. This would
result in an increase in crude palm oil output to o 1.1 million tonne by 2025-26 and up to 2.8
million tonne by 2029-30.
o The scheme also provides for viability gap funding to shield growers from international price
volatility by paying directly to the farmers’ accounts in the form of direct benefit transfer.
Know more
o Oil palm, (Elaeis guineensis) is an African tree in the palm family (Arecaceae), cultivated as a
source of oil.

o The oil palm is grown extensively in its native West and Central Africa, as well as in
Malaysia and Indonesia. Palm oil, obtained from the fruits, is used in making soaps,
cosmetics, candles, biofuels, and lubricating greases and in processing tinplate and coating
iron plates.
o Palm kernel oil, from the seeds, is used in manufacturing such edible products as margarine,
ice cream, chocolate confections, cookies, and bread, as well as many pharmaceuticals. The
cake residue after kernel oil is extracted is a cattle feed.
o The plant is also grown as an ornamental in many subtropical areas.
o For commercial oil production, the outer fleshy portion of the fruit is steamed to destroy the
lipolytic enzymes and then pressed; the resulting palm oil is highly coloured because of the
presence of carotenes. The kernels of the fruit are pressed in mechanical screw presses to
recover palm kernel oil, which is chemically quite different from the oil from the flesh of the
fruit.
o The commercial palm oil industry rapidly expanded in the late 20th century and led to the
deforestation of significant swaths of Indonesia and Malaysia as well as large areas in Africa.
o New plantations are often formed using slash-and-burn agricultural methods, and the
resulting fragmentation of natural forests and loss of habitat threatens native plants and
animals. Bornean and Sumatran orangutans are especially iconic species threatened by the
expansion of oil palm farming in Indonesia.
o In addition to driving biodiversity loss, the slash-and-burn practices of oil palm cultivation
have contributed significantly to poor seasonal air quality in parts of Southeast Asia.
Although attempts have been made to certify sustainably grown palm oil, corporate buyers
have been slow to support those endeavours; some environmental groups have urged
individuals to avoid products with palm oil altogether.
Additional
o The American oil palm (Elaeis oleifera) is native to Central and South America and is
sometimes cultivated under the erroneous name Elaeis melanococca. Unlike the African oil
palm, the trunk of the American oil palm creeps along the ground and bears flat leaves. Both
the American oil palm and the maripa palm (Attalea maripa) are used to obtain palm oil in
some areas.
o The oil of the American oil palm was probably used for making candles by the early American
colonizers.
 INDIAN ENVIRONMENT SERVICE

The Supreme Court has asked the Government if it will create an Indian Environmental
Service (IES) as recommended by a committee headed by former Cabinet secretary T.S.R
Subramanian in 2014.
TSR Subramanian Committee Report on Environment
o The Subramanian committee was set up in August 2014 to review the country’s green laws
and the procedures followed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEF&CC).

o It suggested several amendments to align with the Government’s economic development

agenda.
o The report had suggested amendments to almost all green laws, including those relating to
the environment, forest, wildlife and coastal zone clearances.
o The committee suggested that another committee, with more expertise and time, be
constituted to review the environmental laws.
Key recommendations
Establishment of Environment Management Authorities
o The report proposed an ‘Environmental Laws (Management) Act’ (ELMA), that
envisioned full-time expert bodies to be constituted at the Central and State levels
respectively:
 National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)
 State Environmental Management Authority (SEMA)
Project clearances
o These authorities evaluate project clearance (using technology and expertise), in a time
bound manner, providing for single-window clearance.
o It suggested a “fast track” procedure for “linear” projects (roads, railways and transmission
lines), power and mining projects and for “projects of national importance.”
o It also suggested an appellate mechanism against the decisions of NEMA/SEMA or
MoEF&CC, in respect of project clearance, prescribing a three-month deadline to dispose
appeals.
Expanding Environment Protection Act
o The Air Act and the Water Act is to be subsumed within the EP Act.
o The existing Central Pollution Control Board and the State PCBs, which monitor and regulate
the conditions imposed on the industries to safeguard environment be integrated into NEMA
and SEMA.
Evaluating Environmental Reconstruction Cost (ERC)

o The report also recommends that an “ERC” should be assessed for each project on the basis
of the damage caused by it to the environment and this should be added into the cost of the
project.
o This cost has to be recovered as a cess or duty from the project proponent during the life of
the project.
Research and Development
o It proposed the establishment of a National Environment Research institute “on the lines of
the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education”.
o It would bring in the application of high-end technology in environment governance.
Establishment of Indian Environment Service (IES)

o Finally, an Indian Environment Service should be established to recruit qualified and skilled
human resource in the environment sector.
How were the recommendations received?
o The Centre never formally accepted this report and neither constituted a new committee as
recommended by the Parliamentary Standing Committee.

o The Parliamentary rejected the report on the grounds that it ended up diluting key aspects of
environmental legislation designed to protect the environment.
o However, many of these recommendations are implicitly making their way into the process of
environmental regulation.
 ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING

o Zero budget natural farming is a type of farming that promotes chemical-free
agricultural practices.
o It was originally introduced by agriculturist Subhash Palekar in the mid-1990s as
an alternative to the Green Revolution methods such as the adoption of high yield variety
seeds and use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides.
o While current farming practices are driven by using chemicals, zero budget natural farming
promotes low-cost inputs such as the use of cow dung, aged cow urine, jaggery, pulse
flour and other plant-based extracts.
Palekar has argued that the cost of external inputs such as pesticides and fertilisers were the
leading cause of indebtedness and suicides among farmers in the country. By implementing
traditional methods, he said that production costs and interest rates for credit could be
significantly reduced. Similarly, according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations, a zero budget promises to end reliance on loans which in turn could help in
ending the debt cycle for farmers.
o According to Palekar’s website, natural farming is based on four pillars:
 “Jeevamrit” (nectar of life),
 “Beejamrit” (seed treatment),
 “Acchadana” (mulching) and
“Waaphasa” (soir aeration),
 “Jiwamrita”, a fermented
microbial culture containing
ingredients such water, cow
dung, cow urine, jaggery or
sugarcane juice, ripen fruit pulp,
flour of any pulses (Beans, Black
gram, Cowpea, Bengal gram, Red gram, Pigeon pea) and a handful of soil from bund of a
farm or forest.
o About 200 litres of this mixture should be sprayed twice a month per acre.
o Further, zero budget natural farming also promotes soil aeration and mulching (spreading a
layer of material to the surface of the soil for moisture retention).
Research in progress
o The Indian Council of Agriculture Research initiated an experiment on “Evaluation of zero
budget farming practices in basmati rice-wheat system” at Modipuram (Uttar Pradesh),
Ludhiana (Punjab), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and Kurukshetra (Haryana) from Rabi 2017 to
study the impact of zero budget natural farming on productivity, economics and soil health
including soil organic carbon and soil fertility.

o The study is still in progress. However, the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
a think-tank of agriculture scientists in India, said, in a policy brief, that zero budget natural
farming is an “unproven technology” because of insufficient data.
o In 2019, the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences had expressed concern over the
possible effects of zero budget natural farming on the income of farmers and food
security.
 HOGENAKKAL WATER PROJECT

o Hogenakkal Integrated Drinking Water Project is a fluorosis mitigation drinking water
project being undertaken at Hogenakkal, Dharmapuri district, state of Tamil Nadu,
India.
o It is scheduled to be executed by Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD),
with funding from Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) using Tamil Nadu's
share of Cauvery river water.
o The project aims to supply safe drinking water to drought prone and fluorosis affected
Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts of Tamil Nadu.
Opposition by Karnataka
o Karnataka government would legally oppose the proposed project by Tamil Nadu as it falls
within the geographical jurisdictions of both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
o The Survey of India has not finalised the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border at Hogenakkal.
o Any project that Tamil Nadu wants to implement in the Cauvery basin should be in line with
the allocation of water made by the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal and Supreme Court
orders.
o Tamil Nadu has not placed the proposed project before the Tribunal or the Supreme Court.
o As per Section 13 of the Cauvery Tribunal’s order, the Hogenakkal project should be taken up
through the Central Water Commission.
 MICROPLASTICS
o Delhi-based NGO Toxics Link released a study titled, “Quantitative analysis of
Microplastics along River Ganga”, which has found that the river – which flows through
five states covering about 2,500 km before flowing into the Bay of Bengal – is heavily
polluted with microplastics.
What are microplastics?

o Among the range of plastic debris that is found in water bodies, microplastics are the most
notorious because of their small size, on average microplastics are less than 5 mm in
length or roughly equal to five pinheads.
o Apart from humans, microplastics are harmful to marine species as well. More than 663
marine species are affected by marine debris and 11 percent of them are said to be related to
microplastic ingestion, the study says.

o Because microplastics are so small, they are ingested by marine habitants including fish,
corals, planktons and sea mammals and are then carried further into the food chain. In the
case of humans, most of the microplastics can be found in food, water and food containers
and their ingestion can cause health problems.
What does the recent study about the levels of pollution in river Ganga tell us?
o For the study, samples of Ganga’s water were collected from Haridwar, Kanpur and Varanasi
and microplastics were found in all of them. Apart from microplastics, there were other kinds
of plastics as well such as single-use plastic and secondary plastic products. Of the samples,
those taken at Varanasi had the highest concentration of plastic pollution.
o Further, the study notes that untreated sewage from densely populated cities across the
river’s course, along with industrial waste and religious offerings that are wrapped in non-
degradable plastic add a significant amount of pollutants into the river. As the river flows,
these waste and plastic materials break down further and are eventually carried into the Bay
of Bengal and then into the ocean which is the “ultimate sink” of all plastics that are used by
humans.
o Essentially all along microplastics are flowing into the river system. It does reflect or suggest
a direct linkage between the poor state of both solid and liquid waste management; hence it is
critically important to initiate steps to remediate it.
What are the efforts being made to clean the Ganga?

o Ganga has the largest river basin in terms of catchment area in the country and constitutes
about 26 percent of India’s landmass spread across 11 states, which supports 43 percent of
the population.
o That the holy river Ganga is polluted is not a recent discovery, in fact, efforts to clean it have
been ongoing for over 40 years. Most of them have focussed on creating sewage treatment
capacities in the major urban centres along the river.
o In May 2015, the government approved the Namami Gange (which receives a 100 percent
funding from the central government) programme to clean and protect the river.
Programmes launched before this include the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in 1985, the IIT
Consortium (2011) for water diversion and effective treatment, and the National Mission for
Clean Ganga in 2011.
o However, the Toxics Link study says that not only do none of these plans address pollution
caused by microplastics but even otherwise these programs and schemes launched over the
past decades on which millions of rupees have been spent so far, have yielded “little success”.
 BRAHMANI RIVER
o Environmentalists expressed concern over the massive diversion of fresh water from the
Brahmani river basin, which could pose a grave threat to the famous mangrove vegetation in
Odisha.
o Bhitarkanika — a notified Ramsar wetland — is spread over 195 sq. km and is home to 62
mangrove species. Besides, 1,600 salt water crocodiles crawl on the mudflats of the
Bhitarkanika mangrove forest.

o Mangroves grow in brackish water.

Proportionate fresh water flow from
the Brahmani river basin and the
Kharasrota river keep the salinity
level of the water along the shore
down. The brackish water becomes
ideal for the mangroves to grow and
stay healthy.
o The Wildlife Society of Orissa (WSO),
an environmental pressure group, had
drawn public attention on the excess
water allocation for industries, which is likely to reduce fresh water discharge to the sea.
o The Talcher-Angul coal mines, steel and power plants as well as the Kalinganagar steel and
power hub are drawing enormous quantities of fresh water from the Brahmani river.
Brahmani River
o Brahmani River is in northeastern Odisha state.
o Formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers, the Brahmani flows for
300 miles (480 km).
o It winds generally south-southeast past Bonaigarh and Talcher and then turns east to join
northern branches of the Mahanadi River, which then empties into the Bay of Bengal at
Palmyras Point.
o It is one of the few rivers that cut across the Eastern Ghats, and it has formed a minor gorge
at Rengali, where a dam has been built.

IMPORTANT MAPS
 MOUNTAINS MAP OF INDIA

 RIVERS MAP OF INDIA

 CLIMATE MAP OF INDIA

 SOIL MAP OF INDIA

 MAJOR MOUNTAIN PASSES
 WESTERN GHATS MAP

 TIGER RESERVES MAP

 BIOSPHERE RESERVES MAP

 CORAL MAP OF INDIA

 TOP TEN NATIONAL PARKS
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION
Q. Which one of the following is the Select the correct answer using the code
process involved in photosynthesis? given below.
(a) Potential energy is released to form (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
free energy (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) Free energy is converted into
potential energy and stored Q. In India, the problem of soil erosion
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon is associated with which of the
dioxide and water following?
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide 1. Terrace cultivation
and water vapour are given out 2. Deforestation
3. Tropical climate
Q. Which of the following adds/add Select the correct answer using the code
carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle given below.
on the planet Earth?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
1. Volcanic action
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
Q. Lichens, which are capable of
4. Decay of organic matter initiating ecological succession even

on a bare rock, are actually a Select the correct answer using the code
symbiotic association of given below.
(a) algae and bacteria (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(b) algae and fungi (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) bacteria and fungi
(d) fungi and mosses Q. Consider the following:
1. Bats
Q. The most important strategy for the 2. Bears
conservation of biodiversity 3. Rodents
together with traditional human life The phenomenon of hibernation can be
is the establishment of observed in which of the above kinds of
(a) biosphere reserves animals?
(b) botanical gardens (a) 1 and 2 only
(c) national parks (b) 2 only
(d) wildlife sanctuaries (c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Hibernation cannot be observed in
Q. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive any of the above
Zones’, which of the following
statements is/are correct? Q. Among the following organisms,
1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas which one does not belong to the
that are declared under the Wildlife class of other three?
(Protection) Act, 1972. (a) Crab (b) Mite
2. The purpose of the declaration of (c) Scorpion (d) Spider
Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all
kinds of human activities, in those
Q. Which one of the following is the
zones except agriculture.
correct sequence of a food chain?
Select the correct answer using the code
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
given below.
(b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
Q. Consider the following pairs:

Q. If you travel through the Himalayas,
1. Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram
you are Likely to see which of the
2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim
following plants naturally growing
3. Saramati Peak : Nagaland there?
Which of the above pairs is /are correctly 1. Oak
matched?
2. Rhododendron
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
3. Sandalwood
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
given below
Q. Which of the following have coral (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
reefs?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Gulf of Kutch
Q. If you walk through countryside, you
3. Gulf of Mannar are likely to see some birds stalking
4. Sunderbans alongside the cattle to seize the

insects, disturbed by their

movement through grasses, Which Q. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is
of the following is/are such traditionally used as a vegetable or
bird/birds? animal feed, but recently the
1. Painted Stork cultivation of this has assumed
2. Common Myna significance. Which one of the
3. Black-necked Crane following statements is correct in
this context?
given below. (a) The oil extracted from seeds is used
in the manufacture of biodegradable
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
plastics
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
(b) The gum made from its seeds is used
in the extraction of shale gas
Q. Other than poaching, what are the
(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the
possible reasons for the decline in
properties of anti-histamines
the population of Ganges River
(d) It is a source of high quality
Dolphins?
biodiesel
1. Construction of dams and barrages
on rivers
Q. With reference to technologies for
2. Increase in the population of
solar power production, consider
crocodiles in rivers
the following statements:
3. Getting trapped in fishing nets
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that
accidentally
generates electricity by direct
4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other
conversion of light into electricity,
agricultural chemicals in crop-fields
while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology
in the vicinity of rivers
that utilizes the Sun’s rays to
Select the correct answer using the code generate heat which is further used
given below. in electricity generation process.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only 2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Current (A(C), while Solar Thermal
generates Direct Current (D(C).
Q. With reference to two non- 3. India has manufacturing base for
conventional energy sources called Solar Thermal technology, but not
‘coal bed methane’ and ‘shale gas’, for Photovoltaics.
consider the following ‘statements: Which of the statements given above is /
1. Coal bed methane is the pure are correct?
methane gas extracted from coal (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
seams, while shale gas is a mixture (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
of propane and butane only that can
be extracted from fine-grained
Q. There is some concern regarding the
sedimentary rocks.
nanoparticles of some chemical
2. In India abundant coal bed methane
elements that are used by the
sources exist, but so far no shale gas
industry in the manufacture of
sources have been found.
various products. Why?
Which of the statements given above
1. They can accumulate in the
is/are correct?
environment, and contaminate
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only water and soil.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. They can enter the food chains.

3. They can trigger the production of ‘Montreux Record’, what does it

free radicals. imply?
Select the correct answer using the code 1. Changes in ecological character have
given below. occurred, are occurring or are likely
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only to occur in the wetland as a result of
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 human interference.
2. The country in which the wetland is
located should enact a law to
Q. Which of the following are some
prohibit any human activity within
important pollutants released by
five kilo meters from the edge of the
steel industry in India?
wetland
1. Oxides of sulphur
3. The survival of the wetland depends
2. Oxides of nitrogen
on the cultural practices and
3. Carbon monoxide traditions of certain communities
4. Carbon dioxide living in its vicinity and therefore
Select the correct answer using the code the cultural diversity therein should
given below. not be destroyed.
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only 4. It is given the status of ‘World
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 Heritage Site’
Q. Brominated flame retardants are Q. With reference to a conservation

used in many household products organization called Wetlands
like mattresses and upholstery. Why International’, which of the
is there some concern about their following statements is/are correct?
use? 1. It is an intergovernmental
1. They are highly resistant to organization formed by the
degradation in the environment. countries which are signatories to
2. They are able to accumulate in Ramsar Convention.
humans and animals. 2. It works at the field level to develop
Select the correct answer using the code and mobilize knowledge, and use the
given below. practical experience to advocate for
better policies.
given below.
Q. Consider the following countries:
1. Denmark
2. Japan
Q. Consider the following international
3. Russian Federation agreements:
4. United Kingdom 1. The International Treaty on Plant
5. United States of America Genetic Resources for Food and
Which of the above are the members of the Agriculture
‘Arctic Council ‘? 2. The United Nations Convention to
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 Combat Desertification
(c) 1, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 3 and 5 3. The World Heritage Convention
Which of the above has / have a bearing
Q. If a wetland of international on the biodiversity?
importance is brought under the (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only,

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2. and 3 1. It is an autonomous organization

under the Ministry of Environment
Q. The scientific view is that the increase and Forests.
in global temperature should not 2. It strives to conserve nature through
exceed 2 °C above pre-industrial action-based research, education
level. If the global temperature and public awareness.
increases beyond 3°C above the pre- 3. It organizes and conducts nature
industrial level, what can be its trails and camps for the general
possible impact/impacts on the public.
world? Which of the statements given above
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a is/are correct?
net carbon source (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
2. Widespread coral mortality will (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
occur.
3. All the global wetlands will Q. Consider the following statements
permanently disappear. regarding ‘Earth Hour’
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be 1. It is an initiative of UNEP and
possible anywhere in the world. UNESCO.
Select the correct answer using the code 2. It is a movement in which the
given below. participants switch off the lights for
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only one hour on a certain day every year.
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 3. It is a movement to raise the
awareness about the climate change
Q. Consider the following statements: and the need to save the planet.
1. Animal Welfare Board of India is Which of the statements given above is /
established under the Environment are correct?
(Protection) Act, 1986. (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
2. National Tiger Conservation (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Authority is a statutory body.
3. National Ganga River Basin Q. Every year, a month long
Authority is chaired by the Prime ecologically important
Minister. campaign/festival is held during
Which of the statements given above is/ which certain communities/ tribes
are correct? plant saplings of fruit-bearing trees.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Which of the following are such
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 communities/tribes?
(a) Bhutia and Lepcha
Q. With reference to Bombay Natural (b) Gond and Korku
History Society (BNHS), consider (c) lrula and Toda
the following statements (d) Sahariya and Agariya
Notes

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following countries does not border Russia?
(a) Armenia (b) Georgia (c) Belarus (d) Kazakhstan
2. Consider the following statements:

1. Chindwin River is the tributary of Yangtse River.

2. Irrawaddy River empties into Gulf of Thailand.
Which of the above statement/s is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

1. These are formed in the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
2. Lime and Silica are leached away in soils and iron oxide and aluminium compound are
left behind.
3. They are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium.
4. They are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
Which of the soils type is well characterized by the above said statements?
(a) Red and Yellow soils (b) Arid and Semi-arid soils
(c) Saline and Alkaline soils (d) Laterite soils

1. Moderate rainfall of 100-200 cm per annum.
2. Mean annual Temperature of about 27ºC.
3. Average annual relative humidity of 60-70 percent.
4. Trees drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer.
5. Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete shrubby undergrowth with patches of
bamboos, climbers and cane.
The above said characteristics are well represented in which of the following forests types
in India.
(a) Tropical wet Evergreen (b) Tropical Moist deciduous
(c) Montane Sub-Tropical (d) Littoral and Swamp
5. Which of following statements is/are correct?

1. The Pamir Mountains are a mountain range between Central Asia, South Asia, and
East Asia.
2. Much of the Pamir Mountains lie in Turkmenistan.
Choose the correct code:

1. In bhabar region soil is very porous and all streams reappear in this zone.
2. Terai region is more marked in the western part than the eastern part.
3. The khadar represents the uplands formed by the deposition of the older alluvium and
lie above the flood limit of the plains.
4. The younger alluvium of the flood plains of the numerous rivers is called the bhangar.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) All of the above (d) None of the above

7. In which one of the following Union Territories, do the people of the Onge tribe live?
(a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (b) Dadra and Nagar Haveli
(c) Daman and Diu (d) Lakshadweep
8. Mon and Peren districts lie in which of the following states?

(a) Mizoram (b) Nagaland (c) Manipur (d) Tripura
9. Aravalli mountain crosses which of the following states in India?

1. Punjab 2. Delhi 3. Haryana 4. Rajasthan 5. Gujarat
(a) 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 2, 3, 4 and 5
Q10. Consider the following statements:

1. Gulf of Aqaba lies between Syria and Turkey.
2. Gulf of Suez lies between Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
Q11. Consider the following statements:

1. Latakia is a sea port in Syria.
2. Jordan is a landlocked country.
Q12. Bishnupur and Chandel districts lie in which of the following states?
(a) Manipur (b) Jharkhand (c) West Bengal (d) Tripura
13. Which of the following passes lies on the Laddakh range?

(a) Zoji La (b) Banihal (c) Photu La (d) Khardung La
14. Which of the following coast has got certain distinguishing features in the form of
‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which are used for fishing, inland navigation and are special
attraction for tourists?
(a) Kathiawar coast (b) Konkan coast (c) Goan coast (d) Malabar Coast

1. The highest general elevation in the mid-western part of Chhotanagpur plateau is
known as pat lands.
2. The Shillong peak is the highest elevation in the Garo Hills while Nokrek is the highest
peak in the Meghalaya plateau.

3. The Mikir Hills are characterized by the rectangular drainage with Dhansiri and
Jamuna being the main rivers.
Which among the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) Neither of the above
16. Which among the following statements is not correct?

(a) In north-western regions of the subcontinent winter precipitation is caused by the
depressions that are associated with the westerly disturbances from the Mediterranean
sea.
(b) The hot winds (Loo) in western India, the Norwesters (Kalbaisakh) of West Bengal are
the characteristics of summer season.
(c) The temperature during the season of retreating monsoon is uniformly high in the
beginning of October in Northern India.
(d) The highest variability of rainfall is found in the areas where the average annual
rainfall is the highest.
17. Match List-I (Minerals) with List-II (Mining are(a) and select the correct answer
using the code given below the lists.
List - I List - II
A. Iron-ore 1. Malanjkhand
B. Copper 2. Ratnagiri
C. Uranium 3. Dalli-Rajhara
D. Manganese 4. Bhatin
Code:
A B C D
(a) 2 3 4 1
(b) 3 1 4 2
(c) 1 2 3 4
(d) 2 1 4 3
18. Which among the following statements is not correct?

(a) The deepest point is the challenger deep in Mariana Trench which plunges 10,990m
into the Earth’s crust.
(b) Less than 3% of the Earth’s water is fresh of which 2.24% is frozen in ice sheets and
about 0.6% is stored underground as groundwater.
(c) Europe is the only continent which lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
(d) December 21 is the longest day in the Southern Hemisphere.
19. Consider the following countries:

1. Ecuador 2. Somalia 3. Ethiopia 4. Surinam
Equator passes through which of the above countries?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of the above

20. Which of the following countries are landlocked countries?

1. Kyrgyzstan 2. Tajikistan 3. Uzbekistan 4. Bhutan
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) All of the above
21. Australasia includes:

1. Australia 2. Asia 3. New Zealand 4. India
5. Tasmania 6. New Guinea 7. Indonesia
Code:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only (d) All of these
22. Which of the statements are incorrect?

1. Westerlies and Polar winds are permanent winds that blow throughout the year.
2. Winds blowing from subtropical high pressure belt to sub-polar low pressure belt are
called Trade winds.
3. The Westerlies blow from sub-tropical high pressure belts towards Equatorial low
Pressure belt.
4. The Monsoons are the winds which reverse their direction with the change in season.
Code:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

1. Titan is the largest satellite of Jupiter and the Solar System's second largest moon.
2. Titan is larger than the planet Mercury.
3. It is the only natural satellite in the Solar System to retain a substantial atmosphere.
Choose the correct statements:
24. Which among the following are responsible for variation in insolation at the earth’s
surface?
1. Rotation of earth on its axis. 2. Angle of inclination of sun’s rays.
3. Transparency of the atmosphere. 4. Revolution of earth on its orbit.
Code:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
25. Which of the following tribes are inhabitants of the North Eastern states?
1. Kuki 2. Moplahs 3. Khasis 4. Jaintias 5. Jarawas
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 5 only (d) All of the above

26. Which of following statements is/are correct?

1. Union Territory of Ladakh is predominantly a tribal region in the country.
2. Apatani and Aka are the major tribes in Ladakh.
27. Match the following shifting cultivation with regions where they are known so-
List-I List-II
1. Jhumming A. Mexico
2. Milpa B. Brazil
3. Roca C. Malaysia
4. Ladang D. India
Code:
1 2 3 4
(a) D C A B
(b) A D C B
(c) D A B C
(d) A C B D
28. Match the following:

List-I List-II
1. Open Cast Mining A. Deep bores to reach minerals at great depth.
2. Shaft mining B. Digging out of minerals near the surface.
3. Drilling C. Minerals at shallow depth taken out by removing the
surface layer.
4. Quarrying D. Boring deep wells to take out minerals from far below
the earth’s crust.
Code:
1 2 3 4
(a) B A C D
(b) C B A D
(c) B A D C
(d) C A D B
29. Which of the following is/are the native tribes of North America?
1. Apache 2. Blackfoot 3. Cheyenne
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) All of the above
30. Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. Consider the
following observations in context of different types of clouds:

1. Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes and they are always white in colour while
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool with a flat base.
2. Stratus clouds cover large portions of the sky and they are formed due to loss of heat or
the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.
3. Nimbus clouds are black in colour and very near to the surface of the earth having
shapeless masses of thick vapour.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of them
31. The Great Lakes are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located in
northeastern part of North America on the border between Canada and the United
States. Consider the following Lakes located in this region:
1. Lake Erie 2. Lake Hudson 3. Lake Ontario 4. Lake Superior
5. Lake Michigan
The Great Lakes consist of which of the above Lakes?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
32. Consider the statements.

1. The process in which sedimentary fragments becomes compact to form rocks in called
lithification.
2. The process of metamorphism in which rocks, grains or minerals get arranged in layers
is called foliation.
3. The arrangement of different minerals into alternating thin to thick layers is called
banding.
Which if the above statement/s is/are incorrect?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) All the above (d) None of the above
Q33. Which of the following countries does not border Myanmar?

(a) China (b) Thailand (c) Laos (d) Cambodia
34. Drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice through
fissures in the glacier. Choose the correct statements.
1. Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge like features composed mainly of glacial till.
2. The stoss end of a drumlin is blunt due to pushing by moving ice.
3. The long axes of drumlins are perpendicular to the direction of ice movement.
Code:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All the above

1. Alluvial fans are formed when streams flowing from higher levels break into foot slope
plains of low gradient.
2. Alluvial fans in humid areas show normally high cones with steep slopes.

3. Arid and semi-arid areas develop low cones with gentle slopes.
Choose the correct statement(s):
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) All the above (d) None of the above
36. The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into
seven major and some minor plates and young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, or
faults surround these major plates. Match the following plates with its boundaries.
1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate.
2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate.
3. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate.
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate.
Which of the above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
37. Consider the following statements in the context of an aftermath of an earthquake:

1. While body waves travel through the interior of the Earth, the surface waves travel
across the surface of the earth.
2. Surface waves decay faster with distance than do body waves and body waves travel in
three dimensions.
3. Particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body waves and surface waves
tend to cause more damage
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
38. Which among the following statement is not correct?

(a) Kolleru is the largest fresh water lake of India located between the deltas of Godavari
and Mahanadi.
(b) Loktak lake is the largest fresh water lake in north-east India.
(c) Vambanad lake is the largest lake in Kerala
(d) The Tulbul project is a 'navigation Lock-cum-control structure' at the mouth of the
Wular lake.
Q39. The Kiel Canal is a freshwater canal in which of the following countries?
(a) Netherlands (b) Denmark (c) Germany (d) Belgium

1. Most of the red soils have come into existence due to weathering of ancient crystalline
and metamorphic rocks.
2. Red soils are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphatic nitrogen and humus, but are fairly
rich in potash.
3. Regur are formed in the areas of high temperature and high rainfall with alternate wet
& dry period.

4. Rajasthan has largest area under the saline soil.

The correct statements are:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
41. Gaza Strip is located

(a) at the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea
(b) at the western coast of the Dead Sea
(c) in Sinai Peninsula
(d) at the western border of Golan Heights
42. Which of the following ethnic groups does Uighurs belong?

(a) Uzbek (b) Turk (c) Kyrgyz (d) Mongol
43. Which of the following tiger reserves is not in Arunachal Pradesh?

(a) Namdhapa (b) Kamlang (c) Pakke (d) Nameri
44. Which of the following elephant reserves is not in Odisha?

(a) Singhbhum (b) Mayurbhanj (c) Mahanadi (d) Sambhalpur

1. The Kalahari Desert is situated between the Orange and Limpopo river.
2. Harmattan is a hot local wind which blows from Sahara to Mediterranean.
3. Masai is a pastoral tribe of Kenya and Tanzania.
Which among the above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

1. The Boulder Dam and the Grand Coulee Dam generate power for Eastern USA.
2. The Grand Banks of Newfoundland is at the meeting place of warm Labrador and the
cold Gulf Stream.
3. Tuna is the chief fish in the Grand Bank region.
4. Malaysia is the leading producer of nickel in the world.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) All of the above (d) None of the above

1. The glowing surface of Sun, that we see, is called the photosphere.
2. Venus has the maximum diurnal range of temperature and the shortest year.
3. Ganymede is the largest and heaviest of all satellites in the solar system.
4. Blue moon is a rare celestial phenomenon marked by the occurrence of the second full
moon within one month.


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
48. What is true about the China type of climate?

(1) Summer rainfall (2) Year round rainfall
(3) Mid latitude location (4) Coniferous forests
Code :
(a) All the four (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
49. Match List I (Rivers) with List II (Countries) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the list
List I List II
A. Salween 1) Vietnam
B. Chao Phraya 2) Myanmar
C. Mekong 3) Thailand
D. Ma 4) Laos
Code :
A B C D
(a) 2 3 4 1
(b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 3 2 1 4
(d) 2 3 1 4
50. Consider the following about the Tropical Marine type of Climate:
1. This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of tropical lands.
2. The Trade Winds brings the rainfall.
3. There is no month without rainfall.
Which of the above statements is/are true?
Notes

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (ANSWER KEY)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a d d b a d a b d d
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

a a d d a d b c a d
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
c c b a a a c d d c
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
c c d a a d c a c a
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
a b d c a c c c d d

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NOTE FOR STUDENTS

RAPID REVISION BOOK-5

Highlights of this book:

o Curation of content as per relevance with the coming examination.

2 HISTORY 2- MODERN INDIA

3 INDIAN POLITY AND GOVERNANCE

4 ECONOMY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

5 GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

7 IMPORTANT GOVT. SCHEMES

Note: Additional booklet number 9 on important topics of current affairs will be

GEOGRAPHY AND GREEN ENERGY 44

ENVIRONMENT OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY 47

EARTHQUAKE 14 ANTARCTIC TREATY 63

CYCLONES INDIAN ANTARCTIC BILL, 2022 65

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT)

Yashwant Sagar 93 MANDA BUFFALO 112

TIGER COUNT IN KARNATAKA INDIAN PANGOLIN 120

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT)

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT)

 INDIA: BASIC FACTS

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 1

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 2

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 3

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 4

How do icebergs form, and where do they go?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 5

Why are icebergs important?

Why do scientists study icebergs?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 6

o Political delimitations vary

Interesting facts and figures

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 7

Difference between sea ice and glaciers

Why are glaciers melting?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 8

Glacier in Antarctica Sea ice in Finland

Effects of melting glaciers on sea level rise

How do melting sea ice and glaciers affect weather patterns?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 9

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 10

Slab Avalanche: Loose Snow

Powder Snow Avalanche: A mix of

Wet Snow Avalanche: These are quite

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 11

How do volcanoes erupt?

What are the main types of volcanoes?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 12

Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

Other volcanic landforms

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 13

 VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 14

What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

Why does the earth shake when there is an earthquake?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 15

How are earthquakes recorded?

How can scientists tell where the earthquake happened?

www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2023 16