PROGRAM: TVET DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

RQF LEVEL:7
DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

MODULE NAME: DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

MODULE CODE: CSTSS701
CREDITS :5
CLASS: Y3
SEMESTER: 1
TRAINER’S NAMES: MUKAMANA Esperance
Date: JANUARY,2023

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PURPOSE OF THE MODULE
This module is designed for students pursuing advanced diploma courses in Construction
Technology. It describes skills, knowledge and attitude required to design steel structure.
At the end of the module, students will be able to describe steel structures, to design steel
structural members and design steelwork connection.

ASSESSMENT MODE

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ELEMENTS OF COMPETENCES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LEARNING UNIT 1: DESCRIBE STEEL STRUCTURE CONCEPTS .............................................................................6

1.1 Identify steel types and their uses......................................................................................................6
1.1.1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................6
1.1.2. KEY DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................6
1.1.3. Classification of steel ..................................................................................................................8
1.1.4. Applications of Steel: ................................................................................................................10
1.1.5. Common Steel Alloying Elements .............................................................................................11
1.1.6. Types of steel ............................................................................................................................12
1.2 Describe steel manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages of steel structures. ........................12
1.2.1. Describe steel manufacturing....................................................................................................12
1.2.2. Advantages of steel structures ..................................................................................................14
1.2.3. Disadvantages of steel structures. ...................................................................................................14
1.3 Identify structural steel ....................................................................................................................15
1.3.1. Mechanical properties of structural steel .................................................................................17
LEARNING UNIT 2: DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS........................................................................23
2.1. Design of members in tension to EC -3 ............................................................................................23
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................23
2.1.2. Types of tension members .......................................................................................................25
2.1.3. Design procedures/ steps .........................................................................................................26
2.1.4. Determination of net areas: plates ..........................................................................................27
2.1.5. Concentrically loaded tension members ..................................................................................31
2.1.6. Tension members with bolted connections .............................................................................31
2.1.7. Design of tension force .............................................................................................................32
2.2. Design of member in compression ...................................................................................................39
2.2.1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................39
2.2.2. Design procedures ....................................................................................................................45
2.2.3. Design for compression ............................................................................................................46
2.2.4. Buckling of straight members ...................................................................................................51
2.2.5. Elastic buckling load..................................................................................................................56

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 2.3. Design of bending members and design of beam-column Members ..............................................57
2.3.1. DESIGN OF BEAMS ....................................................................................................................58
2.3.2. Bending and Shear Interaction (clause 6.2.8 of EC3-1-1) .........................................................61
2.3.3. Lateral-Torsional Buckling ........................................................................................................61
2.3.4. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance (clause 6.3.2 of EC3-1-1)................................................62
2.3.5. Design of beam-columns ..........................................................................................................63
2.4. Elaborate design documents ............................................................................................................64
LEARING UNIT 3: DESIGN OF STEEL CONNECTION ...........................................................................................65
3.1. IDENTIFY STEEL CONNECTIONS ........................................................................................................65
3.1.1. Types of Bolted Connections....................................................................................................69
3.2. Design bolts ......................................................................................................................................70
3.2.1. Categories of connections. .......................................................................................................70
3.2.2. Position of bolt holes ................................................................................................................73
3.2.3. Design of bolts in shear ............................................................................................................75
3.2.4. Design of bolts in tension .........................................................................................................76
3.2.5. Design of Bolts in shear and tension ........................................................................................76
3.3. Design Welds ....................................................................................................................................76
3.3.1. Types of welds ..........................................................................................................................76
4. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................78

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 LEARNING UNIT 1: DESCRIBE STEEL STRUCTURE CONCEPTS

1.1 Identify steel types and their uses

1.1.1. INTRODUCTION
Steel construction combines a number of unique features that make it an ideal solution for many
applications in the construction industry. Steel provides unbeatable speed of construction and off-
site fabrication, thereby reducing the financial risks associated with site-dependent delays. Steels
are widely used materials in the industry. They are the alloys of iron, carbon and other elements
such as silicon, phosphorus, Sulphur and manganese. The carbon present in the form of iron-
carbide(Fe3C) increases the hardness and strength of the steel. Civil and construction engineers
rarely have the opportunity to formulate steel with specific properties. Rather, they must select
existing products from suppliers. Even the shapes for structural elements are generally restricted to
those readily available from manufacturers. Even though civil and construction engineers are not
responsible for formulating steel products, they still must understand how steel is manufactured and
treated and how it responds to loads and environmental conditions
1.1.2. KEY DEFINITIONS
1. Structure: a structure is a body, composed of several structural elements so assembled
that it can set up resistance against deformation caused by the applied external forces.
The various structural elements that may be present in a structure are: tension members,
compression members, flexural members, torsion, frames, surfaces members and foundation
elements

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2. Structural analysis: this is the branch of Structural Engineering which deals with
the determination of internal stresses in these members as well as the determination of
reaction components, when the structure is subjected to external forces.
3. Structural design: this is the branch of Structural Engineering which deals with the
selection of proper material, proper sizes, proportion and shape of each member and its
connecting details. The selection is such that it is economical and safe. It satisfies all the
stress requirements imposed by the most severe combination of loads to which the
structure is required to transmit or resist including its self-weight.
4. Structural Engineering: it is that branch of Civil Engineering that deals with both the
Structural Analysis as well as Structural Design.
5. The design of a structure has two aspects: functional aspect and strength aspect. In the
first aspect, called functional design, a structure is so proportioned and constructed that it
serves the needs efficiently for which it is constructed. In the second aspect, the structure
should be strong enough to resist external forces to which it is subjected during its entire
period of service. The structural design in a limited sense also deals with the design of
various parts or members of a structure. The structural design is governed with the
standard specifications.
6. The Structural Steel: It is the steel used for the manufacture of rolled structural steel
sections, and other elements for use in structural steel works. The material steel is an
alloy of iron and carbon (small percentage) and other elements in varying percentages.

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Example of structural steel
7. Design of Steel Structures: it is a structural design, when the structural steel is used as
a material for the structure.
1.1.3. Classification of steel
Steels are classified based on their chemical composition, applications, and methods of
production
Based on Carbon Content:
 Low Carbon Steels
 medium Carbon Steels
 high Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels:
 Composition: 0% C to 0.25 % C.
 Microstructure: Predominantly α - ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.
 Properties: Outstanding ductility and toughness. good machinability and weldability, high
formability, toughness, high ductility etc.
For example, Mild steel.
Applications: Automobile body components, structural shapes, pipes, sheets etc.
Medium Carbon Steels:
 Composition: From 0.25% to 0.55% C.
 Microstructure: α - ferrite and pearlite.
 Properties: Stronger than low – carbon steel but less tough than it.
 Applications: Railway wheels & tracks, gears etc.

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High Carbon steels:
 Composition: From 0.55% up to 2.1 % C
 Microstructure: Fe3C, Pearlite (C >0.8%), - ferrite and pearlite (C < 0.8%).
 Properties: Hardness, strongest, and least ductile compared to Low carbon steels.
 Applications: Knives, hack saw blades, chisels, hammers, drills, dies, machine tool cutters,
punches, etc.
Based on the Method of manufacture of Steels:
Based on Method of manufacturing of steels, they are classified as Bessemer steel method and
Electric Arc Furnace method whose explanation is below.
 Bessemer steel Method:
The principle of Bessemer Converter is the removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation and
the air is being blown through the molten iron.
The furnace is made of steel with fire clay bricks to resist heat.
The impurities manganese(mn) and Silicon(Si) are converted into their respective oxides and that
can be expelled out.
 Electric Arc Furnace Method:
It is an extremely hot enclosed region, where heat is produced employing electrodes for melting
certain materials such as steel (scrap) without changing the electrochemical properties of the
material(metal).
The electric arc produced between the electrodes and the metal is used for melting the
metal(scrap).
Based on properties of some other types of Steels:
 Shock-resisting Steels
 High strength Steels
 Tool Steels
 Spring Steels
 Heat Resistant Steels
 Shock-resisting Steels:
These steels can resist fatigue loads and shock loads.
 Tool Steels:

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These are mainly used for making Tools and Dies for cutting, forming and forging metals in their
hot or cold conditions.
 Heat Resistant Steels:
These steels can resist corrosion, oxidation and creep at higher working temperatures.
Based on Effect of Alloying elements on Steel:
 Cobalt/Molybdenum:
It has high servicing temperature or high temperature sustainability.
 Chromium:
It improves Corrosion resistance and Abrasion resistance.
 Vanadium:
It exhibits high temperature, hardness and strength.
 Aluminium:
It improves fracture toughness and acts as deoxidant.
 Phosporous:
It increases strength, hardness and improves machinability.
 Sulphur:
It improves machinability.
 Silicon:
It exhibits high hardenability.
 Magnesium:
It improves toughness and machinability.
 Manganese:
Wear resistance and hardenability is high.
1.1.4. Applications of Steel:
Steel applications can be divided into seven primary market sectors. The figures are the percentages
of steel production dedicated to them, according to the World Steel Association (WSA):

1. Buildings and infrastructure, 51%: More than half of the steel produced annually is used
to construct buildings and infrastructure such as bridges.

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 2. Mechanical equipment, 15%: This second-greatest use of steel includes (among many
other things) bulldozers, tractors, machinery that makes car parts, cranes, and hand tools
such as hammers and shovels.
3. Automotive, 12%: steel is used to make a car, according to the WSA ,body structure and
exterior, including the doors.
4. Metal products, 11%
5. Other transport, 5%: Steel is used in ships, trains and train cars, and parts of planes.
6. Domestic appliances, 3%
7. Electrical equipment, 3%

1.1.5. Common Steel Alloying Elements

When it comes to steel, many elements can be added to the base material, allowing the purchaser to
tweak variances until the proper alloy is found. Common alloying elements include the following:
 Manganese: Used in tandem with small amounts of sulfur and phosphorus, the steel alloy
becomes less brittle and easier to hammer.
 Chromium: A small percentage (0.5% - 2%) can help to harden the alloy; more significant
percentages (4% - 18%) have the added effect of preventing corrosion.
 Vanadium: With only .15%, this element can boost strength, heat resistance, and overall
grain structure. Mixed with chromium, the steel alloy becomes much harder but retains its
formability.
 Nickel: Up to 5%, this alloying element will improve the steel’s strength. In excess of 12%,
it provides impressive corrosion resistance.
 Tungsten: Boosts heat resistance, so the melting point is higher. It also improves the
structural makeup of the steel.
 stainless steel
Stainless steel, any one of a family of alloy steels usually containing 10 to 30 percent chromium. In
conjunction with low carbon content, chromium imparts remarkable resistance
to corrosion and heat. Other elements, such
as nickel, molybdenum, titanium, aluminum, niobium, copper, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus,
or selenium, may be added to increase corrosion resistance to
specific environments, enhance oxidation resistance, and impart special characteristics.

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1.1.6. Types of steel
Various types of steel are used in construction and are not just limited to familiar materials, such as
those for structural purposes. The following are types most used in construction:

1. Steel rebar
2. Alloy steel
3. Stainless steel
4. Tool steel
5. Mild steel

1.2 Describe steel manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages of steel

structures.

1.2.1. Describe steel manufacturing

Steel making involves removal of impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, Sulphur and
carbon from the sourced iron, as well as alloying other elements such as manganese, nickel,
chromium, etc., to produce different grades of steel.
Modern steel industries use recycled materials as well as traditional raw materials such as iron ore,
coal and limestone. Almost all the steel manufactured today uses 2 processes-basic oxygen steel
making (BOS) and electric arc furnaces (EAF).
There are 6 basic steps in the Steel-making processes, which are as follows-

1. Iron-making
This is the first step in the manufacturing of pure steel. In this step, the raw materials like iron ore,
coal and lime are melted in a blast furnace. This results in the formation of molten iron, also known
as hot metal, which still contains 4-4.5% of carbon and other impurities, which makes it brittle.
These have to be subsequently removed.
2. Primary Steel Making
The remaining impurities are removed by either BOS or EAF methods.
In the BOS method, recycled or scrapped steel is added to the molten iron in a convertor. Oxygen is
blown through the metal at high temperatures and this reduces the carbon content to about 0-1.5%.
In the EAF method, scrap steel is fed through high-power electric arcs to melt the metal and convert
it into high quality steel.

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The steel that is obtained at the end of this step, by either of the methods, is called raw steel.
3. Secondary Steel Making
This step involves treating the raw steel in different ways to get different grades of steel. This may
include addition or removal of certain elements, and/or altering the temperature and the production
environment.
The final grade of steel that is desired determines the further techniques that need to be applied.
These may include:
 Stirring
 Altering the temperature
 Ladle injection
 Removal of gasses
4. Continuous Casting
In this step, the molten steel is cast into cooled moulds, causing the steel to harden. Using guided
rollers, the steel is drawn out of the moulds while it is still hot and then allowed to cool and fully
solidify. Next, it is cut to the desired lengths, depending on the applications-beams, slabs, billets,
etc.
5. Primary Forming
In primary forming, the cut steel is formed into different shapes, generally by hot rolling, which
eliminates the casting defects and gives a desirable shape and surface quality. Seamless tubing, long
products, flat products and various other speciality products can be obtained by this process.
6. Secondary Forming
The final step is the secondary forming process, which gives the steel its finished shape and
properties. Various techniques can be applied at this stage, which involve:
 Heat treatment (tempering)
 Joining (welding)
 Shaping (cold rolling)
 Coating (galvanising)
 Machining (drilling)
 Surface treatment (carburising)

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1.2.2. Advantages of steel structures
 Steel is relatively cheap when compared with other structural materials.
 Steel structures are largely fire-resistant when varied to a rustic design as wood is a
combustive material and lower fire-resistant when determined with RCC structure.
 Steel may be made and delivered in a cost-effective and timely manner. Steel structures can
be handed off- point at shop floors and after that gathered hard. This spares time and
increases the effectiveness of the general development process.
 Adaptability
 Large clear spans are possible
 Prefabrication in the factory ensures accurate work
 No formwork no false work is required
 Steel structures can repel outside weights, for example, earthquakes, showers, and cyclones.
A well- fabricated steel structure can last more than30 times whenever looked later well.
 Some of the common advantages of using steel structures are : Design, Strength and
Continuity, Light in Weight, Easy Installation and Speed in Construction, Protean,
Inflexibility, Rigidity, Easy Fabrication in Different Sizes, Fire Resistance, Pest, and
Nonentity Resistant, Humidity and Weather Resistance, Rigidity, Cost-effective,
Environment Friendly, Energy Efficiency, Improved Construction Quality, Temporary
Structures, Safe and Resistant and Threat Indicator.

1.2.3. Disadvantages of steel structures.

 Buckling is an issue with steel structures. As the length of the steel member builds, the
chances of buckling also increase.
 Steel is available only at the steel shops where it's produced and should be transported for
long distances to the construction point, not at all like concrete or different materials that
might be accessible right at the point of development.
 Due to rust in steel, expensive maquillages are needed to reestablish from time to time so
that resistance against severe conditions increments.
 Indeed, though steel is a flexible material, it's challenging to make field corrections if one or
further factors don't fit meetly. A large portion of the metal structure performs cleave to

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 strict quality assurance procedures guarantee all pieces of a system fit directly. But in factual
it isn't possible. One can not form it or cut it in the ideal shape on- point once it's fabricated.
 Steel is a good captain of heat, touches off accoutrements in contact, and frequently causes
fires, snappily spreading to different parts of a structure. Hence, steel structures may bear
redundant fireproofing treatment.
 Fatigue and Fracture: Steel structures are quite susceptible to fatigue. Large variations in
tensile strength expose steel elements to excessive tension, which decreases its overall
strength. Steel is also responsive to brittle fracture when it loses its ductility.

1.3 Identify structural steel

What is structural steel?

Structural steel is a type of steel that is used as a construction material. It is designed to have a good
strength/weight ratio (which is also called specific strength) and to be cost-effective in order to be
benefited as a structural component in buildings, roads, bridges, etc.
Structural steel is composed of about 98% iron and a small percentage of Carbon, Silicon,
Manganese, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Niobium and Vanadium.The Carbon content is restricted
to about 0.25%. Although an increase in Carbon content increases the strength & hardness
but it reduces ductility & toughness. Hence the Carbon content is limited to produced to steel that
is weldable and not brittle.
Niobium & Vanadium are introduced to raise the yield strength of the steel.
Manganese is introduced to improve the corrosion resistance. Phosphorus and Sulphur are
impurities.

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1.3.1. Mechanical properties of structural steel
The yield strength fy and the ultimate strength fu for structural steel should be obtained by adopting
the values fy=Rch and fu= Rm direct from the product standard.

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Toughness
There are two ways of material failure: ductile failure and brittle fracture.

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Common Structural Shape
shapes of structural steels given in many standards worldwide. In short, angles, tolerances,
dimensions, and cross-sectional measurements of steels are defined on standards, and these steels
are named. Below figure 2 show the common structural shapes of steels. While many sections are
formed by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates.

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Steel used structural in two ways:
 Structural Steel
Structural Steel is yet another one of the popular types of steel used in construction which is used
mainly to give a base or structure to the building. This is one of the most popular types of steel
available.
Used for developing the structure
Available in different specifications & shapes like – T shaped, Channel Sections, I-Beams, Plate
type, bar or rod-type, etc.
Corrosion check (When iron oxides to form rust)
 Rebar Steel
Reinforcing steel, reinforces the structure affixing well with concrete.
Also used in the form of a mesh of steel wires for building purposes.
Hot-rolled round carbon steel bars are mainly used.
Improves tensile strength.
It can be manufactured to very long lengths.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MILD STEEL
NAME MILD STEEL
DENSITY 7850kg/m3
ULTIMATE 400-550 MPa
STRENGTH
YIELD STRENGTH 250 MPa
YOUNG’S 200 GPa
MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
BRINELL 120BHN
HARDNESS
MELTING POINT 1450oC
THERMAL 50W/mK
CONDUCTIVITY
HEAT CAPACITY 510J/gK

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Mechanical properties of structural steel

The Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the transverse strain to that of the axial strain
under the influence of the same force. It is a material property and remains constant.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2: DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

2.1. Design of members in tension to EC -3

2.1.1. INTRODUCTION

Structural stability depends on a balance between elements sustaining either tensile or compressive
stresses. Generally, tension members are designed using rolled sections, bars or flats. When more
area is needed or connection design requires it, it is possible to combine profiles or to build up a
specific section using plates, Flats are generally not used because of their high flexibility. In general,
rolled sections are preferred and the use of compound sections is reserved for larger loads or to resist
bending moments in addition to tension.

Tension members are linear members in which axial forces act as to elongate (stretch) the member.
A rope, for example, is a tension member. Tension members carry loads most efficiently, since the
entire cross section is subjected to uniform stress. Unlike compression members, they do not fail by
buckling.

Types of tensile strength

Tensile strength types are broadly classified into three categories according to their stretching
property of Steel:

1) Yield strength: Stress of a material can withstand without permanent deformation is known as
yield tensile strength.

2) Ultimate tensile strength: The maximum pressure a material can withstand is known as ultimate
tensile strength

3) Fracture tensile strength: The stress at which the material breaks for cracks is known as
fracture tensile

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Example of tension members includes steel bracings in buildings, roof truss members, cables etc.

2.1.2. Types of tension members

Tension members can be divided as follow:

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2.1.3. Design procedures/ steps
The following steps may be followed in the design of axially loaded tension members.
1. Corresponding to the loading on the structure of which the tension member is a part, the
tensile force in the member is first computed.
2. The net area required for the member is determined by dividing the tensile force in the
member by the permissible tensile stress.
3. Now, a suitable section having gross area about 20 per cent to 25 per cent greater than the
estimated area is selected. For the member selected deductions are made for the area of rivet
holes and the net effective area of the section is determined. If the net area of the section of

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 the member so determined is greater than the net area requirement estimated in step i, the
design is considered safe.
4. The slenderness ratio of a tension member shall not exceed 400. In the case of a tension
member liable to reversal of stress due to the action of wind or earthquake, slenderness ratio
shall not exceed 350. If the reversal of stress is due to loads others than wind or earthquake,
the slenderness ratio shall not exceed 180.
2.1.4. Determination of net areas: plates

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 Example:

Find the strength of the 12 mm thick plate shown in Fig. 9.2. All the holes are 21.5 mm as gross
diameter. Take ft=150 N/mm2

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 Try the channels: ABCD, ABECFG, ABEFG, ABECD

Formulas:
Net width/breadth for chained line = b- nd
𝑝2
Net width/breadth for staggered line = b – nd+nz +4𝑔

n: number of holes in the line

nz /m= number of zigzag or inclined lines.

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2.1.5. Concentrically loaded tension members

 Members without holes - Although steel tension members can sustain loads up to the
ultimate load without failure, the elongation of the members at this load would be nearly 10-
15% of the original length and the structure supported by the member would become un-
serviceable. Hence, in the design of tension members, the yield load is usually taken as the
limiting load.

Force corresponding to yield stress,

Ny = An* fy
where, An is net area
fy is yield strength of material used

 Members with holes - the presence of small local holes in a tension member causes early
yielding around the holes. This means that area around the holes reaches yielding, while the
rest of cross section is below yield stress. The average stress around the hole is about 3
times the average stress in the net area.

2.1.6. Tension members with bolted connections

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Reasons for choosing welded connection over bolted are:
 It makes the structure lighter than in the case of bolted connections.
 100% efficiency can be achieved which is not possible in the case of bolted connection (70
to 80%).
2.1.7. Design of tension force
A member exclusively subject to a tension force is under a uniaxial stress state. According to
clause 6.2.3(1), the design value of the tension force N, Ed at each cross section, including cross
sections in the vicinity of the connections, should satisfy:

For sections with holes the design tension resistance Nt, Rd should be taken as the smallest of:

1. Design plastic resistance of the gross cross section:

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 where A is the gross cross section area, fy is the yield strength of steel and γM0 is the partial safety
factor.
2. Design ultimate resistance of the net cross section at holes for fasteners:

where Anet is the net cross section area, fu is the ultimate strength of steel and γM2 is the partial
safety factor.
 When the member is under cyclic loading, the design plastic resistance N should be less than the
design ultimate resistance of the net section at fasteners holes Nu,Rd.

 In the case of members with category C preloaded bolted connections loaded in shear, the
design tension resistance Nt,Rd at the cross section with holes for fasteners should be taken
as Nnet,Rd.

 According to clause 3.10.3(2) of EC3-1-8, a single angle in tension connected

by a single row of bolts, see Figure 3.11, may be treated as concentrically loaded
over an effective net section for which the design ultimate resistance should be determined as
follows:

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Page 34 of 78
WORKING EXAMPLE:

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Solution

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Bolted connection:

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Net effective area for angles and tees in tension

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2.2. Design of member in compression

2.2.1. INTRODUCTION

A structural member loaded axially in compression is generally called a compression member.

There are several types of compression members: column, strut, post, stanchion, and top
chords of trusses. Vertical compression members in buildings are called columns, posts or
stanchions. A compression member in roof trusses is called struts and in a crane is called a
boom. Columns which are short are subjected to crushing and behave like members under pure
compression. Columns which are long tend to buckle out of the plane of the load axis.
A strut is defined as a structural member subjected to compression in a direction parallel to its
longitudinal axis. The term strut is commonly used for compression members in roof trusses. A strut

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may be used in a vertical position or in an inclined position in roof trusses. The compression
members may be subjected to both axial compression and bending.

A cross-sections in class 4 if local instability occurs before reaching the yield stress at a point of
the profile. When the cross-sections in class 4 are subjected to axial force and/or bending, not the
entire gross section reacts, but only a part of it named "effective area.

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The single angle sections are used for the compression members for small trusses and bracing. The
equal angle sections are more desirable usually. The unequal angle sections are also used. The
minimum radius of gyration about one of the principal axis is adopted for calculating the
slenderness ratios. The minimum radius of gyration of the single angle section is much less than the
other sections of same cross-sectional area. Therefore, the single angle sections are not suitable for
the compression member of long lengths. The single angle sections are commonly used in the single
plane trusses (i.e., the trusses having gusset plates in one plane). The angle sections simplify the end
connections.

The tee-sections are suitable for the compression members for small trusses. The tee-sections are
more suitable for welding.

When compression members are overloaded then their failure may take place because of one of the
following:
1. Direct compression
2. Excessive bending
3. Bending combined with twisting
The failure of column depends upon its slenderness ratio. The load required to cause above
mentioned failures decreases as the length of compression member increases, the cross-sectional area
of the member being constant.

Note the following points:

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During design, the following points should be noted:

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Stub columns

A stub column is a type of column whose length is very small and does not connect to the
footing directly. So, it does not have a footing or pedestal and relies on a beam or slab to transfer
loads. The stub column acts as a point load on a beam on which it rests. A stub column is provided
to transfer loads from a beam to footing in case of strap footing.

It increases the stiffness of a building.

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Slender steel columns

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 2.2.2. Design procedures

For the design of a compression member, the design axial force NEd is determined by a rational frame
analysis, as in or by statics for a statically determinate structure. The design loads (factored loads) FEd
are for the ultimate limit state, and are determined by summing up the specified loads multiplied by the
appropriate partial load factors γF .

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2.2.3. Design for compression

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 where NEd is design value of the compression force (from load) and Nb,Rd is design buckling
resistance of the compression member.

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2.2.4. Buckling of straight members

 Column buckling
Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased slowly, it
will ultimately reach a value Pcr the critical buckling load of the column.

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What is buckling?

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 WORKING EXAMPLE 1

For more about CHS, please visit https://eurocodeapplied.com/design/en1993/chs-design-properties.

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 WORKING EXAMPLE 2

N.B: We can calculate the outstand of the flange( Flange under compression):

For Web (internal compression):

2.2.5. Elastic buckling load

The elastic buckling is given by equation:

Where E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the moment of Inertia and Lcr Is the effective length or the
buckling length.

Effects of local buckling

Compression members containing thin-plate elements are likely to be affected by
local buckling of the cross-section. Local buckling reduces the resistances of short compression members
below their squash loads Ny and the resistances of longer members which fail by flexural buckling.
Local buckling of a short compression member is accounted for by using a reduced effective area Aeff
instead of the gross area A.

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Local buckling of a longer compression member is accounted for by using Aeff instead of A and by
reducing the generalized slenderness to A:

2.4.1. Restrained compression members

Then its buckled shape v is given by:

and its elastic buckling load N is given by:

2.3. Design of bending members and design of beam-column Members

Beams are structural members that support transverse loads and are therefore subjected
primarily to flexure, or bending. If a substantial amount of axial load is also present, the
member is referred to as a beam–column (beam–columns are considered in next lecture). A beam
may be defined as a member subjected essentially to bending and shear force. The beam section
consists of web and two flanges. The junction between the flange and the web is known as fillet.

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2.3.1. DESIGN OF BEAMS
Steps for designing a beam:
1. Select section or section classification
2. Shear design
3. Design for bending
4. Check for laterally torsional buckling
5. Deflection check
6. Web bearing check
7. Web buckling check
 Section classification
The first step of the steel beam design is the classification of the section to know whether it is
plastic, semi-plastic, compact, slender.
Check if the flange and web are in one of the above classes:

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  Shear design
Shear stress in web is calculated as Fv: V/Aw, where Aw= d.tw
Fv= shear stress in web
d =is the overall depth of the beam
tw =web thickness
the shear stress is at 80% the maximum shear stress

 Design of bending resistance:

 Cross section resistance to shear

Shear (clause 6.2.6 of EC3-1-1):

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  ELASTIC RESISTANCE

Shear buckling for webs without stiffeners should be verified in accordance with EC3-1-5, if:

Clause 2.4 of the National Annex to EC 3–5 recommends a value of 1.0 for ᶯ for all steel grades up to and including
S460.
2.3.2. Bending and Shear Interaction (clause 6.2.8 of EC3-1-1)

For I and H cross sections of equal flanges, with bending about the major axis y, the
bending moment resistance My, V, Rd is given by (clause 6.2.8 of EC3-1-1):

2.3.3. Lateral-Torsional Buckling

In the study of lateral-torsional buckling of beams, the Elastic Critical Moment Mcr plays a
fundamental role; this quantity is defined as the maximum value of bending moment supported by a
beam, free from any type of imperfections. For a simple supported beam with a double symmetric
section, with supports prevent lateral displacements and rotation around member axis (twist

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rotations), but allowing warping and rotations around cross section axis (y and z), submitted to a
uniform bending moment My (“standard case”), the elastic critical moment is given by:

2.3.4. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance (clause 6.3.2 of EC3-1-1)

Bending moment capacity of a beam might be limited by lateral-torsional buckling. If the section is
not sufficiently restrained laterally against torsion, its actual load-bearing capacity will be lower than
the value which depends purely on its section resistance.

is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling, which can be calculated by one of two
methods, depending of member cross section.
Lateral-Torsional Buckling
General method

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 2.3.5. Design of beam-columns
Cross section resistance (clause 6.2.9 of EC3-1-1)
Class 1 or 2 – Uniaxial bending

Double-symmetric I or H sections

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 2.4. Elaborate design documents

This consist of drawing section of designed steel for example: Universal column and circular hollow
section section.

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 LEARING UNIT 3: DESIGN OF STEEL CONNECTION

3.1. IDENTIFY STEEL CONNECTIONS

Introduction
The steel structures are constructed by properly connecting the available standard sections. The
connections are an important part of steel structure and are designed more conventionally than any
individual members. There is a discrepancy between the actual behavior and the analysis of steel
structure is large, therefore the connections are complex to analyze and design. When the structural
member fails in case of overloading then there is a general practice to prefer the individual member
rather than the connections, therefore this kind of practice affects many structural members.
The connections are generally provided in the following cases:

 When there is the requirement to cater the heavy load and long span then the built-up sections
are to be provided. In this case, this section should be connected together to get a good section.
 In case of longer span, the length of standard section needs to be connected with other
section. In this case to connect the multiple sections proper design of connections are
important.
 The different members need to be connected at the end (for example secondary beams to be
connected to primary beam, column, footings, etc).

The classification in the connections provided in the steel structure is as follows:

 Riveted connections
 Bolted connections
 Welded connections

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  Pinned connections

 Rivet connection:

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  Bolted Connection
Is a type of structural joint, they are used to join steel structures? Any steel structure is an
assemblage of different members such as beams, columns and tension members, etc. These different
components must be connected properly using fasteners to act together as a single composite unit.
The various types of fasteners available for making connections are rivets, bolts, pins, and welds.

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3.1.1. Types of Bolted Connections

Based on the line of action of resultant force transferred, bolted connections can be divided into two
categories:

 Concentric connections
 Eccentric connections

When the line of action of the resultant force passes through the center of gravity of the bolted
connection, then it is called a concentric connection. When the line of action of the resultant force
does not pass through the centroid of the bolted connection, then it is known as an eccentric
connection.

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3.2. Design bolts
3.2.1. Categories of connections.

1. Shear connections

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 2. Tension connections

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3.2.2. Position of bolt holes

The table below shows the minimum and maximum spacing, end and edge distances.

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3.2.3. Design of bolts in shear

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3.2.4. Design of bolts in tension

3.2.5. Design of Bolts in shear and tension

3.3. Design Welds

3.3.1. Types of welds

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  Butt welds

 Fillet welds

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4. REFERENCES.

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