2 VARIABLES AND FUNCTIONS Quantity Attributes, objects or symbols that can be measured are known aa quantify. Variables A variable is a symbol’x which can assume any valuo of a given set of values during a mathematical operation, For eisaphe: quantities like, profit, sales, revenue, weights, heights, time, temperature, ote. On the basis of their values there are two types of variables : (i) Diserete Variable and (ii) Continuous Variable. A variable whose values are distinguishable is known as discrete variable. In other words, a variable whose values can be counted corresponding to natural numbers 1, 2, 3........i8 called diserete variable. For example, number of students in a college, etc. A variable which can assume any value within an interval (or intervals} is known as continuous variable. For example, height, length, weight, area, time, temperature, etc, Constant The quantity whose value docs not change throughout a set of mathematical operations is called a constant. For example, a, 6, f, ¢, 3, 5, z 0-7, ete. These are two types of constants : (i) Absolute constant and (ii) Arbitrary constant. The numbers like me, 1, 3, i ow ete, are known as absolute constant. The constant whose value remains the same throughout an operation but may change with reference to another operation is known as arbitrary constant,— " Function I there exists a relation between two variables x and y such that for overy wis Mewes ch sety, we get adefinite value ofy, then y is called a function ofx.We write y= fix))read as ‘y is a function of x’, fere x is called dn dependent variable and y is called the dependent Variable since the value of y depends on the value chosen for x. For example, Y= lx) = Qe + 3,y = fx) = 3x7 45 ___The function fx) provides @ rule which allows us to transform a value of x into a corresponding value of y.In other words, lot A and B in a rule which azsociates to each siti Value of a Function . by su "the Value of fx) for z 2a, say, is obtained of fz) in Ax) and is denoted by flo). Thus (a) is th from A top ‘A function / erro 8 te ~ . ting @ in place of, ohare x=: F le, — femme ‘Theo Zarria+? - a=t faye 2 od x2+ 2244642712 =~ 3-3) 2 (8)*+ H+ 29 — y= fix) be a function of *. Let domain of the The efx onsiting ofall possible values of x is called the domain of tk Fanetion Az) Sg codo: "The sey bf the values of the dependent variable y is ealled the codemain of the function fix). : : ae seP ache of y corresponding to each value of x is called the range we an value in the domain. chectearrgpandes unique value in the range ofthe funetion. The bwo different valves in the domain may result in the same value in that range. = If the value r of x and y both are real, then the function is called a real valued function of a real variable or real function. Remark, if one value in the domain results in two different values in the range, then the relation is not 6 function. TMustration 1 Iffiz)= x" +1, find the value of fix) for x =3, 5, -3 Solution fiz)=27 +1 AB) = 3? +15941=10, value of fix) atx =3 AS) =8" + 1= 25 +1 = 26, value of ftx) atx =5 1 ‘ RB) =(-8' + 12941 = 10, value of fx) atx =-3 If fiz) = 2x" 4x + 7, then find the value of AOD, A-2),R3), flx +A), fla + 3) Solution = | fixya eae? o ae a - 2) = 2-2)" - 4-2)+ 7 = 8+ 8472 5. £9) 02 5 -4%94+7218~ 1949613 x fe +h) = 2ix + hy - dire hye 7 a 2a + Beh +h) as — 4h 47 } 2x4 deh + 24! = dr = 4h I Doar sD Laws t a43 fas Fey 3) tape = 2a" + 6a + 9)~4a- 1247tration 3 seein: D> (-2; ~1, 0, 1,2) be domain of a function defined os Ax) 22° +1. Find the range of fz). Solution firyex?+1 fi-2) 0 (-2y' + Lede deh A-eCyieel+ls2 fl0)= 41204152 flys Pe lelet=? fAQePetedered fx) takes values 5, 2, 1, 2,6. Range = (1, 2,61 [Mustration 4 #4 funetion f over R is defined by ‘ fit) = 2c? + Sx- 7. Find the value of (RS + hy - ABV IA. (Raipur, BBA. 2006) Solution fix) = 2x" + x -7 f3)22x3°+5x3-7=1 AAB+h) AB +h) + HB+A)-7 2 2(9 +6h +h7] +15 +54 = 7 218 ¢ 12h + 2h? +15+5A-7 22h? + 17h +(18 + 16 - 7) = 2h? + 17h + 26 13 +h) - 13) = (2h? + 17h + 26) - 26 = 2h? + 17h 108+ =29) = AIA op Day +%y = bx +3 = (2y-5\e=3-9y ae xe Boe (iii) Real Valued Function : If the domain and codmain of a function are subsets of R, the sct-of real numbers, it is called a real valued function or simply real function. Gv) Identity Function : A function of the form fiz) =x is called an identify function, The domain of the identity function is R and its range is also R, (v) Reciprocal Function : A function of the form fey=1 is called a reciprocal function. This is not defined at x = 0 but is defined for all non-zero real numbers. The domain of a reciprocal function is le Rix 20}=R-(0). (vi) Polynomial Function : (Raipur, BBA 2006) A funetion of the form fix) = y =ax" + bx"! +cx*"? +... +k, where n is a non-negative integer and a + 0 is called a poly-nomial function of x of degree n. The function of the form y = fix) = ax +d is of degree one or linear function. 35 fiz) =ax’ + bx +c is of degree two or a quadratic function. (vii) Multivariate Function : (Raipur, BBA 2006) A function 2 defined as a function of two or more than two variables 41) Xv Xyy Say is called a multivariate function, For example, 2=flxyx, nd+ Find the value of fiz) ox? +4 at 92 2 A function fis completely defined by tho following a zo 1 3 5 6 fy 0 2 4 5 ‘What is the ‘domain’ and ‘range’ of f? in even of odd. 3. ind whether the function tx) 6° - S17 + 2 is 4 Find 2) if fix) = —*, lex! lex a It y= fey= 7% prove that x «fy. 6. If Rx) ~ ax? - Gr +7, find A-2). . 7. If fixy=x* ~ 6x +6, find the value of « @ Ao) «i f] (ii) Ray tiv) 20) Ane. (i 6 (i) - 72, Giida® - @& If fz) ~ Sx? - Sx +7, find A-2). ® If f(x) «x7 =x, then prove that /th + 1)=f--4) 10. 1s x) = + show that fesh=fo, 1 ate +h) an. Wfey=} prove that fdfety 1 eet 2 12. it fay B32 2 + a8 prove that b+ Ab = fa +b) 18. If flxy= log, prove that A2) + /13) + Ad) = 24) 14. If fx) = ts(? “) terme @ fs forel w ti a ahs @ur = B28 sod gine 55 find f gta and gift. [am Fete = B= nad gen oH tne. 29 (Raipur, BBA 2005) fa +6, (iv) 2257 ~ bx #3) Ana. 25) (Raipur, BBA 2006) tans fh 1 =e A) oA? AD (Raipur, BBA 2005) a-9Limit of a function Let Ax) be a function of x, defined for all values of x in a neighbourhood of a fixed number a. The limit of fx) at x = a is a fixed number Z, say, such that corresponding to a positive number c (epsilon), however small, we are able to find anumber 8 such that |f&x)~Z| @° or x +a +0. Thus fix) or fia +0) x-0ae0 is called right hand limit of fix). To find right hand limit put a + A in place of x and take A — 0. Thus lim fix) = fla + 0)= tim fla +h) * 0 (ii) Ifx tends toa through values less than a, then we say that x tends toa from the left side and denote it by x +a orx +a-0.Thus ~ lim fix) or fla - 0) raa-0 is called left hand limit of fix). To find left hand limit put a - A in place of x and take h- 0. Thus lim Aa)= fie - 0) = lim fia - A) - +0 Ifboth right hand limit and left hand limit of f(x) as x 2 exist and are equal in value, then their common value evidently will be called the limit of Ax), as xa. Iffla + 0) or fla - 0) or both does not exist, then we say that the limit of the function as x ~» a does nat exist. Moreover, if the limits fla + 0) and fla - 0) exist but are different then function does not contain a limit as x approaches a. Continuity and Discontinuity of a Function These are two points of view of understand continuity + (a) Graphical Point of View : A function fiz) is said to be continuous if it can be sketched without lifting the pen or pencil from the paper. fey fuk ‘Continuous ee s\n DiscontinusasCATIONS » aynrva WAWAN PUDUECA ‘ aie torino retin ina nm iv ef a continuous rR AOU alveg it AA function which dx ot cantinuel be contin nase hb) Anadytiond Mint of View 1A fa rea the finetion ia defined at "4 ' a al Rae 0 Alays fla - 0), ton fled ia saa ‘To test the eontinuity ofa function as ini . fifa) ats ca, Thue loft hand timit and veloc ae elim Are Ke). vow pee pote gampare right hand limi, we sae’ then tho function is continous ata = Axioms of Limit or Propertios of Llnit Kae usoful also in dotermining ‘The following aro tho axioma of init whieh tho limit of certain functions: eC, where C ia real, then 1. If Av) is a constant finetion be, AX)" & lim AryeolimCeC ik vera xe : constant, then 2 W Av) has a timit at rea and C is a lim C fxeClim Aw) ery rae g, tim yeye fe) ery 4 bm f-welim fx read" roo 5. Let 6 (2) and y (x) bo two Rinctions such that lim ¢at=Aandlim (x)= B, tae re where A and B are finite, then lim (o@ty clin ge)tlim yReAtB ite aaa a0 GD Lim (94x). werd T= Oe). tim yx) = AB faa ew) wo 7 Biles AS Gi i (elas way” gr PRWvided B #0 These axioms/properties arv also (rue for more than two funetions. Methods of Evaluating Limit of a Function There are various methods of evaluating the limits i we consider only three methods : fa fanction, but hers () Division by Common Factor ; Divide the nu merato: i . the common factor (or fuetors) which is or are) net * and denominator by teroatx =a. Tt is not possible ide by a common factor, thon expand the serioa or otherwise seabensen in a suitable form. Finally put ‘in placo of" in ix) and simplify (ii) Substitution Method Substitute (a +A) or ; e- ‘ place of x and find the limit as & +0, (Was the caso Bay Beis Gi) L. Hospitad Rule : Itftx) 2 &@ ‘ae puted Bales HAS) = 9 and fa) 'sindoterminate, thon 9) and ¥G) are differentiated separately with respect ta. Ty) . Mogain itis indeterminate, Uren repeat tho samme proces Pe = ad simplify.Illustration 1 2 1 Evaluate the valuoof Aa) = “=? atx =d and explain right hand limit and left hand limit for it when x ~ 3. . Solution Substituting 3 in fz) in place of x, we get #-9_ 9- 3) 9 $= 0 whieh is indeterminate. That we can not find the value of fx) at x = 3. Right Hand Limit ; as 1 1 43 Lets 6 | 4} 33 | od - 1 A 6 ‘Then fiz) | 9 7 6 | 5 7 Left Hand Limit : — iG - | | gif | 2999 | tas {3 | 26 27000 | . 35 999 = Tente)= | © | %e | oa | . Thuslim =6. 193 Alternative Method 2 Right Hand Limit : lim 272 23310873 i: G&-3)e +3) Mraaso @-3) slim (x +3)=(3+043)=6 -) £4340 Left Hand Limit : (2) From (1) and (2), HE = LHL = lim fiyelim 22-6 rae rege S Mlustration 2 Ox? 4 47 : Ifftzy = 27" findlim fx). i Bx? + 4+ 2 me Solution If'we put x = in flz), we get =. HencePe - HTT SRATAN PURLCATN 7 a 7 lim 2 +3e47 rove Bt de 2 3,7 Herts slim +——> Ts 64a a: factor x2 (Dividing numerator and denominator by common factor x*) 54 94544 q cole? 94040 2° 5+0+ Hlustration 3 2 My = fix) = Be + Be - 2 find hi . Shy ary lim fo. Solution a 1 1 [ if Forothen 0.50] Mtustration 4 Does the limit fix) exists, where x 49 x4 ar42 eo Solution For right hand limit at x = 2, slim Cth? +824 Ay+2 tim aa7 —— SANCTIONS * AP 4 7h 4 12 cla | slim faeted hes =04+7+0z0 For left hand limit at x= 2, Let xe2-h LHL =ft2-0) stm (2-h) hao ties (2- hy)? +3(2-A) +2 er) (2-hy-2 lim (hk? -7h + 12) “hae A) s 12 =lim | [-* +7- 5) =O+7-0s-2 +: when x2 then RHL + LHL Hence, the limit of ix) does not exist at x = 2. Miustration & Find the value of the folowing tia, se roe x"-a" Solution On dividing numerator and denominator by common factor (x ~ @), we get m-1 Tlustration 6 Ie the function “2+2)=*U=®) defined for all values of x? Indicate the values of x for which itis defined and real. Find its limit asx — 0. Solution Substituting x= 0 in fix), we get f Hence it is not defined for all values of x. Moreover, the value of fix) for x > 1 and x <- 1 is not real. Hence, it is not defined in the intervals x > 1 and x <- 1. => Thus fiz} is defined and real in the interval - 1x < 1 except r=0 lim M1 +2) Va=4) x r40 Nowi ani (On multiply in numeration . im ‘ WN [tx elim | Wier “EXERCISE 8) Evaluate the limit: 242 1, 5 = whens 0. x-@ Ho 16 ~ 4 7x7- Sr + Lwhenx— 0. & 228 =} whens 1. a7 & oO 32D hens 2 ~ xia? +4 Find the values of the following : Systems of Drawing Graphs ‘There are two systems of drawing graphs in a plane: (i) Cartesian syatem, (ii) Polar system Here we shall consider only Cartesian sys. tem, Cartesian System In this system the plane is divided into 4 quadrants by two mutually perpendicular lines XOX and YOY" intersecting at 0. (See Figure 1) (i) Line XOX’ is called x-axis, (ii) Line YOY" is called y-axis, Ne — enc ota ee ( elim p+x)t » de te anal 2 — > Tox 141 (Raipur -%) wa py (RE Ta el. Ans. 23] BBA, 2006) (Ans. 6} (Ans. {| (Ans. 3“VARIABLES AND FUNCTIONS _ EY iti) The pair of these two lines is called axes of reference. Being perpen- dicular each other lines XOX’ and YOY are known as Rectangudar Axes. (iv) The point, O, of their intersection is called origin. (v) x-axis, y-axis and origin O together are said to be frame of reference. (vi) The plane in which x-axis and y-axis exits is called Cartesian plane. In brief it is known as x-y plane, Co-ordinates of a Point Let P be any point in the plane x-y. To locate this point in the plane will reference to these axes we state its distance to the right or left of the y-axis and to above or below x-axis. Draw perpendicular PM from P on XOX". Draw perpendicular PN from Pon YOY’. The length OM = PN and ON = PM arecalled abscissa and ordinate of the point P respectively. The co-ordinates (abscissa and ordinate) of a point P are written as a pair of numbers enclosed in parentheses and separated by comma, the first being the abscissa and the second the ordinate. Thus (x, y) are the Cartesian co-ordinates of the point P (Fig. 2). In this system, (i) Distances measured from O to the direc- tion OX are assumed positive and distances + measured from O to the direction OX’ are as- “ sumed negative. (ii) Distances measured from O to the direc- tion OY are assumed positive and distances measured from O to the direction OY" are as- sumed to be negative. (iii) The co-ordinates of origin are (O, O}. (iv) The ordinate of each point on the r-axis is zero. (v) The abscissa of each point on the y-axis is zero. (vi) Let OM =a units, ON = 5 units, then the symbol (a, b) designating the point is an ordered pair of two real numbers. That is (a,) + (6, a), unless a= Quadrants Axes XOX’ and YOY’ divide the plane into four parts. These four parts are XOY, YOX’, X’OY', Y’OX. These parts are called first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant and fourth quadrant respectively (Figure 3). The sign of the co-ordinates of a point in the four quad- rants are as follows : . () In first quadrant both co-ordinates of the point abscissa (x) and ordinate (y) are positive. (ii) In second quadrant the abscissa (x) of the point is negative and ordinate (y) is positive. Gii) In third quadrant both co-ordinates of the point abscissa (x) and ordinate (y) are negative. Gv) In fourth quadrant the abscissa (x) of the point is positive and ordinate is negative. rs Fig. 4See oo -agICATIONS os STA BRANNON — SARITA BA To Plot the Points «pop the ‘The process of locating « pol Grst ofall we known as plotting the point. For Se, - i ta ti and then enordinaled are changed 2 bend cat its position elena co-ord fa pointare (2, 9)" jrection OX.,1'¢ © " @ sata is otis ti eke rightof Oorin a ngth } units (ifo ds posit, this to the left of O ar in the direction OX AP) a or in the direction OF) above or in the direction OY, if is negative its co-ordinates jy of plane by mere a unit of the lengsh sca ie niles points on the graph paper ' (a)(4, 43), (b) 2,5), (c) (1, - 6), (d) (6, 7 (e) (0, 5), ((-2,0) — ¢, In general the graph are according Let XOX’ and YOY’ be rectangular axe: to contimetre, so the scale is to be taken in the fo 1 rm of centimetre. Fig.5 To plot the point (4, ~ 9), take 2.cm in the direction OX and 1 em in the 2 direction OY (i., 1 em and 5 mm). Thus we obtain th mil other points are plotted. © Point A. Similarly, the Graph of a Function/Graphical Representation of a Function Accurve on which lie all the points which satisfy thy ’ no other point is om it) is called graph of a foul bao 3 fa) (and function is known as tracing the curve, Graph of a given Practically, it is not possible to draw all the poin: - its a curve wa take a definite nomber of times, For examole seraPh: 89 to trace line, we need at least two points. > €0 trace a straight‘To Trace a Straight Line/Graph of a Linear Function The graph of a linear funttion ysa+éx, say is a straight line in the x-y plane where @ is called the slope of the line and a is called the y intercept on the y-axis. We need at least two data points (x1, 91) and (xa, ya) say. Give a suitable value x) to x and find y=y;. Give a suitable value x2 tox and find y = yg ete, Plot the two points (xj,y1) and (x2, 93) so obtained on the graph paper with a suitable scale and join these points by a straight line. Fig. 8 According to Co-ordinate Geometry, the straight line passing through the points (x1. yi) and (x2, ya) is yoy Moet (e- x1) *2-X1 or YrYL= mM - x1) o y=yi-mxi+mx, whereasy1-mx,b am. TUustration 2 Trace the straight line x - y = 4, Solution Taking y as dependent variable, y =x—4 is a function of x. when x =6 then y=6-4=2 whenx=3 theny=3-4=-1 whenx=-1 theny=-1-4=-5 Thus plot the points (6, 2), (3, and join them to trace the curve. — 1) and (— 1, - 5) on the graph so obtainedee as >| an PUBLICATIONS __— ——__ 2 SARITA AWA BLE Remark : (i) The graph for y = 0 ia x-0xi8. (i) The for x Dis y-axis. is at a distance ofa uni, | ieende ina straight ine parallel 97-02% “a | : axis at a distance oy | tw Te ppniiee is a straight line parallel 10 x-0%i! off units from x-axis. " (w) The graph for y 22 is a straight lino on which T point, ™ ; < : : jon in x, where a #0. Let y = ax? + bx + c, bea second degree function iam ie ae | Select any suitable values of x arbitrarily and obi by joining fy acc | ingly. Plot the points on the graph and draw a smoo! i = 4 Let y=ax". When a is positive then the from of its graph is ay | follows : | | | | | becissa = ordinate for each, Figs When a is negative then the form of its graph is as follows :VARIABLES AND facto Incasoy © fix) © ax” + br +c, the grapha will bo of the form as given below : vee. deeh’y ia Ge When a> Pig. 10 Thus vertex V is maximum of fx) =x" + 6x +c whena <0 and minimum of fix} when a >0, the value of at Vis ~ 2 in both cases. When <0 Fig. 1 Illustration 3 Trace the function y = 3x” + 2x + 1. Mention the vertex also. Solution . x yede?4 2rd) 0 | O+0e1=1 1 3424126 “2 H- 1/24 - 1) +1=9-241=2 -2 S- 2) + 2-2) + 1a 12-441 59 Plotting the points (- 2, 9) (- 1, 2) (1, 6), (0, 1) on the graph and joining them we get the required graph : b b Vertex: [- aet(- a] cai caine esis cainiz : a Here a = 3 > 0, hence the function y = 3x Fig. 12 + 2e+1is minimum at z= 2 yan" To Trace Exponential Function Illustration 4 Trace the exponential function y = 2*. Solution if #2 oO 1 2 3 a 2 ‘Then y 1 2 3 9 2 1 ‘The required curve is as follows : To Trace Demand Function Hlustration § ‘Trace the demand fu: i Fithdnuer inction px = 24 on a graph Paper where p is price and Solution Take demand x on x-axis, pri axis, price pon y-axis. Fi . the graph by p = os totows Find the points x, p to pot on : 8 12 : 4 2 18 24 48 a 1 iL ___YARIABLES AND FUNCTIONS * EXERCISE (C) ‘Trace the following functions : Moy =x42 (ii) y-ax iy = (ivy = Vx | (why eke (idy = loge x 2 1 2 g win 5 Trace the following equations of the parabola on graph paper (a)? = 16y (b) (e- 9)? =- By -2) (ex? + By = Be -7 (@)fls)= 9s? —1Be+ 1B ol ftxy = Bao Be + 96 Draw the curves of the following functions : (a)ay=1 we-ale-g}ea (©) 9-2) = (d) ye - 3) =- 4. Find the minimum/maximum point of the following functions : (aly = frye Sr? = 12e + 18 (by afleye = Baty 2 9 36 tAns (i) minimum of x = 2, (i) maximum at x= 3] Theoretical Questions 1 2 ca Explain the Concept of a function/what do you understand by a function. Distinguish between the following : (i) Explicit and Implicit Functions. (ii) Linear and Non-Linear functions. Write a short note on the following : (i) Explicit and Implicit functions. (ji) Exponential and Logarithmic functions (ii) Limit of a function. Explain with examplea/Dofine the following terms : (A variable and a Constant. (Bi) Linear function (iii) Exponential function. (Raipur BBA 2004, 05) Civ) Logarithmic function. (Raipur, BBA, 2005) (v) Domain’ and ‘Range’ of function. ‘What do you understand by limit ofa function? Explain continuity and discontinuity of a function. Define a variable. ‘What do you understand by discrete variable and continuous variable? ‘What do you understand by the graphical representation of a function? Explain with example. (Raipur BBA 2006)sae ‘crrons IN BUSINESS ; APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR FUNCTI very useful in Busines, Now, we consider come linear functions ssa | 1, Demand Function and Linear Demand heme p between the price per up, A mathematical expression of the rales by g) of 8 commodity’ at th, (denoted by p) and quantity demanded (dene! d function specifies the amo Price is called a demand function. The joan! pase at various Prices. of a commodity that buyers are willing © PUTS” ry), where the variable, demand function can bo put in symbolic form 059 ee, and quantities ary p and g assume only positive values since negal meaningless. , matical relationsh; In other words, demand function is © Maher os with ge expressing the way in which quantity demanded 0 an results in an increas, price charged for it. For most items, 3 decrease in elt in a decrease in the in demand; and an increase in the price usually Fe demand. whi = = A ere Tra demand function q = ip) ofthe foro q=/ip)=0 +b and 4 demand function. 8 #0 are constants, then it is called a /énear @ i ihe indopsnds Obviously, here q is the dependent variable and p 15 : at variable. q is a simple valued function of . | 2. Supply Function and Linear Supply Function ‘ e | A mathematical expression of the relationship between the are i ne | (denoted by p) and quantity Supplied (denoted by s) of a commonly that | price is called a supply function. The supply function specifies t ee of | a commodity that sellers are willing to supply at various prices. 1 e supply function can be put in symbolic form as s = (ph, where the variables p and s assume only positive values since negative prices and negative supplies are | meaningless. ad In other words; a supply function relates market price to the quantities that suppliers are willing to produce and sell. All factors being equal the higher the market price, the more a supplier would like to produce and sell and the lower the price purchasers are willing to pay, the less the incentive to produce | and sell. } If the supply function is of the form 52 fip)=a+ bp,a and 6 20 are constants. then it is called a dé supply fui i Obviously here s is the dependent variable and p is the independent variable and s is a single valued function of p. 3. Cost Function and Linear Cost Funetion ‘A mathematical expression of the relationship between the output (denated by x) of a commodity and the total cost (denoted by FC) is called @ total cost function. The total cost function specifies the total cost of x units of a commodity. The cost function can be put in the symbolic form. y= TC = fix) where the variables x and y (= TC) assume only positive values since negative output and cost are meaningless. If TC is of the form TC = f(x) =a + bx, a and 6 +0 are constants. Then it is a linear total cost function or linear cost function, The linear cost function y = @ + bx represents a relationship between the number of units produced (x) and the total cost (y) to produce x units,a jable and x is the increase in * Fans 0 FUNCTIONS a Obviously here TC (or C) ia the dependent vari jedependent variable and 7C is a single valued function of x. An orresponds an increase in TC. ‘The total cost of producing x units of a commodity consist of two parts : (i) fixed cost or over head oxpenses and (ii) variable cost. ie, TC = Fixed cost + Variable cost there exiats a cost of production called Even when there is no production, {foxed cost. Fixed cost is independent of the amount of out put, it remains constant at all levels of output. Fixed cost include such items as rent, insurance, joterest, etc, Variable cost varies with the output and is the sum of all costs that ere dependent on the level of output, such as Isbour, materials, etc. In the linear finction year bx ts the fixed cost and ds represents the variable cost. ae Variable cost Variable cost per unit = Naber of units produced bry, =Te a represen ‘Thus b, the slope of the line y =a +6 x, is the variable cost per unit. Dustrative Examples Mlustration 1 The salary (y) of an employee as a linear function o| y = 1200 + 75 (x-2002). Find his salary in 2005. Solution To find the salary in 2005; put x = 2005 in the given linear function. Thus, the required salary is f time (x) is given by Ye-zoee= 1200 + 75 (2005-2002) = 1200 + 75 x 3 = 1200 + 295 = Re. 1,495 Mlustration 2 ‘The linear funetion which gives the number of items in stock (y) at any given sales day, during each month (x) is y =~ 12x + 240 () In how many days would the store run out of stock ? Gi) What is the stock level at the end of the twelfth day ? Solution Given ye 12x +240 () The stock will run out of stock when y = 0 ie, == 12+ 240 2 =— M220 ‘Thus, there shall be no items in the store in 20 days. (ii) The stock level at the twelfth day i.e, 12th day in the value of y at x=12, Thus ‘Yeon =~ 12% 12 4 240 =~ 1444 240 = 96,a are sold when wy, Rtustration 3 and 25 radi (a be linear ? i 00 15 radios aro sold whon price if RS. 2g gsun price is Rs. 350, What is the demand funt Solution ice. aft Let « denote demand and y denote Pm () Let the linear demand function be ¥ For x = 16 and y = 400, we have 42) 400 = a+ 155 For x = 26 andy = 350, we have AG) 350 = a + 255 Subtracting equation (3) from (2), We have 50 =~ 108 we get 400 =0 + 15(-5) =a 7 = a = 400+ 75 = 475 be linear) ig Thus, the desired demand function (assuming = to y=475- 5x ory + Gx = 475. | | | i | Substituting this value of } in (2), | | | Alternative Method. The demand function y = a + ba, (22, yo) = (25, 350.) 7 ‘The equation of the straight line passing through these points 1s satisfies two points (7101) = (15,400) ang yy ae (e-) 350-400 | > y- 400 = Seas 15) | = = y-400 =~ 5 (x - 15) =- Sr +75 = y =- bx +75 +400 =- 5x +475 | or yt x = 475. | Tlustration 4 | | ‘The total expenses (y) of a mess are partly constant and partly proportional to the number of inmates (x). | The total expenses are Rs. 1,040 when there are 12 members in the mess | and Rs. 1,600 for 20 members. (i) Find the linear relationship between y and a. i) Find the constant expenses and variable expenses ti per member. (iii) What would be the total expenditure if the mess has 15 members? Solution (i) Let the linear relationship between y and x be yeasbx where a = constant expenses, bx = variable e: C . nes. The two points of this line are (12, 1040) and (09, 1600), Hence the linear relationship is given by the forssula, Yoo i @-x) -y, =k 4-h A)(x= 12) y= 1040 = 969 oe — 49) y= 1,040 = 70 (x ~ 12) = 70x ~ 840 y = 70x + 1,040 - 840 y= 70x + 200 or y = 200 + 70x (2) ii) comparing (1) and (2) a= Rs, 200 = constant expenses. and b = Rs. 70 = Variable expenses per member. (iii) Total expenditure when x = 16 in Jaois = 200+ 70 x 15 = 200 + 1,050 = Rs. 1,250 UbU oY Mlustration 6 When the price is Rs. 25, firm is selling 1,000 units. The firm found out that its customers will buy 15% more of its product if the price of the product is reduced by 4%. Determine the equation of linear demand curve. Solution Let x = price, y = demand and the equation of the linear demand curve be y =a + bx, demand depends on price. In Usual notation (21, y1) = (25,1000), one point on this curve, Given 4 (x20) = (24,1150) {If reduced price = 25{1-T30] 24 then demand = 1,000 (0 + Hence the required equation =n yr ag, tH 1,150 - 1,000 = y= 1,000 = "oR z= 25) = y 1,000 = 280 ie - 25) = y= 1,000 =~ 150r + 3,750 y+ 150r = 4,750 = Tllustration 6 The salary of a private bus conductor consists partly of a fixed sum and partly of commission which varies as the value of the sale of tickets. In two consecutive months he sells tickets worth Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 2,200 respectively and receives Rs, 650 and Rs. 680 respectively as salaries for these two months. If his salary for a particular month is Rs. 800, what is the value of the tickets sold by him during that month ? Solution Let y = Total salary; a = Fixed sum x = Commission on the value of the sale of tickets 6 = Commission por ticket bx = Variable salary = CommissionLiner function, y = a + Or Now, difference in the salary of #0 = 680 - 650 = Rs. 30. 9 difference in sales of two months = 2 Thus the commission in the first men 30x 2,000 _ ps, 300 = 200 and commission in the second month 30x 2,200 _ Rs, 390 200 Substituting these values in (1), we get 2) | 650 =a +b x 300 A) | 680 =a +b x 330 : have Subtracting equation (2) from equation we 30 | months ao-2,q00 BE 200 30 = 300 “30 Substituting this valve of bin 2), we et _ 650-300 =Rs. 350 maceisasecsiahamenen o vy =950+2 | Agzin fry = O00). aeoag, gardoocmocks.t0 oli) + Value of the tickets sold = 200 x 450 = Rs. 8,000 e Alternative Method . Let S = Total salary, F = Fixed sum, C = commission Then S=F+C = 650 = F + commission of Rs. 2,000 and 680= F + commission of Rs. 2,200 ‘Subtracting (2) from (3), Rs, 30 = commission of Rs. 200 Now “= commission of Rs. 200 = Rs. 30 30x 2,000 200 «. commission of Rs. 2,000 = =Rs. 350 (5) When total salary is Rs. 800 i.e, S = 800 in a particular month, then 800 = 350 + commission of that month => commission of that month = 800 - 350 = Rs, 450 (6) . Value of the tickets sold during that month - 200480 = Rs. 8,000 wal) Aman hi Rs, 300- Phen 1. Aman has to pay Rs, 300 initially and then Rs {Pr cull Bit bo nna bought. Pd tha salatgcches coe een Tee has paid and the number of months (x) since he bought the flat, seceen y relationship to be linear. ught the flat, assuming the 2. When the price of an electric heater is Rs. 30, then 100 a y= 5004 + 3,000) the are Rs. 25, then 130 people will buy, Obtain eo fe will buy and Kee Sane meen Une. + 6y= 280,25 pricey = demand - Ne. of peneea VARIABLES AND FUNCTIONS - ee 8. A firm produces 20 unite of a product for a total cost of Rs. 73 and 50 units of the product for a total cost of Ra. 97. Find the equation of the cost curve assuming it to be linear. Also estimate the coat of producing 40 units of the product. [Ane. Sy = 4x + 285,50 = Rs. 691 4. When the price ia Rs, 80, then 60 cameras of a particular type are available and when the price is Rs. 80,140 cameras of the same type are available in the market. Determine the supply curve. (Ans. 3p ~ 89 + 220-=0, s = supply = no. of cameras, p = price) 5. An avthor receives royalty as a fixed sum of money and in addition a certain sum | which varies directly as tho nunibor of copies sold. When 400 copies are sold he receives Ra. 220 and when 700 copies are sold he receives Rs. 3,100. How much will he receive when. 100 copies are sold. (Ana. y = 1,000 + 3,000 = Re. 4,000) | A firm produces 50 units of a product for Rs. 320 and 60 units for Rs. 380. ‘Assuming the cost curve to be linear, derive the equation and hence estimate the cost of producing 10 units. (Ans, y = 220 + 2x, Rs, 240) 7. If Taxifare is Ra. 4 minimum plus Rs. 1.75 per kilometre, write the equation connecting the fare (y) and the kilometres travelled (x). Find the fare for a distance of Ane. o Pre 4.Rs.10 | 8 The salary of an employee in 2003 was Rs, 24,000, In 2005 it was Rs. 27,000. Express salary as a linear funetion of time and estimate his salary in 2006. (Ane. S = 24,000 + 1.5002, where ( = year~2003, S, = Rs, 25,500) 9. Asurvey show that there is a linear function between population of a country and time: | Tn the year 1991 the population was 34 crore and in 2001 the pupulation was 93 crore. (i) Find the linear funetion between population and time. {i} Caleulate from the obtained linear function population the country would have | in the year 2011? 02 crore} lAns, p = 0.91 + 84, whore ¢ = year-1991, p:=20 10. The life expectancy of males in (99) in a country is 70 years. In 1972 it was 60 years, Assuming the life expectancy to be 2 linear function of time, make a | prediction of the life expectancy of males in that country in 2007 Ang. § L = 900 + 2t, where ¢ = year-1972, Ly. 25 = 74) LL In attempting to predict the demand for a particular style of shoo, a retail shoe store finds that 60 pairs are sold per week if the price per pair is Rs. 25, find when the price rises to Rs. 30 only 40 pairs are sold. Prediet how many pairs of shoes will be sold if the price is lowered to Rs. 115. lAns. y = 4x + 180; 240) 412, A company produces a pen which it sells for Rs. 25 per pen. Each pen costs the firm Rs. 18 in variable expenses and fixed cost on an annual basis is Rs, 2,50,000. Tf equals the number of pens produced and sold during the year, formulate. (j) The linear total cost function, (ii) The linear total revenue function and, (iii) The linear profit function. lans. (i) C= 18.x + 2,50,000, (ii) R= 25x, (ili) x = 7x —2,50,000} 13, The number of passengers on a loeal regional air line has been declining at a linear rate. If in 1991, the number of passenger was 2,45,000 and in 1996, the number was 2,15,000. If ‘n' equals the number of passengers using the air line per year and equals time measured in years (f = 0 for 1991.) (a) Determine the linear function » = f(t) 4b) Interpret the meaning of the slope (c) What is the number of passengers expected to equal in the year 2005 ¥ 4d) Itis estimated that the air line will go out of business if number of passengers, falls below 1,80,000. According to your function in part (a), when will this happen? (Ana. (a) n = 2,45,000 - 6,000 t (b) stope (6,000) indicates that each year after 1991, tho number of passengers decreases by 6,000. (c) 1,31,000 (4) t = 10.83, sometime in the year 2001.)~ a galery BHAWAN PUBLICATIONS —___ — —- S BREAK EVEN ANALYSL enue. When thi Theres n relationship between output, cost profitand reverue, iat ha ips of relationship is established and analysed, it 4 analysis or break lysis. i i There ae arieuassmeth which are used by different business institutions for this analysis. BREAK EVEN POINT ' Th Let C (x) be the total cost funetion and F (x) be the total ere are three possibilities. i Caso (1) : The total revenue # (x) abtained from the sali tn es ey | total cost, C (x) of production of x units, [n this case the busin Tea Loss = C (x}- R(x) . Case (2) : The total revenue, F (x) obtained from the sales is mire oe = total cost C (x) of production of x units. In this case the business yields profit. te, revenue function, Profit = R (x)- C(x) ; Case (3) : The total revenue, R (x) obtained by selling the x units produced is equal to the total cost, C (x). | In this case, there ig neither profit nor loss in the business te. R(x) =C (x) or R(x) aA ae a The third possibility ‘total revenue = total cost’ is termed as busi Even, The number of units produced and sold in this case is called the Break Even point. y Cost, Sales, Revenue © ¥ ‘output, sles In other words, Break even point is that point at which total revenue and total cost are equal j.e., the volume of sales at which sales equal to expences incurred is called the Break Even Point. This is the point where the business concern experiences neither a loss nor a profit. Mathematieally, for C (x) =a + bx, and Break Even Sales Fixed Expenses ~ Variable expenses per unit where k = sales per unit Graphical presentation of break even point (BEP) is as follows The break even point is the intersection of the total revenue curve and the total cost curve.JDustrative Examples ‘Hlustration 1 f 7 . Let the fixed cost be Rs, 40,000, variable cost per unit for the single unit produced be Rs. 8, and selling price per unit be Re. 40. What is the break even point ? Solution Fixed cost, FC = 40,000 Given: } Variable cost, VC = Rs. 8 per unit Selling price, SP = Rs. 40 per unit € (x) = 40,000 + oD) and R(x) = 40r wA2) At the break even point | Formula Riz) = Ci) | got? | “SP-VC és 40x = 40,000 + Ax | _ 40,000 } 40-8 = 40r-8r = 40,000 | = 40,000 = "32 = 82x = 40,000 | = Rs. 1,250 = = 40,000 ps, 1,250 | ie, BEP in units = x= Rs. 1,250 Substituting this value of x in (1) Cz) }; 1260 = 40,000 + 8 x 1,250 = 40,000 x 10,000 = Rs. 50,000 ie, B.E.P. in values = Rs. 50,000 ‘Thus the break even point in co-ordinate system is (1,250, 50,000) Remark : Substituting the value of x in (2), we have Rix) lr = 1250 = 40 x 1,250 = Rs, 50,000 = selling price per unit x B.E.P. (in units) Wlustration 2 Acompany estimates that when its sales is Rs. 60,000, its variable expences will be Rs, 30,000 for a fixed expense of Rs. 10,000. Find the break even point. What is the profit when sales is Rs. 50,000? Solution Let x denote sales and y denote expenses and the linear function be y=a+bx, where a = fixed expenses, b = Rate of change of expenses per unit change in sales ie. Variable expenses per rupee of sale. “ _ 30,000 _1_ Thus a= 10,000, 6 = Ey ggg 270-5 = y = 10,000 + 0.5% AD) For x = 50,000 ye = 10,000 + 0.5 x 50,000 = 10,000 + 25,000 = Rs. 35,000 Hence profit = sales — Expenses = 50,000 - 35,000 = Rs. 15,000sr an uateONS oF Again at, Break Even Point Sales = Expenses msy 0.8x = 10,000 x = 10.000 - 29,000 Tt means that there will be no profit or loss ifthe sales are equal to Rs. 20,099, Hlustration 3 . 4 publishing house finds that the cost of production directly aitributed b gach book is Rs. 60 and that the fixed cost is Rs. 30,000. If each b an besa for Re, 90, how many books should be produced and sold to achieve break evey point ? Solution Given: Variable cost = 60 x Fixed cost = 30,000 Selling Price = 90 for each book produced + Total Cost function Cia) = 30,000 + 60x ~~) And total revenue funetion Rex) = 90e ~Q) At the break even point Re) =Cr) ie, profit w(x) = Rix) - Ctx) =0 = 90x ~ (80,000-+ 60x) = 0, (from (1) and (2) = 30x = 30,000 0,000 _ r=" jg = 1,000 Thus, 1,000 books should be produced and sold to achieve break even point, Elustration 4 A company sells x tins of taleum powder each day at Rs. 10 per tins. The cost of manufacturing is Rs, 6 per tin and the distribution changes Rs. 1 per tin. Besides these the daily over head cost cones to Rs. 600. Determine the profit function. What is the profit if 500 tins are manufactured and sold a day? How do you interpret the situation if the company manufactures and sells 100 tins a day? What is the break-even-point ? Solution Selling price of x tins (in Rupees) = 10 xx = 10x Manufacturing Cost of x tins (in Rupees) = 6 x x = ér Distribution Changes for x tins (in Rupees) = 1x ¢ = Daily over head expenses (in Rupees) = 600 Total Cost, C = 600 + 6x and total Revenue, R = 10r x = Gx cs Profit function, n= R — or nedx— Now When 500 tins are manufactured and sold, then C = 600 + 6 x 500 = 600 + 3,000 = Ra. 3,600 | R=9%500= 4,500 and Profit 500 — 3,600 = Rs. 900 AB)Alternative Method From Profit Function Tz «500 = 3 x 600 ~ 600 = Rs. $00 Again,when 100 tins are manufactured and sold, then Profit = 3 x 100 - 600 = 300 - 600 = - 300 VARIABLES ANO FUNCTIONS = Loss = Rs, 300, At the Break-Even-Point 2 = - ‘That is 200 tins should be manufactured so that there is no profit and no Hlustration 5 A person found that he could sell 8 toys per day at a price of Rs. 15 each and 10 toys per day at.a price of Ra, 19 each, The demand function is of the form P= ar+b when P = price of one toy and x is number of toys manufactured and cold in a day. The cost function can be given as: 2 lx) = (i) determine the demand function. (ii) determine the revenue function. (iii) determine the break-even-point. (Raipur, BBA 2005) Soiution Demand function Praxr+b 16=6¢+b whenP=15,x=8 = 13210045 when P=13,x=10 > Qa=-2 .a=-1 and 5 =8x(- 1) = 16 +8=23 Thus demand function : +23 vA) revenue function: R=Pe=- x" 4 23x wl) 2 profit function ; xoyen-cwne-stsae-[f 8 oss) Bc 43x = SF 55 For break-even-point (x) =0 Se 48t gg 2 = tg 78550 > x” — 43x +110 =0 = Sc? 33r- 102+ 110=0 = axe 1) - 10@- M)=0 = (x- 11) (Bx 10)=0 z z=11, <= 'p/not acceptable Hence 11 toys should be sold so that there is no profit and no loss i.e. break-even point is x = 11.“GRRITYA BHAWAN Te i to the - rodustion bonus te | Illustration 6 any introduces PPO of production A calculator manufacturing yp ealculatot The daily co% workers that increases Iculaters is givea by for y calculat Oty) = 25+ res e300, dete eae 6) each cleat ea daily Lo STH Mat would be the Gi) Irtheeelling price is inereased by Rs. 80 per gph ie break-even-peint 7 500 calculators can be sold dally no loss ? ca) Et is noun Oo charge cise of calewlator to guaran Solutio eee cost function, Cy) = 205y + 55,000 Revenue function, R(y) = 300y Profit function n(x) = RY) ~ CO) 56,000 mine the minioum number Gi) To ensure no loss _ 55,000 95y = 55,000 = 0 = =~ g5 = 578,95 — 579 ‘Thus, at least 579 calculators must be produced to ensure no loss. Gi) When the price is increased by Rs, 30 per piece, then Riy) = 30y + 300y = 330y For break-even-point, we have sa i 55,000 = 20By + 85, 3 naraed _ y ~ 38.000 _ 44g = 125y = 55,000 = ios When the price is increased the break-even point is 440 Gi) If at least 500 calculators can be sold daily, The price per calculator needed to ensure no loss is given by 500p = 205 x 500 + 55,000 = 1,02,500 + 55,000 = 1,57,500 p= LSL5O0 oe =315 ie, the desired selling price = Rs. $15 per calculator. Rlustration.7 ‘The cost function C (x) for ‘’ breads is given by C(x) = 3.52 + 12,000 Fah iaeel is put to a special levy of 20 Paise for cyclone victims, i) If each bread is sold for Re. 6, determi: inion bread that ebould be produced ant cold teehee esnam Sumber of Gi) te eee erie ie increased by 70 paise per bread, what would be Git) TF6,01 i i i OG Envodes are sold only, what price per bread should be charaged Solution Cost function, C(x) = 8.5 + 12,000 ‘When the special levy is imposed the total cost fonction is~ VARIABLES AND FUNCTIONS TC(x) = 3.5x + 12,000 + 0.20% i TC(x) = 9.7 + 12,000 Revenue function Rex) = Gx Gi) With no loss nx) = Rex) - TCX) = 0 = Gx — (8.7x + 12,000) = 0 2 Gx - 9.7x - 12,000 =0 = 2.3% - 12,000 = 0 . _ 12,000 _ we = By 7521739 (1) Hence the minimum number of breads to be produced and sold is 5.218 Gi) When the selling price is inereased by 70 paive per bread, then Revenue function, R(x) =(6+ .70) x =6.7x For break-even-point, R(x) =TC() 2 6.7 = 8.7x + 12,000 = 6.7x - 8,7x = 12,000 = 8x = 12,000 a.x= 7200 4,000, breads Gi) When 6,000 breads are aold, the price (p) to be charged for no loss, should be given by 6,000 p =3.7 x 6,000 + 12,000 = 22,200 + 12,000 = 34,200 EXERCISE (E£) a ‘Atwasneas firm has xed cat of Rs 25,000. The cost of producing one wit is Ra. 90 this umit is sold for Rs. 43, find the breek-even-point (in unite). Tans, x = 2000 units) @ A publishing house finds that the production of oost directly attributed to each J book is Rs. 30 and that the fixed costs are Rs. 15,000. If each book can be eold for Rs, 45, then determine. (i) The cost function (ii) ‘The revenue function (iii). The break-even-point and fiv)) Profit function (Ana. (i) C = 30x + 15,000, x = no. of bonks, (i). = 45x (iii) = 1,000, Giv) n= ~ 16x + 15,000) A garment manufacturer is’ planning production of @ new variety of shirts. It aaa nitally a fixed cost of Rs. 1.50 lakhs and a variable coat of Rs. 160 for rvdiycing each shit. Ifeach shirt cane sold at Re. 350, then Bind. (a) Cost function (3) Revenue function (iii) Profit funetion and (iv) Break-even-point (Ans, (i) C(x) = 1,50,000 + 150s (Hi) Rix) = 350e tii) rx) = 200e ~ 1,50,000 (iv) x = 750, x =mumber of shirts} 4. Let fixed expenses be Rs. 1,00,000, variable expenses Rs. 10 per unit and selling price be Rs. 15 per unit. pov ieate the numberof units to bé manufactured and sold at break-even- point (G) Find thonumber of units tobe mancfactured and sold earn aproBitof Re, 10,000. i) What additional unite would be necessary to increase the above profit by Rs, 5,000? [Ane (i) 20,000 units, (ii) 22,000 units, (ii) 1,000 units) 5. Let fixed coste be Rs. 75,000, variable expenses Rs. 20 per unit and selling price be Rs. 30 per unit. Obtain. () Bresk-even-point (in units), and— _aeeee wi i — ay SAHITYA BHAWAN PUBLICA (ONS rofit of Rs. 76,000. «97,500 units, (i) 18,000 unity (ii) Sales volume to earn 8 PI fAne (75 ygiven by bly , 7 its of an asse™ 6, Tho daily cost of production C for z un! iui am avaker of units thay 1 mini Ctx) = 12.5x + 6,400 (i) Lfeach unit is sold for Rs. 25, determin’ pass should bo produced and sold to ensure 8° 5 per units Gi Ie the selling. price is reduced by Fs: © i” reak-even-point a hat price (iii) Fits kaown thnt 600 unita can be oold see 512, (ii) 640. charged to guarantee no loss ? 7. The cost function of a fra ity sie eae = 1,08, + . its. What shot Ir each anti sold fer R20, find the brenk-e7er oe owt to 18,000 units, the selling price per unit if the break even point (Ane. 21,600 units, Rs. 21) production directly attributed to each 8. A publishing house finds that the cost of can be sold for A publishing te ihe fixed costs are Rs. 15,000. Teach 000 Rs. 45, then determine tans, (i) C2) = 15,000 + 30 G) The cost funetion Gi) BG) = 45x (ii) The revenure function (iit) x (2) = 1x — 15,000 (iii) The profit function and iv) x = 1000 books iv) The break-even-point. cect ee daily cost of production C for x units of a manufactured product is given by Cla) = 3.5 + 12,000 . . (@ If each unit is sold for Rs. 6 determine the minimum number of units that should be produced and sold to ensure no loss. . tii) If the selling price is increased by half a rupee per unit, what would be the reak-even-point ? (iii) 1f6,000 units are sold daily, what price per unit should be charged to guarantee no loss? LAns. (i) 480 (ii) 400 (iii) Rs. 3.7) 10, Aleather company starts production of'a new variety of ladies bags. For the first year, the fixed cost for setting up the infrastructure comes to Rs. 1,40,000. Variable cost for the production of each bag is Rs. 75. The company gives production bonus to its employees so that the variable cost further increases by 50 paise per bag. Bach bag is sold at Rs. 250.50. What is the profit funetion p (x) for z bags produced and sold in the first year ? If 700 bags are produced and sold in the first year, what profit or loss would the company incur ? What is the break-even-point 7 [Ans. pix) = 1752 - 1,40,000 Loss = Rs. 17,500, B.E.P. = 800] ‘The total cost function and the total revenue function of a cou and sells x units of'a particular product are respectively. many iat prodaees C (x) = 15x + 350 and R (x) = 50x (i) The break even values. Gi) The values of x that produce a profit. (iii) The values ofx that result in aloss. (Ams. (i) x = 10 (ii) x > 10 (iii) x < 10) what would be the per unit should be , (iii) Rs. 21.5) 11.