WRITING CHAPTER 2 (Review of Literature) AND CHAPTER 3

(Methodology)

REVIEW OF LITERATURE (ROL)

Introduction

To come up with a good research study, researchers must conduct a thorough

investigation of the topic in order to guide them on the direction of the study. By reading
literatures, researchers will be able to identify what particular problem are still existing, or had
already been resolved, what changes have transpired over the years on the same topic or issue,
thus helping researchers in defining or redefining the research problem, and designing the
research. This will help avoid duplication of previous studies, provide critical enquiry of the
gaps, inconsistencies, controversies, and determine the similarities and differences of the
findings between past and present study. Hence, the Review of Literature is not simply a
summary but rather it must critically evaluate, reorganize and synthesize the work of others.

1.1 Parts of a Literature Review

In a research paper, thesis, dissertation, and research project, Related Literature Review is
divided into three parts. These are: 1) Related Legal Bases, 2) Related Literature, 3) Related
Studies.

Related Legal Basis

The major sources of related legal bases are laws and department directives such as
circulars, orders, memoranda, etc. They all serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the study.

In presenting the related legal bases, the researcher has to arrange them chronologically
from the most recent to the oldest. The relevance of each legal basis should be explained. The
lack of explanation of the legal basis makes the study unscientific. If a study has related legal
bases, it shows that the investigation is important to respond to the government’s thrust.

Related Literature

Flores (2016) defined literature as any written materials such books, journal, magazines,
novel, poetry, yearbook, and encyclopedia. Is composed of discussion of facts and principles to
which the present study is related.
Related Studies

Related studies are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the
present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually published
and unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

Literatures and Studies may be classified as:

1. Local
a. for literature materials, if printed in the Philippines;
b. for studies, if conducted in the Philippines;
2. Foreign
a. for literature materials, if printed in other lands;
b. for studies, if conducted in foreign land;
1.2. How to write the Review of Literature

 Researchers must exhaust all possible sources both online and offline, these can
be local, global, or databases. Peer-reviewed/scholarly outputs that will be used
must at least be published within three (3) to five (5) years;

 All relevant materials must be collated as comparative summary in table format

Title of Authors Objectives Methods Used Findings of the

Study of the Study Study

 Based from the collated literatures, “paraphrase” or restate the author’s thoughts
in condensed form using your own words. For opposing points of view, clearly
explain the nature of and differences between the opposing perspectives.

 Then, follow the structure below:

 Headings, sub-headings, and sub-subheadings;

 Funnel-approach: broader context to the specific
 Headings should be descriptive and informative
 Make sure that the information you place under each heading are, in fact, related and
reflected in the heading.
 Use variables and sub-variables stipulated in the objectives of the study.
 Citing Sources Using APA Manual (6th ed.)

APA Manual and Recent Updates

In – text Citations

Citations used in the body of the study identify the source of information. In-text
parenthetical citations are used to give credit to the authors whose ideas or thoughts are used
within the document. These internal citations allow the reader to identify the source and locate
the information being addressed. APA uses a system that includes the author’s last name and
year of publication. For example: (Small, 2009). If there is a direct quote or a specific part of the
work being referred to, the page numbers are also included. For example, (Small, 2009, p. 23).
Sources may include books and book chapters, journal or magazine articles, dissertations and
theses, conference papers, government reports, films, websites, blogs, and wikis, discussion
boards, personal communications, and more.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is used when you take someone else’s direct quote and state their idea in
your own words. Changing a few words here and there is till considered plagiarism even if you
do cite the author. Paraphrasing mean that you expressed the author’s information or ideas in
your own words and have given that person credit for that information or idea. You can prevent
plagiarism by closing the document and restating the idea in your own words.

Example:

1. Original Passage: “Signed into law in January 2002 by President George W. Bush,
the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act signaled the nation’s most sweeping education
reform of federal education policy in decades” (Smith, 2008. p. 212)
2. Unacceptable Paraphrasing: Enacted into law in 2002 by President Bush, the No
Child Left Behind Act signaled the most sweeping education reform of U.S.
Educational policy in decades.
3. Paraphrased: According to Smith (2008), the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
provided the most all-encompassing reform in US education in almost half a century.
Or
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) provided the most all-encompassing reform
in US Education in almost half a century (Smith, 2008)
Assessments No. 8

1. Research methods and thesis writing with statistics

a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
2. Utilization of Pineapple peelings and banana peelings
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
3. Modern Teacher: Key to Educational Progress
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
4. DepEd Circular No. 23 No. 2014
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
5. Reading readiness of Kindergarten Pupils in Public Schools in Metro Manila
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
6. RA 8292
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
7. Correlation of Mathematics scores and English Scores of K to 12 learners in Private
and Public Schools in Iloilo city
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
8. RA 8550
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
9. Mathematics Difficulties of K to 12 Learners in Public Schools in Cebu
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
10. Modern Mathematics with Computer
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
 c. Related Literature
11. Teachers Job Performance and Passing of K-12 Students in National Aptitude Test
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
12. RA 9003
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
13. Philippine Journal Education
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
14. DepEd Order No. 45, s. 2014
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
15. Sloth: Hindrance to Economic Progress
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
16. DepEd Memorandum Circular No. 18, s. 2014
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
17. Problems met by Teachers in Implementing K to 12 Curricular programs
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
18. Mathematics in Modern Living
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
19. Utilization and Commercialization of Pineapple Peelings and Banana Peelings into
soap.
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
20. CSC Memorandum No. 28. S. 2014
a. Related Studies
b. Related Legal Basis
c. Related Literature
 6
RESEARCH DESIGN

Introduction

Researchers must describe the methods used in detail so that readers will know exactly
how the study was conducted, a good research study must be replicable and scientifically sound.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Know what is a research design; and

2. Identify the classification of research design.

1.2 Research Design

The research design serves as a master plan of the methods and procedures that should be
used to collect and analyze the data needed by the researcher. Determining the most appropriate
research design is a function of the information research objectives and the specific information
requirements. The topics covered by research design however are wide-ranging.

Descriptors of Research Design

Category Options
The degree to which the research has been  Exploratory study
crystalized  Formal study
The method of the researcher to produce  Monitoring
effects in the variables under study  Communication study
The power of the researcher to produce  Experimental
effects in the variable under  Ex post facto
The purpose of the study  Reporting
 Descriptive
 Causal
Explanatory
Predictive
The time dimension  Cross – sectional
 Longitudinal
The tropical scope – breadth and depth –  Case study
of the study  Statistical study
The research environment  Field setting
  Laboratory research
 Simulation
The participants perceptions of research  Actual routine
activity  Modified routine

Classification of Research Design

1. Exploratory Study
2. Historical Study
3. Causal Research Study
4. Descriptive Study

Classification of Research Design:

1. Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discovering future
research tasks. The immediate purpose of exploration is usually to develop hypotheses or
questions for further research.

2. Historical Research Design

Historical research is a scientific critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using
the critical method in the understanding and interpretation of facts, which are applicable
to current issues and problems.

3. Causal Research Design

These are designed to collect raw data and create data structures and information that will
allow the researcher to model cause-and-effect relationships between two or more
variable. Causal research is more appropriate when the research objectives include the
need to understand the reasons why certain phenomena happen as they do. That is to say,
the researcher may have a strong desire to understand which variables are the causes of
the dependent phenomena defined in the research problem.

Causal studies seek to discover the effect that a variable(s) has on another (or others) or
why certain outcomes are obtained. The concept of causality is grounded on the logic of
hypothesis testing, which in turn produces inductive conclusions.

4. Experimental Design

A design in which an investigator manipulates and controls one or more

independent variables and observes the dependent variable or variables for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables. In this design the
investigator can manipulate or has control over the independent variables and the
assignment of subjects to the different conditions. Some authors consider this design as
 the most prestigious and sophisticated method of advancing scientific knowledge and
other believe that it is the only method of research which can truly establish the existence
or non-existence of cause – effect relationship. It is also considered as the most valid
approach in solving problems, both practical and theoretical.

The experimental design is ideally performed in a laboratory setting where the

researcher has full control over the variables. It is, however, possible to conduct
experiment in the real world as long as the investigator can sufficiently control the
environmental factors that may affect the study.

5. Descriptive Research Designs

Uses a set of scientific methods and procedures to collect raw data and create data
structures that describe the existing characteristics of a defined target population.

1. Descriptive – survey. This type is suitable whenever the subjects vary among
themselves and one is interested to know the extent to which different conditions
and situations are obtained among these subjects. The word survey signifies the
gathering of data regarding the present condition. A survey is useful in 1)
providing the value of facts; 2) focusing attention on the most important things to
be reported.

2. Descriptive-normative survey. This type is used to compare the local test results
with the national norm.

3. Descriptive – status. This approach is problem-solving which seeks to answer

questions about real facts relating to existing conditions. This is a technique of
quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of
cases chosen for study. Several descriptive status studies stress current conditions
with the assumptions that things will change. They cover many traits or
characteristics of the group being studied.

4. Descriptive Analysis – this method describes the nature of an object by separating

it into parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of things. In other words, the
researcher should determine the composition, structure and substructure, which
occur as units within the larger structure.

5. Descriptive – classification – this method is applied in natural sciences subjects

like Botany, Zoology, Biology, Ichthyology, Phycology, Mycology,
Microbiology, Conchology and the like. The specimens collected are classified
from phylum to species.

6. Descriptive – evaluative – this method appraises carefully the worthiness of the

present study.
 7. Descriptive – comparative – this method considers two variables (not
manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure to compare the variables and
conclude that one is better than the other.

8. Correlational survey – this method determines if the relationship between two

variables, X and Y is perfect, very high, high, moderate, slight, negligible, or
zero. Perfect positive with correlation value of 1.0 seldom happens. The same is
true with negative correlation (-1.0)

9. Longitudinal survey – this design involves much time allotted for investigation of
the same subjects of two or more points in time.

Group Work

1. Formulate Chapter 3 of your approved study particularly:

Locale of the Study
Research Design
Research Variables
Scoring and Interpretation
Validation of Research Instrument (if applicable)
Data Gathering Procedure

Assessment
 SAMPLING DESIGNS

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module you will be able to:

1. Know the nature and concept of sampling;

2. Identify the advantages and limitations of sampling;
3. Learn the different types of sampling designs;
4. Know how to determine the sample size;
5. Understand the nature and characteristics of sound measurement.

1.3 Sampling Design and Measurement

Sampling is necessary, especially if the population of the study is too large where the
resources of the investigator are limited. And it is advantageous for the researcher to use sample
survey rather than the total population.

It is advisable to use the total population if subjects under study is less than 100. But if
the total population is equal to 100 or more, it is advisable to get a sample in order to be
effective, efficient and economical in gathering data, provided however, that the sample is a
representative cross-section of the population and is scientifically selected.

Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a

population. The term, population, is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species
or orders of plants or of animals.

1.4 The Nature and Concept of Sampling

Sampling is the selection of a small number of elements from a larger defined target
group of elements and expecting that the information gathered from the group will allow
judgments to be made about the larger group.

There are different reasons for the inclusion of sampling procedures in research. The
main objective is to allow the researchers to make inductive and predictive judgments or
decisions about the total target population on the basis of limited information or in the absence of
perfect knowledge. The concept of sampling involves two basic issues 1) making the right
decisions in the selection of items (e.g. people, products, or services); and 2) feeling confident
that the data generated by the sample can be transformed into accurate information about the
overall target population.
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money, and effort.
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster and cheaper.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive information.

Limitations of Sampling

1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classifications because of a small
number of subjects.
2. If the sampling is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results
could be erroneous.
4. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population. (e.g teachers over 30
years of teaching)
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

Planning a Sample Survey

1. State the objectives of the study

2. Define the population.
3. Choose the sampling individual
4. Find and choose the source list of particular individuals involved in the sample
5. Decide the sampling design to be used that fits the study.

Determination of Sample Size

In determining the sample size for investigation purposes, the subject of the study should
be identified first, by including its population. You may calculate the sample size by using either
the following equations:

1. Slovin’s formula

Slovin’s formula allows a researcher to sample the population with a desired degree of
accuracy. Slovin’s formula gives the researcher an idea of how large the sample size needs to be
to ensure a reasonable of results. Slovin’s Formula

n= N
1 + N (e)2

Where:

n – sample size e – desired margin of error

N – population
 For instance, in your research if the population is 9,000 and the margin of error you allow
is 2%, what is your representative sample? You can obtain the sample size by using the formula
given below:

n= N
1 + N (e)2

n= 9,000
1 + 9,000 (.02)2

n= 1,957

2. Krejcie and Morgan’s Table

Ss = NV + [Se x (1-p)]
NSe + [V2 x p (1 -p)]

Where Ss stands for sample size; N, population; V, standard value (2.58) or 1 percent
level of probability with 0.99 reliability level; Se, sampling error (0.01); and p, largest possible
population.

N Sample Size N Sample Size

1.3.1 100 97 700 208
125 111 725 210
150 122 750 211
175 132 775 212
200 148 825 215
225 148 850 216
250 155 875 217
275 161 900 218
300 166 925 219
325 171 950 220
350 175 1000 224
375 179 1100 224
425 185 1500 232
450 188 1700 235
475 191 2000 238
500 194 2500 242
525 196 3000 244
575 200 3500 244
600 202 4000 248
625 204 4500 249
650 205 5000 250
675 207 6000 251
Types of Sampling

Representation Basis
Elements Section Probability/ Non – probability/
Scientific Non-Scientific

Unrestricted Simple Random Convenience

Complex random Purposive
Systematic Judgment
Restricted Cluster Quota
Stratified Snowball
Double

PROBABILITY SAMPLING or SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

This is a process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals in the defined
population have an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample, the process of
being called as randomization. Under this technique, the following procedures can be used:

1. Simple Random Sampling

 This technique uses the concept of lottery method of getting a sample. Selected by using
chance or random numbers. Each individual subject (human or otherwise) has an equal
chance of being selected

Examples:
Drawing names from a hat random Numbers

2. Systematic Sampling
 In this approach, every kth element population is sampled, select a random starting point
and then select every kth subject in the population. This is simple to use so it is used often.
In using this technique, you first have to identify and define the population; determine the
desired sample size; obtain a list of population; identify the sampling ratio, start at some
random place at the top of the population list; take every kth name of the list until the
desired sample size is reached.

3. Stratified Sampling
o Divide the population into at least two different groups with common
characteristic(s), then draw SOME subjects from each group (group is called strata or
stratum)
o Results in a more representative sample
4. Cluster Sampling – this sampling process in which groups and
not individuals are randomly selected. All members of selected
group have similar characteristics. It is a result from a two-
stage process in which the population is divided into groups
(called clusters), then groups are randomly selected, and then
data are collected data from ALL members of the selected
groups. This method is used extensively by government and
private research organizations
Examples: Exit Polls

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not all members of the

population have an equal chance of participating in the study, unlike probability sampling.

1. Convenience Sampling – a sampling technique where samples are selected from the
population only because they are conveniently available to the researcher.
Examples: Using family members or students in a classroom, Mall shoppers

2. Purposive - is a non-probable sample that conforms to certain criteria.

a. Judgment sampling - it occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform

to some criteria.
b. Quota sampling - this method involves the selection of prospective participants
according to specified quotas regarding either demographic characteristic (e.g. age,
gender, race, income)

3. Snowball – a sampling technique which helps researchers find a sample when they are
difficult to locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not
easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers
 find suitable subjects, s/he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a
considerably good size sample.

WRITING THE SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USED IN THE PAPER

Clearly describe the target population/s and context in which the study was conducted.
And, remind the reader of the units of analysis. Describe the sampling method and motivation in
details (disadvantages, sampling frame, sampling units, target sample size, how was this
determined, realized sample size, response rate, number of usable questionnaires, etc) and
provide a demographic or behavioral profile of respondents.

Assessment No. 10

Using Slovin’s formula compute the sample size of the following population with .01, .05
and .10 as margin or error:

1. 150
2. 800
3. 500
4. 680
5. 1500
 DATA COLLECTION, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Many of the techniques in collecting data depend largely on the quality of the
measurement instrument that will be employed in the research process. The significance of any
research paper or its entirely, for that matter, can be put to waste if the instrumentations is
questionable. As a researcher, you are, thus cautioned to exercise care in designing the data
collection procedures that will be employed in the research, especially in the construction of the
research instrument.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Understand how data are collected.

2. Know the types of data.

Data Collection

Data collection is an extremely important part of any research because the conclusions of
a study are based on what the data reveal. There are several ways of collecting data. The choice
of procedures usually depends on the objectives and design of the study and the availability of
time, money and personnel.

The term data refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on the subjects,
respondents or participants of the study. In research, data are collected and used to answer the
research questions or objectives of the study.

Examples of data: 

Demographic information such as age, sex, household size, civil status or religion. Social
and economic information such as educational attainment, health status, extent of
participants in social organizations, occupation, income, housing condition and the like.
Scores in exams, grades, etc.

Types of Data:

Research data are generally classified either as quantitative or qualitative. Based on their
source, data fall under two categories namely: Primary /Secondary

• Briefly describe how you pre-tested the data collection instruments

• Describe how the data was collected: description and motivation of data
collection method, cross-reference to final data collection instruments, description
of how the data were collected, incentives for participant participation, time
period)
 A study may be intended to generate precise quantitative findings or to produce qualitative
descriptive information or both. Quantitative Data are information which can be counted or
expressed in numerical values. Ex: age, grades, income, test score, number of children, level of
satisfaction, amount of sales, length of service, etc.

Quantitative Data

 Primary Data - these are information collected directly from the subjects being studied,
such are people, areas, or objects
 Secondary Data - these are information collected from other available sources, like recent
censuses, or data collected by large scale national or world-wide surveys, such as
agriculture and industry surveys, demographic and health surveys, data of completed
studies.

Qualitative Data - These are descriptive information which has no numerical values. Ex:
attitude or perception towards something, process used in accomplishing an activity, a person’s
experiences, one’s idea about certain concepts, situation, or phenomenon like drug abuse, family
planning, Brgy. Justice system, etc.

The choice of the best way to collect data depends largely on the type of data to be collected
and the source of data. Before starting to collect data, a researcher should decide: A. What data
to collect, B. Where or from whom the data will be obtain, C. What instrument/s or device/s to
use in collecting the data.

The two most common means of collecting quantitative information are the self-administered
questionnaire and the structured interview. Quantitative information may also be collected from
secondary sources and service statistics (Fisher, et.al.,1991)

Methods of Data Collection

There is a wide variety of data collection methods available to the researcher. The choice
of method depends upon the following:

 Objectives of the study

 Research Design
 Operational Feasibility
 Availability of resources such as money, time and personnel

The following are methods most commonly utilized by researchers in gathering data:

1. Personal Interview – in an interview, the persons from whom the needed data are obtained,
referred to as respondents or informants, are either interrogated face-to-face or through the
phone/online.
There are two types of interviews:
 a. Structured / Standardized – this is characterized by a set of questions formulated
in a standardized way, as in questionnaires. It utilizes an instrument called
interview schedule. This type of instrument is used in well-structured types of
research problems where the variables are delineated. This is applicable to
quantitative types of research problems.

b. Unstructured – this involves asking a set of questions derived by the interviewer

from a list of key topics or guides. This allows the interviewer freedom to
pursue unanticipated topics or directions to arise. This is particularly helpful in
qualitative studies, especially those of an exploratory nature.

2. Observation – is a data collection method where the researcher acquires knowledge about
the subjects under study by observing them in various settings or situations. In this method,
the researcher witness’ the event in the natural setting and thus, give a firsthand account of
the event. The person is not mediated by other persons who have witnessed the event, as in
normally the case in interviews and questionnaires where the personal experience of
respondents is communicated to the researcher. (Bautista, 1998)

The main characteristics of direct observation technique is that researchers must rely
heavily on their powers of observing rather than actually communicating with people to
collect primary data. Basically, the researcher depends on watching and recording what
people or objects do in many different research situations. Example:

 Physical attributes
 Expressive behaviors
 Verbal behavior
 Temporal behavior
 Special relationships and locations
 Physical objects

Types of Observation
a. Structured observation
b. Unstructured observation

3. Interviews and Questionnaires – another method for asking information which utilize tools
for questioning are interviews and questionnaires. Interview and questionnaires are very
common primary techniques of data collection. They both entail drawing information from
respondent. One advantage of questionnaires is it can be administered to a large group of
people at the same time. Another thing is that the respondents are allowed to maintain their
anonymity, hence they will be more honest in answering the questions.

Two types of interviews:

1. Standardized interview
2. Unstructured interview
Two types of questionnaires:
 1. Patterned / Standard questionnaire
2. Self – made questionnaire

Common forms of questions:

a. Open-ended format – in this format, the respondents are allowed to answer any questions
they wish to answer based on their understanding. Ex. age, monthly income,

b. Multiple choice format – this type presents a question which is followed by a set of
options pre-determined by the researcher or based on a pre-survey.

c. Checklist format – in this format, a questionnaire is considered as totally structured

format which is used exclusively or with some use of the free response opinion. The
difference of this type form that of multiple choices is that the respondents in this
technique can answer a single question with one or more options.

4. Focused Group Discussion (FGD) – when it is not feasible to use the interview or
questionnaire method in gathering data due to money and time constraints, the FGD may be
conducted in gathering data. Through purposely sampling, the members of the group from
whom the needed information or data will be obtained are selected. The selected group
should more or less represent the characteristics or cross sections of the population from
which it is drawn.

SECONDARY TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

Using secondary sources is complex and challenging. As discussed earlier, there are two
categories of sources available. These are internal and external data. There are also three types of
sources (primary, secondary, and tertiary). Primary sources are original works of research or
raw data without interpretation. Secondary sources are interpretations of primary data. Tertiary
sources are interpretations of secondary sources or more commonly, finding aids such as
indexes, bibliographies, and Internet search engines.

Information sources are generally categorized into three levels, these are:

1. Primary sources – included among the primary sources are memos, letters, complete
interviews or speeches (in audio, video or written transcripts formats), laws, regulations,
court decisions or standards, and most government data, including census, economic and
employment/labor data. Primary sources are always the most authoritative because the
information has not been filtered or interpreted by a second party. Information from the
primary sources will become secondary literature of the researcher who supports his or her
original research. Internal sources of primary data would include inventory records,
personnel records, purchasing requisition forms, statistical control charts and other similar
data.
2. Secondary sources – there are interpretation of primary data, encyclopedias, textbooks,
handbooks, magazine and newspaper articles, and most newscasts are considered secondary
information sources. Indeed, all reference materials fall into this category. Internally, sales
analysis summaries and investor annual reports would be examples of secondary sources as
they are compiled from a variety of primary sources. To an outsider, however, the annual
report is viewed as a primary source, as it represents the official position of the company.

3. Tertiary sources – these may be an interpretation of a secondary source but they are
generally represented by indexes, bibliographies and other finding aids; i.e. internet engines.

Other Sources of Secondary Data

1. Census Data and Statistical Records

2. Personal Records
3. Narrative documents
4. Editors and publishers market guide
5. Commercial publications and newspaper
6. Statistical source of information

NATURE OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to empirical events in

compliance with a set of rules. This implies that measurement is a three-part process:

1. Selecting observable empirical events;

2. Developing a set of mapping rules, a scheme for assigning number or symbols to
represent aspects of the event being treasured;
3. Applying the mapping rule/s to each observation of that event.
The goal of measurement is indeed the goal of “assigning numbers to empirical event in
compliance with set of rules” to provide the highest quality, lowest error data for testing
hypotheses. Researchers deduce from a hypothesis that certain conditions should exist. Then,
they measure for these conditions in the real world. If found, the data lend support to the
hypothesis, if not, researcher can conclude that the hypothesis is faulty.

The Characteristics of Sound Measurement

There are major criteria for evaluating a measurement too. These are:

1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Usability or practicability.
• Validity - Degree to which a test measures what it intends to measure or the truthfulness
of the response.
 • Reliability - The extent to which a test is consistent and dependable.

• It is concerned with the consistency of responses from moment to moment.

• Even if the responded takes the same test twice, the test will yield the same result.

• Usability - A measure has a practical value for the research if it is economical, convenient
and interpretable.

Data gathered must be described in systematic order:

 discuss independent variables, dependent, moderating or mediating variables and

control variables.
 Limit your description to the scales used to measure the main constructs/concepts in
your study. Description could include: basic scale design, number of scale
items/points, how scale points were labeled, number of subdimensions, what high or
low means, etc)

Scale Measurement

This is the process of assigning a set of descriptors to represent the range of possible
responses that a person gives in answering a question about a particular object, construct, or
factor. This process aids in determining the amount of raw data that can be obtained from asking
questions, and therefore, indirectly has impact on the amount of information that can be derived
from the data. Central to the amount of data issue understands that there are four basic scaling
properties (ie. Assignment, order, distance, and origin) which can be activated through scale
measurements.

Scale Nature of Scale Examples Measure of Statistical

Location analysis
Nominal Classifies objects Type of Business Org, Mode Information
Industry statistics
Ordinal Ranks objects Ordering: minimum to median Non-
maximum; worst to parametric
best, minor to major
Interval Rates objects in units of Time (hr), temp Arithmetic mean Parametric
equal difference (degrees)

Ratio Rates objects in equal Height, weight Geometric mean Parametric

difference and equal
ratio

Basic Levels of Scales

The four basic levels of scales are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

1. Nominal Scale - these are the most basic and they provide the least number of data. They
activate only the “assignment” scaling property; the raw data do not exhibit relative
magnitudes between categorical subset of responses. The main data structures (or
patterns) that can be derived from nominal data are the form of modes and frequency
distribution.

2. Ordinal scale - these require respondents to express their feelings of relative magnitude
about the given topic. Ordinal scales activate both the assignment and order scaling
properties and allow researchers to create a hierarchical pattern among possible raw data
responses (or scale points) that determine “greater than/less than” relationships. Data
structures that can be derived from ordinal scales measurements are in the form of
median and ranges as well as modes and frequency distributions.

3. Interval scales - the scale measurement allows the researcher to build into the scale
elements that demonstrate the existence of absolute differences between each scale point.
Normally, the raw scale descriptors will represent a distinct set of numerical ranges as
responsible responses to a given questions. With interval scaling designs, the distance
between each scale point and response does not have to be equal. Disproportional scale
descriptors can be used. With interval raw data, researchers can develop a number of
more meaningful data structures that are based on means and standard deviations, or
create data structures that are based on mode, median, frequency distribution, and range.

4. Ratio Scales - these are the only scale measurements that simultaneously activate all four
scaling properties. Considered the most sophisticated scale design, they allow researchers
to identify absolute differences between each scale point and to make absolute
comparisons between the respondents’ raw responses.
Scoring and Interpretation for Ordinal Scales using Likert Scale

LIKERT SCALE

Level of Acceptability Level of Acceptability

7 - Perfectly Acceptable 7 - Absolutely appropriate
6 - Acceptable 6 - Appropriate
5 - Slightly Acceptable 5 - Slightly appropriate
4 - Neutral 4 - Neutral
3 - Slightly Acceptable 3 - Slightly inappropriate
2 - Unacceptable 2 - Inappropriate
1 - Totally Unacceptable 1 - Absolutely Inappropriate
Level of Importance Level of Agreement
7 - Extremely Important 7 - Strongly Agree
6 - Very Important 6 - Agree
5 - Slightly Important 5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral 4 - Neutral
3 - Slightly Unimportant 3 - Somewhat disagree
2 - Low Importance 2 - Disagree
1 - Not at all Important 1 - Strongly Disagree
Level of Concern Level of Problem
5 - Extremely concerned 5 - Serious Problem
4 - Moderately concerned 4 - Moderately Problem
3 - Somewhat concerned 3 - Minor Problem
2 - Slightly concerned 2 - Slightly concerned
1 - not at all concerned 1 - Not at all a problem
Frequency of Use Level of Acceptability
5 - Everytime 7 - Perfectly Acceptable
4 - Almost Everytime 6 - Acceptable
3 - Occasional/Sometimes 5 - Slightly Acceptable
2 - Almost never 4 - Neutral
1 - Never 3 - Slightly Acceptable
2 - Unacceptable
1 - Totally Unacceptable
Level of Satisfaction Barriers
5 - Very Satisfied
4 - Satisfied 4 - Extreme Barrier
3 - Unsure 3 - Moderate Barrier
2 - Dissatisfied 2 - Somewhat of a Barrier
1 - Very dissatisfied 1 - Not a Barrier
Level of Influence Level of Awareness
5 - Extremely Influential 5 - Extremely Aware
4 - Very Influential 4 - Moderately Aware
 3 - Somewhat Influential 3 - Somewhat Aware
2 - Slightly Influential 2 - Slightly Aware
1 - Not at all Influential 1 - Not at all Aware
Level of Difficulty Level of Likelihood
5 - Very Difficult 5 - Extremely Likely
4 - Difficult 4 - Likely
3 - Neutral 3 - Neutral
2 - Easy 2 - Unlikely
1 - Very Easy 1 - Extremely Unlikely
Level of Support/Opposition Level of Agreement
5 - Strongly favor 5 - Strongly Agree
4 - Somewhat favor 4 - Agree
3 - neutral 3 - Neutral
2 - Somewhat oppose 2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly oppose 1 - Strongly Disagree
Priority Level of Concern
5 - Strongly favor 5 - Extremely Concerned
4 - Somewhat favor 4 - Moderately Concerned
3 - neutral 3 - Neutral
2 - Somewhat oppose 2 - Slightly Concerned
1 - Strongly oppose 1 - Not at all concerned
Quality Level of Desirability
5 - Excellent 5 - Very Desirable
4 - Very good 4 - Desirable
3 - Good 3 - Neutral
2 - Fair 2 - Undesirable
1 - Poor 1 - Very Undesirable
Level of Concern Level of Participation
5 - Very sufficient 5 - Highly Participated
4 - Sufficient 4 - Moderately Participated
3 - Somewhat sufficient 3 - Somewhat Participated
2 - Slightly sufficient 2 - Fairly Participated
1 - not at all sufficient 1 - Without Participation

Example:

Scale Mean Ranges Adjectival Rating Interpretation

5 4.20 – 5.00 Strongly Agree Highly Participated
4 3.40 – 4.19 Moderately Agree Moderately Participated
3 2.60 – 3.39 Agree Participated
2 1.80 – 2.59 Moderately Disagree Fairly Participated
1 1.00 – 1.79 Strongly Disagree Without Participation
Group Work.

Formulate the following:

b. Research Design
c. Locale of the Study
d. Scoring and Interpretation
e. Population and Sampling
f. Data gathering procedure
g. Statistical Treatment

Assessment No. 11
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Learning Objectives:

After reading the chapter, the learner will be able to:

1. Identify the different research instrument;

2. Know and understand the qualities of a good research instrument.

Research made instruments such as tests, questionnaires, rating scales, interviews,

observation schedule, etc. should meet the qualities of a good research instrument before they are
used. These measuring instruments are used for gathering or collecting data, and are important
devices because the success or failure of a study lies on the data gathered.

The qualities of a good research instrument are 1) validity 2) reliability 3) usability 4)

justness 5) morality and 6) honesty

VALIDITY

Validity means the degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it
intends to measure. The validity of a measuring instrument has to do with its soundness, what the
test or questionnaire measures its effectiveness, how well it could be applied.

No test or research instrument can be said to have a “high” or “low” validity in the
abstract. Its validity must be determined with reference to the particular use for which the test is
being considered. The validity of test must always be considered in relation to the purpose it
serves. Validity is always specific in relation to some definite situation. Likewise, a valid test is
always valid.

Types of Validity:

Validity is classified under four types, namely, content validity, concurrent validity,
predictive validity, and construct validity.

Content validity means the extent to which the content or topic of the test is truly
representative of the content of the course. It involves, essentially, the systematic examination of
the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to
be measured. It is very important that the behavior domain to be tested must be systematically
analyzed to make certain that all major aspects are covered by the test items in correct
proportions. The domain under consideration should be fully described in advance rather than
defined after the test has been prepared.

Content validity is described by the relevance of a test to different types of criteria, such a
thorough judgments and systematic examination of relevant course syllabi and textbook, pooled
judgments of subject – matter experts, statements of behavioral objectives, and analysis of
researcher-made test questions, among others. Thus, content validity depends on the relevance of
the individual’s responses to the behavior area under consideration rather on the apparent
relevance of item content.

Concurrent Validity is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set
up as an acceptable measure. The criterion is always available at the time of testing. It is
applicable to tests employed for the diagnosis of existing status rather than for the prediction of
future outcome.

Predictive Validity as described by Aquino and Garcia, is determined by showing how

well predictions made from the test are confirmed evidence gathered at some subsequent time.
The criterion measure against this type of validity is important because the outcome of the
subjects is predicted.

Construct Validity is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
This involves such tests are those of understanding, appreciation and interpretation of data.

RELIABILITY

Reliability means the extent to which a “test is dependable”, self-consistent and stable” In
other word, the test agrees with itself. It is concerned with the consistency of responses from
moment to moment. Even if a person took the same test twice, the test yields the same results.
However, a reliable test may not always be valid.

Methods of Testing Reliability

A. Test-Retest Method - The same test is administered twice to the same group and the
correlation coefficient is determined. The disadvantage of this method are 1) when the
time interval is short, the respondents may recall their previous responses and this tends
to make the correlation coefficient high; 2) when the time interval is long, such factors as
unlearning and forgetting, among other, may occur and may result in low correlation of
the test; and 3) regardless of the time interval separating the two administrations, other
varying environmental conditions such as noise, temperature, lighting, and other factors
may affect the correlation coefficient of the test.

Take note that in conducting pilot tests, it is very unscientific if the pilot
sample of the study is in the same institution even if they are not subjects or
respondents of the study.
 B. Parallel Forms – a test administered to a group of students and the paired observation is
correlated. In constructing parallel forms, the two forms of eh test must be constructed so
that the content, type of test item, difficulty and instruction of administration are similar
but not identical. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is a statistical tool used
to determine the correlation of parallel forms.

C. Split-Half – is administered once, but the test items are divided into two. The common
procedure is to divide the test into odd and even items. The two halves of the test must be
similar but not identical in content, number of items, difficulty, means, and standard
deviations. For example, each student obtains two scores, one on the odd and the other
even items in the same test. The scores obtained in the two halves are correlated. The
result is reliability coefficient of a half test. Since the reliability holds only for a half test,
the reliability coefficient for the whole test is estimated by using the Spearman-Brown
formula.

D. Internal Consistency – is used in psychological tests that consist of dichotomous scored

items. The examinee either passes or fails in an item. A rating of 1 (one) is assigned for
correct answer and 0 (zero) for incorrect response. This method is obtained by using
Kuder-Richardson Formula 20.

USABILITY OR PRACTICABILITY

Usability or practicability means the degree to which the research instrument can be
satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without undue
expenditure of time, money, and effort. In other words, usability means practicability.

Factors that determine Usability

These are five factors that determine usability, namely:

1. East of administration. To Facilitate the administration of a research instrument, instructions

should be complete and precise. As a rule, group tests are easier to administer than individual
tests. The former is easier to administer because directions are given only once and the
instrument is simultaneously administered to a group of students, thus saving time and
energy on the part of the examiner or researcher.

2. Ease of scoring a research instrument depends upon the following aspects:

a. Construction of the test in the objective type;
b. Answer keys are adequately prepared; and
c. Scoring directions are fully understood.

Moreover, scoring is easier when all subjects are instructed to write their responses in one
column in numerical form or word and with separate answer sheets for their responses.

3. Ease of interpretation and application. Results of tests are easy to interpret and apply if
tables are provided. All scores must be given meaning from the tables of norms without
 necessity of computation. As a rule, norms should be based both on age and year level, as in
the case of school achievement tests. It is also desirable if all achievement tests should be
provided with separate norms for rural and urban subjects as well as for learners of various
degrees of mental ability.

4. Low cost. It is more practical if the test is low cost, material-wise. It is more economical also
if the research instrument is of low cost and can be reused by future researchers.

5. Proper Mechanical Make-up. A good research instrument should be printed clearly in an

appropriate size for the grade or year level for which the instrument is intended. Careful
attention should be given to the quality of pictures and illustrations on the lower grade
subjects of the study.

JUSTNESS

Is the degree to which the researcher is fair in evaluating the rating / grade of the
respondents.

MORALITY

Is the degree of secrecy of the rating of the respondents. Morality or ethics means that
test results/respondents answers must be treated with utmost confidentiality.

HONESTY

Researchers must be honest in constructing the research instrument, thus researchers must
avoid copying verbatim the contents of other books or authors without citing or acknowledging
them.

WRITING THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The research instrument can be a questionnaire, a test, an interview, an observation

schedule, or a rating scale. Each part of the instrument must be clearly stated described by the
proponent.

WRITING THE VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Suggestions, corrections, and refinement of the draft of the questionnaire must be

explained thoroughly. The different items involved in the corrections should be explained and
how the items and refinement of the questionnaire must be mentioned. After it is defined, testing
the validity, and reliability of the researcher-made instrument, the questionnaire, must be done.

For validity, five experts in line with the field of study must be requested to go over the
research instrument to test its validity. Each item in the instrument has column on 3 (retain), 2
(revise), and 1 (delete). The expert is requested to check the appropriate option column for each
item. The researcher computes the weighted mean per item. Items with mean values of 2.5 – 3.0
are retained; items with mean values, 2.4 – 1.5, are revised; and items with means value, 1.4 –
1.0 are deleted.