VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI

SJB SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

SUBJECT: BUILDING SERVICES-I

(WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION)

SUBJECT CODE: 18ARC43

CLASS REFERENCE NOTES

(MODULE I, II, III, IV, V)

BY

Er.CHANDAN.R
BE (CIVIL), M.TECH (GEO-TECH)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE,

SJB SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

 MODULE – 1
PART-1
Introduction to Environment and Health Aspect

Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and
adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage

It makes the environment neat,clean and helps the people prevent different diseases and be
safe from harmful components.

The concept of sanitation broadly includes liquid and solid waste disposal,personal and food
related hygiene and domestic as well as environmental hygine.

Sanitation is used to define a package of related measures. It is also defined as the means of
collecting and disposing of excreta and community liquid wastes in a way so as not to
endanger the health of individual and the community as a whole.

The concept of sanitation was earlier limited to disposal of human excreta by cesspools, open
ditches, pit latrines, bucket systems etc. today it denotes a comprehensive concept of not only
the methods of disposal of human waste but also of liquid and solid waste including matter
originating from food and hygiene.

Why is the historical view important?

 When considering wastewater management what emerges is the long history

associated with urban ecology and disposal of wastewater and societal and cultural
transitions.
 For the longest time, dispersion and dilution have been the dominant but not the best
practice for management strategies. Unfortunately, they continue to be practiced still
in many countries. It is not because of ignorance that wastewater management
practices have not been implemented, but in many cases a misunderstanding of the
economic benefits of wastewater management
 In drawing a timeline, the evolution of sanitation practices could be divided into
different periods. The figure below illustrates this evolution:

Fig: Sanitation Timeline

Examples from History:

Three examples from early history (Mesopotamia/Middle East) via the Romans to Britain in
the industrial revolution show the evolution of sanitation.

Mesopotamia:

 Historical records show that the Mesopotamian Empire (3500 – 2500 B.C.) was the
first civilisation to formal address sanitation problems arising from community living.
 In the ruins of Ur and Babylonia, there are remains of homes, which were connected
to a draining system to carry away wastes as well as latrines leading to cesspits.

Fig: One of the first known toilets that was flushed with water is at the palace at Knossos on
the island of Crete

Romans:

 The Romans were brilliant managers and engineers and their systems rivalled modern
technology.
 Rome’s water system is one of the marvels of the ancient world. Much is known and
has been written about Rome’s water supply, much less however about their
sanitation achievements.
 Although sewer and water pipes were not inventions of the Romans, since they were
already present in other civilisations, they were certainly perfected by the Romans.
 They resumed engineering works from others; they turned these concepts into major
infrastructure to serve all the citizens.
 As inventors of the first integrated water system from collection to disposal, providing
dual networks to collect spring water and dispose of storm and wastewater.
 They recycled wastewater from the spas, using it to flush latrines before discharging
the waste into sewers and then into the river.
 Fig: Public latrines in Ostia

The Britains:

 With the high rate of industrialisation and urbanisation throughout the eighteenth
century, preceding and accompanying the industrial revolution, came the realization
of the importance of water and wastewater disposal.
 Britain was one of the first countries to begin experimentation with organized action
to improve environmental conditions of cities.
 The principal employed was to assume “The Solution of Pollution is Dilution”.
 The construction of the Bazalgette sewer system in London, started in 1858 and
completed in 1965, is an example of this principle.
 Through a series of collection sewers and pumping stations, wastewater was conveyed
from the streets and discharged to the Thames.
 There was no understanding of assimilative capacity in the river and no understanding
of the need to remove pollutants prior to discharging in the river.
 The Thames was already polluted in the 14th century, but in 1859, it became the
protagonist of crises in London that would be passed into history as the “Great
Stench” caused by at least two events: the “Industrial Revolution” and the closing of
London's cesspools following the introduction of the flush toilet.
 Victorians called the Thames a “monster soup”.

Fig: Map of the London sewage system developed by Joseph Bazalgette 1858-1870
Necessity of Sanitation:

 Every community produces liquid and solid wastes.

 The liquid portion-waste water is essentially the water supply of the community after
it has been fouled by a variety of use such as spent water from bathroom kitchen,
lavatory basins, house and street washings, from various industrial processes semi
solid wastes if human and animal excreta, dry refuse of house and street sweepings,
broken furniture, wastes from industries etc are produced daily.
 If proper arrangements for the collection, treatment and disposal are not made, they
will go on accumulating and create foul condition
 If untreated water is accumulating, the decomposition of the organic materials it
contains can lead to the production of large quantity of mal odorous gases.
 It also contains nutrients, which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and it may
contain toxic compounds. Therefore in the interest of community of the city or town,
it is most essential to collect, treat and dispose of all the waste products of the city in
such a way that it may not cause any hazardous effects on people residing in town and
environment.
 Although the collection of stream water and drainage dates from ancient times the
collection of waste water can be treated only to the early 1800s. The systematic
treatment of waste water followed in the 1800s and 1900s.

SCOPE/OBJECTIVES/PURPOSE/IMPORTANCE/USES OF SANITATION
1. Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through preventive of human
contact with the hazard of wastes as well as the treatment and proper disposal of
sewage wastewater.
2. It makes the environment neat, clean and helps the people to prevent different
diseases and be safe from harmful components.
3. Proper disposal of human and animal wastes (solid as well as liquid wastes). It also
includes disposal of hazardous wastes from hospitals/industries/other sources
4. Use and proper maintenance of toilets
5. Avoiding of open defecation
6. Accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas
7. Generate a push from the people to get facilities rather than except the government do
it.
8. Focus on intensive education and awareness campaigns to ensure that people
understand the need for safe sanitation
9. Promote cost effective and appropriate technologies
10. Take the scheme beyond rural household to rural schools and nursery
11. Through all the above improve the health and quality of life in rural area.

Sanitation and public health

 Cleanliness:
o Cleanliness is one of the most important practices for a clean and healthy
environment. It may be related to public hygiene or personal hygiene.
 o The various diseases that are caused due to poor maintenance of hygienic
conditions.
o Awareness of the Cleanliness and Personal Hygiene is the need of the hour
in Our country where the diseases like Dengue fever, wine flu , malaria,
chicken fox and jaundice are fast spreading .
o People should realise the importance of cleanliness and personal hygiene
to prevent themselves from these diseases.
 The importance of waste isolation lies in an effort to prevent water and sanitation
related diseases, which afflicts both developed countries as well as developing
countries to differing degrees.
 It is estimated that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable water-
borne disease, as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices.
 The effects of sanitation have also had a large impact on society.

Water-Related Disease

 Water-related diseases are estimated to claim 3-7 million lives each year.
 This includes water-borne, water-washed, water contact diseases, as well as water
(insect) vector diseases - i.e. those associated with water habitat (e.g. malaria, dengue)
Transmission Examples Prevention Strategy
Diarrhea(e.g.cholera)  Improve water quality
Enteric fevers  Prevent use from unprotected
1. Waterborne
(e.g. typhoid) sources
Hepatitis A  Improve sanitation
Diarrhea  Increase water quantity,
2. Water-washed Dysentery accessibility and reliability
(water hygiene) Trachoma  Improve hygiene
Scabies  Improve sanitation
 Reduce contact with infected
water
 Control vector host
3. Water-based Guinea-worm populations
(water contact) Schistosomiasis  Improve water quality (some
types)
 Improve sanitation (some
types)
 Improve surface water
management
Malaria, River
4. Insect Vector  Reduce need to visit breeding
Blindness
sites
 Use mosquito nets

Waterborne Diseases

 Caused chiefly by drinking contaminated water;

 Mainly enteric diseases transmitted by the faecal-oral route;
Examples: – Diarrheas (e.g. cholera),
 Enteric fevers (e.g. typhoid)
Hepatitis A
 Also, infection by non-fecal organisms which proliferate in water
Example: – Legionella bacteria via aerosols and droplet

Water-Washed (Water Hygiene) Diseases

 Diseases whose exposure is reduced by the use of water for personal and domestic
hygiene:
o Hand-washing – esp. after defecation, handling feces, food washing.
o Domestic Washing: clothes, floors, other household chores
o Bathing and other personal hygiene
o Cleaning of cooking and eating utensils
 Includes many enteric organisms, as well as diseases of the skin and eyes (eg.
trachoma) and insect infestations (eg: scabies caused by mites; pediculosis caused by
lice)
 Trachoma Transmission:
o Primary transmission: Person-toperson transmission occurs by ocular and
respiratory secretions
o Secondary transmission: insect vectors such as house flies, especially affecting
children. Flies feed on discharge from infected eye and transmit it to another
child
 The Role of Water in Prevention of Trachoma:
o Person-to-person transmission is controlled by frequent washing of infected
eyes.
o Water quantity and accessibility are key to prevention of trachoma.
o More water helps keep household cleaner.
o More water means flies have more sources of moisture and are less likely to
seek water from children’s eyes.

Water-based (Water Contact)

 Exposure by skin contact with infested water

o Example: schistosomiasis: the free-living larvae released from aquatic snails
(the intermediate host) invade the skin.
o Example: guinea worm
 Dracunculiasis – Guinea Worm
o Caused by Dracunculiasis worm
o Carried by Cyclops – a small crustacean
o Wide but patchy distribution in Africa and Asia
 Guinea Worm – Life Cycle
o Humans ingest Cyclops through drinking water
o Female worm develops and posterior end lies just beneath blisters on the skin
o When water is spilled on the blisters, the Guinea worm larvae are released
o If larvae are washed into a well or water body containing Cyclops, they infect
the Cyclops and continue their life cycle.
Water (Insect) Vector

 Diseases spread by insects which breed or bite near water habitat

o Mosquitoes
 Malaria
 Yellow fever
o Flies
 Sleeping sickness
 River blindness

Conservancy system:

• This is old system in which various types of wastes, such as night soil, garbage etc are
collected separately in a vessels or deposited in a pools or pits and then removed periodically
at least once in 24 hours.

• The conservancy system is highly unhygienic and causes insanitary condition.

• Transportation of night soil takes place in open carts through street and other crowded
localities, this is highly undesirable.

• The working of the system entirely depend on the mercy of labour if they go on strike at
least one day foul matter start creating smell which highly unhygienic.

• In present day world, when men has progressed much it is highly humiliating to ask human
being to transport night soil in pails on their head.

Water carriage system:

• In this system, collection and conveyance and disposal of various wastes re carried out with
the help of water.

• Thus water is used as a medium to convey the waste from its point of production to point of
final disposal.

• Sufficient quantity of water is required to be mixed with waste so that dilution ratio is so
great that the mixture may flow just like water.

• This system is very hygienic as night soil and other waste carried out through closed
conduit which is not directly exposed to atmosphere.

• There is no chance of outbreak of epidemic because files & other insect do not have direct
access to the sewage.

• The labour required for the operation and maintenance is extremely small.

• Initial cost of installation of this system is very high, the running cost are very small.
URBAN AND RURAL SANITATION

Rural sanitation in India

 Safe drinking water and improved sanitation play a major role in the overall well-
being of the people, with a significant bearing on the infant mortality rate, death rate,
longevity and productivity.
 Census of India collected data on access to water and sanitation shows that only 31
per cent rural households were having any toilet facility in their households.
 Progress in the provision of toilet facility in rural areas is very slow and open
defecation is a serious problem.
 Due to lack of drainage facility the low lying areas of many villages and towns often
get flooded during monsoon season.
 The poor bear a disproportionate burden of non-availability of water, as well as of
poor quality. They often supplement public sources of water with supplies obtained at
high prices from other sources.
 Women bear the physical burden of fetching water. Women and children are
particularly vulnerable to the effects of water contamination.
 Thus, the supply of additional quantity of water by itself does not ensure good health;
proper handling of water and prevention of contamination are also equally important.
 Among the most important elements of the rural sanitation package are:
 Safe handling of drinking water
 Disposal of waste water.
 Safe disposal of human excreta. Human excreta are associated with more than 50
per cent of diseases.
 Safe solid waste disposal.
 Home sanitation and food hygiene.
 Personal hygiene, particularly, washing one’s hand with soap.
 Sanitation in community.
 India’s first nationwide program for rural sanitation, the central rural sanitation
program was launched in 1986.
 Followed by the which there arose several programs such as
o TOTAL SANITATION SCHEME
o NIRMAL GRAM PURASKAR
o RURAL SANITARY MART
 The basic objective of these programs were
o Safe disposal of night-soil, rain water, domestic liquid and solid waste.
o Awareness of sanitation standards and health impact of unsanitary conditions
continues to be low.
o Rural sanitation is promoted as a total package consisting of safe handling of
drinking water, scientific disposal of waste water, safe disposal of human
excreta including child excreta, solid waste management, domestic sanitation
and food hygiene, personal hygiene and village sanitation.
o To improve the quality of life of rural people and to provide privacy and
dignity to women.
 o Toilet construction and to provide access to toilets to all
o The department of water supply and sanitation is responsible for the sanitation
in rural areas.
o To bring about improvement in general quality of life.
o Motivate communities and Panchyat raj institutions (local government) for
promoting sustainable sanitation facilities through awareness creation and
health education which also includes adopting building bye-laws where dry
latrines are not permissible. Any latrine to be constructed should be of the
water-sealed type with a leach-pit. This will prevent the emergence of the
problem of manual scavenging.
o School sanitation (covers school and anganwadis with sanitation facilities)
and promote hygiene
o Encourage cost effective sanitation facilities. Subsidy for the low-cost
household toilets should only be given to rural belowpoverty-line (BPL)
families.
o In order to mobilise the required funds for rural sanitation, financial
institutions/banks including HUDCO and the National Bank of Agriculture
and Rural Development (NABARD) should extend loans at lower interest
rates to states for provision of sanitation facilities.

Urban sanitation in India – Issues

 Poor awareness
o Low priority to sanitation and lack of awareness.
 Poor institutional arrangement
o gaps and overlaps in institutional roles and responsibilities at national, state
and city level.
 Lack of integrated city wide approach
o sanitation investment are done in piece meal manner and do not take into
account the full cycle of safe confinement, treatment and disposal.
 Reaching the urban poor
o Because of lack of tenure, space and economic constraints urban poor are
unable to access safe sanitation.
 Lack of demand responsiveness
o The preference and demand of households are not taken into account.

National urban sanitation policy

 Awareness generation
o Generating awareness about sanitation and its linkage with public and
environmental health.
 Open defecation free cities
o Promoting access to household with safe sanitation facilities.
o Proper planning and management of community toilets.
 Integrated city wide sanitation
o Strengthening national, state and local level institutions to accord priority to
sanitation provision including proper planning, implementation and
management.

Fig: Urban Sanitation Methods

 PART-2
Water Supply
Sources of water supply
 The chief sources of all water supplies are rainfall.
 This water after getting proper treatment we get from municipal corporation/water
supply department i.e. Public Health Engineering. Department.
 Other source of water is underground water. Water that has percolated into the ground
is brought on the surface.
 The upper surface of free water in the top soil is termed as ground water level/ table.
 Form in which underground sources are found infiltration galleries. Infiltration wells
are sunk in series on the bank of river.
 Other source is spring an outcrops of water. A ground well is defined as an artificial
hole/pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping of water.
 Following are types of wells-
o Shallow wells.
o Deep wells
o Tube wells
 Rivers: Rivers are commonly used as a source of water but normally require
treatment before use particularly in downstream sections, rivers are often
contaminated with waste materials from industry, agriculture and communities.
 Lakes (Natural and Artificial): Where there is a shortage of underground water,
lakes or artificial reservoirs may be used to provide water supplies but this water
usually needs some form of treatment prior to use.
 Oceans: The oceans represent the most abundant source of water on the planet, but
the cost of desalination is usually prohibitively high and therefore sea water is not
often used as a source of water. Coastal waters are often contaminated with sewage
and heavy metals.

There are various types of water demands in a city

 Domestic water demand

 Industrial demand
 Institution and commercial demand
 Demand for public use
 Fire demand
 Loses and wastes

Domestic water demand

 Water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc.
 Mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the
people.
  As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water
in India is about 135 litres/day/capita
The details of the domestic consumption
a) Drinking 5 litres
b) Cooking 5 litres
c) Bathing 55 litres
d) Clothes washing 20 litres
e) Utensils washing 10 litres
f) House washing 10 litres
Total 135 litres/day/capita

Industrial demand

 The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries,
which are existing in the city.
 The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills,
Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use.
 The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of
the total demand of the city.

Institution and commercial demand

 Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centres including

office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centres, health centres, schools,
temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc comes under this category.

Demand for public use

 Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and
sprinkling on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public
fountains etc. comes under public demand.
 To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption
is made designing the water works for a city.

The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as:

Sl No Purpose Requirements
1 Public parks 1.4 litres/m2/day
2 Street washing 1.0-1.5 litres/m2/day
3 Sewer cleaning 4.5 litres/head/day

Fire demand

 During the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the
fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient
quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
  The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally calculated by using
different empirical formulae.
 For Indian conditions kuiching’s formula gives satisfactory results.
Q=3182 √p
Where ‘Q’ is quantity of water required in litres/min
‘P’ is population of town or city in thousands

Loses and wastes

 Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings.
 Losses due to, continuous wastage of water.
 Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections.
 While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total
quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.

Types of Normal Range

Sl No Average %
Consumption (lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic
65-300 160 35
Consumption
2 Industrial and
Commercial 45-450 135 30
Demand
3 Public Uses
including Fire 20-90 45 10
Demand
4 Losses and
45-150 62 25
Waste
Per capita demand

 If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year
and ‘p’ is population of town, then per capita demand will be

 Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living,
number and type of commercial places in a town etc.
 For an average Indian town, the requirement of water in various uses is as follows
Domestic purpose 135 litres/c/d
Industrial use 40 litres/c/d
Public use 25 litres/c/d
Fire Demand 15 litres/c/d
Losses, Wastage and thefts 55 litres/c/d
Total 270 litres/capita/day
Water Quality Requirement for Different Uses

 For any water body to function adequately in satisfying the desired use, it must have
corresponding degree of purity.
 Each water use has specific quality need.Therefore, to set the standard for the desire
quality of a water body, it is essential to identify the uses of water in that water body.
 In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has developed a concept
of designated best use.
 According to this, out of the several uses of water of a particular body, the use which
demands highest quality is termed its designated best use.
 Five designated best uses have been identified. This classification helps the water
quality managers and planners to set water quality targets and design suitable
restoration programs for various water bodies.

Table:Designated Best Uses of Water

 In India, CPCB has identified water quality requirements in terms of a few chemical
characteristics, known as primary water quality criteria. Further, Bureau of Indian
Standards has also recommended water quality parameters for different uses in the
standard IS 2296:1992.
Treatment of water for different uses:

Water purification:

 Process by which undesired chemical compounds, organic and inorganic materials,

and biological contaminants are removed from water.

 That process also includes Distillation (the conversion of a liquid into vapour to
condense it back to liquid form) and Deionization (ion removal through the dissolved
salts).

 One major purpose of water purification is to provide clean drinking water.

 Water purification also meets the needs of medical, pharmacological, chemical, and
industrial applications for clean and potable water.

 The purification procedure reduces the concentration of contaminants such as

suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi.

 Water purification takes place on scales from the large (e.g., for an entire city) to the
small (e.g., for individual households).

 Most communities rely on natural bodies of water as intake sources for water
purification and for day-to-day use.

 In general, these resources can be classified as groundwater or surface water and

commonly include underground aquifers, creeks, streams, rivers, and lakes.

 Since it is nearly impossible to examine water simply on the basis of appearance,

multiple processes, such as physical, chemical, or biological analyses, have been
developed to test contamination levels.

 Levels of organic and inorganic chemicals, such as

chloride, copper, manganese, sulphates, and zinc, microbial pathogens, radioactive
materials, and dissolved and suspended solids, as well as pH, odour, colour, and taste,
are some of the common parameters analysed to assess water quality and
contamination levels.

Pre-treatment

 In pre-treatment, biological contaminants, chemicals, and other materials are removed

from water.

 The first step in that process is screening, which removes large debris such as sticks
and trash from the water to be treated.

 Screening is generally used when purifying surface water such as that from lakes and
rivers.
  Surface water presents a greater risk of having been polluted with large amounts of
contaminants.

 Pre-treatment may include the addition of chemicals to control the growth of bacteria
in pipes and tanks (pre-chlorination) and a stage that incorporates sand filtration,
which helps suspended solids settle to the bottom of a storage tank.

 Preconditioning, in which water with high mineral content (hard water) is treated
with sodium carbonate (soda ash), is also part of the pretreatment process.

 During that step, sodium carbonate is added to the water to force

out calcium carbonate, which is one of the main components in shells of marine life
and is an active ingredient in agricultural lime.

 Preconditioning ensures that hard water, which leaves mineral deposits behind that
can clog pipes, is altered to achieve the same consistency as soft water.

 Pre-chlorination, is the final step of pre-treatment.

 During the pre-chlorination process, chlorine is applied to raw water that may contain
high concentrations of natural organic matter.

 This organic matter reacts with chlorine during the disinfection process and can result
in the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), such as trihalomethanes,
haloacetic acids, chlorite, and bromate.

Other purification steps

 After pre-treatment, chemical treatment and refinement can occur.

 The process includes Coagulation, a step in which chemicals are added that cause
small particles suspended in the water to clump together.

 Flocculation follows, which mixes the water with large paddles so that coagulated
particles can be brought together into larger clumps (or “floc”) that slowly settle on
the bottom of the tank or basin.

 After the majority of the suspended particles have settled, water exits the flocculation
basin and then enters a sedimentation basin.

 Sedimentation basins move treated waters along through the purification process
while allowing remaining particles to settle.

 Sludge forms that appear on the floor of the tank are removed and treated. From that
basin, water is moved to the next step, Filtration, which removes the remaining
suspended particles and unsettled floc in addition to many microorganisms and algae.

 Disinfection is the final step in water purification. During that step, harmful
microbes, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, are killed through the addition
of disinfectant chemicals.
 Disinfection usually involves a form of chlorine, especially chloramines or chlorine
dioxide.

 Chlorine is a toxic gas, resulting in some danger from release associated with its use.

 To avoid those risks, some water treatment plants use ozone, ultraviolet radiation,
or hydrogen peroxide disinfection instead of chlorine.

 Other purification methodologies include ultrafiltration for specific dissolved

substances, ion exchange to remove metal ions, and fluoridation to prevent tooth
decay.

Table: common methods of water treatment used in water supply system

 Fig: Typical Process of Water Treatment

Filtration:

 Treatment facilities use filtration to remove particles from water.

 Those particles include clays and silts, natural organic matter, precipitates from other
treatment processes in the facility, iron and manganese, and microorganisms.
Filtration clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection.
  Adsorption Processes (removal of ions, organic compounds and microorganisms):

o Adsorptive filtration is a technique based on the coating of the filter medium

with adsorbents, resulting in modified media that can simultaneously act as a
filter and as an adsorbent

o Contaminant reduction in AC filters takes place by two processes:

– Physical removal of contaminant particles, blocking any that are too large to pass through
the pores (filters with smaller pores are more effective)

–A process called adsorption by which a variety of dissolved contaminants are attracted to

and held (adsorbed) on the surface of the carbon particles. The characteristics of the carbon
material (particle and pore size, surface area, surface chemistry, density, and hardness)
influence the efficiency of adsorption.

Softening: PROCESSES (Cation removal)

 Total Hardness:

o Technically - the sum of all polyvalent cations

o Practically - the amount of calcium and magnesium ions (the predominant
minerals in natural waters) –
o It is divided into carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.

Description Hardness range (mg/L as CaCO3)

Soft 0 - 75

Moderately hard 75 - 100

Hard 100 - 300

Very hard > 300

 Softening process is used to remove bivalent and multivalent cations from water
(hardness; for ex: Ca2+)

 Cations with carbonate and bicarbonate ions give non-permanent hardness (also
known as carbonate hardness). It is a unstable hardness and can easily be removed
using boiling (a simplest method).

 Cations with sulfate, chloride, and nitrate give non-carbonate hardness and permanent
hardness. This cannot be easily removing using boiling.

 Cations are removed from using following method:

I. Boiling

II. Reaction with calcium carbonate,

III. Reaction with lime and soda ash

Fig: i) Conventional drinking water treatment

Fig: ii) Water softening

Disinfection: PROCESSES (microbial removal)

 The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce

the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the
environment.

 Intended to inactivate the microbes by physical, chemical or biological processes

 Cloudy water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can shield
organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low.

 Inactivation is achieved by altering or destroying essential structures or functions

within the microbe

 Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium

hypochlorite.

 Inactivation processes include denaturation of:

o Proteins (structural proteins, transport proteins, enzymes)

o Nucleic acids (genomic DNA or RNA, mRNA, tRNA, etc)

o Lipids (lipid bilayer membranes, other lipids

 Disinfection kinetics are better in plug-flow (pipe) reactors than in batch (back-
mixed) reactors

 Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection due to its
low cost and long-term history of effectiveness.

o One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can generate

chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the
environment.

o Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic

material in the natural aquatic environment.
 o Further, because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated
effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and
cost of treatment

 Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals.
Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms
that later consume it, as may be the case with other methods.

o UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and

other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction.

o The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp
maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to
ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation
(i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms
from the UV light).

 Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential
resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3.

o Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it
comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms.

o Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which

has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental
release), ozone is generated onsite as needed.

o Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination.

o A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation

equipment and the requirements for special operators.

Storage and Pumping

Fig: Standard Water supply System in village/town

Open Well, Tube Well, Hand pump, Pond,

Sources Dam Site, External Pipe Supply, Rain Water
Harvesting System/Tank

Reverse Osmosis System (RO), Chlorination,

Village/town level Treatment
Sedimentation, Sand Filter, etc.

Elevated Surface Reservoirs (ESR), Ground

Storage
Service Reservoirs (GSR), Sump

Main Line, Sub-Main Line, Branch Pipe

Distribution Line, Household Level Tape, Stand Post,
Washing Unit.

Storage Facilities

 Elevated Surface Reservoir (ESR) or Elevated storage tank:

o ESR is constructed, where water is to be supplied at elevated height (less than

the level of ESR) or where the distance is large and topography is undulating.

o Generally, ESR is at height more than 15 m.

o Water can be distributed directly from this storage tank by gravity or pump.
 Ground Service Reservoir (GSR):

o GSR is ground level or plinth level storage tank.

o The plinth level is generally not more than 3 m.

 Storage capacity of the service reservoirs is estimated based on pumping hours,

demand and hours of supply, electricity available for pumping.

 Systems with higher pumping hours require less storage capacity.

 Normally, such reservoirs are calculated to store half to one day daily water
requirement.

 Sump:

o Sump is used as additional storage at village/town level or cluster level.

o It is not used for direct distribution of water. Rather, it is used as intermediate

or contingency storage, to store water before it is pumped to ESR/GSR.

o The underground storage tank in circular shape with dome line covering is
called sump.

o Generally, the capacity of sump is more (one and half to two times) than ESR
or GSR or two to five days water requirement, so that if the supply is disturbed
for that time, the water is available for the people.

Fig:Sump
Water Distribution

 For efficient distribution, it is required that water should reach end use with required
flow rate with needed pressure in the piping system.

 There are three main types of distribution system that can be adopted in
villages/towns:

a. Gravity Fed Distribution

b. Pumping System

c. Dual/Combination

Gravity Fed Distribution

 When the ground level of water source/storage is sufficiently raised than the core
village/town area, such system can be utilised for distribution.

 The water in the distribution pipeline flow due to gravity and no pumping is required.

 Such system is highly reliable and economical.

Pumping System

 In such system, water is supplied by continuous pumping.

 Pumping is required for

a) Lifting water from the source (surface or ground) to purification works or the service
reservoir.

b) Transfer of water from source to distribution system.

c) Pumping water from sump to elevated/ground surface tanks

 Treated water is directly pumped into the distribution main with constant pressure
without intermediate storing.

 Supply can be affected during power failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence, diesel
pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be maintained.

 Such system works only in condition where there is continuous power supply, reliable
water source and where intermediate storage system cannot be installed.
  For water supply system, three main types of pumps are used:

Centrifugal Pump Turbine Pump Submersible pump

This type of pumps are Turbine pumps are mainly It is highly used for
used widely in water used in elevation of water pumping from bore well
supply schemes containing from ground level storage and underground sumps.
sand, silt etc. Centrifugal to elevated areas/storage Such pumps are used for
force is made use of in or pumping from deep water yield of 100 litres per
lifting water. Electrical wells/tube wells. If the minute. It is driven by an
energy is converted to water requirement is large electric motor, which is
potential or pressure and there is a large source directly attached to the
energy of water. of falling water (head and pumping element and
flow rate) nearby, turbine- therefore totally
pump sets can provide the submerged.
best solution.

Dual/Combination

 In such system, both gravity as well pumping systems are used.

 Such systems are used where there are variations in topography in town/village.
  Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir. Then
supplies to consumer by action of gravity.

 The excess water during low demand periods get stored in reservoir and get supplied
during high demand period.

 Minimum Residual Pressure in a distribution system should be 7 m for single storied,

12 m for two storied and 17 m for three storied building

 Economic, efficient and reliable system.

Water Distribution Systems

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used
to supply water from its source to the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution System

1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.

3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.

4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during
the repair of any section of the system.

5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer
lines.

6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.

Layouts of Distribution Network

 The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their
layouts generally follow the layouts of roads.

 The lines carrying water from storage to its end use (stand post/ household tap etc.)
are called distribution lines.

 Distribution pipelines consist of main pipeline connected from secondary storage;

 Sub-main pipes connected from main pipeline and service/branch pipes connected
from sub-main for distribution to households.

 Generally, Mild Steel (MS), Galvanised Iron (GI), High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE)/ Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) pipes, Ductile Iron (DI) pipe with 15-200 mm
diameter are used in distribution.
 These lines are generally underground (1-3 feet below ground). Valves are used to
control the distribution

 Different types of networks are adopted looking to the pressure requirement,

operation and maintenance (O&M) strategy adopted, cost parameter and overall
length of distribution system.

 Sub main pipes are connected

at right angles from main
pipeline and branch pipes are
connected to sub mains at right
angles.

 This system is easy to lay.

 However, in case of failure in

pipeline, it will be difficult to
supply water to the area ahead
of affected area.

Dead end distribution system

 Sub main and Brach pipes are

interconnected to each other.

 A grid system is laid.

 Here, total length of pipeline

required is high, but this helps
in equitable water pressure.

 Also, blockage of pipes in one

area does not affect the supply
in the rest of area as there are
multiple supply points to any
area.

 This will also help in avoiding

water stagnation.

 The system required higher

number of valves.

Grid System
  The area is divided into
different zones.

 The water is pumped into the

distribution reservoir kept in
the middle of each zone and
the supply pipes are laid
radially ending towards the
periphery.

Ring System

Efficiency usage of water

 Water Use Efficiency :The ratio between effective water use and actual water
withdrawal

 Agriculture sector withdraws about 80% of all withdrawal •

o India has low water use efficiency compared to the developed countries.

o The overall irrigation project efficiency in developed countries is 50 – 60% as

compared to only 38% in India.

 The industrial plants in our countries consume about 2 to 3.5 times more water per
unit of production compared to similar plants operating in other countries.

 In the domestic water sector the loss of water on account of leakages in mains,
communication and service pipes and valves is approximately 30 to 40% of the total
flow in the distribution system.
 Measures:

 Establishment/investigation of water supply & distribution network, pipes, pumps

etc.
 Establishment of complete water balance overall and individual stages. Including
the raw water, clarified water, DM water, drinking water system; circulating
water, fire water, service water, cooling towers, ash handling water, drain/sewage,
residential colony drinking water etc.)
 Assessment of overall water consumption
 Characterization of water quality in main streams and identification of options for
recycle and reuse.
 Assessment of Cycle of Concentration (COC), specific water consumption.
 Identification of leakages and losses in the system.
 Identification of scope for water conservation with recommendation on recycle
and reuse.

***©®***
 MODULE – 2
PART-1

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
Basic Terms

Sewage: It is the Liquid Waste or Wastewater produced as a result of water use.

Sewer: It is a pipe or conduit for carrying sewage. It is generally closed and flow takes place
under gravity.

Sewerage: Sewerage is the system of collection of wastewater and conveying it to the point
of disposal with or without treatment

Sources of Wastewater

1. Domestic: It is wastewater from houses offices, other buildings, hotels and institutions

2.Industrial: It is the liquid waste from industrial process

3. Storm-water: It includes surface run-off generated by rainfall and the street wash

Components of Wastewater Engineering

1. Collection System: Network of Sewer pipes

2. Disposal: Sewage Pumping Stations and Outfalls

3. Treatment Works: Wastewater treatment Plants

Types of Sewers:

1. Sanitary Sewer- It carries sanitary sewage like waste from municipalities including
domestic and industrial waste-water
2. Storm Sewer-It carries storm sewage including surface run-off and street wash
3. Combined Sewer- It carries domestic, industrial and storm Sewage
4. House Sewer-It is the sewer conveying sewage from plumbing system of a building to
common municipal system
5. Lateral Sewer- This sewer carries discharge from houses sewer
6. Sub-main-This sewer receives discharge from two or more laterals
7. Main/Trunk Sewer- Receives discharge from two or more sub-mains
8. Outfall Sewer- It receives discharge from all collecting system and conveys it to the
point of final disposal

Fig: Types of Sewers

TYPES OF SEWER SYSTEMS

1. Separate System
2. Combined System
3. Partially Combined System

Separate System:

 If storm water is carried separately from domestic and industrial wastewater the
system is called as separate system.
 Separate systems are favoured when
(i) There is an immediate need for collection of the sanitary sewage but not for
storm water.
(ii) When sanitary sewage needs treatment but the storm water does not.
Combined System

 It is the system in which the sewers carry both sanitary and storm water, combined
system is favoured when;
(i) Combined sewage can be disposed off without treatment
(ii) Both sanitary and storm water need treatment
(iii) Streets are narrow and two separate sewer cannot be laid

Partially Combined System

 If some portion of storm or surface run-off is allowed to be carried along with sanitary
sewage the system is known as partially combined system.
 In Urban area of developing countries, mostly partially combined system is employed
as it is economical

SEWER APPURTENANCES

 Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on the sewerage system and are
necessary for the efficient operation of the system.

Man-holes:

 Man holes are the openings of either circular or rectangular in shape constructed on
the alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the sewer for inspection,
cleaning and flushing.
 They serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions of perforated man-hole covers.
 Also they facilitate the laying of sewer lines in convenient length.
 Man-holes are provided at all junctions of two or more sewers, whenever diameter of
sewer changes, whenever direction of sewer line changes and when sewers of
different elevations join together
Special Man-holes:

 Junction chambers: Man-hole constructed at the intersection of two large sewers.

 Drop man-hole: When the difference in elevation of the invert levels of the incoming
and outgoing sewers of the man-hole is more than 60 cm, the interception is made by
dropping the incoming sewer vertically outside and then it is jointed to the man-hole
chamber.
 Flushing man-holes: They are located at the head of a sewer to flush out the deposits
in the sewer with water.
 Lamp-holes: Lamp holes are the openings constructed on the straight sewer lines
between two man-holes which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp into the
sewer to find out obstructions if any inside the sewers from the next man-hole.
 Street inlets: Street inlets are the openings through which storm water is admitted and
conveyed to the storm sewer or combined sewer. The inlets are located by the sides of
pavement with maximum spacing of 30 m.
 Catch Basins: Catch basins are small settling chambers of diameter 60 - 90 cm and 60
- 75 cm deep, which are constructed below the street inlets. They interrupt the
velocity of storm water entering through the inlets and allow grit, sand, debris and so
on to settle in the basin, instead of allowing them to enter into the sewers.

Traps

 Traps are defined as fittings at the end of soil pipes of waste pipes to prevent foul
gases coming out of the soil pipe/ waste pipe.
 Traps: Good Traps should have following Qualities:
o Should provide enough water seal ( around 50 mm) with large surface area. •
o Interiors surface should be smooth so that the flow is not obstructed which
enables self-cleansing.
o An assess door should be provided for cleaning the trap.
o It should be made of non- adsorbent material.
 Depending upon the shapes the traps are classified as:
I. P-Trap
II. Q-Trap
III. S-Trap
P Trap Q Trap S Trap

 Based on the Use, the traps are classified as:

o Floor Traps (Nahni Trap)
o Gully Traps
o Intercepting Traps
 Floor Trap ( Nahni Trap):
o This trap is generally used to admit sullage from the floors of rooms,
bathrooms, kitchen etc. in to the sullage pipe.
o This is provided with cast iron or stainless steel or galvanised gratings (Jallis)
at its top so that the entry of larger matter is prevented thereby chances of
blockage are reduced.
 A Gully trap or gully
o It is provided at a junction of a roof drain and other drain coming from kitchen
or bathroom.
o As shown in figure below the foul sullage shall enter through the side inlet
which is also called as back inlet and unfoul rain water shall enter from the top
which is covered with cast iron grating.
o Gully traps may either have a P shaped or Q shaped water sealing
arrangement. The water seal is normally 50 mm to 75 mm deep.

 Intercepting Traps
o Intercepting traps is provided at junction of a house sewer and municipal
sewer for preventing entry of foul gases of municipal sewer in to the house
drainage system.

 Advantage of Intercepting traps:

o Foul Gases of larger municipal sewers are prevented from entering house
drainage system.
o Harmful pathogens are not entered in house drains.
 o Well designed and constructed interceptors can quickly remove foul matter of
house drain to municipal sewers

 Disadvantages:
o Heavy matter shall retain in the trap if the discharge of wastewater is small
and the small decompose producing four gases and thus the main purpose of
preventing foul gases is not served at all.
o When plug is broken the foul gases shall enter house sewers.
o Cleaning through the inspection area is difficult.
o Interceptor itself is an obstruction to the smooth flow.
o Omission of interceptor has not raised serious consequences.
o Presence of interceptor installed by the owner is found to affect ventilation of
municipal sewer. Hence if interceptors are allowed more ventilation systems
are to be provided for public or municipal sewers increased cost of sewerage
system and thereby increasing taxes too.
o Because of the above reason the municipalities decide whether to allow the
owner to provide intercepting traps or not
 Grease Trap
o These types of traps are used in large hotels restaurants or industries where
large quantity of oils waste is generated.
o If the oily or greasy matter is not separated it will stick to the building
drainage system resulting in formation of scum and consequent hindrance in
aeration.
o A grease trap is either a masonry or cast iron chamber with a bent pipe or Tee
pipe at the outlet.
o There is sudden increase in area of flow at the inlet and hence the velocity of
flow is reduced which results in separation of oil and grease from wastewater.
o The oil and grease floats on the surface and should be removed periodically.
o A separate outlet pipe for oil and grease trap can be installed with a valve to
stop the flow after complete removal of oil or grease from the top surface.
Sanitary backflow prevention device/ backflow valve

 A sanitary backflow prevention device is a valve attached to the plumbing system.

 It is designed to prevent overflow waste water from the City’s sewer system from
backing up into the home.
 A backflow valve has a flap with small floaters on both sides that allow the flap to
open and close.
 Under normal conditions, the flap is open—allowing water from your home to flow
into the main sewer system.
 However, if a large storm or snowmelt overwhelms the sewer system, causing water
or sewage to backflow toward the house, the floaters will close the flap, effectively
shutting your home off from the street sewer system (see detail above).
 Once the street sewer system has a chance to drain and return to normal functioning,
the flap opens again to discharge waste water.
 Due to the potential for clogging, annual inspection of the device is needed.
Materials of construction of sewerage network

 Brick: Used particularly for large diameter sewers

o Advantage: Can be constructed to any required shape and size
o Disadvantage:
 higher cost
 Slow work progress
 Larger space requirement
 Concrete:
o Advantages
 Relative ease with which required strength may be provided
 Wide range of pipe sizes
 Rapid trench backfill
 Disadvantages
 crown corrosion by sulphide gas
 mid depth water line corrosion by sulphate
 outside deterioration by sulphate from soil water
 Precast concrete: Commonly used for branch and main sewers.
o Two types
I. Non-pressure pipes
II. Pressure pipes
o Non-pressure pipes:
 used for gravity flow (sewers running partially full)
 Plain (I.D. 80mm-450mm; thickness: 25mm-35mm) (NP1)
 Reinforced (I.D. 80mm-2600mm; thickness: 25mm-215mm)
(NP2, NP3 & NP4)
o Pressure pipes
 Used for force mains, submerged outfalls, inverted siphons
and for gravity sewers where absolute water-tight joints are
required.
  Reinforced (I.D. 80mm-1200mm; thickness: 25mm-120mm)
 Length : 2-3m
 These pipes have plain ends or spigot and socket ends.
 Cast-in-situ Reinforced Concrete
o Constructed where they are more economical
o when non-standard sections are required
o when a special shape is required
o when the headroom and working space are limited.
 Stoneware or Vitrified Clay
o normally available in lengths of 90 cm
o Classes
 AA: 100% hydraulic testing of pipes to be carried out in
manufacturing stage
 A: 5% of the pipes to be tested by following IS 651
o Resistant to most acids and to erosion due to grit and high velocities
o A minimum crushing strength of 1,600 kg/m is adopted for all sizes
o Special bedding or concrete cradling required to improve field supportive
Strength
 Asbestos Cement
o usually used in sizes ranging from 80 mm to 1000 mm in diameter
o Advantages
 Non corrosiveness to most natural soil conditions,
 free from electrolytic corrosion,
 good flow characteristics,
 ease in cutting, drilling, threading and fitting with specials,
 allowance of greater deflection up to 12 degrees with mechanical
joints,
 ease of handling,
 tight joints and
 quick laying and backfilling are to be considered
o Disadvantages
 subject to corrosion by acids, highly septic sewage and by highly acidic
or high sulphate soils
 Cannot stand high super imposed loads and may be broken easily
 Cast Iron
o Available in diameters from 80 mm to 1050 mm and are covered with
protective coatings
o supplied in 3.66 m and 5.5 m lengths
o A variety of joints are available including socket, spigot, and flanged joints.
o Classified as LA, A and B according to their thickness. Class LA pipes have
been taken as the basis for evolving the series of pipes.
o Application: Cast iron pipes with a variety of jointing methods are used for
pressure sewers, sewers above ground surface, submerged outfalls, piping in
sewage treatment plants and occasionally on gravity sewers where absolutely
 water-tight joints are essential or where special considerations require their
use.
o Disadvantage: corrosion by acids or highly septic sewage and acidic soils
o Inside coating shall be by Cement mortar and outer coating shall be coal tar

 Steel
o Pressure sewer mains, under water river crossings, bridge crossings, necessary
connections for pumping stations, self-supporting spans, railway crossing and
penstocks are some of the situations where steel pipes are preferred
o Advantages:
 Withstand internal pressure, impact load and vibrations much better
than CI pipe.
 More ductile and withstand water hammer better.
o Disadvantage
 cannot withstand high external load
 main is likely to collapse when it is subjected to negative pressure
 susceptible to various types of corrosion
o Steel pipes shall conform to IS 3589.
o Electrically welded steel pipes of 200 mm to 2,000 mm diameter should
conform to IS 5822.

 Ductile Iron Pipes

o Made by a metallurgical process, which involves the addition of magnesium
into molten iron of low sulphur content.
o The ductile iron pipes are usually provided with cement mortar lining at the
factory by centrifugal process to ensure a uniform thickness throughout its
length
o Available in the range of 80 mm to 1000 mm diameter, in lengths of 5.5 to 6
m
o Advantages
 Excellent properties of machinability,
 Impact resistance,
 High wear and tear resistance,
  high tensile strength and ductility
 Corrosion resistance.
 strong, both inner and outer surfaces are smooth,
 These pipes are approximately 30 % lighter than conventional cast iron
pipes

Non-Metallic Non-Concrete Synthetic Material Pipes

 UPVC Pipe (unplasticized polyvinylchloride )

o Advantages
 resistance to corrosion,
 light weight for transportation,
 toughness,
 rigidity,
 Economical in laying, jointing, and maintenance
 easy to fabricate
o IS 15328 deals with non-pressure unplasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC) for
use in underground sewerage system.
o IS 9271 deals with the unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (UPVC) single wall
corrugated pipes for drainage.
 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipes
o Advantages
 Offer smooth interior surfaces
 relatively higher resistance to corrosion
 they are available in solid wall
 When laid in straight gradients without humps or depressions, they can
easily offer longer life cycle
o Joints are usually fusion welded or flange jointed depending on straight runs or
fittings

Structured Wall Piping

 These pipes can be manufactured in PVC-U, PP and PE as per EN 13476-3 / IS 16098

 These pipes are either double walled or ribbed walled
 The Type B pipes are generally known as Double Walled Corrugated (DWC) pipes.
 In India, DWC pipes are produced in sizes 75 mm ID to 1,000 mm ID with a standard
length of 6 m for easy transportation and handling and to reduce the number of joints
required.
  Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Pipes (GRP)
o Widely used in countries where corrosion resistant pipes are required at
reasonable costs.
o GRP can be used as a lining material for conventional pipes which are subject
to corrosion.

 Fibre Glass Reinforced Plastic Pipes (FRP)

o FRP is a matrix or composite of glass fibre, polyester resin and filters.
o These pipes possess better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low
density and are highly corrosion resistant
o Fibre-glass pressure pipes are manufactured in diameters up to 2,400 mm and
length up to 18 m.

SEWAGE TREATMENT

 It is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage,

both runoff (effluents) and domestic.
 It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical
and biological contaminants.
  Its objective is to produce an environmentally-safe fluid waste stream (or treated
effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as
farm fertilizer).
 Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for drinking
water,

Process overview

Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called

I. primary,
II. secondary and
III. Tertiary treatment.

I. Primary treatment
 Consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin where heavy
solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the
surface.
 The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be
discharged or subjected to secondary treatment.
II. Secondary treatment
 Removes dissolved and suspended biological matter.
 Secondary treatment is typically performed by indigenous, water-borne micro-
organisms in a managed habitat.
 Secondary treatment may require a separation process to remove the micro-
organisms from the treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.
III. Tertiary treatment
 It is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary
treatment in order to allow rejection into a highly sensitive or fragile
ecosystem (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,...).
 Treated water is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically (for example,
by lagoons and microfiltration) prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay,
lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, green
way or park.
 If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or
agricultural purposes.
 Fig: Process Flow Diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant

Fig: Process Flow Diagram for a typical treatment plant via Subsurface Flow Constructed
Wetlands (SFCW)
Biological Treatment Process

Sludge treatment

 The sludge accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and

disposed of in a safe and effective manner.
 The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of
disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids.
 The most common treatment options include
o Anaerobic digestion
o Aerobic digestion, and
o Composting.

Anaerobic digestion

 Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process that is carried out in the absence of oxygen.
 The process can either be thermophilic digestion, in which sludge is fermented in
tanks at a temperature of 55°C, or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36°C.
 Though allowing shorter retention time (and thus smaller tanks), thermophilic
digestion is more expensive in terms of energy consumption for heating the sludge.
 Anaerobic digestion is the most common (mesophilic) treatment of domestic sewage
in septic tanks, which normally retain the sewage from one day to two days, reducing
the BOD by about 35 to 40 percent.
 This reduction can be increased with a combination of anaerobic and aerobic
treatment by installing Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) in the septic tank.
 One major feature of anaerobic digestion is the production of biogas (with the most
useful component being methane), which can be used in generators for electricity
production and/or in boilers for heating purposes.
Aerobic digestion

 Since anaerobic treatment is preferred when the dissolved organic concentrations of

untreated wastewater are high, aerobic treatment is often used as a secondary
treatment process and follows an anaerobic stage.
 Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process occurring in the presence of oxygen.
 Under aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and convert it into
carbon dioxide.
 The operating costs used to be characteristically much greater for aerobic digestion
because of the energy used by the blowers, pumps and motors needed to add oxygen
to the process.
 Aerobic digestion can also be achieved by using diffuser systems or jet aerators to
oxidize the sludge.
 Aerobic treatment consists of activated sludge processes or oxidation lagoons. The
size of these can be reduced and tolerance against fluctuations and toxics increased by
adding a step with moving bed bioreactors (MBBR) prior to the active sludge
treatment.
 Other Aerobic Treatment Units:
o Stabilization ponds: The stabilization ponds are open flow through basins
specifically designed and constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable
industrial wastes. They provide long detention periods extending from a few to
several days.
 o Aerated lagoons: Pond systems, in which oxygen is provided through
mechanical aeration rather than algal photosynthesis, are called aerated
lagoons.
o Oxidation ditch: The oxidation ditch is a modified form of "extended aeration"
of activated sludge process. The ditch consists of a long continuous channel
oval in shape with two surface rotors placed across the channel.

Composting

 Composting is also an aerobic process that involves mixing the sludge with sources
of carbon such as sawdust, straw or wood chips.
 In the presence of oxygen, bacteria digest both the wastewater solids and the added
carbon source and, in doing so, produce a large amount of heat.

VENTILATION OF STP

 Purposes:
o provide fresh, healthy air to staff working in premises by renewing it
o evacuate the emitted pollutants to ensure that the personnel operate in an
atmosphere that is not hazardous to health and to protect equipment and
structures
o Manage the air flow intakes and outlets, thereby preventing diffusion of
atmospheric pollutants to the outside (environmental protection).
o adjust the interior atmosphere by:
 dehumidifying the air in the premises to avoid any risk of
condensation, the attendant corrosion problems and resulting fungus
development
 heating or cooling the rooms
 evacuating the heat generated by rotating machines such as air
blowers, diesel generators, electric motors, etc
 Extracting the smoke to ensure security in the event of a fire,
especially by partitioning off premises at risky rooms.
 Different types of ventilation
o A structure or premise can be ventilated in three ways:
  Natural ventilation without using an air supply or extraction fan by
simply moving air through openings based on natural phenomena
(natural convection, wind, chimney effect, etc.)
 Single-flow ventilation with: either mechanical air supply and natural
air outlet or mechanical extraction and natural air intake.
 Double-flow ventilation with mechanical air extraction and supply.
 Distinction between two complementary ventilation strategies:
i. local ventilation: To limit the diffusion of pollutants or heat in the ambient air
ii. General ventilation: To ensures the quality of the air and atmosphere in a room
by dilution.
 Ventilation must be dimensioned with the following objectives:
o evacuation of pollutants, to ensure operator safety against chemical risk and
limit corrosion in the structures
o evacuation of heat losses, mainly to ensure operator comfort but also to avoid
exposing equipment to temperatures that are too high
o Evacuation of humidity, to ensure operator comfort and limit condensation, a
source of corrosion
o Heating of premises, for the freeze protection.

Space requirements

 Sewage treatment plants are usually categorised by population size

o How many people it caters for rather than the storage volume of the tank.
 Once the calculated the Minimum Population (P) for the property, next need to
estimate the number of litres of wastewater produced per day.
 Area dimension depends on:
o Quality of wastewater to be treated,
o Flow rate
o Type of biological treatment to be used.
 In case of less available land, CETP (Common Effluent Treatment Plant) is preferred
over ETP
 The open spaces in STPs and sewage pumping stations, especially roof tops, shall be
used for horticulture, sports facilities/playgrounds, parks, etc. This will help
utilization of such space in densely populated cities.
 Activities that need to install sewage treatment plants(STP) compulsory and ensure
reuse of treated water
o All residential group housing projects/apartments with 20 units and above or
having a total built up area of 2000 sqm including basement shall install STP
o Commercial construction projects with total built-up area of 2000sqm and
above shall install STP
o Educational institution with or without hostel facility having total built up area
of 5000sqm and above shall install STP
o Township and area development project with an area 10 acres and above shall
install STP
 Units Standard retention Time
Collection Tank (UG) 6 hrs – 8 hrs
Screen Chamber 1 min – 5 min
Aeration Tank 8 hrs – 12 hrs
Clarifier Tank 3 hrs – 3.5 hrs
Sludge Holding tank 1 hrs – 1.5 hrs
Clarified Water Tank 1.5 hrs – 2 hrs
Filtered Water tank 4 hrs – 6 hr

 Design Example

Before Calculating the size of STP calculate Total Domestic Raw Water Demand
Required as per NBC-2005, Consider 135-150 LPCD.

Total domestic (raw) water demand = TWD

Estimated Sewage X = 90 % of TWD
Estimate Sewerage X = 90/100 * TWD

For Eg If TWD = 1500 KLD

Capacity of S.T.P = 90 / 100 * 1500 KLD

= 1350 KLD

Space Requirement For 1350 Cum STP =

Consider Total Depth 3.30 Mtr Included Free Board 300 MM (Standard Depth )

Liquid Depth L = 3.0 Mtr

Size Of STP = 1350/3 = 450

=450/15 (Breadth Assumed) = 30 (Width )
Total Space =15*30*3= 1350 CUM

Table: Size of different treatment units of a typical sewage treatment plant serving
500,000 persons

***©®***
 PART-2
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

 Storm water is rainwater & melted snow that runs off streets, lawns, & other sites.
 When storm water is absorbed into the ground, it is filtered & replenishes aquifers or
flows into streams/ rivers.
 In urbanized areas, impervious areas like pavement & roofs prevent water from
naturally soaking into ground.
 Water runs rapidly into storm drains, sewer systems, &
 drainage ditches and can cause: D/s flooding ; Stream bank erosion; Increased
turbidity, Habitat destruction; Changes in the stream flow hydrograph; Combined
sewer overflows; Infrastructure damage & Contaminated streams, rivers, & coastal
water
 Storm water - concern for the volume and timing of runoff water (flood control &
water supplies) & other related water pollution.
 Storm water is also a resource of readily available water.
 Techniques of storm water harvesting with point source water management &
purification, can potentially make urban environments self-sustaining in terms of
water.
 Storm water harvesting is the collection, accumulation, treatment or purification, &
storing for its eventual reuse.
 It can also include other catchment areas from man-made surfaces, such as roads, or
other urban environments such as parks, gardens & playing fields.

 Managing the quantity & quality - "Storm water Management”

 There are many forms of storm water management
o manage storm water to control flooding and erosion;
o manage & control hazardous materials to prevent release of pollutants to
environment (source control);
o plan and construct storm water systems so that contaminants are removed
before they pollute surface
o waters or groundwater resources
o Acquire and protect natural waterways where they still exist or can be
rehabilitated;
o Build "soft" structures such as ponds, swales or wetlands to work with existing
or "hard" drainage structures, such as pipes and concrete channels;
o Revise current storm water regulations to address comprehensive storm water
needs;
o Enhance and enforce existing ordinances to make sure property owners
consider the effects of storm water before, during & after development of their
land;
o Educate a community about how its actions affect water quality, & what it can
do to improve it; and
o Plan carefully to create solutions before problems become too great.
Assessment

A preliminary assessment of site conditions provides an understanding of stormwater

harvest and use constraints and opportunities.

More in-depth analysis of site conditions and constraints will be required during pre-
design and design phases.

The following table describes some site considerations and identifies potential
constraints.
Why Manage Storm water?

o Urbanized areas: More impervious areas-Effects of storm water

o Road flooding: accidents, washouts, driver delays.

o Building & property flooding: structural & property damage, sewer backup,
foundation settlement, devalued properties.

o Environmental damage.

o Utility service interruptions.

o Increased clean-up costs, health hazards, personal inconvenience, increased

insurance costs.

 Manage large amount of storm water to avoid flooding & other inconveniences.

Quantification of Rainfall

 Rainfall: Rainfall is a form of precipitation.

o The term precipitation is a generic term used to denote all forms of
precipitation that reaches surface of the earth from the atmosphere such as
rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail, sleet, drizzle, glaze and dew.
o Based on the magnitude, the rainfall is classified as
Very light Rain (0.1- 2.4 mm/day),
Light Rain (2.5 – 15.5 mm/day),
Moderate Rain (15.6 – 64.4 mm/day),
Heavy Rain (64.5 – 115.5 mm/day),
Very Heavy Rain (115.6 – 204.4 mm/day) and
Extremely Heavy Rain (>204.5 mm/day).
 Rainfall is measured by two types of gauges:
i. Self-recording type
ii. Non-recording type
 The data collected using non-recording gauges are of limited use for design purpose.
Hence, non-recording gauges are being gradually replaced by Self-recording type rain
gauges.
 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge: Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit
causing the movement of pen to mark on clock driven receiving drum which carries a
recorded sheet. These electric pulses generated are recorded at the control room far
away from the rain gauge station. This instrument is further suited for digitalizing the
output signal.
 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge
o Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain gauge.
o Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot of the accumulated
(increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is
called the mass curve.

 Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge

o The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain
gauge.
o A funnel receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container.
o A float is provided at the bottom of container, and this float rises as the water
level rises in the container.
o Its movement is recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a
clock work.
Flood Control Measures:

 Traditional storm water management design - focused on collecting stormwater in

piped networks & transporting it off site as quickly as possible, either directly to a
stream or river, to a large storm water management facility (basin), or to a combined
sewer system flowing to a wastewater treatment plant.
 Low impact development (LID) & wet weather green infrastructure address these
concerns through a variety of techniques, including strategic site design, measures to
control sources of runoff, & thoughtful landscape planning.

Integrated water management (IWM) of storm water –

It addresses many of the issues affecting the health of waterways & water supply
challenges facing the modern urban city.

 IWM has the potential to improve runoff quality, reduce the risk & impact of flooding
& deliver an additional water resource to augment potable supply.
 Altered runoff predicted by climate change has potential to increase the volume of
storm water that can contribute to drainage & flooding problems.
 IWM offers several techniques including:
o Storm water harvest (reduce amount of water causing flooding)
o Infiltration (to restore the natural recharge of groundwater),
o Bio-filtration or bio-retention (e.g., rain gardens) to store & treat runoff &
release it at a controlled rate to reduce impact on streams & wetland
treatments (to store, control runoff & provide habitat in urban areas).

Low Impact Development (LID):

It aims to restore natural watershed functions through small-scale treatment at the

source of runoff.

The goal is to design a hydrological functional site that mimics pre- development
conditions.

 LID principles :
o Preserve & recreate natural landscape features,
o Minimize effective imperviousness to create functional & appealing
site drainage that treat storm water as source.
 Practices
o Bio-retention facilities,
o rain gardens,
o vegetated rooftops,
o rain barrels &
o Permeable pavements.
 LID – water managed in a way that reduces impact of built area & promotes natural
water movement
Green Infrastructure

 It refer to systems & practices that use or mimic natural processes to infiltrate, evapo-
transpiration (return of water to the atmosphere either through evaporation or by
plants), or reuse storm water on the site where it is generated.
 It is used at a wide range of landscape scales in place of, or in addition to, more
traditional storm water control elements to support principles of LID.
 Wet Weather Green Infrastructure: encompasses approaches & technologies to
infiltrate, evapotranspire, capture, & reuse storm water to maintain or restore natural
hydrology

Benefits of LID & Green Infrastructure

Social, economic & environmental benefits include:

 Social:
o Reduction in urban heat island effect , Provides “green jobs’/”green business”
opportunities
o Educational information provided through street kiosks
o Crime reduction
o Health benefits through walking, biking, running trails
 Economic:
o Energy cost reduction using wind powered LED lighting
o Water conservation
o Green Enterprise Business Opportunities
 Environmental:
o Carbon sequestration
o Improved water quality through 90% capture of storm water
o Carbon footprint reduction
o Recycling & beneficial use.

Watershed Based Storm water Management.

 Goals:
o Reduction of flood damage to life & property.
o Minimization of storm water runoff from new development.
o Reduction of soil erosion from construction activities.
o Insurance of adequate storm water facilities, including culverts, bridges, &
other in-stream structures.
o Maintenance of groundwater recharge.
o Prevention/ reduce of non-point storm water pollution.
o Maintenance of surface waters to ensure their biological & storm water
management functions,
o Protection of public health & welfare, through operation & maintenance of
storm water systems.
Storm water Control Measures

Category Common approach

Policies and source controls  Public education,
 land use planning, material management and spill
prevention,
 street and storm water control facilities
maintenance
 Prevention of illicit connections and dumping
Lot-Level source controls  Green roofs
 Local storage/detention
 Storm water harvesting
 Local infiltration
 Impervious cover reduction
Community level storm water  Community infiltration facilities
control measures  Storm water management ponds
 Constructed wetlands or natural wetland
enhancement
 Extended detention(dry basins)treatment trains

Watershed level measures 

Manages water on a natural versus political
boundaries
 Establishes water quality goals and use designation
protection
 Consider cumulative impacts
 Protects resources valuable in controlling runoff
 Supports and directs land use decisions and assists
in siting of storm water control measures
 Employ the ecosystem approach
 Assist in the development of more detailed plans .
Measures for Reducing/ Delaying Storm Runoff

 Large flat roofs

 Porous parking lots
 Increase recharge
 Planting a high delaying grass
 Increase forest cover
 Detention basins
 Grassed waterways
 Porous sidewalks
 Roof top gardens
 Fountain storage
Urban Drainage System

 Drainage systems categorized as major & minor systems.

 Major drainage system - comprises of open nallahs/ and natural surface drains, etc.
 Minor system - network of underground pipes & channels.
 Minor system categorized into two types:
o Separate &
o Combined.
 Separate drainage systems consist of two conveyance networks:
o sanitary sewers (usually underground pipes) conveying wastewater from
homes & businesses to a discharge point,
o storm drains (underground pipes or channels) collect water from the rainfall
runoff and convey it to a discharge point
 Inlet locations
o The storm water inlets (Catch pits / Catch-Basins) are mainly provided to
accommodate the storm water from paved surfaces ( Kerb & channels for
large metropolis), parks, open space areas and transfer it to sub surface drains
for conveyance to the ultimate ‘receiving body’.
o Even where open drainage system is used, the inlets are connected to open
drains by means of interconnection pipes.
o The inlets need to be hydraulically designed and suitably spaced.

Storm water Drainage System

 Total storm water system – major & minor – inventory of the system for better
management – GIS platform.
 Inventory will be both watershed based to enable proper hydrologic & hydraulic
analysis & ward based to enable coordinated administrative management
 Minor systems should be mapped clearly showing the interconnections with major
system besides the cross connections with sewer lines
 Major systems - be mapped clearly with delineation, demarcation & details of cross-
sections, slopes, drain crossings including natural formations & manmade structures

Urban Drainage Design – Requirements

 Development of an adequate & functioning drainage system based on sound

hydrologic & hydraulic design principles.
 Design of an urban drainage system requires knowledge of the catchment area and
topography, urbanization details, rainfall intensity, hydrology, hydraulics, etc.
 Watershed/ Catchment as basis of urban drainage design
 Contours are necessary for determining the boundaries of a watershed/ catchment &
for computing directions of flow.
 Rainfall data: For design of a drainage system, the conventional practice is to choose
an appropriate, statistically relevant design storm to establish the storm water flows to
be conveyed, based on existing national & international practices.
 Design storms can be estimated from rainfall data records where available.
  Up to date IDF (Intensity Duration Frequency) relationships need to be used to
maintain design standards for new systems & retrofitting/replacement of old urban
drainage systems.
 IDF curves should be developed for each city, based on extraction of data from the
raw data charts at min. 15- minutes resolution
 Frequency of thunderstorms - additional consideration for planning future urban
drainage systems.
 Design flow: To protect urban areas, safe management & passage of water, resulting
from frequent storm events (hydrologic design aspects) & adequate capacity
(hydraulic design aspects) must be considered.
 Urban Drainage Design: main objectives of hydrologic analysis & design are to
estimate peak flow rates &/or flow hydrographs for the adequate sizing & design of
conveyance & quantity control facilities
 To estimate Peak flow rates, knowledge of the rainfall intensity, its duration &
frequency is required

UDS – Operation & Maintenance

 Proper operations and maintenance (O&M) are crucial for any system to be functional
to the designed capacity & for its durability as well.
 Pre-monsoon desilting -a major O&M activity.
 Periodicity of cleaning of drains should be worked out, based on the local conditions.
 Removal solid waste: Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, trash
racks can reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers
 Removal of sediment
 Drain inlet connectivity

Special Considerations

 Low-lying areas should be reserved for parks and other low-impact human
activities
 Wherever unavoidable, buildings in low lying areas should be constructed on stilts
above the High Flood Level (HFL)/ Full Tank Level (FTL)
 For chronic flooding spots, alternate locations may be explored for
accommodating people staying there
 Buildings should be constructed on stilts after taking into account the stability of
slopes, and
 Storm water drainage systems for coastal cities have to be designed taking into
account the tidal variations.

Rainwater harvesting techniques

 To minimize the quantity of storm runoff reaching to the storm water drains, a certain
quantity of storm water can be stored / percolated by introducing suitable techniques
as below:
 I. In-situ storage / percolation within or around premises
II. Storage of runoff in nearby pond / water tank
III. Percolation of storm water inside / outside the drains along its stretch
IV. Spreading water for recharge in low lying areas and park / gardens etc.
V. Disposal to reservoir / water body
 In-situ storage / percolation
o Rain water can be either stored within a building premises or it can be
diverted to a suitable place for use as explained below:
 Roof top rainwater collection potential
o Rain water from the roof can be safely collected through rain water pipe either
in a constructed underground tank / reservoir for domestic use or can be
percolated / recharged in the ground water.
o In a city having annual rainfall of 1000 mm, a roof top of an area of 100 sqm
has potential to collect rain water to the tune of 1,00,000 ltr (100 m2 * 1 m) in
a given year. At rate of 100 lpcd consumption per person for a family of 4, the
water can be sufficient to meet various domestic requirements for (1,00,000 /
400 = 250 days).
o In places where there are constraints in storing the rainwater, the same can be
safely recharged into the ground through various recharge techniques like
percolation pits, abandoned tube wells etc.
o Even partial storing / recharging of rain water will go a long way in reducing
peak runoff in storm water drains, thereby, reducing the incidences of flooding
in low lying area.

Figure: Typical Rooftop rainwater harvesting system

 The gutters fitted at the eaves, down spout connected with the gutter at upper
end and with rain water pipe at the lower end.
  The rain water pipe is fixed on the wall by clamps and joins the storage tank
on the ground.
 The various components of RWH are briefly described below.
1. Roof Surface: The roof surface is the area which can be either flat or
sloping. This receives the rainfall and from which the collected rainwater
is to be harvested.
2. Gutters: These are made of different materials such galvanized iron sheet
folded to desired shape & size. Semi-circular gutters are prepared from
PVC material. Gutters are made 10 to 15 percent over sized according to
flow during highest intensity rainfall.
3. Conduits: These are pipelines or drain pipes that carry rain water from roof
catchments to harvesting system.
4. Storage tanks: Such tanks of various sizes to accommodate harvested rain
from roof tops can be of varied sizes and placed above or below ground
depending upon availability of space. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
and polyethylene and metal sheets are commonly used to preparing various
shapes & sizes of storage tanks.

Percolation of runoff into ground

Rainwater collected from roof catchment can also be recharged to aquifer

through suitable structure such as
o Percolation pits,
o Percolation trenches and
o Recharge wells etc

 Percolation pits
o This method is suitable where a permeable stratum is available at shallow depth.
o It is adopted for buildings having roof area up to 100 sqm.
o Recharge pit of any shape is constructed generally 1-2 m wide and 2-3 m deep.
o The pit is filled with boulders, gravel and sand for filtration of rain water.
o Water entering in to RWH structure should be silt free.
o Top layer of sand of filter should be cleaned periodically for better ingression of
rain water in to the sub soil.
 Figure: Percolation Pit

 Percolation trenches
o This method is used where permeable strata is available at shallow depth.
o It is suitable for buildings having roof top area between 200 & 300 sqm.
o In this method, trench of 0.5-1.0 m wide, 1-1.5 m deep and of adequate length
depending upon roof top area and soil/subsoil characteristics should be
constructed and filled with boulders, gravel and sand.
o Cleaning of filter media should be done periodically

Figure: Percolation Trench

 Recharge wells
o In this method, a dry / unused dug well can be used as a recharge structure.
o It is suitable for buildings having a roof top area more than 100 sqm.
o Recharge water is guided through a pipe of 100 mm to the bottom of the well
o Well cleaning and desilting is imperative before using it.
o Recharge water guided should be silt free, otherwise filter should be provided
o Well should be cleaned periodically and chlorinated to control bacteriological
contamination.

Figure: Recharge Wells

 Storage of runoff in nearby percolation pond / water tank

o Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body, submerging in its
reservoir a highly permeable land, so that accumulated runoff is made to
percolate and recharge the ground water storage.
o Depending on requirement, it is possible to have more than one percolation
tank in a catchment if sufficient surplus runoff is available and the site
characteristics favour artificial recharge through such structures.
o In such situations, each tank of the group takes a share of runoff of the whole
catchment above it, which can be classified in two categories i.e.
 free catchment and
 combined catchment
(i) 'Free catchment', which is the catchment area that only drains into
the tank under consideration and
(ii) 'Combined catchment', which is the area of the whole catchment
above the tank.
The difference between the combined and free catchment gives the
area of the catchment intercepted by the tanks located upstream of
any tank. Each tank will receive the whole runoff from its free
catchment, but from the remainder of its catchment it will receive
 only the balance runoff that remains after the upper tanks have been
filled.
 Percolation of storm water inside / outside the drains along its stretch
o Hydraulics of ground water recharge through surface drains should be
evaluated for which input parameters such as recharge rate, free flow and
detained flow can be used in the computation of total volume recharged.
o The recharge rate through surface drains increases with increase in depth of
flow in the drain and volume of water recharged under detained flow
conditions.

Figure: Rain Water Collection through storm water drains

 Spreading water for recharge in low lying areas and park / gardens etc.
o This technique is ideal for lands adjoining rivers or irrigation canals in which
water levels remain deep even after monsoons and where sufficient non-
committed surface water supplies are available.
o To ensure proper contact time and water spread, embankments are provided on
two sides to guide the unutilized surface water to a return canal to carry the
excess water to the stream or canal.
o Flooding method helps reduce the evaporation losses from the surface water
system, is the least expensive of all artificial recharge methods available and
has very low maintenance costs.

Fig: Water spreading in low lying area

 Disposal to water body
o After proper sedimentation, runoff from urban catchment should be disposed
to the natural water bodies.
o Aerial extent of the water bodies and its capacity should be investigated to
assess the requirement of the quantity of runoff from the catchment.
 Precaution to be considered for harvesting of storm water
o The storm water flow from a combined sewer shall never be taken up for
recharge into the ground.
o Similarly, there would be situations wherein the sewage is getting mixed even
in the drains meant exclusively for storm water and in such cases also the
recharge of this sewage mixed with storm water shall be avoided unless or
otherwise this is treated prior to a level fit for recharge.
o This shall be meticulously followed in order to avoid causing pollution.
 Pollution of Storm Water and its Treatment
o The storm water runoff from the urban areas during the first rains will come
into contact with the pollution in the storm water drains, parking lots, etc.
which have accumulated till that time.
o These can be night soil, urine, vegetable rejects, food rejects, dead insects, rats
etc. and decaying papers etc. in the drains and chemical contaminants in the
parking lot, etc.
o Once these are washed into the water courses, they pollute the same and may
start water borne diseases like Cholera, Typhoid, Jaundice, etc in the waters.
o These organisms can also pollute the groundwater on river banks as well.

Table: Sources of Contaminants in Urban Storm Water Runoff

Contaminant Contaminant Sources
Streets, lawns, driveways, roads,
Sediment and Floatables construction activities, atmospheric
deposition, drainage channel erosion
Residential lawns and gardens,
roadsides, utility right-of-ways,
Pesticides and Herbicides
commercial and industrial landscaped
areas, soil wash-off
Residential lawns and gardens, commercial
Organic Materials
landscaping, animal wastes
Automobiles, bridges, atmospheric
deposition, industrial areas, soil erosion,
Metals
corroding metal surfaces, combustion
processes
Roads, driveways. parking lots.
Oil and Grease/ Hydrocarbons Vehicle maintenance areas, gas stations.
illicit dumping to storm drains
Lawns, roads, leaky sanitary sewer
Bacteria and Viruses lines, sanitary sewer cross-
connections, animal waste, septic
 systems
Lawn fertilizers, atmospheric
Nitrogen and Phosphorus deposition. automobile exhaust, soil
erosion, animal waste, detergents

Treatment methods for urban storm runoff

The onsite treatment methods of storm water are as below:

 Sand Filters
o Sand filters provide storm water treatment for first flush runoff.
o The runoff is filtered through a sand bed before being returned to a stream or
channel.
o Sand filters are generally used in urban areas and are particularly useful for
groundwater protection where infiltration into soils is not feasible.
o Alternative designs of sand filters use a top layer of peat or some form of grass
cover through which runoff is passed before being strained through the sand
layer.
o This combination of layers increases pollutant removal.
o One of the main advantages of sand filters is their adaptability.
o They can be used on areas with thin soils, high evaporation rates, low soil
infiltration rates, and limited space.
o Sand filters also have high removal rates for sediment and trace metals, and
have a very low failure rate.
o Disadvantages associated with sand filters include the necessity for frequent
maintenance to ensure proper operation, unattractive surfaces, and odour
problems.

Figure: Cross-section schematic of sand filter compartment

 Water Quality Inlets
o Water quality inlets are pre-cast storm drain inlets that remove sediment, oil
and grease, and large particulates from parking lot runoff before it reaches
storm drainage systems or infiltration BMPs.
o They are commonly known as oil and grit separators. Water quality inlets
typically serve highway storm drainage facilities adjacent to commercial sites
where large amounts of vehicle wastes are generated, such as gas stations,
vehicle repair facilities, and loading areas.
o They may be used to pre-treat runoff before it enters an underground filter
system. The inlet is a threestage underground retention system designed to
settle out grit and absorbed hydrocarbons.
o An oil and grit separator consists of three chambers
 sediment trapping chamber,
 oil separation chamber, and
 Final chamber attached to the outlet.
o The sediment trapping chamber is a permanent pool that settles out grit and
sediment, and traps floating debris.
o An orifice protected by a trash rack, connects this chamber to the oil
separation chamber.
o This chamber also maintains a permanent pool of water.
o An inverted elbow connects the separation chamber to the third chamber.
o Advantages of the water quality inlets lie in their compatibility with the storm
drain network, easy access, capability to pre-treat runoff before it enters
infiltration BMPs, and in the fact that they are unobtrusive.
o Disadvantages include their limited storm water and pollutant removal
capabilities, the need for frequent cleaning (which cannot always be assured),
the possible difficulties in disposing of accumulated sediments, and costs.

Figure: Water Quality Inlet

  Filter Strips
o Filter strips are similar in many respects to grassed swales, except that they are
designed to only accept overland sheet flow.
o Runoff from an adjacent impervious area must be evenly distributed across the
filter strips.
o To work properly, a filter strip must be
(1) equipped with some sort of level spreading device,
(2) Densely vegetated with a mix of erosion resistant plant species that effectively
binds the soil,
(3) Graded to a uniform, even, and relatively low slope and
(4) Be at least as long as the contributing runoff area.

Drainage of Basements:
 Water may be prevented from remaining In contact with basement walls or floors for
lo periods by installing a system of drainage roun 3 the wall footings or beneath the
floor or both together.
 The provision of drainage around the perimeter of the basement is recommended for
any site where the ground water table is likely to rise above the top of the footing.
 These drainage should be placed beside the wall footing and should be graded to an
open outlet or storm water sewer or to a sump within buildings where pumps are
provided.
 A sump shall be constructed where the basement waste water is connected.
o The sump shall be water tight and the water from the sump shall be pumped
off either by a portable pump in case of area with less frequency of rainfall or
by permanent pump, non-clog type, with automatic start and stop arrangement.
 Generally, the bottom of the basement is invariably lower than the adjoining road
where the municipal services run to which the drainage of the basement has got to be
connected.
o The entry to the basement is ramped down from the main or side road.
o During rain, surface runoff from the adjoining area and roads-may enter the
basement down this ramp.
o Secondly, during monsoon period, the sub-soiI water or water from the side
walls may enter the basement and cause damages to the building and
equipment.
 o During floor wash or car wash, in case of basement being used for parking,
water accumulated need to be drained off.
 For draining off such water, the following minimum needs to be considered:
a) Before the ramp starts, a minimum of two humps at a spacing of 6“0 m with a channel
with top gratings shall be provided, to arrest the runoff from roads,
o The size of the channel shall be decided by the designer after considering the
rainfall and the area from which runoff may come to the point of
consideration, But in no case, the width of the channel shall be less than 600
mm for easy maintenance.
o This channel shall ultimately discharge water in the existing municipal drain
or building drains or in such place from where chances of backflow will not be
there.
b) Where there is a possibility of runoff from the adjoining area of the ramp a parapet
wall of minimum height of 750 mm by the side of the ramp shall be constructed.
c) Basement having automatic sprinkler system for fire fighting shall be provided with -
channel, the pattern and size of which shall be determined on the basis of the
sprinkler system.
d) In general, a slope of about 1:200 towards the drainage channel near the wall shall
be provided in basement floors to facilitate easy flow of water towards the drain.

Figure: Typical arrangement of Drainage in Basement

Storm water inlets

 Storm water inlets are devices used to collect runoff and discharge it to an
underground storm drainage system.
 The storm water inlets (Catch pits / Catch-Basins) are mainly provided to
accommodate the storm water from paved surfaces ( Kerb & channels for large
metropolis), parks, open space areas and transfer it to sub surface drains for
conveyance to the ultimate ‘receiving body’.
 Even where open drainage system is used, the inlets are connected to open drains by
means of interconnection pipes.
 The inlets need to be hydraulically designed and suitably spaced.
 Types of inlets
o Kerb inlet
Kerb inlets are vertical openings in the road kerb when they are equipped with
the diagonal notches cast into the gutter along the kerb opening to form a
series of ridges or deflectors.
Such inlets are suitable where heavy traffic is expected.
o Gutter inlets
Gutter inlets are horizontal openings covered with one or more suitable
gratings through which the flow passes.
o Combination inlets
Combined grate and curb inlets are more efficient.
These are compound of a curb and gutter inlet acting as a single inlet.

Following figures give the details of different types of inlet as shown below:

Figure: Section of Street Inlet

 Figure: Plan of street inlet

o Catch basin
The catch basin illustrated is a special type of inlet structure designed to retain
sediment and debris transported by storm water which might enter into storm
water system and clog the storm pipes.
A separate catch basin may be used for each street inlet or to save expenses, the
pipes from several outlets at a corner may discharge into the same catch basin.
Catch basin sumps require periodic cleaning to be effective and if not properly
maintained they may become odorous and mosquito nuisance.

Figure: Catch Basin

o Street Inlet
Street Inlets admit storm runoff to storm water drains.
 They are designed to remove the flow in gutters with minimum interference to
traffic.
There are 3 general types of inlets
Kerb Inlets,
Gutter Inlets and
Combination Inlets.

Water harvesting and use benefits

The harvest and use of storm water may also reduce stress on existing water and
storm water infrastructure providing cost savings on repair and maintenance or even
mitigating the need for expansion of facilities.

Potential benefits of water harvesting and use in urban areas

 Reduce impacts of urbanization on watershed hydrology

o Reduce runoff volume from the site
o Reduce peak stream flows following storm events
o Reduce flooding in downstream waters
o Increase groundwater recharge
 Reduce impacts of urbanization on water quality
o Reduce pollutant loads to downstream receiving waters
 Increase water conservation Conserve potable water for essential uses
o Provide alternative to potable water during time of peak demand
o Reduce or limit withdrawals from ground or surface water supply
o Maintain reliable water supply in the event of municipal service disruption
 Reduce stress on existing/need for additional infrastructure
o Reduce the size of storm water BMPs needed to achieve regulatory
requirements
o Increase the efficiency or extend the life of storm water BMPs/infrastructure
o Reduce stress on municipal water supply systems during peak usage
o Reduce stress on/cost of water supply and treatment infrastructure
o Reduce community expenditure on expansion of infrastructure Energy,
education, environment, and economics
 Provide educational opportunities/increase public awareness Attain
sustainable design certification/recognition Reduce consumption of potable
water for individual cost savings Reduce the energy footprint of water,
wastewater, and storm water infrastructure Take advantage of rainwater
quality (low mineral content, no chlorine and ability to reduce or eliminate the
use of water softeners) Reduce on-site erosion control and flooding
Landscape Drainage System

 Landscaping that sits in a low-lying area of the property will most likely cause water
to collect or pool as water flows downhill to the lowest point.
 Even the slightest of slope causes water to flow and erode the ground.

Uses for Landscape and Yard Drainage Systems

o Storm water retention

o Yard drainage

o Parking lot drainage

o Channel drainage

o Retaining walls

 It’s important to keep landscape and yards free from excess water, as it may lead to
permanent and expensive damage to surrounding property and structures.
 Oversaturated soil can lead to shifts in the foundation of homes and other buildings,
causing cracks and other potentially detrimental damage to the property. Additionally,
too much water can lead to muddy areas of standing water, attracting mosquitos and
other insects.

Types of Landscape Drainage Systems

 There are a number of different types of landscape drainage systems and materials,
including:
o Surface drainage systems,
o Subsurface drainage systems,
o French drain pipe systems,
o Filter fabric or Multi-flow drainage systems, and
o Geotextile fabric systems.

 Surface Drainage Systems:

o This is a standard drainage system used for irrigation or in areas of excess

rainfall.

o This system works only through the application of gravity, and comes in either
a bedded or graded system.

 Subsurface Drainage Systems:

o This is also a standard type of drainage system that, although below ground,
has similarities to surface drainage systems.

o It also works due to gravity, but operates in a regular and controlled system.
Landscape Drainage Materials

 French Drain Systems:

o Consists of standard PVC, plastic perforated pipes, or metal pipes

 Combination Filter Fabric Systems: Or sometimes referred to as Multi-flow

Drainage,

o This type of system contains a series of stacked perforated pipes, wrapped in a

polypropylene filter fabric.

o This can often prevent the passage of soil particles, but does not allow for high
flow rates because of limited open space.

 Geotextile Fabric Systems:

o This type of system is made of a non-woven, geotextile fabric with a high-

density polyethylene core.

o It allows for a much faster rate of water flow in order to keep water away
from the landscape, yard, or field.

o Even though newer, this method of drainage has been proven and is more
effective than older methods.

***©®***
 MODULE – 3
PLUMBING
A complete plumbing system provides an adequate supply of water and removes
waste. There are three principal parts:

1. Water supply system.

2. Water and waste removal system.
3. Plumbing fixtures.
 Plumbing also refers to a system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the
distribution of potable water and the removal of waterborne wastes.
 Plumbing is usually distinguished from water and sewage systems, in that a plumbing
system serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of
buildings or a city.
 For distribution system pipes generally used are GI, copper, HDPE, CPVC, mostly
now a days CPVC plastic pipes are used as they don’t get rusted, light weight, easy
installation and maintenance and economic.

Types of Plumbing Systems in Buildings

 Plumbing system in buildings consists of underground tank which is supplied water
via municipal or water department supply lines from there with the help of pumps and
piping distribution system water is supplied to overhead tank and thereby due to
gravity water reaches to home outlets.
 The overhead tank can however be eliminated if water is supplied directly from
underground tank to kitchen toilet outlets, there com the need of pumps which can
give uninterrupted supply of water with required pressure to outlets so that when one
opens the tap he gets continuous supply of water. Such pumps are called hydro-
pneumatic system.

Water distribution to a residential/commercial building:

Generally water distribution system is down take supply system. In this system the
supply from the street main is drawn either into Ground level storage tank from where the
supply is pumped to an overhead tank and then distributed by gravity or to the overhead tank
directly from the street mains and then distributed by gravity.
There are four basic methods of distribution of water to multistoried buildings.
i) Direct supply from mains to ablutionary taps and kitchen with WCs and
urinals supplied by overhead tanks.
ii) Direct pumping system.
iii) Hydro-Pneumatic system.
iv) Overhead tanks for distribution.
I) Direct supply system:-
 This system is adopted when adequate pressure is available round the clock at the
topmost floor.
  Generally this system cannot be adopted above two to three floors in most of the
cities.
ii) Direct pumping system:-
 In this system water is directly pumped into the distribution system without going
through overhead tank except for flushing purpose.
 Normally smaller pumps are installed for use during low consumption period and
large pumps are installed for use when demand is high.
 Constant and reliable power supply is necessary for this type of system.
iii) Hydro-pneumatic system:-
 Hydro-pneumatic system is a variation of direct pumping system.
 An air tight pressure vessel is installed on the line to regulate the operation of the
pumps.
 As pump operates, the incoming water in the vessel, compresses the air on top.
 As water is drawn into the system, pressure falls into the vessel starting the pump at
preset pressure.
 The air in the pressure tank slowly reduces the volume due to dissolution in water and
leakages from pipe lines.
 An air compressor is also necessary to feed air into the vessel so as to maintain the
required air-water ratio.
 The system shall have reliable power supply to avoid breakdown in the water supply.
 The system consumes energy in proportion to the work done and save considerable
amount of power as compared to the fixed speed pumps used conventionally.
 Hydro-pneumatic system generally eliminates the need for an overhead tank and may
supply water at much higher pressure than available from overhead tanks particularly
on the upper floors, resulting in even distribution of water at all floors.
iv) Overhead tanks for distribution:-
 This is most common of the distribution systems adopted by various types of
buildings.
 The system comprises pumping water to one or more overhead tanks placed at the top
most location of the hydraulic zone.
 Water collected in the overhead tank is distributed to the various parts of the building
by a set of pipes located generally on the terrace.
 Typical overhead distribution system is shown in figure.
Hot water distribution
 Care should be taken in installing the piping to prevent air locks in the piping and
negative pressure in the hot water heater.
 Cold water feed pipe should not be cross connected with any other source of water
supply under pressure.
 Each pressure type hot water heater or cylinder is to be provided with vent pipe of not
less than 20.00 mm diameter.
 The vent pipe should be raised above the water line of the cold water tank by 150.00
mm plus 10.00 mm for every 300.00 mm height of the water line above the bottom of
the heater.
 Typical overhead distribution with hot water is shown in figure :
Fig: Hot and Cold water lines & Drain Lines
General requirement for piping work:-
a) The consumer pipe within the premises is to be laid underground with a
suitable cover to safeguard against damage from traffic and extremes of
weather.
b) To control the branch pipe to each separately occupied part of a building
supplied by a common service pipe, a stop tap should be fixed to minimize the
interruption of the supply during repairs.
• All such stop valves are to be fixed in accessible positions and properly
protected.
• To supply water for drinking or for culinary purposes, direct taps are to be
provided on the branch pipes connected directly to the consumer pipes.
• In the case of multistoried buildings, down take taps should be supplied
from overhead tanks.
c) Pumps are not to be allowed on the service pipe, as they cause a drop in
pressure on the suction side, thereby affecting the supply to the adjoining
population.
• In cases where pumping is required, a properly protected storage tank of
adequate capacity is to be provided to feed the pump.
d) No direct boosting (booster pumps) is allowed from the service pipes.
e) Consumer pipes are to be designed and constructed to avoid air- locks.
• Draining taps should be provided at the lowest points from which the
piping is raised continuously to draw-off taps.
f) A backflow prevention device is to be arranged or connected at or as near as
practicable to each point of delivery and use of water.
• All backflow prevention devices are to be installed so that they are
accessible for examination, repair or replacement.
• Such devices should be tested periodically by the authority to ensure that
the device is functioning efficiently and no backflow is occurring at any
time.
Cleaning of pipes:

 The carrying capacity of pipes gets reduced during service, especially of C.I. and M.S.
steel pipes, by growth of slimes, incrustations or deposits.
 It is necessary to clean/ flush and swab the pipes periodically.
a) Flushing:
 The flushing can remove loose deposits of small size and not the slimy layers
or hard incrustations.
 It also disentangles, microscopic biological growth, which grow bigger with
time.
 Water at high velocity around 1.2 m/sec is induced in a section of pipe
between two hydrants or scour valves and water made to flow in one direction
only, ensuring that the dirty water does not enter the cleaned section.
 The period of flushing is determined by the quality of water coming out;
normally it takes about twice the quantity of water the pipe can hold.
  The flush can be triggered by one of several methods:
i. Manual handles
ii. Timed flush
iii. Automatic flush
 Normally the fire hydrants are provided at every 100 m and pipes from 100-
300 m can be cleaned in one operation.
b) Swabbing:
 This is used for removing semi-hard deposits and incrustations not deeply
bedded.
 A swab made of polyurethane foam of equal or slightly larger diameter (25
mm larger for 75 or 100 mm diameter pipes and 50 mm larger for larger
diameter pipes) than the pipe diameter and 30-60 cm long is sent inside the
pipe and allowed to move in the pipe under pressure of water flow.
 It is collected at other end through the hydrant or scour valve.
c) Frequency of cleaning:
 Nothing has been laid down anywhere regarding the frequency.
 It is however recommended that flushing of all pipes should be done once
every year and swabbing every third year.
 The flushing can be dispensed with in the year when swabbing is done.

Concealed piping:

a) Pipes are taken up to the bathroom and kitchen through duct provided in the
building. From this duct pipes are taken to bathroom and kitchen and then
concealed in to the wall of bathroom and kitchen.
b) For concealing 15mm pipe in bathroom and kitchen it is required to prepare
slot on wall 30mm deep so that minimum 15mm plaster cover is always
available.
c) If hot water has to flow through the pipe asbestos rope is wrapped around the
pipe.
d) Pipes are fixed with the help of clamp.
e) Then the pipe is covered with plaster of 1:4. Then tiling work is carried out.
f) A concealed pipe may also be installed in a pipe sleeve or duct located under
or within a solid floor provided that the pipe can be readily removed and
replaced.
Suspended piping:-

 Suspended piping shall be supported in such a manner as to maintain its alignment

and prevent sagging.
 Piping in the ground shall be laid on a firm bed for its entire length.
 Hangers and anchor shall be of sufficient strength to support the weight of the pipe
and its contents.
 Piping for manifold systems shall be supported in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
 Hot and cold water distribution piping shall maintain separation at all points within
the system.
Types of Drainage Systems in Buildings

 Drainage system is of two types:

1. Waste water is from showers, basins, kitchen sinks, washing machines,
and the like.
o This is also called grey water.
o Normally a minimum of 75 mm dia. pipes are used for drainage of
waste water.
2. Soil water or sewage is from WCs and urinals.
o This is also called black water.
o Minimum of 100 mm diameter pipes are used for waste water.
o When run horizontally, soil water pipes should be run at a steeper
slope, such as 1:40, as they have solids.
o These can be cast iron or of PVC

o Stone ware (ceramic) pipes are used when soil and waste water
is to be transported in external soil. An inspection chamber is
used to clean blockage in the line and change direction of
pipes.
 o Inspection chamber is a short version of manholes which are
used on the streets.

Traps:
 The fittings which are placed at the end of soil pipes or sullage pipes to prevent the
passage of foul gases from the pipes to the outside are called traps.
 Between every fixture and the waste line is a trap - a curved section of pipe that traps
water within it.
 All types of traps maintain water seal between the pipe and the outside which does not
permit foul gases to escape from the pipes.
 The trapped water forms an airtight seal that prevents sewer gas from entering the
home.
 The efficiency of trap largely depends upon the depth of water seal.
 The water depth of water seal most commonly adopted in most trap is 50 mm.
 At the bottom of their curve, some traps have a clean-out plug that provides access to
the trap, making it easier to clear out any clogs
 There are three main types of traps i.e.
I. P type,
II. Q type and
III. S type.
Out of these Q type is not seen very common.
 P-traps:
o Designed for waste lines that come out of a wall,
o P-traps are shaped like the letter “P” lying face down.
o They’re located under sinks, tubs, and showers.
 S-traps:
o Designed for waste lines that come out of the floor,
o S-traps can sometimes allow sewer gas into the home.
o So installing S-traps in new homes are not recommended.
 Floor trap:-
o The traps which are used for admitting waste water from floors of the rooms,
kitchens, baths etc. in to sullage pipe are called floor traps.
o Mostly these traps are P type.
o These are provided with cast iron/ galvanized /stainless steel gratings at the
top to prevent the entry of solid and large sticky matters, into the drain pipe to
avoid frequent blockage.
o These traps are also called as Nahani Trap

 Bottle trap:-
o The outlet flexible pipe can be directly attached to the waste water fitting pipe
or through a bottle trap.
o The bottle trap prevents any silt etc to pass to the floor trap and also provides
an effective gadget to divert the flexible pipe inside the wall for giving a
concealed fitting.
o This is compulsory for half pedestal wash basins and preferred for all other
types.
o The bottom sleeve of the bottle trap can be unscrewed to clean periodically
any deposits there.
Floor drains:-
 All toilets/ bathrooms should be provided with floor drains to facilitate cleaning.
 They are connected to traps of a size to serve efficiently the purpose.
 The trap is to be accessible from the floor drain or by a separate cleanout within the
drain.
 Special design of floor traps are available in market, which can be cleaned by taking
off the cover/jall from the floor drain.

Fig: Sketch showing location of traps

Plumbing vent:
 The plumbing vent, also known as a vent stack, helps regulate the air pressure in the
plumbing system.
  Just as drain pipes remove water and waste from the house, the plumbing vent pipe –
also known as a plumbing air vent – removes gas and odours.
 It also allows fresh air into the plumbing system to help water flow smoothly through
the drain pipes.
 However, no water runs through the plumbing vent pipe.
 It is a vertical pipe attached to a drain line and runs through the roof of your home.
 The vent stack is the pipe leading to the main roof vent. It channels the exhaust gases
to the vent and helps maintain proper atmospheric pressure in the waste system.

Fig: Typical vent stack

Stack:
 The term ‘stack’ is used for the vertical pipe line of soil or waste water piping into
which the soil or waste branches carry the discharge from fixtures.
 Branch pipes are ‘T’, ‘Y’, ‘T-Y’, double ‘Y’ and ‘V’ shaped and connect the fixtures
to the sewer main or stack.
 A waste stack carries liquid wastes that do not contain human excrement; a soil stack
carries liquid wastes that carry human excreta.
 Most buildings do not have separate soil and waste stacks. A single stack known as
the soil and waste stack, or simply the soil stack, serves to carry both soil and waste
water.
 Soil stacks are usually made of cast-iron pipe with caulked joints. They may,
however, be made of other materials like PVC, AC pipes etc.
 The stacks discharge to the building drains, which are horizontal pipes and lead to a
manhole or an inspection chamber. The pipes which finally take the waste water from
 the building drain and connect to the ‘municipal sewer’ or any other approved point of
disposal is called ‘Building sewer’.

Fig: Sketch showing sewer system in 3-storied building.

System of plumbing for building drainage:

i) Two pipe system,
ii) One- pipe system,
iii) Single stack system, and
iv) Single stack partially ventilated system
 Two pipe system:-
o In this system of plumbing, the soil and the waste pipes are distinct and
separate as shown in figure.
o The soil pipes are connected to the building sewer direct.
o Waste pipes are connected to the building sewer through a trapped gully.
o The gully trap forms a barrier to the passage of foul air from the sewer into
waste pipe.
o All traps of soil appliances are completely ventilated through a separate
ventilating pipe.
o Likewise traps of all waste appliances are completely ventilated through a
separate ventilating pipe.
o Thus this system of plumbing contains one soil pipe, one waste pipe and two
ventilating pipes.
o The two-pipe system is age-old and safe system, especially advantageous
where the sullage (waste water) from waste appliances can be dealt with
separately for use in gardening or other such purposes.
o The two pipe system is proper system to adopt where fitments are scattered
with water closet, baths and basins widely separated. Due to unsightly and
uneconomic web of pipes, this system is not much favored today.
 One pipe system:-
o In this system of plumbing, foul water from all soil appliances and waste water
from shower, washbasin, sink etc. is connected to one main pipe which is
connected to the building sewer.
o Gully traps and separate waste pipes are completely dispensed with. All the
traps of soil and waste appliances must have adequate water seal, which
should be maintained all the times.
o They are completely ventilated through a single ventilating pipe.
o The term one pipe system is a misnomer as there are actually two stacks, one
soil-cum-waste pipe, and the other vent stack.
A typical one-pipe system is illustrated in figure.
 Single stack system:-
o In this system, all soil and waste fittings discharge in to a single pipe called
soil-cum waste pipe.
o This system of plumbing is the same as one-pipe system but without separate
ventilation pipe.
o Thus it contains only one soil-cum waste pipe and there is no separate
ventilating pipe.
o The stack itself is made to serve the vent requirements by restricting the flow
in the stake.
o It is also extended above the roof of the building to provide partial ventilation.
o Single stack system has been found satisfactory in actual working if there is
close grouping of sanitary appliances and short branches discharge soil and
waste into the main stack in the direction of flow, thereby minimizing the
danger of loss of water seal of traps by induced siphonage.
o Adequate cleanouts are necessary in the stack so the plumbing and sewer line
can be serviced and cleaned.

 Single stack partially vented system:-

o In this system there is one soil pipe into which all soil and waste appliances
discharge and only the trap of all the soil appliances are ventilated through a
single ventilating pipe.
o Thus it contains soil-cum-waste pipe and one ventilating pipe for the soil
appliance only.
o Thus it is a via-media between the one pipe system and the single stack
system.
o Adequate cleanouts are necessary in the stack so the plumbing and sewer line
can be serviced and cleaned.
 Fig: Sketch showing drainage in two building blocks

Different types of Plumbing Pipes

Different pipes are used in different purposes such as:
1. Supply or service pipes
2. Drain pipes or waste disposal pipes
1. Supply Pipes or Service Pipes:
o The pipes which are leading from the distribution main of water supply to the
plumbing system of house are known as service pipes
o These service pipes are made from different materials as classified below
 Copper pipes
 Galvanized iron pipes
 Polythene pipes
 Lead pipes
 Copper Pipes
o When ground water is highly corrosive to metals then copper pipes are used.
o Copper have high corrosive resistance when compared other pipe metals and
they also have considerable strength, reasonable ductility.
o They are available in long lengths in the market.
o The can bare high pressure so, these pipes are also used for industrial purposes
for heavy
 Galvanized Iron Pipes
o When compared to copper pipes, G.I pipes or steel pipes are very economical.
o But they corrode easily in soft and acid waters. In the other case galvanized
iron pipes are much stronger than copper pipes so; we can use these pipes in
places where chance of corrosion less or in hard water areas.
o Hammering is needed to remove the scales formed by hard water

 Polythene Pipes
o Polythene pipes or plastic pipes are used for cold water services.
o Nowadays, plastic pipes dominate the others by some advantages as follow
a. Do not corrode
b. Cheap in cost
c. Less weight
d. Ease of installation
e. Do not require threading
f. Resistant to bacterial scale
o These are mostly used in the world but they are limited to cold water supplies.
o They do not sustain high temperature

 Lead Pipes
o Lead pipe has high corrosion resistance,flexible and hydraulic coefficient of
flow.
o But lead content in water may leads to poisoning effects which are harmful for
people. Hence it is not preferred.
2. Drain Pipes or Waste Disposal Pipes
 Generally, in a house waste water is produced from different places like kitchen,
bathrooms etc.
 These whole wastes will be carried by different pipe arrangement to dispose the
waste. The type of waste water pipes are described below:
o Soil pipe
o Waste water pipe
o Rain water pipe
o Vent pipe
o Anti-siphon age pipe
 Soil Pipe
o A pipe which carries human excreta from water closet to septic tank is
called soil pipe.
o It is not connected to any other pipes except vent pipe. Soil pipe should
have 100mm diameter.

 Wastewater Pipe
o A pipe which carries only liquid waste from kitchens, wash basins etc. is
called waste pipe.
o It does not carry human excreta. Horizon waste water pipes are having 30
to 50mm diameter and vertical wastewater pipes have 75mm diameter.
 Rainwater Pipe
o A pipe which carries rainwater from roofs during rains is called rain water
pipe.
o By providing this type of pipe we can prevent the accumulation of water
on roof top.
o The water collected is useful for gardening or farming.
o 75mm diameter pipe is preferable for rain water disposal.

 Vent Pipe
o A pipe which is provide for the ventilation purpose to facilitate the exit of
foul gases into atmosphere.
o It is opened at top and bottom. I provided at least
1m higher than roof level.
o Generally, 50mm diameter pipes are provided as
vent pipes
  Anti-Siphonage Pipe
o A pipe which is installed for the purpose of preserving the water seal of
traps in drainage system is called anti siphon age pipe.
o This is very helpful to seal the backflow of drainage.
o Anti-Siphon age pipe connected to soil pipe should have 50mm diameter
o Connected waste water pipe should have 40mm diameter.

Drainage Pipes Based on Material of Manufacturing

1. Concrete pipes
2. Cast iron pipes
3. Stone ware pipes
4. PVC pipes
5. Asbestos cement pipes
 Concrete Pipes
o For heavy drainage water disposal, concrete pipes of large diameters are
used. Smaller diameter pipes are used for small flows.
o These are made of concrete only
o No reinforcement is provided.
o These are pre casted pipes
 Cast Iron Pipes
o These are made by pouring molten iron into sand molds.
o These are used for rain water disposal, waste water disposal etc. they are
available only in shorter lengths.

 Stoneware Pipes
o These are manufactured in ceramic industries by burning soft soil in high
temperature.
o These are used for carrying drainage in underground.
o For installation of stoneware pipe skilled workers are required.
  PVC Pipes
o These are used for both supply system and drainage system.
o These are very economical and easy to maintain.
o Soil pipes, kitchen waste pipes are generally PVC pipes.

 Asbestos Cement Pipes

o These pipes are very cheap compared to all but they can break easily. They
are provided as vent pipes, soil pipes, rain water pipes etc

Valves and Taps

 Valves and taps are devices designed to regulate, open or close the flow of liquid
or gas in a pipeline.
 They should be made of brass, gun metal or other corrosion resisting alloys.
 They may be made by casting metal into moulds or by hot pressing metal between
dies.
 Some of the more common valves and taps and their uses are given in the table
below.
 Table: Common Valves and Taps
Valve / Tap Use
Stopcock Used on incoming high pressure water mains.
Gate valve Used on low pressure pipework.
Drain off cock Used to drain pipework
A well mounted tap primarily used over sinks and also for
Bib tap
outdoor use.
Pillar tap Used on sinks, wash hand basins and baths.
A tap in which hot and cold water are delivered through a
Mixer taps
common spout. Used on sinks, wash hand basins and baths.
Plug cock A quick closing valve used mainly on gas installations.
Radiator valves Used to control the flow of water to and from radiators.

Valves in Pipe Fittings

 Valves are components of plumbing system which are used to stop or regulate flow of
fluid in its path.
 This control is achieved by the manipulation of some type of obstructer within the
valve.
 Different types of valves are available depending up on their applications.
 Most common types of automated valves fall into one of three main categories.
They are
o linear,
o rotary, and
o self-actuated
 Rotary Valves (also referred to as “quarter-turn” valves)
o These types of valves rely on the rotary motion of the flow obstructer In most
cases this rotation is limited to 90 degrees.
o Examples of quarter-turn valves are ball valves, plug valves, and butterfly
valves.

 Linear Valves
o There are 2 distinct types of linear valves:
 Rising stem (multi-turn) and
 Axial.
o While both valve types rely on the linear motion of the flow obstructer, they
are very different in construction and operation.
 o Multi-turn rising stem valves move the obstructer by the rotation of a threaded
rod (stem) which is attached to the obstructer
Examples of multi-turn valves are
Gate valves,
Globe valves,
Pinch valves,
Diaphragm valves and
Needle valves
These valve types are commonly used for flow control applications.
o Axial valves use pneumatic or electro-magnetic force to slide the obstructer
along an axis.
Some examples of these are
Coaxial valves, and
Angle seat valves
These valves are typically fast acting and only used for on/off process
applications.
 Types of Rising Stem (multi-turn) Valves
o Gate Valves
 A gate valve functions by moving a wedge shaped disc obstructer up
and down to open and close the flow path through the valve.
 This linear motion is provided by a threaded rising stem.
 Turning this threaded stem requires multiple revolutions (multi-turn) to
travel from open to close.
 The number of revolutions required is usually the valve size in inches x
3 + 2.
 So a 6 inch valve will require 20 turns of the stem [(6 x 3) + 2 = 20].
 They should only be used for on/off applications as throttling for an
extended period of time will damage both the obstructer and seals.
 Use of a gate valve for throttling is also not very effective since most
of the reduction of flow will increase in the last 10% of closure.
 o Globe Valves
 Globe valves operate by having a convex disc shaped plug raise and
lower via a rising stem into a circular seat around the inside of the
globe shaped body at the “equator”.
 The flow enters the “lower hemisphere” from one side, then travels up
through the seat and exits through the outlet on the opposite side of the
“northern hemisphere”.
 Globe valves are suitable for both on/off and throttling applications.
 There are 2-way globe valves that are a preferred choice for precise
flow control and 3-way globe valves that are commonly used for
mixing media from two inlet ports and directing that mixture through
an outlet port.

 Types of (Quarter-turn) Rotary Valves

o Ball Valves
o Plug Valves
o Butterfly Valves

Plug Valves Butterfly Valves

Ball Valves
Butterfly Valves
 In contrast to ball and plug valves, butterfly valves use a disc shaped obstructer.
 Basic, general duty butterfly valves are called "resilient seated".
 They have a single seal ring that acts a seal between the valve body and disc, as well
as the seal between the pipe flanges and valve body.
 When the disc is perpendicular to the direction of flow, the flow is stopped.
 When rotated 90˚ the flow goes through the valve by traveling around the slim profile
of the disc.
 Butterfly valves are commonly used on larger pipe sizes where a ball or plug valve
would get very large, expensive, and heavy.
 Butterfly valves also function rather well as a flow control valve or an on/off valve.
 If a manual actuator is used in a flow control application, it must lock into place, so
that the force of the fluid does not rotate the disc in either direction.
 Most manual butterfly valves do incorporate this feature.

Pressure reducing valves:

 These are used to automatically maintain a reduced pressure within reasonable limits
in the downstream side of the pipe line.
 This type of valve is always in movement and requires scheduled maintenance on
regular basis.
 These valves have screwed female ends.
 The pressure adjustment is done by a diaphragm loaded with spring by turning the
tommy bar.
 The diaphragm and valve disc are made of synthetic rubber, whereas the body is of
leaded tin bronze.
 These are available in nominal sizes 15 mm, 20mm, 25 mm, 32 mm, 40 mm, and 50
mm.
 These valves are capable of reducing the pressure on out flow side by as less as to
10%
 These are installed on the municipal pipes to control the flow of water to various
consumers as also in multistoried buildings, where the storage is on terrace floors.
Some important types of valves and its applications:
 Gate valve, plug valve and Ball valve – used for isolation only
 Globe valve – used for throttling
 Check valve – used for preventing reverse flow (non-return)
 Butterfly valve – used for isolation as well as throttling
 Diaphragm valve – used for isolation as well as throttling
Plumbing of Small Houses

 A home’s plumbing systems are a broad network of water and gas supply pipes,
drain-waste-vent plumbing, and more.
 A home’s water supply system routes municipal water from the street to your house,
where it branches out to deliver the water to faucets, showers, toilets, bathtubs, and
appliances such as the water heater, dishwasher, and washing machine.
 The drain-waste-vent (DWV) system is one of the most crucial. The job of the drain-
waste part of the system is to carry waste water and sewage from sinks, bathtubs,
showers, toilets, and water-using appliances such as dishwashers and washing
machines and deliver those wastes to the septic tank or public sewer.
 Most kitchens have a fairly simple plumbing setup that includes hot and cold water
supply lines to the faucets; a waste line for the sink (or sinks); and, for kitchens with a
gas range, a gas supply pipe. Many kitchens also have hookups for a dishwasher,
disposer, ice maker, and/or instant hot water, but these are generally tied in to the
sink’s plumbing.
 The plumbing in a bathroom must handle water delivery to and waste removal from
all of these fixtures in an organized, efficient, leak-free manner.
 Two plumbing systems are needed to handle a bathroom’s plumbing needs: water
supply and drain-waste-vent.
***©®***
 MODULE – 4
PART-1

SANITARY FIXTURES, FITTINGS & WELLNESS

Soil Appliances:

Soil appliances are used for collection and discharge of excreta matter including water closet,
urinal etc. A sanitary appliance used for collection and discharge of water after use is called
waste appliances and includes drinking water fountains, wash basin, kitchen sink, Bathtub
etc.

Water closet (WC)

Types of WC:-

 The WC can be broadly classified as

1) Indian or squatting type or

2) European or with seat and
3) Universal type.
 The Indian type can be further divided as
i) Long pattern squatting pan,
ii) Orissa pattern squatting pan and
iii) Rural pattern squatting pans.
 European type can be further divided as
i) Wash down pattern WC and
ii) Syphonic pattern WC.
 Long pattern squatting pan:-
o It is also called as Indian type WC.
o People use the WC in squatting posture.
o The arrangement is having two foot rests, kept on either side of the pan.
o The pan is provided with flushing rim and is connected to flushing system.
o The inside of pan is glazed but the exterior needs to be rough and non-glazed
o The Indian type squatting W.C. is made in two standard sizes viz 580 mm and
630 mm long (Dimension ‘A’ shown in above figure) with length of opening
as 480 and 530(Dimension ‘B’ shown in above figure) respectively.
o The gradient at the bottom is 15 deg. for ease of cleaning and maintaining the
flow of water at adequate velocity.
o The height of the pan is 300 mm and 320 mm in the two sizes.
o The outlet for the soil is 80 mm I.D. and 110 mm O.D. This is connected to a
soil pipe of 110 mm I. D. through a matching P, or S-traps.
o The foot rests are not integral to the W.C. pan but are to be provided
separately. The salient dimensions as per I.S.2556
 Orissa pattern squatting pan:
o It is similar to long pan squatting pan except the footrests are integral part of
pan.
o The Orissa pans are made in two sizes, 580x440 and 630x450 mm.

 Rural pattern squatting pan:-

o In the rural parts where there is no flushing system available, rural pattern of
pans are only used.
o In rural pattern squatting pan sharp gradient of 32 deg. is given to facilitate
hand pour flushing. In this type no flushing ring is provided. These are made
in vitreous china as available in market but can also be cast in cement mortar
(1:3) by a skilled mason using a sand cast.
 Universal WC pan:-
o This type of WC is suitable for both squatting as well as sitting posture.
o It can be used as squatting pan by lifting seat below which foot rests are
provided.
o It can also be used in sitting posture by putting hinged seat.
o This functions just like a Wash down W.C.
o These can be attached to either P or S trap.
o The P trap is made integral with the WC but S trap may be integral or supplied
separately.
o The outlet I.D. is 80 mm and O.D.110 mm.
 Wash down pattern WC: -
o The wash down closet is probably the most inexpensive, European W.C. and
has been widely used in India.
o Wash down WCs is the simplest in design.
o They take the form of a ‘funnel’ shape, with a broad opening at the top
narrowing to a smaller outlet connected to a soil pipe through a P or S trap.
o The wash down W.C. can be either integral type where the water cistern is
integrated in the design of the WC or the cistern is mounted separately and
connected to WC.
o In both the cases, the inlet from the water cistern is connected to a flushing
ring under the W.C. rim, and the water is discharged through the holes in the
flushing ring and the soil in the W.C. is washed down by the water into the
trap and then the soil pipe.
o The sketch shows an integral type Wash down WC.
 Syphonic pattern WC: -
o The siphon- jet or Syphonic water closet is claimed to be the most efficient.
o The trap way, located at the rear; is larger than that in the reverse-trap closet.
o The water surface is almost as large as the rim opening, thus reducing the
fouling area.
o Water discharges from the flushing rim, cleaning the bowl and creating a
whirlpool which draws the water and waste down to the bottom by strong
centrifugal force.
o Then a powerful jet is formed by siphon action from the bottom, which forces
the contents of the bowl up into the outlet passage i.e. acting as a siphon tube,
to complete the flushing.

 Wall mounted WC pan:-

o This type of WC gives good appearance and they are mounted on the wall.
o There are two designs available for wall mounted W.C.s namely,
i) W.C. with concealed out let and
ii) W.C. with fixing arrangement on top of bracket.
  Cistern
o The flush toilet consists of a water tank that supplies the water for flushing the
excreta and a bowl into which the excreta are deposited.
o The attractive feature of the cistern flush toilet is that it incorporates a
sophisticated water seal to prevent odours from coming back up through the
plumbing.
o Water that is stored in the cistern above the toilet bowl is released by pushing
or pulling a lever.
o This allows the water to run into the bowl, mix with the excreta, and carry
them away.
o Modern toilets use 6 to 9 L per flush, whereas older models were designed for
flush water quantities of up to 20 L. There are different low-volume flush
toilets currently available that can be used with as little as 3 L of water per
flush.

Flushing valves:-

 Flushing without water cisterns is achieved using Flush valves.

 These flushing valves are being used in some public lavatories, with push type and
self closing valves, to save on the water consumption.
 However, this system can be adopted where continuous water supply is available.
  These are open till one keeps them pushed and close on releasing them.
 In case these valves are directly connected to potable water supply and in the event of
chocking of the soil pipe or the W.C. outlet, there is a danger of cross connection of
potable water with the soiled water due to back suction through the valve. It is
therefore essential that AVB (Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker) is inserted in the flush
pipe.
 The flush valve body is concealed in the recess in the wall. 32mm pipe line is required
at inlet as well at outlet of the valve.
 The arrow is embossed on the valve showing the direction of water flow.
 The valve should be fitted according to the direction of water flow coinciding the
arrow on the valve.
 Minimum working pressure for push type flushing valve should be 0.15 bar and
maximum pressure should be 3.0 bar.

Urinals

 Public urinals are normally designed for use while standing upright. There are 2
different types of urinals, namely
I. Stall Type
II. Bowl type
 Stall type:-
o Stall type urinals are used for offices, factories, public buildings, cinema halls
etc.
o The system comprises of simple compartments of raising side walls, the front
wall is glazed and slanted by 4+1o from vertical plane.
o Urine is passed against this wall. Bottom drain is provided along the front
wall.
o Urine is drained through the bottom drain to the soil pipe through trap.
 Bowl Type:-
o These types of urinals are generally used in private building, offices.
o These are more convenient to use and better in appearance than stall type
urinals.
o They are made up of glazed earthenware or vitreous china clay.
o Outlet horn is provided at the bottom of the pan. The urinal bowl is connected
to the drain pipe through floor trap.
o The bowls may be with flushing rims or without them.
o The flushing rim has 12 holes provided in the rim and on flushing water ejects
from the holes and falls along the walls of the bowl, cleaning the bowl
efficiently.
o Where the bowl is without rim, the water is ejected from the top spreader of
12.5 mm diameter with slots of spreader downward, and falls along the rear
face of the bowl and clears the bowl though this is not as efficient but meets
the requirement.
Wash basins and sinks:-

A Wash basin is made up of vitreous china and is available in wide range of colors,
patterns and sizes. Washbasins are of one piece construction including a combined overflow
and soap holder. The sinks are also the similar construction as wash basins, except that the
size of sinks is much larger and the bottom surface is level/flat compared to rounded shape
for wash basins.
 Wash basins can be broadly classified as :-
1) Wall hung
2) Counter fitted.
 Wall hung wash basins are further classified as
i) Flat back,
ii) Angle back,
iii) Full pedestal and
iv) Half pedestal.
 Counter fitted wash basin are further classified as
i) Under the counter,
ii) Over the counter and
iii) Counter top.
 Flat /Angle back basins:-
 o Wall hung basins are either of flat back or angle back to fit in a corner.
o The various patterns and sizes of wash basins are shown in figure below:-

 Full pedestal wash basins:-

o Pedestal is provided to hide the trap, waste and hot and cold water service
pipes to enhance the looks of the wash basin.
o The pedestals are so constructed as to support the wash basin rigidly and
adequately.
o Suitable provision is to be made to fix the pedestal to the flooring.
o The bottom of the pedestal is provided with holes for screwing in masonry
screws into the floor for fixing

 Half pedestal wash basins:-

o Pedestal is provided up to half the height below the wash basin and the trap,
waste and hot and cold water service pipes are hidden below the pedestal.
o This will permit more floor space below the wash basin.
o These are fixed to the wall.
 Under the counter wash basins:-
o This is most attractive and becoming more popular wash basins now a day.
o In this type wash basin is sunk in the counter.
o Water spilled over the counter will be flown in to the wash basin.
 o Wash basin is first fixed on the kadappa stone platform or RCC platform.
Collar of the wash basin is rested on the platform.
o Then granite is fixed over the platform covering the top surface of the ring of
wash basin and the platform. Only bowl is visible from the top. These are
provided, generally in modern bathrooms.

 Over the counter wash basins:-

o Over the counter wash basins are similar to under the counter wash basin, only
difference is that the wash basin collar is rested on granite directly.
o No kaddapa or RCC platform is used.
o The collar is visible from the top and water spilled on the counter will not be
flown to the basin. So this type of basin is not very popular.
 Counter top wash basins:-
o Counter top wash basins are placed directly on the platform.
o Hole is cut on the platform for Waste fittings.

 Waste water discharge:-

o Each wash basin has circular waste hole opening to which the interior of the
basins drains.
o Waste water fitting of brass or stainless steel or any approved alloy is fixed on
the waste hole.
o The discharge of waste water from the fitting directly goes to a flexible pipe to
a floor trap or via a bottle trap.
STORAGE WATER HEATERS – TYPES

Storage water heaters are classified into four categories: range boilers, gas fired, oil-fired and
electric storage heaters. Each type has a temperature- and a pressure-relief valve and
sediment drain at the lowest part of the tank.
 Range Boilers
o A range boiler is an oldest type of domestic hot water heater which uses an
independent hot water tank connected to a heating boiler.
o Water is heated by circulating the water from within a water storage tank
through a heat exchanger which is inside or connected to the exterior of a
heating boiler.

 Gas Hot Water Heaters

o The gas storage heaters have a burner under the tank and an exhaust stack/heat
exchanger running through the middle of the tank.
o The exhaust stack has two functions: it acts as a vent for the burner and it
transfers heat to the water.
o The gas flow rate is controlled through a control vale and thermostat in
response to the setpoint temperature.
o The storage tank can be fabricated of galvanized-iron, copper, or porcelain-
lined (gaslined) steel enclosed in an insulating jacket.
 Electric Storage Heater
o Electric water heaters use immersion type heating elements to convert
electrical energy into heat.
o Two heaters are usually installed; the upper heater usually has higher wattage
than the lower.
o Power is delivered to each element through a thermostat; a switch that senses
the water temperature.
o When the temperature drops, the switch closes to allow current flow and it
opens when the temperature reaches its preset limit.
o Thermostats have a dial for setting the maximum water temperature, generally
between 130°F and 140°F, or as low as about 120°F for increased energy
savings and scald protection.
o The size of the heating element has a direct bearing on the heating up time,
which is also related to the size of the storage cylinder.
o A general guide for adequate supply is:
 35 gallons - 1500 watts
 50 gallons - 2000 watts

 Heat Pump Water Heaters

o Heat pump water heaters use electricity to move heat from one place to
another instead of generating heat directly.
o This is much the same as a vapor compression air conditioning or refrigeration
cycle operating in reverse mode.
o A heat pump system uses around one-third of the electricity of an electric
element storage hot water system.
o A heat pump system has a lower operating cost compared to the normal peak
rate electric storage units because of high efficiency.
 o When used in conjunction with a timer and the reduced fee rate scheme of the
utility company, operating costs are even lower.
o Heat pump water heaters can be purchased as integral units with built-in water
storage tanks or as add-ons that can be retrofitted to an existing water heater
tank.
o These systems have a high initial cost.
o They also require installation in locations that remain in the 40°F to 90°F
range year-round and contain at least 1000 cubic feet (28.3 cubic meters) of air
space around the water heaters.
o To operate most efficiently, they should be placed in areas having excess heat,
such as furnace rooms.
o They will not work well in a cold space.

 SOLAR WATER HEATERS

o A solar water heater typically includes collectors mounted on the roof or in a
clear area of the yard, a separate storage tank near the conventional heater in
the home, connecting piping, and a controller.
o There are many types of solar water heater systems but only two are
appropriate:
 The closed-loop heat exchanger and
 Drain-back systems.

TAPS

 Taps fall into three main design categories,

o wall mounted taps are known as Bib Taps,
o Those mounted directly onto the sink, basin or bath are called Pillar Taps, and
o Mixer Taps, which have a hot and cold valve linked to a single spout.

As per good practice, mains and stored water (hot water from the storage tank)
cannot be mixed in a system.
This means that all sinks have separate pipes to isolate hot from cold water.
The taps or valves are designated by the size of the diameter of the inlet pipe they
are connected to.
 Bib tap:
o It is a draw-off tap with horizontal inlet and free outlet.
o A bib tap is closed by means of disc carrying a renewable non-metallic washer
which shuts against the water pressure on a seating at right angles to the axis
of the threaded spindle which operates it.
o The bib taps are provided with threads on the external side and have to be
connected to a socket at the pipe out let.
o The nominal sizes of bib taps are 8, 10, 15, 20 and 25 mm. However for water
supply 15, 20 and 25 are used.
o The bib taps are suitable for working under water pressure of 1 MPa
 Pillar taps
o The traditional spindle design is commonly used on lower quality, cheaper tap
designs.
o The tap has a spindle through the centre, with the valve seat connected via a
screw thread.
o A standard tap washer (either 15 mm or 20mm) is fixed to the end of the valve
seat.
o As the handle is turned the spindle rotates and the screw thread moves the
valve seat up and down to regulate the flow of water.

o These taps are very commonly used for all purposes but have following
shortcomings,
 Difficult to operate - handle has to be turned many times from off to
full on.
 Higher maintenance - washers will require replacing regularly
 Less choice of style - cannot be used with modern lever designs.
 Ceramic disc taps:-
o This technology is commonly used on more expensive taps, as they perform
better and last longer.
 o When the handle is turned, two ceramic discs are parted opening the valve and
allowing the water to flow.
o This removes the shortcomings, mentioned above.
o This type is used in most superior taps and mixer valves, where the operation
is by small turn or lift of the knob.
 Self-closing tap:-
o A self-closing tap is a draw-off tap which remains in the open position so long
as a lever handle is kept pressed up, down or sideways, or a pushbutton is kept
pressed in, and closes by itself or when the button or the lever handle is
released.
o The self-closing taps may incorporate a device which closes the tap even
without the release of the button or the handle after a fixed quantity is
discharged.
o These types of taps prevent wastage of water and are normally fixed at
location where heavy public traffic is expected all the time.
o he force required for operating the self-closing tap for its full opening should
not exceed 70N.

 Mixer valves:
o Mixer valves are manufactured as per I.S.1701.
o Hot and cold water is carried in different pipes and mixed in a mixer valve at
the point of discharge, through a common spout. A typical sketch of the
arrangement is shown
  Basin pillar taps:
o Basin pillar taps are single tap bodies, with a 15 mm connection, for use with
any two tap hole basin. (i.e. a separate tap for hot and cold).
o The hot tap is always installed on the left hand side.

 Mono basin mixers

o There are two types of mono basin mixers,
 Single Flow &
 Dual flow.
o The single flow mixers mix both supplies at the base of the spout and
discharge a mixed flow.
o With dual flow mixers, the hot & cold flow is kept separate until the point of
discharge.
 Tall mono basin mixers
o The same as Mono basin mixers only supplied with an elongated body.
o These taps are normally installed in conjunction with countertop wash hand
basins.
o Most of the Tall Mono Basin Mixers are of the lever type, utilizing ceramic
disc cartridges.
 Three hole basin mixers
o Three hole basin mixers consist of three parts, connected via either rigid or
flexible pipe work.
o The spout is positioned centrally, with the hot & cold controls on either side.
o TH basin mixers utilise either standard or ceramic disc valves.

Bathtub

 It is a container for holding water in which a person or animal may bathe. Most
modern bathtubs are made of thermoformed acrylic, porcelain
enameled steel, fiberglass-reinforced polyester, or porcelain enameled cast iron.
 A bathtub is usually placed in a bathroom either as a stand-alone fixture or in
conjunction with a shower.
 Basic Types of Bathtubs
o Free-Standing Bathtubs
 o Alcove Bathtub
o Drop-In Bathtub
o Corner Bathtubs
 Free-standing tubs are unconnected to walls or any other surface except for the floor.
o Free-standing bathtubs require a large bathroom to accommodate the tub and
the buffer room around the tub.
o Free-standing tubs tend to be significantly more expensive than alcove and
drop-in tubs.
o Slipper and clawfoot tubs fit into this category, and both convey the
impression of antiquity.
 Alcove Bathtub is a special type of bathtub that fits precisely within a three-sided
enclosure built just for the tub.
o Alcove bathtubs are often the least expensive and easiest type of tub that you
can install
o The standard length for an alcove tub is 60 inches.
 A drop-in bathtub is a shell that fits into a prepared deck. The inside of the bathtub is
finished, but the outside is not since it is covered up by the deck.
 Corner tubs are large, triangular bathtubs
o Use a lot of bathroom floor space.
o One downside of this tub is that they take a long time to fill up. More capacity
equals more water volume required.

Free-Standing Bathtubs Alcove Bathtub Drop-In Bathtub Corner Bathtubs

 Bathtub Sizes and Measurement

 o The most common bathtub installation is an alcove bath with an overall size of
60 inches x 32 inches.
o Standard tubs usually have external measurements around 60 inches long, 30
inches wide and 14 to 16 inches high.

Showers

 Either readymade shower tray for standing bath or sunken floor for squatting bath can
be provided for shower.
 Sunken bath floor level shall not be more than 60/70 mm below the door bottom.
 Shower head height is governed by users’ height,
o overhead for men only 1750 mm,
o 150 mm clearance shall be provided for above overhead.
o Minimum 1900 mm is recommended for men
o 1830 mm for female and
o 1675 mm for children;
 Projection of shower will vary according to design and shape.
 In case of shower, projected from wall,
o It shall not be more than 450 mm and
o Height not exceeding 2200 mm from floor level.
 Bath/shower mixer:
o Here, the hose and spray of the shower are combined with a bath mixer tap,
which is similar to mixer valve for wash basins and the temperature can be
adjusted through the bath taps.
o The drawback of these types of showers is that the temperature control is low
which can prove too inconvenient and it is fiddly to adjust.
 Mixers:
o The hose and spray of the shower are part of a wall unit and the hot and cold
water supplies are connected to a single valve.
o The temperature and pressure of the water are controlled either one or a
variety of knobs.
o Its height being part of a wall unit makes temperature adjustment much more
convenient.
 Single lever mixer:
o Single lever mixers have only one lever which controls the temperature and
flow of the water.
o The detailed connection with cold and hot water pipes of the mixer is shown in
the figure.
 Manual mixer:- In manual mixer with two knobs the spacing of the fixture and the
location is given below,

Fig: Layout of floor for shower

Health faucets

 Health faucets are essentially handheld nozzles with a trigger, which enables the
delivery of a spray of water.
 These are connected to a water source through a pipe near the toilet.
 In between uses, the nozzle is placed in a stand attached to the wall.

Wellness Product

Saunas

 Saunas are small rooms that are heated to temperatures between 150°F and 195°F
(65°C to 90°C).
 They often have unpainted, wood interiors and temperature controls.
 Saunas may also include rocks (as part of their heating element) that absorb and give
off heat.
 Water can be poured onto these rocks to create steam.
 There are different types of saunas.
 Some follow the traditional Finnish model, using dry heat with a water bucket and
ladle nearby for producing occasional bursts of steam. Others eschew the water
bucket, generating dry heat only.
 Turkish saunas are also popular. These use wet heat, and are similar to steam rooms in
function and design.
 The way heat is generated in saunas can vary. Heating methods include:
o Infrared lamps. Infrared saunas use lamps which generate electromagnetic
radiation to heat your body instead of the entire room. Infrared saunas produce
lower temperatures than other types of saunas, typically staying around 140°F
(60°C).
o Wood. This traditional method uses burning wood to generate embers, or to
heat sauna rocks. It produces low humidity and dry heat. Water may be ladled
onto the rocks every 10 minutes or so, to add bursts of humidity and heat to
the room.
 o Electricity. Many health clubs and gyms use electrical heaters to heat sauna
rocks to a high temperature. The resulting low humidity and dry heat is the
same as that generated by the wood burning method.
o Steam. Turkish-style saunas use steam from boiling water to generate wet heat
and high humidity. These saunas are also referred to as Turkish bathhouses or
steam rooms.

Steam Bath

 A steam room is a heated room that people use for relaxation and to relieve some
medical conditions. They are often found in gyms or spas.
 A steam room is created when a water-filled generator pumps steam into an enclosed
space so there is moisture in the air when people are sitting in it.
 The temperature inside a steam room is generally between 110°F and 114°F with a
humidity level of 100 percent.
 Steam rooms and saunas are similar as both are heated rooms used for relaxation and
to help relieve symptoms of some medical conditions. However, there are differences
between the two.
 The key difference is that while steam rooms are filled with moist heat, a sauna
provides dry heat from a wood or electric stove.
 A sauna is wood-paneled, and the stove heats rocks that, in turn, radiate heat into the
enclosed room.
 The temperature in a sauna is usually higher than a steam room at around 160°F to
200°F, while the humidity level is much lower at between 5 percent and 30 percent.
Jacuzzi

 A hot tub is a large tub full of water used for hydrotherapy, relaxation or pleasure.
Some have powerful jets for massage purposes. Hot tubs are sometimes also known
as spas or by the trade name Jacuzzi.
 The plumbing of the hot tub consists of:

o A pressure system delivering water to the jets

o A suction system returning water to the pumps.

o A filtration system: the plumbing has to incorporate a filter system to help clean
the water. Some models use a separate small 24/7 filter pump while others use
programmed settings of the main pumps.

o Induced air: The jets may use a venturi effect to incorporate air into the water
stream for a lighter massage effect; this requires another set of hoses.

o Some models use an air blower to force air through a separate set of jets for a
different "bubbly" massage effect; this is a separate system from the induced air.

o An ozone system: ozonation is a common adjunct to water maintenance, and if

installed will have its own set of hoses and fittings.
 PART-2

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Definition

The discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer
and transport, processing and disposal of solid waste in a manner i.e. in accordance with best
principle of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other
environmental considerations and that is also responsive to public health.

Logical Framework of Waste to Wealth Concept

Fig: Indicates the different processes for wealth generation from available wastes.
 Biodegradable (Bio-waste)
o Biodegradable materials are composed of waste from living organisms and the
actual plant, animal or other organisms when its life ends
o Examples: These include human and animal waste; plant products, wood,
paper, food waste, leaves, grass clippings and other horticulture waste; and
remains from death of living creatures such as animal carcasses.
o Hazards posed: Stagnant waste emits foul smell as it decays and becomes a
breeding ground for mosquitoes and other disease causing organisms. Rotting
waste emits greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide and produces
chemicals like ammonia. Too much of biodegradable waste in water can
deplete oxygen impacting marine life. Again, too much of cattle manure can
cause health concerns.
o Creating sustainable wealth:
 Organic Agriculture: . Instead of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
compost, green manure and bone meal are key ingredient in organic
farming and also on non-chemical modes of pest and disease control.
 Bio-fuels: Biogas production is a clean low carbon technology for
conversion of organic waste into clean renewable biogas and a source
of organic fertilizer. Biogas obtained by anaerobic digestion of cattle
dung and other loose and leafy organic matter/ wastes can be used as
energy source for cooking, lighting, refrigeration, electricity generation
and transport applications.
 According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE),
about 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is still derived
from biomass and more than 70% of the country’s population depends
upon it for its energy needs.
 Biomass materials used for power generation include bagasse, rice
husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shell, soya husk, deoiled cakes,
coffee waste, jute waste, and groundnut shells, saw dust etc.
 This is an industry that attracts an investment of Rs. 600 crore every
year, generating more than 5000 million units of electricity and yearly
employment of more than 10 million man-days in rural areas.
Maharashtra leads by example generating about 1220 MW of Biomass
power.
 Non-Biodegradable Waste
o Non-Biodegradable waste includes materials that do not breakdown or decay
naturally, that is, cannot be decomposed by microbes and abiotic elements or
dissolved by natural agents or biological processes.
o Examples: These include glass, metal, baked pottery, ceramics and plastic
items; most forms of medical waste (Biomedical waste); electronic/ electrical
devices (E-waste); construction and demolition waste (C&D).
o Hazards posed: Disposal of non-biodegradable waste is a major challenge. It
ends up taking space, cluttering habitat and creating land mess. Or it ends up
being burnt, dumped in water bodies and landfills. Such waste deposits cause
 large scale pollution of land and water posing several environmental and
health problems.
o Creating sustainable wealth
 Recyclable waste: reused, refurbished, or recycled – are known as
“Recyclable Waste”.
 Inorganic waste, such as PET and plastics, waste paper and tetra packs
are now increasingly recycled.
 These are used to create innovative products through organized or
unorganized sector at micro or small scale.
 Recycling waste of useful materials puts them back into circulation for
consumers.
 Large amounts of functional electronic items are phased out or
discarded in favour of new models. This would reduce the consumption
of scarce and expensive resources/raw materials. It would also reduce
consumption of energy. All these interlink have positive impact on
economy and environment.
 Non-recyclable waste: Those non-biodegradable materials which
cannot be put to use again are termed as “Non-Recyclable Waste”.
Traditionally these are disposed off by
(i) Transporting to a distant site and dumping them in a landfill;
and
(ii) Incineration or burning.
 Environmental concerns have led municipalities to develop better
management of these wastes.
 Major initiatives have been launched to look at non-recyclable waste as
a resource to make energy.
 As an example, base liner systems are installed in landfills to prevent
escape of leachate from waste into the environment.
 Installation of the leachate tank and methane extraction pipe allows
these to be harvested as source of energy.
 Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWI) transforms waste into
solid ash that can be recycled for various applications.
 Energy is extracted from the hot gasses / fumes produced by
generating steam in a boiler.
 This is used to turn a turbine to produce electricity.
 Development of flue gas scrubbing technology for MSWI cleans the
toxic fumes before these are released into the environment.
 All this contributes to resource efficiency and wealth generation
through what is termed as a circular economy.
Mathematics of Waste Management and Sustainable Wealth Creation

Consider a typical community with 1 lakh population.

 Average waste produced is 50 tonnes per day with 70% wet waste, i.e. 35 tonnes
 If all of wet waste is composted directly or after producing methane gas, it reduces to
1/5th of its weight.
  Hence it will produce 7 tonnes of compost per day and 210 tonnes per month.
 If the compost is sold at Rs. 3/kg, it will yield Rs. 6,30,000 per month.
 Additionally about 3 tonnes of dry waste can be sold or converted into useful products
every day.
 The Urban Local Body can earn Rs. 7,50,000 per month or Rs. 90,00,000 annually.
 On the other hand, for untreated waste, mixed solid waste management requires the
municipality or corporation to spend about Rs. 700 per tonne, which is a minimum
expenditure of Rs. 12,600,000 annually without any return on investment except
pollution and ill health.
Solid waste:

 Solid waste is all the waste arising from human and animal activities that are normally
solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted.
 It encompasses the heterogeneous mass of throwaways from residences and
commercial activities as well as more homogenous accumulation of a single industrial
activity.
Land pollution


“It refers to any physical or chemical alteration of land, rendering it incapable of
beneficial use without treatment.”
Functional Elements of Solid waste management:

i. Waste generation:
 Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as
no longer being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for
disposal.
 Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every stage
as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption.
 For example, wastes are generated from households, commercial areas,
industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services.
 The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification
of waste.
ii. Waste handling, storage, sorting, storage and processing at the source:
 Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with the
management of waste until they are placed in storage for collection.
 Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded container to the point of
collection.
 Sorting of waste components is an important step in handling and storage of
solid waste at the source.
For example, the best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling
is at the source of generation.
Households are becoming more aware of the importance of separating
newspaper and cardboard, bottle/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non-
ferrous materials.
 Onsite storage is of primary importance because of public concerns and
aesthetic consideration.
 Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of which
are undesirable, are often seen are any residential and commercial sites.
 Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard waste
composting.
iii. Waste collection:
 The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid
waste and recycling materials, but also the transport of these materials, after
collection, to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
 This location may be materials processing facility, a transfer station or a
landfill disposal site.
iv. Sorting, Processing and transportation of solid waste:
 The sorting, processing and transformation of solid waste materials is the
fourth of the functional elements.
 The recovery of sorted materials, processing of solid waste and transformation
of solid waste that occurs primarily in the locations away from the source of
waste generation are encompassed by this functional element.
 Sorting of mixed waste usually occurs at a material recovery facility, transfer
station combustion facilities and disposal sites. Sorting often includes the
separation of bulky items, separation of waste components by size using
screen, manual separation of waste components and separation of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.
 Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy.
 The solid waste can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal
process.
 The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic
composting.
  The most commonly used thermal transformation is incineration.
 Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, size of
waste without resources recovery.
v. Transfer and transport:
 This functional element involves:
o The transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles to the larger
transport equipment.
o The subsequent transport of waste usually over long distances to a
processing or disposal site.
o The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.
vi. Waste disposal:
 Today the Disposal of waste by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the
ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected
and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from material
recovery facilities, residue from the combustion of solid wastes.
 Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection,
design and operation of landfill operations.
 A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing solid waste without
creating a nuisance and hazard to public health.

Fig: Typical process of waste management

Classifications of solid waste

Solid wastes are classified into Municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste and Hazardous
solid waste.

1. Municipal solid waste: Includes Municipal solid waste consists of household waste,
construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This
garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes.
 Some of the components of solid wastes are:
o Rubbish: Combustible and non-combustible solid waste, excluding food waste
or other putrescible materials. Typically combustible waste consist of
materials such as paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, rubber leather, wood and
 garden trimmings. Non combustible includes items such as glass, crockery,
tincans, and aluminum, ferrous and nonferrous metals.
o Ashes and residues – materials remaining from burning of food coke and other
combustible wastes. Residues from power plants normally are not included in
this category. Ashes and residues are normally composed of fine powdery
materials, cinders cum clinkers and small amount of burnt and unburnt
materials.
o Construction and demolition waste: Wastes from residential building and other
structures are classified as demolition waste. Waste from remodeling and
repairing of residential and commercial and industrial building and similar
structures are classified as construction waste. These waste includes dirt,
stones, concrete, bricks, plasters and plumbing, heating and electrical parts.
o Special wastes: Wastes such as street sweepings, road side litters, catch basin
debris, dead animals and abundant vehicles are classified as special waste.
o Treatment plant waste: The solid and semi-solid waste water, waste water from
industrial areas is included in this classification.
2. Industrial solid waste:
 ISW are those waste arising from industrial activities and typically include
rubbish, ashes demolition waste and special waste.
3. Hazardous waste: Waste that poses a substantial danger immediately or over a
period of time to human, plants are classified as hazardous waste.
 A waste is classified as hazardous if it exhibits any of the following
characteristics:
o Ignitibility
o Corrosivity
o Reactivity
o Toxicity
 In the past , hazardous waste were often grouped into following categories
o Radioactive substances
o Chemicals
o Biological wastes
o Flammable waste
o Explosives
 The principal sources of hazardous bio waste are hospitals and biological research
institutes.
 Hazardous wastes are generated in limited amounts throughout most of the
industrial activities.
General Sources of Municipal Solid waste:

Typical facilities, activities or

Sl.
Source location where wastes are Types of Solid waste
No
generated
Single family & multifamily
Food waste, rubbish,
1 Residential dwellings, low, medium and high rise
ashes special waste
apartment
Food waste, rubbish,
ashes, demolition &
Stores, restaurants, markets, office
construction waste,
2 Commercial buildings, hotels, print shops,
special waste,
medical facilities and institutions etc
occasionally
hazardous waste
Streets, parks, playground, beaches, Special wastes and
3 Open areas
highways etc. rubbish
Treatment plant
Water, Waste water from treatment waste principally
4 Treatment plant sites
processes etc. composed of residual
sludge

Organic waste

 Organic waste is any material that is biodegradable and comes from either a plant or
an animal.
  Biodegradable waste is organic material that can be broken into carbon dioxide,
methane or simple organic molecules.
 Examples of organic waste include green waste, food waste, food-soiled paper, non-
hazardous wood waste, green waste, and landscape and pruning waste.
 When organic waste is dumped in landfills, it undergoes anaerobic decomposition
(due to the lack of oxygen) and produces methane.
 When released into the atmosphere, methane is 20 times more potent a greenhouse
gas than carbon dioxide.
 Organics recycling reduces greenhouse emission while conserving our natural
resources.
Biomethanation

 Methanogenesis or Biomethanation is the process of combining organic

waste materials into biogas and manure.
 This is done through the use of microorganisms under anaerobic that decompose such
biodegradable wastes in the absence of oxygen.
 Biomethanation provides an excellent urban waste management solution as it results
in several end products that can be used for a wide range of applications.
 Some of the major advantages of using Biomethanation for managing urban waste
products are mentioned below.
o Generation of biogas, the prime advantage of using this method.
o Biogas is a gaseous fuel that can be easily used for energy generation and
production of heat.
o Biomethanation plants do not require significant investments and can be
deployed on small scales.
o Unlike other kinds of waste treatment processes, this process is completely self-
sufficient and doesn’t require an external power source.
o The system is completely sealed and enclosed and collects every bit of the gas
for utilization.
o This includes a whole host of harmful greenhouse gases.
o Biomethanation results in the elimination of foul odor, stopping the growth of
rodents and pests and any kind of visible pollution or social issues due to
garbage.
o The waste product that is left behind after the production of biogas is an
excellent form of manure and can be used to treat soil.
o The construction of such Biomethanation plants is completely modular and they
need very less area for construction.
 The process of Biomethanation
o There are three basic groups of microorganisms that are used in for
Methanogenesis or Biomethanation,
 Fermenting bacteria,
 Organic acid oxidizing bacteria and
 Methanogenic archaea.
o These various microorganisms continuously decompose organic matter and
break it down into methane and carbon dioxide.
 o There is a syntrophic relationship between the hydrogen-producing agents
(known as antogens) and the hydrogen scavengers or consumers
(homoactogens, hydrogenotrophic methanogens, and others) which is vital for
the production of bio-methane.

Composting

Composting is a process in which organic materials undergo biological degradation to stable

nuisance free humus like end product.

The general objectives of composting are

  To transform the biodegradable organic materials into a biological stable materials
and to reduce the original volume of waste
 To destroy pathogens, insect eggs and other unwanted organisms and weed seeds that
may be present in waste
 To retain the maximum nutrients content (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium)
 To produce a product that can be used to support plant growth and as soil amendment.
Vermi Composting

Vermi composting uses natural composting process of decomposition of biodegradable

organic matter by the soil bacteria as in ordinary technique, but takes the assistance of
cultured earth worms that are produced commercially.

 These earth worms do help in quicker decomposition of the organic matter

 This method helps in adopting the composition technique in individual bungalows and
institutions, to dispose of domestic waste and more particularly foe disposing of the
yard and garden wastes
 The various steps involved in applying the composting technique are:
o Dig a small pit about 0.5m square and 1m in deep
o Line the pit with dried leaves and grass
o Organise the disposal of organic domestic waste such as vegetable waste into the
pit as and when generated
o Introduce a culture of worms that is produced commercially
o Cover the pit contents daily by sprinkling of dried leaves and soil every day
o Water the pit once or twice a week to keep it moist
o Turn the contents of the pit every 15 days
o In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of the
microorganisms
o The produced humus in the pit is fertile and rich in soil nutrients. It can hence be
used in the garden.
  Factors affecting Composting
o Segregation of refuse
o Grinding and shredding of refuse
o Proportion of blending of wastes
o Moisture content
o Placement of materials for composting
o Temperature
o Aeration
o Organisms in composting
o Reaction(PH Value)
o Climate condition
o Destruction of pathogenic organisms
o Fly control
Waste converter

 A waste converter is a machine used for the treatment and recycling of solid and
liquid refuse material.
 A converter is a self-contained system capable of performing the following functions:
o Pasteurization of organic waste
o sterilization of pathogenic or biohazard waste
o Grinding and pulverization of refuse into unrecognizable output
o Trash compaction
o Dehydration.
 Because of the wide variety of functions available on converters, this technology has
found application in diverse waste-producing industrial segments.
 Hospitals, clinics, municipal waste facilities, farms, slaughterhouses, supermarkets, ports,
sea vessels, and airports are the primary beneficiaries of on-site waste conversion.
 Converter technology is an environmentally friendly alternative to other traditional
means of waste disposal that include incineration, plasma arc, and landfill dumping in
that waste conversion results in a small carbon footprint, avoids polluting emissions into
the atmosphere, and results in a usable end product such as biofuel, soil compost, or
building material
 Application of the converter is common in centralized waste conversion centers, where
large machines process waste on an industrial scale.
 MSW (Municipal solid waste) or infectious waste, depending on the type of plant, is
sterilized and converted into a sterilized organic and inorganic, innocuous end-product.
 Machines used in such large-scale applications process between 1,000 and 4,000 kg of
waste per hour.
 At the end of each cycle, lasting as little as half-hour in Converters (that are capable of
grinding), and the pulverized, sanitized, and dehydrated product is off-loaded and
segregated for other uses.
 Some of the product is routed for use in pulp production, composting, or refuse-derived
fuel.
 Applications outside of waste treatment centers are increasingly common due to the
portability and simplicity of modern converters.
 Hospitals are a large beneficiary of converter technology, which allows for the immediate
treatment of potentially infected hazardous waste at its source.
 Hospitals and clinics equipped to have a zero hazardous waste footprint operate by
having a converter placed on every floor where single use sanitary items such as needles,
scalpels, bandages, and blood bags are immediately converted into innocuous product.
 In addition to the marked improvement in sanitation, on-site treatment of hazardous
waste allows operational cost savings for these facilities.

***©®***
 MODULE – 5
PART-1

INTRODUCTION TO FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY

General

Based on occupancy, buildings come under one or the other of the following general
classifications - Residential, Educational, Institutional, Assembly, Business, Mercantile,
Industrial, Storage and Hazardous.

With the technological advance on all fronts, not only the factor of susceptibility but
the complexity of fires, explosions and other hazards which these buildings are exposed to,
have also increased manifold. These hazards have been instrumental in causing heavy losses
in lives and property, throwing up fresh challenges to planners, architects and fire protection
services in evolving better and improved methods of design and fire protection in order to
mitigate such losses.

The susceptibility of buildings to fire depends on several factors like:

 Type and size of building,

 Method of construction,
 Combustibility of materials of construction,
 The type of occupancy,
 Age of the building,
 Degree of fire resistance,
 The type of building services,
 Fire loading of the building,
 Fire prevention, and fire protection arrangements of the building, and
 Scores of others, including the human factor.
 However, for purposes of analysis of the various fire hazards in buildings it is
common to divide these hazards into:
I. Internal hazards- which arise inside the building and which concern the
safety of the occupants (Personal Hazard or more widely known as Life
Hazard): and which concerns the safety of the structure and the contents; and
II. External hazards - which arise as a result of fires in surrounding property
(Exposure Hazard)
Relationship of Building Fire Hazards with Life Safety:

 The most important of these hazards which deserves the highest consideration is the
life hazard, as everybody’s concern is to save and protect lives from fires.
 As a fire develops, smoke, heat and toxic gases build up over time to create an
environment leading to a critical level when survival of life becomes impossible.
 The lead time for this can be very short, and will vary according to the material on
fire, the combustion products produced, and the physical and mental characteristics of
 the exposed individuals which govern their endurance to withstand the adverse
environments.
 It has been seen that such untenable conditions can develop in a room fire within an
incredibly short time of two to three minutes, if unchecked.
 Therefore, it is this short interval of time, and more precisely, the interval between
detection and the critical level of human survival, that is available to the occupants for
effecting escape, or for taking some action to overcome the fire.
 This is the reason why lot of emphasis is laid on the need for early detection of fire
conditions especially when life hazard is involved.
Factors affecting Life Safety of Occupants:

 The most difficult component of life safety to evaluate is the occupant population at
risk in the building and, therefore their susceptibility to fire and fire products are to be
assessed correctly to evolve a safe evacuation plan for them.
 The characteristics of the building occupants to be taken into account are their age,
mobility (including physical handicaps, disability, illness etc.), alertness or awareness
(which may be influenced by alcohol and narcotics, or whether they are awake or
asleep), familiarity with the lay out of the premises, their standard of training in
evacuation drills, occupant density in the premises, and their amenability to
disciplinary control.
 Regular occupants of a particular building are likely to have better familiarity and
knowledge about the premises as against casual or transient visitors to the building.
 Occupant density in the building is also quite relevant due to the fact greater the
number of people in a given area, greater is the potential loss of life.
 Studies have shown the relationship of occupant density with speed of movement in
case of forced evacuation, which may lead to panic conditions Any uncertainty as to
the location or adequacy of means of egress, the presence of smoke or fumes and the
stoppage of travel towards the exit, such as may occur when one person stumbles and
falls on stairs, may be conducive to panic.
 Danger from panic is greater when a large number of people are trapped in a confined
area.
Classes of Occupancies:

All buildings, whether existing or hereafter created shall be classified according to the use or
the character of occupancy in one of the following groups:

o Group A -Residential
o Group B -Educational
o Group C -Institutional
o Group D -Assembly
o Group E -Business
o Group F -Mercantile
o Group G- Industrial
o Group H- Storage
o Group J –Hazardous
Fire Classification:

Fires are classified into five major categories :

1. Fire class (A) : A fire resulting from the combustion of solid organic materials such as
wood - straw - paper - rubber - fabric - plastic - coal and charcoal .. Etc
2. Fire class (B): A fire resulting from the combustion of liquid substances such as
petroleum and its derivatives - alcohols - oils - tar.. Etc..
3. Fire class (C): A fire resulting from the combustion of gaseous substances such as
propane - butane - hydrogen – acetylene .. Etc
4. Fire class (D) : A fire resulting from the combustion of combustible metals and their
alloys such as sodium metal - lithium - magnesium - potassium - aluminum - cesium
...
5. Fire - class (E): A fire caused by electrical current and electrical arcs such as: fire of
cables, condensers and electrical machinery and electronic computers. Continued with
the passage of electric current during the fire, and may be a current of tension (V) is
high or low.
Hydrant Systems

Water being the main extinguishing medium, major fires has to be controlled and
extinguished by the use of water from fire fighting hoses operated by the regular fire services.
This fire fighting water is usually obtained from hydrants installed on public mains or other
premises.

 Hydrant Systems can be of two types:

a. External Hydrant System, where the hydrants are installed in the open, like the
city or town water mains, or hydrant systems installed in the open areas in
industrial or such other occupancies; and
b. Internal Hydrant System, installed in buildings or structures to be protected
 The basic requirements of any hydrant systems are:
o Water reservoir or source of water supply (for supply of water for fire fighting
purposes)
o Pump(s) for imparting energy to the water (for conveying water through pipe
lines, and to make water available at the required pressures for fire fighting
purposes)
o Pipelines, which may be laid underground or above ground, for conveying
water under pressure to the required places
o Hydrants (which are the outlets installed on the pipelines at strategic locations
on the water mains for drawing water, using delivery hoses, for fire fighting
purposes.
 Table: Amounts of water to be provided in the service reservoirs for fire fighting.

Capacity of fire fighting reservoirs in m3

Population of less than
or kilo litres
5000 50
10,000 100
20,000 200
30,000 300
40,000 350
50,000 400

Important component items of fire protection requirement of a building or structure or

facility:

a. Fire Detection and Alarm Systems (Automatic Fire Alarm Systems)

b. Fixed Fire Extinguishing Systems / Installations and
c. First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment.
 The first two, Fire Detection and Alarm Systems and Fixed Fire Extinguishing
Systems, are both fixed installations.
 The third, First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment covers mainly portable fire fighting
equipment like Fire Extinguishers, except Hose Reels, which are normally included
under First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment, although it is, in fact, a type of fixed
installation.
 Automatic fixed extinguishing systems have proved to be the most effective means of
controlling fires in buildings. For understanding the capabilities of these systems,
knowledge of the main principles involved in their installation, uses and applications
are necessary.
Choice / Selection of Fire Detectors

Automatic fire detection system should have detectors suited to the risks and the
environmental conditions so that they provide the earliest reliable warning. Each type of
detector responds at a different rate to different kinds of fire.

 In general, smoke detectors give faster responses than heat detectors, but may be more
liable to give false alarms.
 Ionisation smoke detectors are unsuitable for smouldering / PVC / polyurethane foam
/ clearly burning fires like Hydrogen, certain grades of petroleum fires etc.
 Optical smoke detectors are more sensitive to the larger, optically active, particles
found in optically dense smoke, but are less sensitive to the smaller particles found in
clean burning fires.
 Both types of smoke detectors have sufficiently wide range of response for general
use.
 Smoke detectors cannot detect products from clean burning liquids such as alcohol,
which do not produce smoke particles.
 Optical beam smoke detectors incorporating thermal turbulence detectors are
particularly suitable for clean burning fires.
  Ionisation smoke detectors are suitable for detection of rapidly burning fires
 In a life safety situation it is essential to pay primary attention to early detection of
smoke and to protect escape routes, ensure operation of detectors on escape routes
before optical density exceeds 0.05 dB / m (visibility falls below 20m.)
 Heat detectors are not suitable for detection in life safety installations and in slow
burning / air-conditioned premises.
 Heat detectors are suitable in compartments / areas where heat producing equipment
are used (eg. kitchen, pantry etc.) and in other unsupervised spaces / areas with low
value contents.
 Heat detectors with rate-of-rise elements are more suitable where ambient temperature
is low or vary only slowly, while fixed temperature detectors are more suitable where
the ambient temperature is likely to fluctuate rapidly over short period.
 Flame detectors are particularly suited for outside applications, and for general
surveillance of large open areas in warehouses etc. or for critical areas where flaming
fires may spread very rapidly, eg., at pumps, valves or pipe work containing
flammable liquids etc.
 Detailed guidelines for selection, installation, system design and maintenance etc. (for
fire detection and alarm systems for buildings, selection/choice of fire detectors etc.)
are given in relevant national/international Standards like
o IS : 2189 : 1999
o BS : 5839 : Part-1 : 1988
o NFPA-72 : 2002 etc.
Internal Hydrant Systems

(a) These systems are generally installed for fire protection of buildings or special structures.
An internal hydrant installation comprises of the following elements:

 Static or terrace tank for storing water for fire fighting purposes
 Rising mains, down comer mains or external mains to feed water from the source to
the required point under pressure
 Fire fighting pump(s) with all fitments and components; and
 Other necessary components like internal hydrants (also called as landing valves,
external hydrants (also called as yard hydrants), hose reels, hoses and branch pipes, in
cabinets.
(b) The main features and requirements for the internal hydrant systems are listed below:

 The capacities of the underground static water tanks/ terrace tanks vary according to
the fire risks involved in the occupancy
 Internal hydrants form part of any of the following systems-
I. Dry-riser system
II. Wet-riser system
III. Wet-riser-cum -down-comer system, and
IV. Down-comer-system
  Dry riser system is not normally charged with water but could be charged either
through the fire service inlet provided at the bottom, or through an installed pump
when required, or directly from a fire appliance
 A wet riser system
o It is an arrangement for fire fighting within the building by means of vertical
rising mains of not less than 100 mm diameter with landing valves on each
floor/landing for fire fighting purposes and permanently charged with water
from a pressurised supply
o Remains charged throughout so that by connecting delivery hoses, fire
fighting operations could be carried out immediately.
o Generally, hose reels are also connected to this system alongside landing
valves.
o The landing valves provided in the system are required to be sited so as to
ensure that no part of the building protected is more than 30m from the
landing valve.
o This system is normally charged by the operation of the static fire fighting
pump installed in the building.
o However, a fire service inlet is also provided for charging it from fire service
appliances.
o The fire service inlet for 100mm internal dia rising main should have a
collecting head with 2 nos. of 63mm inlets, and for 150mm rising main,should
have a collecting head with 4 nos. of 63mm inlets
 The down comer system is connected to a terrace tank through a terrace pump.
Automatic sprinkler systems

 Automatic sprinklers are devices for automatically distributing water upon a fire in
sufficient quantity to extinguish it completely or to prevent its spread, by keeping the
fire under control, by the water discharged from the sprinklers.
 The water for fire fighting is fed to the sprinklers through a system of piping,
normally suspended from the ceiling, with the sprinklers installed at intervals along
the pipes.
 The orifice of the sprinkler head, incorporating the fusible link or fusible bulb of the
automatic sprinkler, is normally kept closed, which is thrown open on the actuation of
the temperature-sensitive fusible link or fusible bulb.
 The downward force of the water spray from the sprinklers also helps minimise the
smoke accumulation in the room of fire besides cooling the environment and
promoting survival of the occupants.
 However, it has to be mentioned that partial coverage of the buildings by sprinkler
protection is neither advisable from fire protection point of view nor from cost
effectiveness.
 In case a fire originates from an unprotected area and after growing into a well-
developed fire spreads to the protected area, it would have generally developed
sufficient intensity to overpower the sprinklers.
Means of Escape Requirements

 Safe exit for the occupants in a building on fire requires a safe path of escape from the
fire in the shortest possible time.
 This path, which should be as short as possible, and easily negotiable, should be ready
for use in case of emergency For ensuring the life safety of occupants from a fire, the
following are the requirements in general:
o Provision of adequate No. of properly designed, unobstructed means of exit of
adequate capacity which are available at all times;
o Availability of alternative means of exit for use, if the already chosen one is
inaccessible due to fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases;
o Protection of the entire rescue path against fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases
during the egress time based on occupant load, travel distance and exit capacity
o Adoption of compartmentation and other adequate passive fire protection
measures to ensure the safe egress/evacuation of the occupants in case of fire
o Provision of adequate and reliable fire alarm system in the building to alert the
occupants
o Provision of refuge areas where total evacuation of occupants is not contemplated
o Adequate illumination and marking of the means of egress
o Formulation organisation and practice of effective evacuation drill procedures
Exit Requirements - General

 The details of some of the means of exit or egress or escape are a continuous path of
travel from any point in a building or structure to the open air outside at ground level.
 It consists of three constituents which are:
(i) The exit access
(ii) The exit
(iii) The exit discharge
 The main requirements for the means of exit consisting of the three constituents as
given above are:
 All means of exit, including staircases, lift lobbies and corridors, shall be adequately
ventilated
 Exits not properly ventilated can cause suffocation to people being evacuated because
a large number of people would be present in such enclosed place with no natural
ventilation till they get out of it and reach open air
 Every building meant for human occupancy shall be provided with exits sufficient to
permit safe escape of occupants, in case of fire or other emergency
 An exit may be a doorway, corridor, passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or
external staircase, or to a veranda or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to
the roof of a building or a refuge area.
 An exit may also include a horizontal exit leading to an adjoining building at the same
level
 Every exit, exit access or exit discharge shall be continuously maintained free of all
obstructions or impediments to full use in the case of fire or other emergency.
 No building shall be so altered as to reduce the number, width or protection of exits to
less than that required.
 All exits shall provide continuous means of egress to the exterior of a building or to
an exterior open space leading to a street.
 Exits shall be clearly visible and the route to reach such exits shall be clearly marked
and signs posted to guide the occupants of the floor concerned.
 Signs shall be illuminated and wired to independent electrical circuits on an
alternative source of supply.
 The sizes and colour of the exit signs shall be in accordance with established
international practice.
 Normal colour used for exits is green.
 Illumination of exits and exit route signs, even when electricity is turned off, is very
important to ensure orderly evacuation of occupants without chaos.
 The floors of areas covered for the means of exits shall be illuminated to values not
less than 10 lux at floor level.
 This should cover all portions of exit access, exits and exit discharge.
 Fire doors with 2 hour fire resistance shall be provided at appropriate places along the
escape route and particularly at the entrance to lift lobby and stairwell, where a funnel
or flue effect may be created inducing an upward spread of fire, to prevent spread of
fire and smoke.
 Width of Staircase Following minimum width shall be provided for staircases:
a. Residential buildings (dwellings) 1.0m
b. Residential hotel buildings 1.5 m
c. Assembly buildings like auditorium, theatres and cinemas 2.0m
d. Educational buildings up to 30 m in height 1.5 m
e. Institutional buildings like hospitals 2.0 m
f. All other buildings 1.5 m
 External Stairs
o It is desirable to provide external staircases in case of high-rise buildings.
o The flights and landings of an external escape stair should be of fire resisting
construction
o All external stairs shall be directly connected to the ground
o No wall opening or window opens on to or close to an external stairs.
o Flames can leap out of such doors and windows in external walls of affected
building hampering evacuation and fire fighting operations.
o The route to the external stairs shall be free of obstructions at all time.
 Horizontal Exits:
o Horizontal exits are particularly useful during fire emergencies in hospitals
(health care occupancies) for evacuation of bedridden patients or patients
suffering from immobility.
o Adjoining compartments into which horizontal evacuation is done should also
have a floor area sufficient to accommodate evacuees from the adjoining
compartment.
 o Sometimes, progressive horizontal evacuation may also have to be adopted
depending on the emergency situation and the facilities available.
Fire Control Room

 For all buildings 15m in height and above, there shall be a control room on the
entrance floor of the building with communication system (suitable public address
system) to all floors and facilities for receiving the message from different floors.
 Details of all floor plans along with the details of fire fighting equipment and
installations shall be displayed in the fire control room.
 The fire control room shall also have facilities to detect the fire on any floor through
indicator board connection to fire detection and alarm systems on all floors.
 The fire staff in charge of the fire control room shall be responsible for maintenance
of the various services and the fire fighting equipment
 It should have an area of 16m2 to 20m2, preferably on ground floor
 The Control and Indicating Equipment(Control Panel of the AFA system), power
supply units and the fire protection ancillary panels(for automatic sprinkler system or
other fixed fire protection system etc.) should be installed in the room
 It should have intercom and direct telephone facilities. Where possible, a direct hot
line to local fire brigade should be provided
 It should have a mimic panel of the premises protected and details of all the fire
protection systems installed
 The room should be air-conditioned and should have emergency lighting system
Code of practices:

Building Codes and Fire Protection are two sides of the same coin, which serve to alleviate
the loss of life and property. The architectural design of a building has a significant effect on
its fire safety characteristics. Similarly, the fire protection measures incorporated for the
building, both active and passive, also provide reasonable safety from the effects of fire.

National Building Code

 It was as a sequel to the recommendations of a Panel ofExperts contituted by the

Planning Commission in 1965 that Bureau of Indian Standards(the Indian Sandards
Institution)was entrusted with the task of preparation of a National Building Code to
bring in uniformity in the builing regulaions throughout the country for adoption by
Govt. departments, local authorities and other construction agencies.
 The NBC has ten Parts, of which Part IV deals with Fire Protection. The provisions of
the Code are formulated on the information contained in various Indian Standards
woven into a continuous and cogent pattern relevant to each Part, and so framed to
make the adoption process easy
 Part IV prescribes only the basic minimum requirements for achieving fire and life
safety in buildngs, and nothing in the Code prohibits better type of building
construction, more exits, or other conditions that are prescribed in the Code. A point
worth mentioning here is that while assessing the extent of fire hazards in a building,
the nature of occupancy and the activities pursued by the occupants of the building
must also be taken into consideration.
Equipment Used

Snorkel Ladder:

 It is a platform or bucket attached onto a mechanically bending arm (or "snorkel")

installed onto a fire truck. While these could not reach the height of similar turntable
ladders.
 The platforms could extend into previously unreachable "dead corners" of a burning
building.
Basic materials in the fight against fires:

o Water
o The wet water
o Heavy foam
o Medium and light foam
o Gas carbon dioxide CO2
o Hydrocarbon halides
o Dry powder
o Light Water
 Water: It is the first and cheaper basic materials in the fire fighting and successfully
used often in most types of fires of class (A).
o The water is taken directly by the fire fighting operations of the rivers or lakes
or the barrels of fire-fighting water adequate and does not constitute any
significant problems, but that water reserves are reserves in small tanks to
fight the fire, when it happens to be adding some chemicals to it to be valid for
use when needed.
o It is important to add some material to the water to increase the effectiveness
of extinguishing and fire resistance:
For example, the addition of carboxy methyl and its salts for toughening the
strength of the water and reduce its liquidity, where water is viscous adhesive
and remains on the plant and absorbs this heat more. Also, the addition of Poly
ethylene glycol (with a high molecular weight) at 10 parts / million increase
caused by throwing water from 36 to 54 meters. And also caused increase in
the amount of water ejected from 900 to 1000 liters per minute.
 Wet Water: The water does not reach the heart of the fire can be turned into water
vapour.
 o Therefore be added is usually the water of some materials to help wetting
especially in extinguishing which are not wetting such as sawdust, hay, wool,
hemp, paper ... etc.
o It was found that the addition of 0.1 - 5% of the wetting material in water the
fire help to reach to the heart of the fire and thus reduce the amount of water
used, as well as reduced damage
o The water container on wet materials is very good properties in extinguishing
the fires of class «B» and preferably on the pure water exchange in use.
 Heavy foam: heavy foam contains high proportion of water thus its cooling effect is
good, and are used to extinguish fires, wood, rubber, paper, plastic ... etc.
 Gas carbon dioxide CO2: It is produced as a by-product alcoholic fermentation
processes where the purified and dried from the effects of moisture carried by the
filled cylinders under pressure, it may sometimes reach 80 kg / cm2 .
o The successful use of carbon gas in fire-fighting equipment (fire class E) and
special effect that does not leave a solid or liquid (because the gas).
o Also succeed in extinguishing the fires that occur in chemical laboratories and
buildings closed.
 Hydrocarbon halides: Used to extinguish the fires of electricity (like carbon dioxide
does not have an impact where a solid or liquid to evaporate as the impact of heat)
and also used successfully to extinguish the fires of goods, machinery, precious and
valuable.
 Dry powder: Most important types of powders used with great success :
o Carbonate and bicarbonate of sodium or potassium powder, which is used in
extinguishing fires of class B, C, and E.
o Ammonium phosphate powder which is used in extinguishing fires of all
categories A, B, C, D, E.
o Ammonium or potassium sulphate powder, , which is used in extinguishing
fires of class A , B , C , E .
o Sodium chloride powder which is used in extinguishing fires of alkali metal
(fire class D).
 Light Water:
o Types of liquids is a high-expansion foam, and is used to fight fires of liquids
lighter than water, such as petroleum and its derivatives, which floats above
and a thin layer of water and also float on the surface of the solvent that will
prevent fires and floating so as not to expand the fire.
o The most important components of some fluorine derivatives of fatty acids or
sulfonic such as: Fluoro cabrelic acid, and fluoro octyl sulfonic acid, with
butyl glycol and water.
 PART-2
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors.

There are two types of solar water heating systems:

I. Active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and

II. Passive, which don't.

Active Solar Water Heating Systems

There are two types of active solar water heating systems:

 Direct circulation systems

o Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home.
They work well in climates where it rarely freezes.
 Indirect circulation systems
o Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and
a heat exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are
popular in climates prone to freezing temperatures.

Illustration of an active, closed loop solar water heater:

 A large, flat panel called a flat plate collector is connected to a tank called a solar
storage/backup water heater by two pipes.
 One of these pipes is runs through a cylindrical pump into the bottom of the tank,
where it becomes a coil called a double-wall heat exchanger.
 This coil runs up through the tank and out again to the flat plate collector.
  Antifreeze fluid runs only through this collector loop.
 Two pipes run out the top of the water heater tank; one is a cold water supply into the
tank, and the other sends hot water to the house.
Passive Solar Water Heating Systems

Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive than active systems, but
they're usually not as efficient. However, passive systems can be more reliable and may last
longer. There are two basic types of passive systems:

 Integral collector-storage passive systems

o These work best in areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They
also work well in households with significant daytime and evening hot-water
needs.
 Thermo syphon systems
o Water flows through the system when warm water rises as cooler water sinks.
The collector must be installed below the storage tank so that warm water will
rise into the tank. These systems are reliable, but contractors must pay careful
attention to the roof design because of the heavy storage tank. They are
usually more expensive than integral collector-storage passive systems.

Illustration of a passive, batch solar water heater:

 Cold water enters a pipe and can either enter a solar storage/backup water heater tank
or the batch collector, depending on which bypass valve is opened.
 If the valve to the batch collector is open, a vertical pipe (which also has a spigot
drain valve for cold climates) carries the water up into the batch collector.
 The batch collector is a large box holding a tank and covered with a glaze that faces
the sun.
  Water is heated in this tank, and another pipe takes the heated water from the batch
collector into the solar storage/backup water heater, where it is then carried to the
house.

LPG Supply Systems

I. LPG System Supply System

II. Cylinder Banks Systems For Small Communities
III. Straight LPG Central Supply System
LPG System Supply System:

 The simplest way of using LPG is to place a Cylinder in every household.

 LPG gas can be supplied directly from the Regulators on the top of each cylinder to
the household LGP appliances.
Cylinder Banks Systems for Small Communities

 Connecting an automatic changeover device to two sets of cylinders, LPG gas can be
supplied from either of the cylinders.
 When one cylinder is exhausted, the device will automatically switch to another one,
hence, gas supply would not be interrupted.
 It also indicates when replacement is required.

Straight LPG Central Supply System

 Because of its large consumption of LPG, a large scale Central Supply System
requires LPG tanks for supply.
  An LPG Central Gas System typically has an underground, above ground or mounded
LPG storage tank connected to various utility appliances through a network of
engineered LPG pipelines and accessories, such as
o vaporizers,
o emergency shutdown systems,
o gas detection systems,
o gauging system,
o gas meters and
o pressure regulators as well as
o LPG receipt pipelines connected to a filling point.

Gas Distribution Systems

Central gas supply systems (CGS)

 CGS are based on high volume gas delivery and on-site gas stocking in cylinders,
multi-cylinder packages (bundles), cryogenic vessels with vaporizers or in special
containers.
 Gas distribution is provided by pipe line from the central point up to the final
application place.
 Gas goes from the source through high pressure manifold with pressure regulator
where the inlet pressure from the bulk is reduced to the level acceptable for the pipes
and other components of the gas distribution system.
 At the end of the pipeline outlet points would be fitted to set gas parameters e.g.
pressure and flow-rate according to request.
 When CGS systems are installed in industrial plants, working efficiency, economic
savings and also safety aspects will grow in relation to increased gas consumption.
Main benefits:

 Reliable supply system with continuous gas delivery (no gas flow interruptions)
 More precise gas parameters adjustment
 Higher safety level because of high pressure gas storage and installation located in
specified and safe place
 More space at the working place
 Usually lower gas costs due to high volume delivery

Main fields of use of industrial CGS:

 Automotive and transportation

 Metal & glass & plastics & paper production and fabrication
 Flame, arc, plasma and laser welding and cutting processes
 Chemical & petrochemical industry
 Metallurgy
 Oil & gas refinery
 Off-shore & shipyards
 Energy and power
 Ecology & environment
 Food & beverages production and packaging
 Craftsmen & workshops
 On-site constructions

Medical Gas Supply

 The medical gases used in a hospital are life-supporting element that gives direct
influence in maintaining the life of a patient.
 Therefore, at the sections where the medical gases are used, the medical gas must be
clean, highly pure and supplied under stable pressure.
 Our medical gas system has cleared those regulations and standards as well as passing
our strict company standard.
 The system has a thorough going colour coordination according to the kind of gas, an
audio-visual monitoring system capable of checking the situation, and a device to
prevent cross connection at medical gas outlet based on the concept, "more safely"
and "more securely".
Advantages of Centralised Medical Gas Delivery System

 For Patients:
o No distressing sign of oxygen cylinder at bed side.
o Elimination of noise produced by their movement.
o Protection of sterile areas from contamination caused by use and movement of
cylinder.
o Uninterrupted and clean gas supply at desired locations
 For Hospital Staffs:
o Instant availability of gas. Clean, safe and reliable delivery of gases.
o Continuous flow of gases when and where required.
o Minimal accident hazards due to mishandling of cylinders.
 For Hospital Administrator:
o Easy purchase of gases in bulk quantities at favourable term.
o Economy on purchase of cylinders.
o Fewer breakages
o Minimum damages to building due to handling of cylinder.
o Rationalization in ordering, storing and transporting.
Central Vacuum Systems

 A central vacuum system is a cleaning mechanism that is built into a building for ease
of use, access, and maintenance.
 Vacuum and pressure are created by a centrally located motor to remove dirt, dust,
and debris.
 Depending on the design of the system and the material to be collected, they can be
filtered or unfiltered with a collection canister.
 The inlets for a central vacuum system are connected by duct work, piping, or tubing
that is installed along the walls of the building.
 The maintenance staffs carry a hose of approximately 25 to 30 feet with a wand that
activates the system.
 The electric circuitry in the hose is activated by a switch on the handle or wand.
 Centrally located cleaning systems are a convenient and economical method for
cleaning large buildings with multiple floors.
 All of the collected dirt and debris goes to the canister for trash collection.
 In a filtered system, a filter or several filters clean the air from the collected debris.
 Hoses and attachments are standardized reducing the amount of equipment
maintenance staff has to carry.
 The motor of a central vacuum system creates greater suction than is available from
portable or handheld vacuum units.
 The suction on the system remains constant regardless of the amount of debris in the
collection container.

The Advantages of a Central Vacuum System

 Central vacuum systems are more powerful with less noise than traditional cleaning
methods.
 Since the unit is centrally located, collected dirt and dust is sealed in the system and
kept from recirculating.
  The main components of a central vacuum system include the vacuum motor, canister
housing, filtration unit in a filtered system, and an exhaust unit.
 The power of the system depends on the size of the motor and how the various
elements are combined.
 Regardless of how central vacuum systems are constructed, they have several
advantages over handheld portable vacuums.
Below is a description of some of those advantages.
o Air Quality: Spent air is removed into a utility space or sent outdoors through
an exhaust outlet that is similar to a standard clothes dryer vent.
o Suction Power: Greater suction means higher quality cleaning to remove the
tiniest dust particles.
o Filtration: The filtration system is more effective and capable of filtering large
amounts of dust and allergens.
o Difficult Debris: Central vacuums systems remove dry substances, such as
plaster dust, spilled flour, laser printer toner, metal knockout slugs, wire
clippings, and slivers of broken glass.
o Noise: Central vacuum systems are very quiet because the motor is remotely
located, which is a benefit to the operator and others in the area
o Convenience: Setup, use, and storage of hoses and cleaning tools is quick and
efficient.
o Emptying: Central vacuum systems collect large quantities of dirt and dust
before needing to be emptied, which can be done less frequently, such as a few
times a year.
o Cost: The initial cost of installing a central vacuum system can be high and
expensive. The only ongoing cost is replacement filters. Systems perform the
best when given regular maintenance, which may be another cost factor.
o Protection of Walls and Furniture: A central vacuum system does not require
any form of large equipment that could damage furniture or run into walls.
The hose is flexible and inserted into the inlet.
o Durable: Central vacuum systems can last 30 to 40 years.

Liquid Fuel Storage

 Liquid fuel storage requirements are based on fuel type, usage, and whether the fuel is
“combustible” or “flammable” as assessed by the fuel flash point.
 Diesel-fuelled generators are used for primary power at many electricity generating
stations.
Furthermore, emergency and standby diesel units are relied upon at many more sites,
including coal and nuclear power plants, as well as industrial, commercial, medical,
and educational facilities (Figure). This means that diesel fuel is stored almost
everywhere power is generated.
  There are detailed storage requirements outlined in several codes and standards,
including
o National Fire Protection Association’s NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible
Liquids Code and
o NFPA 110 Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems.
Storage of high speed diesel

 According to NFPA 30, storage requirements are based on whether the liquid fuel is
“combustible” or “flammable” as assessed by the fuel flash point.
 The fuel flash point is the lowest temperature at which the fuel will ignite in the
presence of an ignition source.
 NFPA 30 defines combustible liquids as having a flash point equal to or greater than
100F (37.8C) and flammable liquids as having a flash point less than 100F (37.8C).
 The flash point of conventional diesel fuel typically ranges between 126F and 204F
(52.2C and 95.5C). Therefore, diesel fuel is considered a combustible liquid.
 It is further classified as Class II if the flash point is less than 140F or Class III if flash
point is greater than 140F, depending on the specific fuel.
 However, it is important to note that when diesel fuel is blended with ethanol (E-
diesel) to reduce emissions, the blended diesel fuel has a low flash point of about 68F
(20C).
 The blended fuel is therefore considered a flammable liquid, requiring management of
associated fire and explosion hazards.
  Additionally, NFPA 110 requires the actual size of the bulk tank to be at least 133%
of the quantity established by the EPSS class (or the corresponding low-fuel sensor
quantity).
 The bulk fuel storage capacity of 133% provides the ability to test run the emergency
diesel for maintenance purposes several times before the tank requires refilling.
 The tank refilling cycle should be such that the fuel inventory does not drop below the
minimum level based on the EPSS classification per NFPA 110.

Bulk Diesel Storage Tank Installation.

 Bulk tanks can be installed above ground, within a storage tank vault, underground
(direct buried), or within a storage tank building.
 Above-ground tanks (Figure ) must be provided with emergency relief venting that
will release internal pressure, if the tank is exposed to fire.
 Means for spill control shall also be provided for above-ground tanks.

 Tanks listed as “above-ground tanks” can be installed within a vault, and the vault can
be either above or below grade.

 Backfill is not permitted around the tank in a vault and sufficient clearance is required
around the tank for inspection and maintenance purposes.

 Vaults should be provided with a means to admit a fire suppression agent, recover
liquid spills from vaults, and sound an alarm in case of vapour/liquid release
detection.
 Underground tanks and piping require external corrosion protection by means of
cathode protection or use of corrosion-resistant material.

 The base and fill shall be clean, non-corrosive, compacted sand or compacted gravel.

 Storage tank buildings are subject to minimum separation distances from property
lines, public ways, and important buildings on the same property.

 Storage tank buildings and structures shall have at least a two-hour fire resistance
rating and be equipped with manual/fixed fire control equipment.

 Discharge of liquid shall be prevented from public waterways/sewers or adjoining

property and all vents shall terminate outside the building.

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