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1.

Baseload: is the level that it typically does not go below, that is, the basic amount of electricity
that is always required. Baseload is typically provided by large coal-fired and nuclear power stations.
They may take days to fire up, and their output does not vary.

Examples of baseload power plants are: Nuclear power plant, Coal power plant, Hydroelectric plant,
Geothermal plant, Biogas plant, Biomass plant, Solar thermal with storage, Ocean thermal energy
conversion.

2. Peak load: is the daily fluctuation of electricity use. It is usually lowest in the morning and highest
in the early evening. It also varies seasonally. Peak load, the variable part of the electrical supply and
demand, is provided by more responsive and smaller plants whose output can be quickly ramped up
and down or that can even be quickly turned on and off.

Examples of peak load power plants are Gas plant, Solar power plants, Wind turbines, Diesel
generators, Storage type hydro plants, Pumped storage hydropower plants.
• Generators of base load plants are usually designed for maximum efficiency at full load
• Generators of peak load plants are usually designed for maximum efficiency at 50 to 75% full
load.

Power plant

(ONGC) -Coal, natural gas oil, Nuclear Water Solar, Tidal, Wind, Geothermal

Thermal power Plant

➢ Space: less space compared to hydropower plant


➢ Operating cost: less than diesel/gas power plant
➢ Cycle → Rankin cycle η = 30–45%
➢ high temp. and high pressure

1.Coal four types

(1) Anthracite → good quality coal cost ↑ (>90% of carbon)


(2) Bituminous
(3) Lignite → used in thermal plant also called (Brown coal)
(4) Peat → ash content ↑↑, low calorific value
• Indian coal → (20 to 40% ash content, Ash → main wasted product
• That Ash is Used for in construction of Brick, RRC cement
2.Boiler

➢ Device where water converted to steam by utilizing heat of combustion


➢ Efficient device in thermal plant ήboiler = 85%
➢ Steam pressure in boiler = 1110 – 170 hg/cm2
➢ The pipe of these boiler is made of steel

3. Super heater

➢ B/w boiler turbine. Converts Wet steam to Dry steam


➢ It is a device which rise the temp of steam Much above boiling point of
water
➢ Rise on the temp. of wet steam is done with help of flue gases

Advantages of super heater

(1) Improves Rankin cycle efficiency


(2) Reduced corrosion on turbine blade
(3) Reduced initial condensation less

4.Turbine

➢ Device convert steam/heat energy to mechanical energy


➢ Impulse reaction turbine used in thermal plant
➢ Speed of turbine in thermal plant  3000 rpm
➢ Turbine never stop in thermal plant (even unit shut also ,it rotate at 60
rpm)
➢ Size of turbine decrease with speed

5. Condenser:

It condenses (or) cool down steam coming out of turbine

→ Lower than atm. Pressure

→ Because pressure higher to lower flow, so that it gas to turbine. So that


maximum heat energy can be extracted from steam. Seam converted to water now
6. Feed water Heater

➢ Steam coming out of turbine is condensate and is feedback to boiler as


feed water.
➢ It is necessary to heat the feed water before feeding to boiler.
➢ It improves overall η of plant and it reduced thermal stress on boiler

7.Economizer

o Economizer mainly consists of closely spaced parallel tubes through which


feed water on its way to boiler flow and flew gases flow outside the tube.
o Feedwater → Temperature ↑ (inside economizer) → T↑ → Boiler
o These flue gases head and rise the temperature of feed water which in
saving of fuel (10–25%) and plant efficiency increased by (10 – 12%).

Important Points:

Rankin cycle → Thermal Plant

Carnot cycle → Diesel

Otto cycle → Automobile

Bell-Coleman cycle → Refrigerator

Brayton cycle → gas turbine

heat equivalent of mech. energy i / p to shaft


thermal =
 Heat of coal combustion
( Turbine )

Heat equivalent to electrical energy


overall =
Heat of coal combution
( gen)

1kwH = (1 unit) = 860 kcal

ηoverrall < ηThermal

ηoverrall < 30% (25 – 30%)

ηThermal = 30 – 40%

ηboiler = 85%, ηgenerator = 98%

Efficiency of thermal plant depends on

(1) Pressure
(2) Temperature.
(3) Pressure in condenser. η of thermal plant is low due to condenser.
• Forced Draught Fan: Takes air from atmosphere and gives to the boiler
furnace through air preheater (i.e., inside the system).
• Induced Draught Fan: Takes air from ESP (Electrostatic precipitator) and gives
it to the chimney (i.e., to outside the system)
• ESP (Electrostatic precipitator): Dust collector.

Hydro Power Plant

Spillway: Used to discharge excess water to protect the dam.


Catchment area: The area over which rainwater is collected for storing the
water in DAM.
Penstock: Convert P.E to K.E and provide path to water flow
Surge tank: To protect from water hammering, surge tank is constructed near
generation station. When water supply to turbine reduces the extra water rushes
back to surge tank and penstock prevented from bursting.
Hydrograph: Graph b/w water discharge vs time.
Power calculation when water discharge is given

WQH
P( H .P) =
75
WQH
=  735.5 (W )
75
= 9.8110−3 WQH ( KW )

η – Plant efficiency, Q- Water discharge (m3/sec), W- Water density- 1000kg/m3,


H-Head in (m)

η of Hydro P.P =85-95%


Turbines in Hydro station
Impulse turbine Reaction Turbine
1.High speed turbines 1. Suitable for low and medium speeds
2. High Head Turbines 2. Low& medium Head
Ex: Pelton wheel, Turgo Ex: Kaplan (Low speed),
Francis(Medium speed), Propeller

Low head < 30m

Medium Head = 30-150m

High Head > 150m


Feeder:

Supplies current from transmission substation to distribution substation at very high voltage.
Carry bulk power.
No tapping in between, thus constant current (current density, as the cross-sectional area is
fixed for a line already constructed) throughout the length.
A feeder is a conductor having constant current density. The size of the feeder designed
based on current-carrying capacity.
For V ≤ 220 kV, selection of conductor done based on the current-carrying capacity.
For V > 220 kV, the selection of conductor is done based on the concept of corona or electric
field intensity.
In both cases, our concern is about power loss which leads to temperature rise in the
conductor. Hence, the selection of the size of the conductor for the feeder is designed
based on temperature rise.

Distributor:

Supplies current from distribution substation to distribution transformers at load centers.


Carry current at lower voltage level.
Load tapping are provided at various points in line; thus, current is not uniform throughout
the length.

Service mains:

Insulated wires that supply power from distribution transformer to our homes, industries,
farms etc are called service mains.

UG Cables:

Advantages of underground transmission system compared to the overhead system:

Lesser transmission losses.


Less affected by extreme weather conditions and hence increases the reliability of supply of
power Reduced visual impact due to being below the ground
No interference with telephone lines
Reduced EMFs (Electric and Magnetic Fields) and hence eliminates potential health issues
Can be used in highly congested areas
Smaller Voltage drop (Better Voltage regulation) as L is small compared to OH line. Only RC
parameters will be there mostly

Disadvantages

The cost of underground cables is higher compared to overhead lines


Greater Insulation cost. Insulation problems for V>66KV
Laying or burying costs of underground lines are greater compared to overhead lines
Less flexible compared to overhead lines
Difficult to find and repair the wire breaks in case of failure of the system
Unlike overhead lines which can easily be updated to carry more power, underground lines
cannot be updated to increase the capacity
Properties of insulating material:

High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.


High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
Non-hygroscopic (Not absorb moisture from soil)
Non-Inflammable
Low relative permittivity (to limit capacitive current)
Unaffected by acids and alkalis to avoid any chemical action.
Temperature withstand capability: -180C to 940C

Type of Cable based on Voltage level:

Low tension (L.T.) Cable 0 – 1 kV


High tension (H.T.) Cable 1 – 11 kV
Super tension (S.T.) Cable 11 – 33 kV
Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) Cable 33 – 66 kV
Extra super-tension (E.S.T.) Cable 66 kV and above

1. Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of


insulation; the thickness of layer depends upon the voltage which cable needs to
withstand. Materials: Mainly PVC (poly vinyl chloride), XLPE (cross linked poly Ethelene),
Rubber.

Note: Rubber – Dielectric strength: 30KV/mm

2. Lead sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids
or alkalis) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the
insulation. It has minimum dielectric stress in a cable.
3. Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of fibrous material
like jute or hessian tape. It is to protect the lead sheath against corrosion.
4. Armouring: Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injuries.
5. Serving: This is outer most layer like (bedding) made of PVC and often same material as bedding.
Outer sheath offered protection to cable not much electrically but more mechanically.
Power system Protection
1.While we are opening a circuit, we should follow the below sequence:
Open CB - Open Isolator-Close Earthing Switch

2. While we are closing a circuit, we should follow the below sequence:


Open Earthing Switch-Close Isolator- Close CB

• What happened if we open the isolator before the circuit breaker?


We know that the Isolator is designed to operate under no load condition, so if we open the
isolator before the circuit breaker, that means we open the isolator under live condition. So,
there will be huge sparking between the contacts of the Isolator which is very dangerous for
us.

1.Circuit Breaker: Operated under no load or full load by using manual or relay operation. It is filled
by some arc quenching media like SF6.

2. Earth switch: It is used to discharge residual energy present in the system.

3. Load Interrupter:

➢ Operates only at full load condition


➢ Used for load curtailment or energy management
➢ It will be used to avoid overloads
➢ Braking capacity of load interrupter is full load capacity

4. Line Isolator:

➢ It will operate only at no load


➢ Isolator provides more clearance between two points in the network or to increase the
safety of power system
➢ Isolators provides more gap to avoid arc such that there is perfect disconnection of two
areas. Braking capacity of isolator is zero as it operates at zero current.
➢ Current Rating is not important
➢ It is manually operated.

5. Earthing screen:

➢ Earthing screen is galvanized iron wire mounted on sub station to protect from direct
lightning stroke.
➢ It provides very low resistance to Lightning stroke.

6.Lightning arrester:

➢ L.A are made up of metal oxides such as ZnO, silver oxides (AgO), Zinc carbide (ZnC)
➢ These provide nonlinear characteristics (I.e., Low Z for abnormal, high Z for normal
conditions)
➢ V-I characteristics of L.A: I=K Vn ; n≠1
n= 5 to 8 for Valve type L.A

n= 35 to 50 for metal oxides type L.A


Impulse ratio of L.A:

Breakdown voltage at highfrequency


Impulse ratio=
Breakdown voltage at powerfrequency(50Hz)

➢ Impulse ratio should be Low


➢ Impulse ratio is the energy criteria for various insulations.
Impulse ratio = 1 for sphere gap L.A

= 1.5 to 3 for needle gap L.A

1. Oil CB In which circuit breakers Oil is used for extinguishing the ARC they are called
Oil Circuit Breaker.

• Mainly insulating oil or mineral oil (same as transformer oil) is used.


• Heat developed due to arc heats the oil and produce 70% hydrogen. Hydrogen has good
thermal conductivity property (means how much heat produces it will dissipate the
same). So, it will cool down the arc and arc is quenched.

Applications of Oil Circuit Breaker:

Oil circuit breakers are used in small and medium substations for protection of
distribution lines.
In Switchyard oil circuit breaker used.

Advantages:

The oil extinguishes the ARC by creating the hydrogen gas and the hydrogen gas can cool
the ARC.
The oil also helps for cooling in the circuit breaker.
The produced hydrogen gas provides good insulation between the contacts.

Disadvantages:

As hydrogen is there, if it reacts with air there is a chance of risk of fire.


There is a requirement for periodic oil replacement

switchyard is the inter connector between


generation and transmission, and same voltage is maintained
in switchyard. The application of Switchyards is to deliver the generated
power from power plant at desired voltage level to the
nearest grid or transmission line.

substation is the inter connector between


transmission and distribution systems, and various voltage
levels are maintained in substation. The application of substation is to step up or down the
voltages as per requirements.
2.Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB): In bulk oil circuit breaker, the contacts are
being immersed in the oil so the oil is used
for two purposes one is the extinction of ARC and other is to provide the insulation between the
contacts, therefore there is a huge amount of oil required which increased the cost. But in the case
of the minimum oil circuit breaker (MOCB), a small amount of oil is used which only can extinguish
the ARC does not provide the insulation between the contacts. To provide insulation solid insulator
material is used.

Advantages:

As less oil is required good economic consideration.


As the volume of oil is reduced so the risk of fire also reduced.
Smaller in size than the bulk oil circuit breaker

3.ABCB (Air Blast CB)


Air Circuit Breaker In the air circuit breaker, the air is used as an
ARC quenching medium. It is in very simple in construction.

Current Chopping is severe in ABCB. By resistance switching we remove Current


chopping.

Advantages

As no oil is used there is no risk of fire.


It has the facility of frequent operation.
Less maintenance required.
Smaller in size.

Disadvantages:

Air compressor is required to create high-pressure air.


Additional maintenance is required due to presence of Air compressor.

Applications of Air Blast Circuit Breaker:

In the railway system, air blast circuit breakers are used.


They are also used for protection of small transformers.

Note Point:

Air break CB is used for less voltages & air at atm. Pressure is used.
Air blast CB is used for high voltages & Compressed Air at high pressure is used.

4.Vaccum cb Dielectric strength of Vacuum is 8 times greater than air and 4times greater
than SF6.

Cu/Cr material for CB contacts


Fast acting CB. Time period is 0.5-1Cycle.
Used for medium voltage range
Service life is much longer than any CB
Much environmentally friendly than SF6.
Used for Rural electrification for Capacitor Bank switching
5.SF6 CB
In this type of Circuit breaker, Sulfur hexafluoride gas is used to extinguish the ARC.
As the Sulfur hexafluoride gas has the tendency to absorb free electrons that is why it is used in
circuit breaker to absorb produced free ARC electrons. Mainly high-pressure SF6 gas is used.

Advantages:

The time of Arcing is very less as the Sulfur hexafluoride gas quickly absorb the arc electrons.
As the dielectric strength of Sulfur hexafluoride gas is very high so this circuit breaker can
interrupt a large amount of current.
There is no risk of fire.
As the whole chamber closed tightly there is no moisture problem.
Low maintenance cost.

Disadvantages:

As the SF6 gas is very costly there so is an economic disadvantage.


As the SF6 gas is very costly we need to reuse the gas after the operation, and we need
additional equipment to reconditioned the gas after operation for use again.

Application

SF6 Circuit breaker mainly used in high voltage transmission line.


They also used for protection of high voltage transformers.

Medium Voltage Range


Air Break CB Air at atm. Pressure 400V-15KV
MOCB Transformer oil 3.3KV-220KV
VCB Vacuum 22KV -66KV
SF6 SF6 upto 765KV
Air Blast CB Compressed air at high Upto 132KV
Pressure

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