1.

1 What and Why of Modern Communications 1

1

Modern Communications: What It Is?

1.1 What and Why of Modern Communications

Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.1

1.1.1 What Is Modern Communications?

What is communications? Exchange of information. But what do we mean by information? We
will put off the scientific definition of this term until later chapters, but for now, we can say that
infor- mation is basically something new, knowledge that had not been known before. News, new
facts, new data – these are typical examples of information. It is we human beings who generate
information, who inform each other via various technical means about the new things.
To exchange, that is deliver information, we always need three basic components: transmitter,
Tx, receiver, Rx, and transmission link. Figure 1.1.1 shows a basic block diagram of a
communication system. This block diagram emphasizes the concept of communications; it is true
regardless of the communication technology. (Consider your oral conversation and identify a
transmitter, a receiver, and a link.)
Historically, we could communicate only orally; next development was the invention of
writing. Telegraph, devised by Samuel Morse and used to transmit the first message over
distance by elec- trical signal in 1844, heralded the advent of a new era – that of
telecommunications or electronic communications. Telephone, conceived by Alexander Graham
Bell in 1876, followed, as well as radio, through which Marconi was able to send the first signal
over Atlantic Ocean in 1901.
This new era heralded the beginning of the exchange of information over distance by using
elec- tronic devices. To describe this new form of communications, we interchangeably use terms
like electronic communications, telecommunications, or simply modern communications.
The term communications in its strict sense implies the use of any of our senses – sight,
sound, touch, taste, and smell (yes, even the last two) – in presenting or acquiring
information. Let us refer to this type of communications as direct communications, which is
simply exchange of infor- mation among human beings directly, without involving any
technology. The simplest example of direct communications is a personal conversation between
two people. Electronic communications refers to electronics as an integral part of the process of
exchanging information because we cannot deliver information over a significant distance
without electronic devices. The simplest example of electronic communications is a conversation
between two people via the smartphones.
In this regard, the term telecommunications emphasizes the difference being discussed very
clearly. This term consists of two words: the Greek word tele, which means far, apart, over
a distance, and communications, which means the exchange of information. Carrying this
2 1 Modern Communications: What It Is?
concept a step further, we define telephone as sound over a distance and television as seeing
over a distance. Thus, telecommunications, or modern communications, in its basic sense is
tele + communications; that is, sharing information over a distance. Two important consequences
follow from this definition. First, sharing means delivering. Second, in order to deliver
information

Figure 1.1.1 Basic block diagram of a

communication system. Information Information
Rx
Transmission link
Tx
Transmitter Receiver
 1.1 What and Why of Modern Communications 3
over a distance, we have to employ some technical device, because, since information in its original form is
generated by a human being, it can be seen, heard, or felt only within a very limited range. The history of
communications, in fact, is about efforts to extend the reach of the information we humans generate.
Typical examples are human’s first attempts to communicate by optical means, such as fire or sunlight, by
sound, with instruments such as African drums, or by manually operated mechanical semaphores (optical
telegraph towers with movable arms for messaging). All these rudimentary means of communications over
distance are followed, as mentioned above, by telegraph, telephone, radio, television, and the wealth of
modern telecommunication technology we are so familiar with today: optical (fiber-optic), wireless and the
satellite, through which we disseminate information across the globe.

1.1.2 General Block Diagram of a Communication System

If you carefully review the examples of communication systems shown in the preceding subsec-
tion, you will notice that they all have the same basic components: the transmitter, the unit that
sends information; the transmission medium, the link through which transmission occurs; and
the receiver, the unit that ends up with the information. However, the general block diagram of a
communication system contains several more elements, as presented in Figure 1.1.2.
A communication system starts with a source of information that produces a message. As
stressed early in this section, it is we, human beings who originally generate information.
However, the secondary source can be, for example, your mobile device or your computer. We
produce logical (intelligent) information, and an electronic device converts this information
into an electrical signal. Today, however, we can task our smartphone or computer to
generate information (find, for example, the location of our traveling destination point),
which will be done in the ready-for-transmission electronic format. Rapid development of
artificial intelligence, AI, capable of performing really sophisticated intelligent operations, further
blurs the distinction between human and artificial sources of information.
In any event, it is the transmitter that eventually prepares the message signal for transmission.
The transmitter also does necessary manipulations – such as amplification, modulation,
conversion into an optical beam or electromagnetic waves – to prepare the information signal for
transmission. It is the transmitter that sends the prepared signal through a transmission link.
The transmission link, also called a channel, connects the transmitter and the receiver and deliv-
ers the information signal (message) to the destination point. A transmission link, however,
causes some degradations of a transmitted signal. First, as Figure 1.1.2 shows, noise harmfully
affects an information signal, reducing the probability of extracting the correct information from
the received signal. Second, the signal loses its power and arrives at the receiver front end much
weaker than

Originated
Sent Signal with Processed Received
message
signal noise signal message

Source of Destination
Transmitter Receiver
information point

Transmission Noise
link
Noise
source

Figure 1.1.2 General block diagram of a communication system.

4 1 Modern Communications: What It Is?

when it left the transmitter. Third, the signal might lose its ability to support the required bit rate.
There are other aspects of signal’s degradation during transmission, which we will discuss in
later chapters.
A receiver processes the arrived signal to extract the information sent by the transmitter.
This processing includes amplification, filtering (removing as much noise as possible), changing
the signal’s format into one suitable to the end user, etc. Finally, the extracted information is
presented to the destination point (end user).
We must remember a very fundamental point:

The end user deals only with the received signal and he or she doesn’t know how close the delivered message is to

1.1.3 Operation of a Communication System

The brief description of the function of each component of a communications system shown in
Figure 1.1.2 naturally raises the question: How do these components work together? To answer
this question, let us consider the analogy between a communication system and a water supply
system. In this analogy, a source of information plays the same role as a natural water source,
such as a spring, river, or reservoir in the water supply system. A transmitter is analogous to a
water pump system that purifies the natural water, collects it in a cistern, and pumps it into a
pipe under a certain pressure. Accordingly, a transmission link is similar to a pipe connecting the
pump and the point of consumption. Finally, a receiver is like the destination point that also
processes water to prepare it for final consumption.
The main property of the transmitter is its ability to send the required volume of information
per second; similarly, the main property of the system’s pump is its ability to send the required
volume of water per second through a pipe. The main feature of a transmission link is its capacity
to deliver the required volume of information per second. Similarly, the pipe in a water supply
system must be able to deliver the adequate volume of water to a destination. If transmitting
capacity of the link is low, it will take a long time to deliver the whole volume of information to a
receiver. In our analogy, if the pipe is too small, it will not be able to timely deliver the required
volume of water even though a pump will supply enough. Finally, a receiver must be able to
process the required volume of information per second, just as equipment at the consumption
point of a water system must be able to process all the received water in timely manner. Bear this
useful analogy in mind when reading the subsequent material.
Though the analogy between a communications system and a water supply system is helpful
in understanding the operation of the former, you have to always remember an important point:
Analogy is a partial similarity, where the word partial is the key.
What we should learn from this description is that all components of a communication system,
as well as components of a water supply system and any other system for that matter, must have
the proper characteristics in order to make the system operate successfully. Indeed, the communi-
cation system could have an excellent transmitter capable of supplying information at any
required rate, but if a transmission link cannot support this rate, the receiver would not receive
the needed volume of information in time. Always bear this point in mind when considering the
operation of a communication system.
Solid understanding of the structure and operation of basic communication system is really a
necessary condition for successful study of the subject. Our strong recommendation is to always
refer (mentally or physically) to the block diagram shown in Figure 1.1.2 when considering any
 1.1 What and Why of Modern Communications 5
communications issue. In particular, constantly refer to this figure and accompanying discussion
when studying Sections 1.2 and 1.3.

1.1.4 Why Do We Need Modern Communications?

Today, we cannot imagine our life without fresh air, heat, running water, and electricity. Can
we imagine our life without modern communications? No. The permanent access to the global
communications infrastructure from any location has becomes a central part of our personal and
professional life.
Connecting to the Internet – which is the network of networks; that is, a complex of globally
inter- connected communication networks – provides us with a link to any online point in this
world. Access to the WWW brings us to the information space from which we can retrieve any
needed document. Besides these two major instruments, we have many other, also very
important applica- tions, such as e-mail, GPS, Skype, Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, and
YouTube, to name a few. We enjoy a new way of living thanks to modern communications.
Think about how we would live without reliable and fast networks that deliver worldwide
zettabits of information every second: The individual computers would be standalone units and
we would need to physically carry such storage devices as CDs or USBs from one computer to
another to share information. Satellites would be isolated space objects; to obtain information
from them, we would need to physically access them either by landing them or by sending
astronauts to their orbits. Of course, there would be no navigation guidance in real time and
around the globe. Our smart phones would be simply the toys enabling us to deal with
information stored on their memory cards. There would be no access to any information online
because no Internet would be in existence. We choose only these few examples to stress the point:
Our life would not be as comfortable and full as it is today without modern communications.
Look back (or ask your parents to do so) ten and twenty years and compare life then to the life
today. We encourage you to analyze how you use modern communications in your everyday life
in both professional and personal areas.
Another important point is our tools for accessing communication networks. Twenty years ago,
they were only desktop or laptop computers. Today, in addition to these much-improved
devices, we have plenty of mobile gadgets (e.g. tablets and smart phones) performing the same
and many other tasks. Consider your smart cellular phone: It has turned today into a
multitasking instru- ment enabling us to not only use voice or text messaging for interpersonal
communication but also performed numerous other tasks, such as e-mailing, web search, and
using GPS. Other mobile platforms (tablets) perform the same and many additional tasks; in fact,
the border between smart- phones and mobile platforms diminishes with every new generation
of these devices.
Implications of all these technological achievements are numerous. A person buried under
build- ing ruins after an earthquake was saved thanks to the signal from his wearable device – an
example of life-saving function of modern communications. A street vendor in a rural area selling
his/her small personal produce scanned the payment from a cell phone of a buyer – an example
of a con- venience provided by modern communications. These simple examples should inspire
you to find more cases of necessity and usefulness of modern communications. Analyzing the
effect of mod- ern communications on our life, we see that it not only makes our everyday life
more convenient but changes the way how our society is organized. For the first time in
human history, an ordi- nary person can make his or her voice to be heard by millions of others
by tweeting, blogging, and broadcasting their views, creative works, and personal news. As all
humans get connected to one another in real time throughout the world, new way of existing
through cooperation will emerged.
6 1 Modern Communications: What It Is?

We should not underestimate importance of communications to the military area. In fact, com-
munications is considered as important as armament and logistics. The center of war operations
is shifting from direct combat to the war in communications space because interruptions in
commu- nications make all armament useless. Therefore, the defense of our country depends on
modern communications.
The economic development and prosperity of a district, city, region, and a whole country
depends today on the level of their connectivity with the global communication infrastructure.
Having high-speed connections to the Internet is a necessary condition for the success of a
company, an industry, and a nation’s economy.
Delivering information today requires the use of the newest technological developments in
com- puter, transmission, and networking technologies, advances that have been brought about
by the semiconductor, electronic, and photonic industries. The installation and maintenance of
commu- nications networks involve the construction and maintenance sectors of the industry. To
make technology work, money must fiow in and out of the industry. The point here is that
modern com- munications is a significant part of global economy. Producing, delivering, and
processing massive amounts of information rapidly and accurately – this is what drives the
American economy and the economies of other developed countries, and will continue to do so
in the years ahead. In this regard, it is important to understand that the communications sector
not only consumes produc- tion of other industries but also drives innovations and new
developments in many segments of the national and global economy.
In short, modern communications underlies operations of all private and public businesses,
including government. Communication industry – a valuable sector of the US economy – is
continuing to grow, making a significant contribution to the expansion of the nation’s economy.

1.1.5 From Today to Tomorrow – Two Examples

Obviously, nobody can predict the future. Nevertheless, in technology it is safe to say that the seeds
of the future are growing in today’s research labs. An example: In 1995, one of the executives of
Bellcore, the company that was a spin-off of the Bell Labs 1 and served as an R&D arm of regional
telephone companies, sent an e-mail claiming that the distance will soon cease to be a factor
in telecommunications in general and in telephony in particular. These were the days when
customers had to pay for telephone connections depending on distance, and an international call
to a remote country, such as China, could cost up to $10 per minute. Merely 25 years later, we not
only could place a telephone call but have a video conversation with anyone located at every point
on the globe
 1.1 What and Why of Modern Communications 7
via Skype, and we could do it for free. (Nowadays, there are several other applications that
provide similar types of free connections.)
Today, the commercialization of research results occurs much faster; in fact, it becomes a
dynamic process. While a first prototype of an innovation goes to manufacturing, research and
development continue to improve the product, and its commercialization accelerates and
expands. What is more, commercial success brings new demands to properties and quality of the
product, which stimulates further progress in invention, development, and production. Here a
product means an outcome of both hardware and software areas of production.
Let us consider two developments that are available today and promise even more ubiquitous
and advanced presence tomorrow.

1.1.5.1 The Internet of Things (IoT)

The IoT is a first example of such a development. The IoT is the communication paradigm that,
on the one hand, has been partly developed and commercialized and, on the other hand, is more
promising than the existing technology. We, naturally, focus on a communication aspect of the IoT.
So what is the IoT? Let us start with “things.” A thing is any natural or man-made object, fixed or
mobile, that is able to transmit and receive data through the Internet. Examples include
transceivers (transmitter and receiver combined in one unit) installed on trucks of a national
transportation company, smart collars worn by animals in a livestock farm, security cameras set
around a building,
and traffic monitoring cameras mounted around a city.
At this point, you might say, wait a minute. We do have such systems based on a radiofrequency
identification (RFID) setup that wirelessly transmits information about every object to which an
RFID tag is attached. Yes, you are right, at the first glance RFID and the IoT looks similar.
The difference – and the big one – is that the IoT elevates the concept of operating with
individual objects to a much higher level.
An RFID system is local by its very nature. For example, consider an RFID system
operating at an assembly line: RFID tags are attached to every part to be supplied to the
assembly process. Information from these RFID tags about the locations and volumes of all these
parts comes to the operator’s computer to inform the operator of possible shortages and delays.
The operator uses this information to prevent any interruptions to the assembly process. So the
RFID system heavily relies on human intervention. Now, imagine that all the tags attached to the
items to be assembled are connected directly to the Internet. Then, information about all these
objects becomes accessi- ble not only to computers at the factory fioor but also to computers of
factory management, the company headquarters, to the factories around the globe, where these
items are manufactured, to the mills where steel, plastic, and other materials for these parts are
produced, and so on and so forth. All the computers involved in this process communicate with
each other of course, and keep the manufacturing process running without interruption. Such an
arrangement minimizes human intervention and greatly reduces waste, loss, and cost. (In fact,
we are considering an example of the Industrial Internet of Things, the IIoT.)
So the IoT is a system or a complex of various things combined by their locations, functions,
users, owners, or any other features; the main property of these things is that all of them are
connected to the Internet.
Imagine you live in a smart – means based on the IoT – home. You can see and talk to
some- one who rings your doorbell even when you are far away from your home; your home’s
door gets unlocked when you approach it; the light, heat, air conditioning, and all other home
systems are controlled remotely; your refrigerator e-mails you a list of items that need to be
replenished, and so on and so forth. A smart building, smart district, and a smart city – all these
entities have already
8 1 Modern Communications: What It Is?

been attempted, and are in the process of rapid development. Even though the goal to build an
IoT-based smart city would seem more an academic curiosity than a real-life need, the
accelerating global urbanization process calls for innovative approaches to building and
managing the cities whose growing population sets unimaginable challenges to sustainable
development of the entire world. In this regard, the IoT promises to find optimal solutions to all
aspects of urban life.
The IoT finds its applications not only in urban environment but also in all other areas of
society, such as healthcare, education, finance, agriculture, food industry, transportation, and
utilities.
It is clear that the IoT is a sophisticated communication system. Even though intelligent
cloud storage, intelligent processing of accumulated data, and intelligent remote control of
processes are important qualities of the IoT, intelligent communications is the key feature of this
system. In partic- ular, in the IoT, machine-to-machine (M2M) communications supported by
artificial intelligence (AI) is the main form of sharing information.
The type of communication technology used by the IoT for connection to the Internet depends
on its range of operation. Based on this range, the IoT networks are grouped into four categories:
a wireless personal area network (PAN), operating within several meters; wireless and/or wired
local area network (LAN), operating within a hundred meters; wireless neighborhood area net-
work (NAN), operating within 20 km; wide area network (WAN), ranging globally and relying on a
complex mix of wireless and wired communication systems. Figure 1.1.3 shows how a typical IoT
system is connected to the Internet; the figure lists technologies employed at every stage of
connec- tions. (Do not be confused if you are not familiar with these technologies: We will discuss
many of them in the subsequent sections.)
The IoT is an important and rapidly developing area of modern technology; a lot of research
and, consequently, numerous publications are devoted to this new field. This short review of the
IoT gives an idea of how modern communications supports and contributes to the latest
technological advances.

Cloud storage, intelligence and analytics

Cable/fiber
ADSL
Cellular
Satellite
WiFiAP

Industrial, vehicle, maritime, aviation, gateways

WiFi
Ethernet
WiFi
WiFi Consumer gateway

Bluetooth

NFC
Thread, ZigBee, Z-wave P

Figure 1.1.3 The IoT connections to the Internet (cloud). Source: © Keysight Technologies, Inc. (2016) The
Internet of Things: Enabling Technologies and Solutions for Design and Test. Application Note. Reproduced
with permission, Courtesy of Keysight Technologies.
 1.1 What and Why of Modern Communications 9
1.1.5.2 Data Centers
Let us now discuss another example of the continuing development in communications: the data
centers. When we mention cloud in reference to the Internet, we actually mean an
information space where all globally generated data is collected, saved, and processed. We can
save our files to the cloud – the Internet, that is – and we can retrieve them anywhere by using
any computing device. We can also share information with any device regardless of its location.
The cloud takes care of directing our messages to intended recipients or making them publicly
available.
The word “cloud” evokes immaterial white puffs. The data, however, travels in the form of
electrical or optical pulses and therefore this cloud must be the tangle of hardware that receives,
saves, and processes these pulses. This hardware is millions of specialized computers (servers)
installed in the data centers.
The data centers are warehouses containing rows and rows of servers. The scale of these ware-
houses varies from a “small” building of the size of a regular supermarket to a building
occupying the area of a football field. They consume tremendous amounts of electrical power to
supply it to thousands of servers and, mainly, to cool those servers, as they radiate an enormous
amount of heat. By some estimates, the American data centers are responsible for more than 2%
of country’s total electrical power consumption. The electrical-power expenses are so serious that
big compa- nies such as Facebook, Google, Microsoft, and Amazon move their data centers to the
states with minimal cost of electricity. What is more, some of these companies build their data
centers outside the USA, in polar regions to make cooling them easier.
Figure 1.1.4 pictures an inside view of a data center and a detail of a server backplane.
Beside energy consumption, the data centers experience constant pressure to improve their
com- putational operations. This pressure is caused by exponentially increasing global volume of
infor- mation, to which the IoT makes a significant contribution. One of the main requirements
for this improvement is reduction of propagation latency, the time delay in transporting pulses
from one point to another. For transmission outside and within a data center, the transportation
latency is caused by the finite velocity at which pulses travel through a transmission medium.
Though today, a typical delay is about several milliseconds, this number will become
unacceptable with the growth of total communication traffic in general and of the IoT in
particular. (You can skip to Section 10.1, where latency is discussed.)
To reduce the propagation delays in outside communications, the data centers must be moved
closer to the areas being served; this solution, however, contradicts the requirement to reduce
elec- trical power expenses. The propagation latencies within data centers are small compare
to the outside delays due to shorter distances of transmission. Still, since the traffic volume in data
centers is doubling every 12 months (by some estimates), seriousness of the latency problem will
increase. The two current developments – the IoT and data centers – are among the key factors
that will determine the future of communication industry. Three out of four levels of the IoT
networks rely on the wireless access to the Internet, which emphasizes importance of the
future progress in rapidly developing wireless communications. Long-distance connections of
the IoTs to the data centers depend on fiber-optic networks and satellite links. These established
industry segments undergo further transformations to meet future demands. Together, three
segments – wireless,
optical, and satellite – work in concert to make up the modern communication industry.
Analyzing the operation of modern communications, we always need to think of how secure is
the delivery of information. Our personal data, corporate expertise, and military secrets must be
protected from possible theft. Latest advances in computer science, artificial intelligence (AI), and
communication technology, including quantum communications, enable the industry to protect
transmitted information better and better. Unhappily, criminal hackers also use these advances
to penetrate into most vulnerable points of communication infrastructure to steal or modify
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.1 13

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.1.4 Data centers: (a) A view of the interior of construction of a data center; (b) A detail of a
backplane fiber-optic connections in a server. Source: (a) Reprinted with permission https://
betterbuildingsinitiative.energy.gov/challenge/sector/data-centers. (b) Reprinted with permission https://
www.dreamstime.com/stock-photo-fiber-optic-servers-technology-data-center-image54827788.

information for their malicious purposes. The security issue is far from being finally resolved; this
is another dynamic process in modern communications.
This brief examination of basics of modern communications, accompanied by the consideration
of its societal implications and the examples of future developments, gives a glimpse into the role
of modern communications and into why it is important to study this fascinating discipline.

Questions and Problems for Section 1.1

• Questions marked with an asterisk require a systematic approach to finding the solution.
• Many questions and problems, including those marked with an asterisk, imply that you, in
addi- tion to reading the textbook, will do your research to find the answers. Consider such
questions as mini-projects.

What and Why of Modern Communications

1 Consider the term communications:

14 1 Modern Communications: What It

a) What is communications?
b) What is information?
c) What is a communication system?

2 Sketch the basic block diagram of a communications system and explain the function of each
component.

3 Why is the set of three components – transmitter, receiver, and a link – called a system?

4 Consider your smart phone as an example of a communications system and identify three
basic system components.

5 What is the difference between communications, electronic communications, and

telecom- munications?

6 Figures 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 show the block diagram of a communication system. What is the dif-
ference between these figures?

7 Figure 1.1.2 shows that a communication system includes a source of information and a trans-
mitter of information: Why does not the system transmit information directly from the
source? In other words, why do we need a separate unit for sending a message?

8 The text says that a transmission link shown in Figure 1.1.2 causes degradation of the trans-
mitted signal. Why do not we eliminate this component of a communication system?

9 Figure 1.1.2 shows that noise affects the signal in the transmission link. Can noise affect
the signal within a transmitter and a receiver? Explain.

10 Refer to Figure 1.1.2: Why do we need a separate unit – a receiver – to present a received
message to a destination point? In other words, can we connect directly a transmission link
and a destination point? Explain. Give examples.

11 Consider the operation of a communication system: The text says that an end user deals only
with a received message and does not know what message has been sent. How then can
the user be sure that the received signal brings the original message correctly? (Hint: Think
over the entire operation of a communication system.)

12 The text introduces the analogy between a communication system and a water pumping sys-
tem and warns that the analogy is only a partial similarity:
a) What features of both systems prevent the analogy from being the complete similarity?
(Hint: Compare every pair of components (transmitter vs. pump, link vs. pipe, and
receiver vs. consumption equipment) and the operations of the systems as a whole.
b) Another popular analogy to a communication system is a road system of a developed coun-
try. Describe this analogy on component-to-component basis.

13 Suppose you are watching a streaming video on your laptop:

a) In general terms, describe what communication system you would have to establish for
this process.
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.1 15
b) If you show experiences interruptions, what could be – in qualitative terms – the reasons
for these faults?

14 Explain the difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web, WWW.

15 Discussing the need for modern communications, the text says: “The permanent access to the
global communications infrastructure from any location becomes a central part of our per-
sonal and professional life.” Demonstrate the truth of this statement based on your personal
experience. Give examples of the role of modern communications in your life.

16 Imagine that we have all the latest communication devices and gadgets but without connec-
tions to the Internet: How would our life change? Give two or three examples. (Hint:
consider yourself in an open sea or on the trail in a remote unpopulated a geographic area.)

17 Explain why modern communications is so important for military operations and therefore
for the country’s defense.

18 General media and professional publications give numerous examples of how economic devel-
opment of a district, a city, a region, or a whole country have improved after they
established high-speed (called broadband) connections to the Internet. Why is this so? Go
online and find examples of such changes.

19 The text posed a question “Why do we need modern communications?” Write down the list
of reasons answering this question.

20 Do your research to write an essay on history of Bell Systems and another one on history
of Bell Labs.

21 Consider the Internet of Things, IoT:

a) What is it?
b) What are those “things?”
c) Why does this name refer to the Internet?

22 The Internet of Things enables us to create an environment called a “smart home.” What
is this?

23 Imagine that you live in a settlement called smart city:

a) List the main features of this city.
b) Find the examples of implementation of this concept.

24 Examine Figure 1.1.3 and highlight wireless and wireline connections separately. (Hint: You
need to do the search online and you may want to jump to Section 1.2.)

25 Figure 1.1.3 symbolically shows the Internet in the form of a cloud. Why so?

26 Today, we use terms cloud computing and cloud storage. What do they mean? Where are
the underlying operations performed physically?
16 1 Modern Communications: What It

27 Consider the data centers:

a) What are the data centers?
b) Why do we need them?
c) What problems do the data centers encounter? What solutions to these problems are found?

28 The text refers to importance of the issue of security in modern communications.

Consider your everyday communications and analyze what security measures are taken to
protect your information.

1.2 Communication Technology on a Fast Track

This book is devoted to the essentials of modern communications. We focus on the fundamen-
tal principles, laws, and rules that govern modern communications regardless of the specifics of
technology being used. In other words, the textbook does not concentrate on particular commu-
nication technologies. This approach is justified by the stability of communications fundamentals
compared with ever rapidly changing technology. Nevertheless, the brief introduction to the
main types of modern communication technology, which is the objective of this section, is
necessary to demonstrate where and how the fundamentals are applied and used.
In this section, we concisely discuss the networks, optical communications, wireless communi-
cations, and satellite communications. They are the main sectors of modern communications and
important fields in their own right. Their research, industrial, and business activities are refiected
in numerous books, journal articles, technical documents, and – most importantly – in working
devices and systems, thanks to which we have such a technological marvel as modern communi-
cations. We also present a brief overview of history of each sector of communications technology,
its growth in scale, its ever-increasing importance, and its impact on the globalization of modern
communications.
This laconic introduction to the main technologies of modern communications should help in
understanding the content of this book; if you become interested in deeper study of any of these
topics, turn to specialized literature.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 17

Sidebar 1.2.S.1 Brief Notes on History of Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, and Television

1.2.S.1.1 The Historical View on Globalization of Communications

Delivering information must be global by its very nature. Indeed, people at any point on
the globe need to be informed as quickly as possible. We take for granted the ability of
modern telecommunications to perform this task, but this not always was the case. The
speed and the reach of delivering information change with the times and these changes
constitute important turning points in the history of civilization.
Because telecommunications is about delivering information over a distance, people
have tried to extend the reach of transmission links as far as possible ever since the advent of
this technology.
The scale of telecommunications networks has grown from local to regional to national
to international. These developments occurred in sequence and in parallel; that is, some
intercon- tinental connections were achieved even before the continental networks had been
completed. The point is this: As soon as new telecommunications technology appears, this
technology is immediately used in an attempt to extend the global reach of the
telecommunications network. Globalization means extending the reach of
telecommunications beyond the national and continental scale. The meaning of this term
has changed over the years. For example, building the telegraph link between England and
France in the nineteenth century was certainly an example of globalization, while building
a fiber-optic link between these two countries today
could be considered a regional development.
The need for quick communications between the continents can best be comprehended by
considering an event that occurred shortly before the invention of a practical telegraph: In the
war of 1812, General Andrew Jackson continued to fight French troops in New Orleans even
after the peace treaty had been signed in Paris, France. This was because it took more than a
week for a ship to deliver the news from Europe to America.
This historical anecdote stresses one important point: We almost forget that before the
advent of modern telecommunications, all information was stored on paper and disseminated
in the form of letters, newspapers, magazines, and books. This material had to be delivered
by a human being. It took a messenger, a horse carriage, a ship, a train, or a plane to deliver
it. Modern communications has changed all that.
1.2.S.1.2 The Telegraph
Telecommunications in the modern sense came into existence with the invention of the tele-
graph – the first electrical system that delivered information. Even though the first
electrical telegraph was installed in England in 1837, the era of practical telegraphy began
in 1844, when Samuel Morse transmitted his first message from Baltimore, MD, to
Washington, DC (see Figure 1.2.S.1.1).
Morse’s telegraph operates in a discrete mode: When the key is pressed, two end terminals
of the circuit get connected and the pulse of electrical current flows through the circuit,
delivering a character. The character is presented by a dot or a dash. (Figure 1.2.S.1.2). The
shorter pulse delivers a dot; the longer pulse delivers a dash. (Exercise: Sketch the schematic
of a telegraph circuit.) Samuel Morse,
18 1 Modern Communications: What It

idebar 1.2.S.1 (Continued)

who was trained as a painter and knew very little about electricity, learned about this
circuit from Joseph Henry,2 then a professor at Princeton University.
In 1851, the first telegraph cable linked England and France – albeit a small first step,
but telecommunications had begun its global expansion. Six years later, after several
unsuccessful attempts, the first transatlantic telegraph cable was installed by an English
company with the support of the British and American navies. This event heralded the
advent of the true globalization of telecommunications. Unfortunately, though, this cable had
an inherent design flaw and it was damaged almost immediately by the high-voltage signal
that the chief engineer forced the operator to apply; within three weeks the cable ceased to
work. Three years later, in 1861, the first American transcontinental telegraph cable was
laid. Eventually, by the end of nineteenth century, the reliable telegraph communications
between the United States and Europe was established.
To understand what impact this new type of communications made, suffice to say that mes-
sages seemed to arrive hours before they were sent because of time-zone differences. People
did not realize this difference in time prior to the advent of the telegraph because all commu-
nications up to that era had been delivered by ships crossing the Atlantic. Clearly,
everyone became excited over this new means of communication. On the down side,
however, was the fact that this new service was extremely expensive: The initial rate was $1
a character, payable in gold. At that time, the monthly wage for a laborer was about $20.
The point is that with these first transatlantic cables a new era in global telecommunications
had started: In 1865, the telegraph linked India and Europe; in 1871, Australia and Europe
and in 1902, New Zealand and Canada. By 1888, there were 107 000 mi of undersea
telegraph cable linking all parts of the world. The globalization of telecommunications was
now well under way.
Interestingly, the telegraph was still important means of communications up to second half
of the twentieth century even though fax and teletype were already in use. The pay rate was
per word; naturally, senders tried to deliver maximum information by using the minimum
words. This is how a telegraphic style of writing was born.
1.2.S.1.3 The Telephone
Alexander Graham Bell’s invention of the telephone in 1876 had a far greater impact on mod-
ern telecommunications, obviously, than Morse’s telegraph. And today, while the telegraph has
been largely consigned to a museum shelf, breakthrough technological (and business) devel-
opments have brought to life mobile communications that stems from the telephone industry.
Almost immediately following his invention – in 1876 – Bell3 tried to use a transatlantic
telegraph cable to conduct a telephone conversation. That attempt – and many others – failed.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 19

However, in 1877, the first long-distance phone conversation was held between two
parties separated by 60 mi in California. The era of the telephone literally exploded onto the
scene.
By 1886, there were 250 000 telephones in service worldwide; however, almost all of them
were connected locally and complete long-distance service was still some years away. By
1924, the Bell System – the company that actually monopolized telephone service in the
United States – alone had 15 million phones in operation. Today, the number of wired
telephones in the United Sates declined, after reaching its peak at about 300 million
telephones by the end of twentieth century, due to emergence of mobile smartphones. And
the Bell System no longer exists.
Figure 1.2.S.1.3 shows the portrait of Alexander Graham Bell and his early telephone equip-
ment. If you compare these historic pieces of Bell’s original device with modern smartphones,
you can surely appreciate the progress telecommunications technology has made.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2.S.1.3 Alexander Graham Bell (a) and its early telephone equipment (b). Sources: (a) Bell’s
portrait: By Moffett Studio – Library and Archives Canada/C-017335, Public domain. (b) Smithsonian
Libraries.

The first telephone cable between America and England was not laid until 1956. That
was when the first wireline transatlantic telephone conversation occurred.
Note that with telegraphy, it took only 14 years (from 1844 to 1858) to move from the first
practical transmission to transatlantic transmission. However, it took 80 years (from 1876 to
1956) to make the leap from local telephone conversation to transatlantic cable connection.
Why? Telegraph transmission, in Morse code, is, by its very nature, digital. The receiver
must only discern the presence and duration of a signal. In other words, the telegraph’s
simple on/off mode of operation made long-distance transmission possible even with
rudimentary technology. On the other hand, telephone transmission, until the 1960s, was
strictly analog. The signal delivered information by virtue of variations in its amplitude.
Because of power loss and noise, the signal became distorted after only a short transmission
distance. To deliver information, an analog electrical signal had to be boosted and, at that
time, there were no means to do it.

(Continued)
20 1 Modern Communications: What It

Sidebar 1.2.S.1 (Continued)

This is why Alexander Graham Bell was unable to transmit voice over a transatlantic
tele- graph cable.
In fact, the first transatlantic telephone cable (called TAT-1) contained 102
unidirectional electronic repeaters built on vacuum tubes; they repeatedly boosted the weak
electrical signal traveling over the transatlantic span. It is interesting to note that in 1966,
after 10 years of service, all 1608 of the original tubes in the repeaters were still
working. Very impressive, indeed, especially if we take into account that each vacuum
tube repeater contained 5000 parts and cost about $100 000. The total cost of the TAT-1
system was $42 million. Two cables were laid; they contained 36 two-way circuits. The first
day in operation the system carried 588 calls, 75% more than a radio telephone system
handled in an average day at the time.
It should be noted that over the first half of the twentieth century, the telephone
system extended globally with the help of radio transmission. The first commercial
transatlantic radio telephone service began in 1927; a three-minute call was $75. By 1937, US
customers could call 68 countries via high-frequency radio. Until the advent of optical
fiber in the mid-1980s, terrestrial long-distance telephone transmission relied on
microwave links. Today, all conti- nents and countries are connected with optical fiber
and satellite systems, which deliver all forms of information in digital format anywhere in
the world.
1.2.S.1.4 Radio
Let us consider the other great invention that dramatically changed the telecommunications
industry. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian-born physicist, inventor, and
industrialist, transmitted a radio signal over more than a mile, and in 1901, he achieved
the first transat- lantic radio transmission (Figure 1.2.S.1.4). Independently, in 1896, Russian
physicist Alexander Popov wirelessly transmitted his first message over the distance of 250 m.
In 1899, Popov established reliable wireless communication between a stranded ship and a
shore separated by 25 mi.

Figure 1.2.S.1.4 Guglielmo Marconi and his radio equipment. Source: Reprinted with permission of
Smithsonian Libraries.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 21

Nevertheless, the main glory for invention of radio justifiably went to Marconi who was just
23 years old when he started the first company to commercialize his invention. Radio quickly
became the major means of communication among ships and between ships and shore.
A later development – high-frequency (HF) radio, also called short-wavelength radio, oper-
ating at tens of megahertz – enables the transmission of radio signals on a global scale
by bouncing the signals off the ionosphere (see Figure 1.2.13). This was the other major step
in globalization of telecommunications.
During radios “golden age,” from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, it was the main means
of communications worldwide. Radio is still widely used and the recent birth of
commercial satellite radio brings a “new wine in old bottles.”
Even though everyone knows about radio (or at least uses it), not everyone is familiar with
the scientific developments that eventually brought this technology to life.
Morse’s telegraph and Bell’s telephone used wires to deliver a signal from one point to
another. Very few people at the time of those inventions really understood the physics behind
the means of transmission, but everyone saw a tangible means of delivering a signal. Not
so with radio! The signal was delivered by mysterious waves that nobody could see. It
was Michael Faraday4 who proved experimentally that electromagnetic forces existed and
could do some type of work at a distance. (Joseph Henry did experiments in
electromagnetism, too, but his work was less known in Europe.) James Clark Maxwell 5, basing
his work on Faraday’s experiments, derived the set of equations that predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves, but not every physicist at that time accepted Maxwell’s prediction. It
was Heinrich Hertz6 who experimentally demonstrated these waves. Marconi, in his lecture on
receiving the Nobel Prize in 1909, said that his goal was to determine “whether it would be
possible by means of Hertzian waves to transmit to a distance without the aid of connecting
wires.” Today, we are so much accustomed to radio transmission that we cannot imagine that
anyone could doubt in such a possibility.
1.2.S.1.5 Television
It was not many years later after the widespread of the radio that a new communications
technology – television – came on the scene, delivering not simply voice but video as
well. Commercial black and white TV broadcasting started in the United States in 1941. In
1954, the
22 1 Modern Communications: What It

Sidebar 1.2.S.1 (Continued)

first color TV set went on sale. Price: $1000. The Japanese demonstrated analog high-definition
TV in 1987; a consortium of US companies in 1990 also announced high-definition digital TV.
Invention of TV is a long and dramatic story filled with fierce competitions, patent wars, and
technological and commercial revolutions. In contrast to telegraph, telephone, and radio,
it is impossible to name even several major players who formed the basis of modern TV.
(You probably have heard the name Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian-born American engineer, in
refer- ence to invention of television. He made a major contribution into development of
commercial TV, specifically by inventing the electronic iconoscope capable to receive and
display moving images and building a completely electronic TV system in 1939. Still, he was
not alone; in his
work he relied on many other inventions and developments.)
Until advent of optical fiber in the mid-1980s, TV could only broadcast its signals by
using electromagnetic waves at a higher frequency than radio. Since it is impossible to
utilize the same bouncing principle that has been used for many years for HF radio, TV
was mainly local. Also, it was impossible to use the intercontinental telephone cables to
transmit video directly because TV transmission requires a much broader bandwidth than
voice transmission. It was not until the advent of the satellite era that TV went global. But
the globalization of TV transmission truly came into its own with the introduction of fiber-
optic communications technology in the mid-1980s. That was when an epoch of cable TV
started.
Initially, TV was completely analog. With the advances in electronics, computers, and digital
signal processing, TV became digital. However, transition from analog to digital TV had been a
process rather than an act. The United States mainly completed its transition in 2009; the
inter- national agreement set 2015 as a mandate date for shutting off analog signals.
Nevertheless, this process still continues in many countries.
Today, the advances in TV technology and combining the TV and the Internet bring new
era of smart TV. Also, traditional broadcasting and even fiber-optic transmissions give the way
to streaming TV when the content is delivering from the Internet in the process of watching.
With all these new trends, it is most likely that traditional broadcasting and even cable TV
will be moved to a quiet corner of our information space, similar to the place where
today’s radio is positioned.

1.2.1 The Internet

1.2.1.1 Basics of Networks
The block diagram of a communication system shown in Figure 1.1.1 demonstrates the simplest
type of connections between a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx): a PPT link. In a PPT link,
information flows directly from Tx to Rx. Since both ends of the link can serve as Tx and Rx, the
more general diagram of this simple connection is presented in Figure 1.2.1a. A PPT link is a
building block of any sophisticated communication system. However, such a block is not
sufficient to build the modern communication infrastructure.
In general, a communication system provides exchanging information between many users.
Think about the Internet: While you are sending a message to its recipient, millions of other
people also use the Internet to send and receive messages, or visit websites, or download files, or
watch movies. The Internet supports all these communication activities regardless of the
locations of all the parties and the timings of their connections. How is it possible? This is because
the Internet is a network, not just a PPT link. What is a network?
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 23
A network is a set of nodes connected by links.

A node is any lumped element, such as computer, switch, router, telephone, printer, amplifier,
repeater. Links are the means of contact between nodes; they are made of various media, such as
copper wire, coaxial cable, air for electromagnetic waves, and optical fiber.
This very general definition stresses the main feature of a network: It consists of nodes and
links. Figure 1.2.1b illustrates this definition. (Review Figure 1.1.3, which is an example of a
communi- cation network.)
The above definition of a network emphasizes the physical setup through which some
messages can be transmitted. This definition can be applied to any type of interconnected system,
such as electrical circuit, electrical power grid, transport network, or logistic network. However,
in com- munications, we need to deliver information; therefore, a communication network must
be able to transmit information signals. To do so, two necessary conditions must be met: First, the
network must “know” where and when a signal must be sent; second, the network must arrange
for the signal to be delivered to its destination.
The first condition implies that a network must be able to read and understand the destination
address, find the best route for delivering a message, and verify that the message is securely
deliv- ered. But the words read, understand, find, and verify imply involvement of intelligence. And
yes, communication networks possess the intelligent (logical) properties enabling them to
perform all of the above and many more functions.
A simple example: Suppose Figure 1.2.1b shows the local network of our organization. A
worker at Node 3 wants to communicate with a colleague at Node 4. The message from Node 3
must be sent to Node 1, from which it can travel directly to Node 4 or – if that line is busy –
through Node 5, or – if necessary – through Nodes 2 and 5. How will the message be sent in
reality? An intelligent (logical) agent of Node 1 identifies the destination point and decides which
first route to choose, depending on the availability of routes. If other nodes will be involved, each
of them must make a similar decision. So a network must have a measure of intelligence; its
intelligent agents are located in the network’s nodes.
But what if we need to communicate with someone outside of our organization? This is where
the Internet comes to the rescue. Local, regional, and other types of networks are interlinked
through a cloud (the Internet), as Figure 1.2.2 shows. This is why the Internet is called the
network of networks.

Node 4
Node 2

Node 1

Tx2/Rx2 Node 3

Tx1/Rx1 Node 5
Node N

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2.1 Basic layouts of communication systems: (a) point-to-point link; (b) a network.
24 1 Modern Communications: What It

Node 4
Node 2

Node 1

Node 3

Node 5
Node N

Node 4
Node 2

Node 1

Node 3

Node 5
Node N

Figure 1.2.2 Local and regional networks and the Internet (cloud).

Examining Figure 1.2.2, bear in mind that the set of nodes connected by solid lines
constitute one network, whereas the dashed lines show connections between different networks.
Thus, we can see, for example, several Nodes 2 because each of them belongs to a different
network.
Interestingly, our connection to the Internet (cloud) is determined not by our geographical loca-
tion but by our IP address, where IP stands for Internet Protocol. For example, if you
communicate with a visitor from a foreign country through his/her laptop, your and the visitor’s
messages go through the cloud even though the visitor might be sitting next to you.
We know that today’s communications is mainly digital, which means that information is pre-
sented as a stream of 1s and 0s and these bits are physically carried by electrical or optical pulses.
Then, the analysis of our example of communications among nodes should raise an important
question: How can a node understand a message if this message is simply a sequence of 1s and
0s? The answer lies in establishing a rule which all the nodes must follow. For example, the rule
might say that the message must be sliced in packets with 720 bits each, out of which the first
24 bits must contain the address and the remaining 696 bits must carry the data. (In digital com-
munication parlance, the first 24 bits are called header and the 696 bits are called payload.) Then
all nodes reading the message will understand where to direct the message by deciphering its
first twenty-four 1s and 0s. Though the numbers in this example are fictional, the concept is real:
With- out such a rule, modern communications would be impossible. The rules governing
transmission
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 25
in communication networks are called protocols. The Internet is governed by the TCP/IP. This is
a suite (set) of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices and support their
communications on the Internet.
In spite of oversimplification, the above examples emphasize the two main features of a
telecommunications network: First, the network must provide physical connections among all
communicating parties; second, communication is possible if and only if the communicating
parties follow certain rules (protocols). But connections are something physical, tangible, whereas
protocols are something logical, intelligent. Therefore,

a modern communication network has both physical and logical (intelligent) features.

Clearly, physical features consist of the network’s hardware, such as transmitters, receivers,
switches, links. What devices support logical (intelligent) operations? The general answer is com-
puters in their various forms. Specifically, we refer to electronic machines that are able to perform
arithmetic and logic operations; today, they are servers, processors, switches, routers, amplifiers,
etc. (To better understand the nature of a modern communication network as a combination of
hardware and software, consider a computer: Without software, which is a collection of
computer programs [instructions, that is], a computer is just a set of parts but without this
set there is no place to execute those instructions.)
The intelligent side of network operation is based on the protocols. At its most basic level, the
network compares the current transmission situation with the protocols and decides when and
where to direct the communication traffic. But real-life situations are more complicated than the
presented simplistic picture; therefore, network software must be able to resolve any ambiguous sit-
uation. Fortunately, progress in development of artificial intelligence and its application to
network logical operations has helped to increase network fiexibility and efficiency.
After a node understands the address to which a message needs be delivered, it must direct
the message. Here comes another operation without which a communication network cannot
exist – switching (routing). In a PPT link, two nodes are connected directly, and information
fiows from one point to the other without any ambiguity; thus, no switching is needed. In a
network, information cannot be delivered to all the nodes without switching. Therefore,
switching (routing) ability is the main logical (intelligent) feature of a communication network.
A word about terminology: Switching is a general term that refers to the operation of relaying
messages through a network. However, today the term switching is also used to describe the use of
switches to change the circuit-to-circuit connections within a network for transmitting the signals.
Routing is also a general term that refers to redirecting the stream of information; however,
rout- ing means choosing a path for forwarding information through a network and from one
network to the other, provided that all connections are established. Thus, to execute routing, we
need not switches but routers. The routers perform many functions: They choose the best route
for informa- tion to travel, analyze the messages being transmitted, change their packaging, send
messages to another network, and execute the security and control operations.
We will touch on these terms again shortly.
(Question: Why do switching and routing require intelligent (logical) ability from
acommunication network?)
Next topic in networking is network topologies, which refers to a network’s physical layout
and the routes of the fiow of information. Figure 1.2.3 demonstrates five main network
topologies.
In a bus topology, information fiowing along the main line is accessible to all connected nodes.
It is effectively broadcasting messages. In a ring layout, information fiows sequentially from one
26 1 Modern Communications: What It

Network topologies

Bus
Star

Ring

Mesh Tree

Figure 1.2.3 Network topologies.

node to the adjacent one; thus, for example, the message from the first node addressed to the
fourth node must travel through the second and third nodes.
(Question: How would the second and third nodes know that this message must be transferred
through them? How would the content of this message be prevented from being read at the second
and third nodes?)
Star configuration implies that all communications goes through a central hub (also called
switch or concentrator). Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies, the combination
that allows for network expansion without modification of the network core. (Exercise: Describe
how information fiows in a tree network.) Finally, in a mesh network topology, all nodes are
intercon- nected so that each node can communicate directly to every other node.
Even though this discussion of network topologies combines the physical layout with the fiow
of information, there is, in fact, a difference between physical and logical topologies. For
example, a star hub can broadcast information to all its nodes; in this case, the network with a
star physical layout will operate in a bus logical topology. You are encouraged to figure out more
examples of networks whose physical and logical topologies might be different.
Depending on the range of transmission distance, networks are loosely divided into three
cat- egories. This division is often called network hierarchy. The access networks serve the
shortest range; they connect subscribers (users) to their local service provider. This is the users’
first pathway to the global communication infrastructure. Think about your home or office
computer, tablet, or smartphone: They access the Internet through the network of your
organization or neighborhood. The service range of access networks is up to a few tens of
kilometers.
Next level of the hierarchy is metro networks that covers the range from tens to a hundred kilo-
meters, serving a metropolitan area. Think about the network of a big corporation or a university
that is spread across a big city, such as New York City, Beijing, Paris, Cairo, or Sydney. This type
of network accommodates all incoming traffic from its access networks, circulates the traffic
within, and directs it to the outside web.
Finally, all metro networks are connected to the long-distance (long-range, core, backbone, or
trunk) networks that make up the global communication infrastructure (the Internet, that is). The
range of long-distance operations extends to thousands of kilometers; the networks can be ter-
restrial or submarine (undersea). Examples of long-distance networks are transatlantic fiber-optic
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 27

Access
Access
Metro
Access Metro
Metro
Access

Access
Access Long-distance
Access

Figure 1.2.4 The concept of network hierarchy.

cables connecting America to Europe and Africa, transpacific cables linking America to Asia and
Australia and New Zeeland, and fiber-optic networks binding the East and West coasts of the USA.
Figure 1.2.4 visualizes the concept of network hierarchy.
It is easy to understand that the volume of traffic carried by networks at every level is determined
by their range because the range implies the geographical area, which in turn determines the
num- ber of customers (users or clients). The access networks have the lightest traffic because they
serve thousands of customers, the traffic in metro networks are heavier because they are used by
millions, and the long-distance networks experience the heaviest traffic as they connect billions of
clients. The number of customers indicates the level of revenue, and the volume of traffic puts
demands on the quality of networks and their components and modules. Thus, the long-distance
networks need the best (read the most expensive) components, modules, and the entire grids,
whereas the access networks can afford only inexpensive hardware and software because their
revenue is minimal.
Figure 1.2.4 shows the lines connecting different network levels. Thickness of these lines
depicts the traffic volume (and consequently, transmission speed); the thickest line delivers the
highest traffic volume and has the fastest transmission rate.
Bear this hierarchical relationship in mind for all our succeeding discussions.
(Question: Why does an access network have the minimum revenue, whereas a long-distance net-
work have the maximum revenue?)
Let’s return to switching or routing, the distinct network property that separates a network
from a PPT link. How are these operations actually performed in networks? There are two modes
of directing information fiow in modern communications: circuit switching and packet switching
(routing). Examine Figure 1.2.5, where these types of switching are illustrated.
In a circuit-switching network shown in Figure 1.2.5a, the first operation is to establish a virtual
dedicated line between end users M and N. Switches at every node connect the input and
out- put links in such a way that users M and N become directly connected for the duration
of their communication. Once the line within a network is set up, information between points M
and N fiows only through this line, even though there are many other possible routes for
transmission. When the communication session ends, the connections at every node are
disjoined, and the net- work becomes ready for the next operation. A classic example of a circuit-
switched network is our wireline telephone system, called public switched telephone network
(PSTN). The advantage of a circuit-switching network is high quality of transmission due to a
dedicated link between the users. Disadvantage – and the big one – is extremely inefficient use of
the network capacity. For example, while we are occupying a network by our telephone
conversation, which occurs at rate of 64 kilobits per second, the network, capable of delivering at
terabit-per-second transmission rate,
 28 1 Modern Communications: What It

Source M

Source N N

(a)

M2
Source M

N1
Source N
M1

N2

(b)

Figure 1.2.5 Two types of switching in networks: (a) circuit-switching network; (b) packet-switching (-
routing) network.

actually stands idle. The other drawback of a circuit-switching network is that its survivability is
low: If a significant part of the network is destroyed by natural catastrophe or military attack, it
would not be able to support reliable communications.
A packet-switching network operates very differently: First, all network nodes are permanently
connected and therefore no dedicated line can be established for a communication between users
M and N specifically. Second, a message is broken down to pieces of data called packets. These
packets travel through the network by various routes. Once arrived at a destination point, they
are assem- bled back into the original message. When a packet reaches a router, the router,
having read the overhead and learned the packet destination, chooses the best route (in terms of
routes availabil- ity, time to travel, security to deliver, etc.), and send the packet further. This
packet’s examination and directing are done by every router on its path. See an example shown
in Figure 1.2.5b. Here messages M and N broke into two packets and each are transmitted
through the packet-switching network.
The operation of a packet-routing network looks sophisticated and cumbersome, but modern
digital electronics make all these operations easy to perform and fast to complete. Nevertheless,
the complexity and inherent lack of reliability delivering information are among the drawbacks
of packet-switching networking. But this type of networking has a gigantic advantage over a
circuit-switching type: the most efficient use of network’s transmitting capacity. This efficiency
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 29
stems from the nature of packet switching: Each router utilizes every possible path to convey
information. In addition, a router looks for the shortest available route for each packet enabling
its fastest delivery.
There is another huge advantage to a packet-switching network – resilience. Even if a sig-
nificant part of it gets destroyed, the network will stay operational. The Internet operates in a
packet-switching mode, and now you know why.
(Question: Consider Figure 1.2.5: Can a third end user be connected to conversation between end
users M and N in a circuit-switching network? In a packet-switching network? Explain.)
The last short note on networking: Control plane and data plane whose concept is demon-
strated in Figure 1.2.6.
Any network includes two planes – the control plane and the data plane. A control plane is a
set of software and/or hardware that executes control and management functions.
Implementation of control plane depends on protocols. Examples of control plane protocols
include open shortest path first (OSPF) – the routing protocol used in IP networks – and
generalized multiprotocol label switching (GMPLS) protocol, the transport protocol. Examples of
hardware are routers, such as a label edge router (LER) or a label switched router (LSR) for
GMPLS control plane.

Control plane

Client
Client

IP router
IP router

Data plane
(a)

Optical network node

Control messages Control messages
Control plane

Interface

Traffic Data plane Traffic

(b)

Figure 1.2.6 Control plane and data plane of a communication network: (a) general view; (b) hierarchical
view.
30 1 Modern Communications: What It

Data (or forwarding) plane is a set of hardware and software that actually carries the user
traffic. An example of hardware is a switch, such as an optical cross-connect (OXC) and an
example of a protocols implemented in software is the TCP suite.
Hardware for both control and data planes resides in the network nodes. To distinguish between
these planes, it is necessary to look at the nature of their packets: Control plane packets are
origi- nated with a router and heading to a router, whereas data plane packets originate with an end
user and travel through a router to a final destination point.
How do the control and data plane interact? The control plane generates routing and label
tables and shares this information with the data plane to enable transportation. In other words,
control plane protocols enable IP routers to forward traffic correctly.
How are these two planes implemented? Are they two separate physical networks? The answer
is simple: in a variety of forms. There are networks whose control and data planes are two
physical parallel networks interconnected at each node. This is how the legacy PSTN operates.
There are networks where one module performs both functions; this is how Internet routers
work. And there are networks that use a mix of both approaches.
Why do we need two planes? To separate control and transport functions of a network. Specif-
ically, separation of the control and data planes makes the data plane protocol-independent. We
remember that data is a stream of 1s and 0s and to make sense of such a stream we need to know
a protocol, the rule defining the meaning of each bit located in a certain position. The data plane
transmits all data packets regardless of specific protocols thanks to the control plane, which deals
with this issue.
The current architecture of a packet-switched network (think the Internet) relies on
routers. The routers are the devices combining both software and hardware in one unit
called firmware. Thanks to this combination, the routers can perform both intelligent (e.g.
choosing the route for a packet) and physical (sending the packet) operations. The advent of
routers made the Internet a reality. However, the ever-increasing growth of traffic volume
puts new demands on network performance. To meet these demands, the communication
industry has introduced new network architecture called SDN. The SDN further decouples the
control and data planes and relegates the functions of the control plane (network intelligence)
to an application called a controller. By doing so, the SDN replaces the routers that supports
both network control and data traffic forwarding with the centralized software-based control
unit. In this programmable network, the task of forwarding data traffic is relegated to simple
switches. By adopting cloud and SDN, modern communication networks substantially boost the
efficiency of their operations.
(Question: Consider a packet-switching network (the Internet): Where are the control plane and
the data plane in this network?)
As brief as this review is, we must still mention one other vitally important aspect of network-
ing – security. During the time of standalone computers, any kind of malware could be brought
in only in a physical storage device, such as diskette, a CD, and later a USB drive. Today’s
proliferation of wired and wireless communication networks, while – along with bringing
economic and social benefits to billions of people – causes new problem: A computer virus
inserted in one machine can spread almost instantly around the world. Nowadays, we encounter
the situations when global corporations and even entire industries were blocked by shutting down
their computer networks, which actually stops regular business operations and even people’s
normal life for days, weeks, and even months. We can easily imagine all the difficulties we would
face if our communication networks were blocked: There would be no cell phone connections, no
credit cards operations, no GPS, no e-mail, and so on. And what would happen if our “cloud,” that
is the data centers, suffered
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 31
from such a vicious attack? Not only processing of communication traffic would be stopped, but
we would lose all our data stored on the data centers’ servers.
The first level of defense is, obviously, prevention from physical intrusion into our homes,
offices, and data centers. The other level is precluding logical intrusion into the networks.
Everybody knows the term firewall, which is the first logical “fence” around our local networks.
Still another level of providing security in communications is encryption of all information.
Encryption is encod- ing information in such a way that only those who possess a code (key) can
decode the information. For example, communicating in foreign language is encryption
(encoding) of information. (Dur- ing World War II, Japanese army considered their native
language as a safe code; in their radio and vocal communications they spoke Japanese without
additional security measures. American army soon learned how to use this simplistic approach to
its advantage.) This way of encoding has an obvious weak point: protection of the code. Since the
code must be also transmitted through a communication network, it can be hacked too. Today,
there are systems that use quantum commu- nications, which promises theoretically unbreakable
security, to deliver encryption codes. In the future, quantum communications might enable us to
build absolutely secure networks.
Since today more and more people increasingly rely on cloud storage, it is easy to imagine how
important it is to provide the required security level in that “cloud,” that is, in the data centers.
Communication security is a crucial aspect of communication process; as such, it is a big area of
research, development, and implementation. Unhappily, we have to leave further consideration
of this captivating topic to specialized literature.
Today’s networks mainly operate merely as transport arteries, similar to highways and local
roads, simply transferring the communication traffic. The trend in their development is to make
them smarter and capable of dynamically reacting to changes. This trend is implemented in SDN.
In the future, a communication network will not only provide connectivity but also implement
contextual processing and intelligible interfaces. Nevertheless, most of the fundamental laws and
principles will still be in use because after all data still has to physically travel between the nodes
of networks.

1.2.1.2 The Internet: From a Point-to-Point Link to a Network of Networks

What is the Internet? The Internet is a communication network. It is not simply a network, how-
ever. The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected communication networks; it interlinks
any types of local, regional, national, or international networks enabling any user in the world to
reach any other user. This is why the Internet is called a network of networks.

The History of the Internet The Internet, as we know it today, was created by many prominent sci-
entists and engineers supported by public organizations and private businesses. The history of
the Internet is a fascinating story of collaboration and competition, generosity in sharing
knowledge and bitter struggles for monopolizing concepts and technology. In the absence of
serious scientific research, it is impossible to list the names of even the most outstanding
contributors without miss- ing someone or wrongly attributing a certain achievement. In short,
history of the Internet is a big subject in its own right and we can afford only a brief overview
focused on the main Internet fea- tures. (To start, see the article written by the group of
founders of the Internet in 1997.7 The list of (arguably) the main events of Internet history in
chronological order, which includes names of principal contributors, can be found on the
website.8).

3 https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2017/brief-history-internet/.
8 https://www.explainthatstuff.com/internet.html.
32 1 Modern Communications: What It

Development of the Internet started in 1950s and early 1960s, when the advent of electronic
com- puters immediately caused the need to share information produced and stored on one
computer with another computer. Originally, information could only be transferred by carrying
the physical memory media such as magnetic tapes or even punch cards. To make this transfer
automatic, the computers had to be physically connected. But even installing an electronic or an
optical link could not make data transmission possible. Why? Computers had to “understand”
each other; in other words, they had to obey the same communication rules, that is, protocols. So
these first attempts of creating a communication network immediately demonstrated that the
network had to have both physical and intelligent (logical) levels.
After both physical and logical connections were developed, in 1969, the first long-haul
transmis- sion link between computer laboratories of the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA), and Stanford University was established. This event is considered as the date of birth of
the Internet.
Extensive research, many failed attempts and breakthrough discoveries preceded and followed
this epochal event. One of the decisive moments was, of course, the development of theory and
practice of a packet-switching approach, and the construction of a packet-switching network.
(American scientist, Dr Leonard Kleinrock is credited with developing the mathematical foun-
dation of the concept of packet-switching.) The need for packet-switching became apparent after
the first attempts of using telephone lines for data transmission demonstrated the inadequacy of
this approach. What is more, the development of a packet-switching network had been urged by
military demand caused by the network’s ability to support communications even if a significant
part of the network were destroyed – a vitally important trait for defense applications. (Since
these first developments were supported by DARPA, the research agency of the US Department
of Defense, when the Cold War [confrontation between the USSR and the USA] was at its peak,
many considered the development of the Internet a product of military demand for a highly
resilient communication network.)
As more and more individual computers and local computer networks with a variety of software
joined the main network, the need for the universal protocol became urgent. Two American sci-
entists, Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf developed the basis of the Internet protocol suite known as
TCP/IP. This protocol suite was adapted in 1983; from that date, assembling the global communi-
cation network, which is now the Internet, proceeded at an accelerated pace.
The next milestone happened in 1990 when British scientist Tim Berners-Lee, then at the Euro-
pean Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), developed the World Wide Web, WWW . The
Web is an information space where all knowledge is codified and organized so as to make any
particular entry readily accessible. In WWW, all resources, organized into web pages, are
identified by Uni- form Resource Locators, or URLs. (https://www.history.com/news/who-
invented-the-internet is an example of a URL.) The search for information is done by using a
browser; almost everyone is familiar with such browsers as Google Chrome, Internet Explorer,
and Firefox.
One of the most important features of WWW is hypertext, the text enabling access to another
text or web page connected by a hyperlink. The hypertext appears either underlined or in a
different color. A click on a hypertext results in an instant transfer to the web page described by
the hyper- text thanks to hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). In WWW many pages are written
in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). It is WWW that makes the Internet such a useful tool
for accessing and exchanging any kind of information.

Today, the Web and the Internet are associated so closely that we often confuse one with the other. Let it be clear t
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 33
Much more new developments have occurred over the past years; these developments have made
the Internet and the Web more convenient and efficient tools. Nevertheless, the most
fundamental principles laid out by the Internet pioneers still work well, regardless of all the
advances in technol- ogy. From this standpoint, it is interesting to revisit the ground rules set by one
of the developers of the TCP/IP suite, Dr Robert Kahn:

• “Each distinct network would have to stand on its own and no internal changes could be
required to any such network to connect it to the Internet.
• Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a packet didn’t make it to the final
destination, it would shortly be retransmitted from the source.
• Black boxes would be used to connect the networks; these would later be called gateways and
routers. There would be no information retained by the gateways about the individual fiows of
packets passing through them, thereby keeping them simple and avoiding complicated
adapta- tion and recovery from various failure modes.
• There would be no global control at the operations level.”

It is amazing that all these principles still govern the Internet.

The Internet Operation How does the Internet work? The basic parts that make up any
commu- nication network in general and the Internet in particular are its tangible
components, which are designated as hardware. The list of the Internet hardware starts with
our computers, tablets, smartphones, and other user devices that convert logical (intelligent)
information into electrical or optical signals. To transmit these signals, we need transmission links.
As mentioned in the Networks subsection, they are implemented in copper or fiber-optic cables or
can be simply air for wireless transmission. In addition to providing access to the Internet, the
transmission links also connect all nodes of this network. The Internet nodes are routers that direct
and redirect the packets carrying messages and servers (specialized computers) that store and
process the information.
Remember, the Internet is simply a name for the assemblage of all connected networks.
This means that the Internet relies on existing transmission links and other hardware of those
partici- pating networks. Without its parts – the worldwide optical network, the innumerable set of
wireless transmission systems, and the global satellite communication complex – the whole entity
(the Inter- net, that is) would not exist. But it is important to note that certain hardware, such as
routers, were built specifically to support the Internet operation.
As discussed in the Networks subsection, the network is a symbiosis of two sides – tangible and
intelligent (logical). The intelligent side is especially important for the Internet because it must
make the variety of all worldwide networks work together and this task seems to be impossible
to achieve. The Internet, however, does operate successfully; it does so thanks to the TCP/IP
protocol suite, as mentioned above.
Why do we need the suite of protocols for the Internet? Imagine you work in the United States
and your friend or business partner works in another part of the globe, for instance, in Germany.
Your computer and the targeted computer are built with different technologies, they have differ-
ent (possibly proprietary) software, and you are typing your messages in different languages. To
transfer your messages through the Internet, numerous operations must be performed, and each
of them must obey a certain rule (protocol, that is). The combination of all these rules combined
constitute the TCP/IP suite. This is why we refer to the suite of protocols, as both TCP and IP
include many individual protocols, such as hypertext transfer protocol (http) or simple mail transfer
protocol (smtp).
34 1 Modern Communications: What It

The main principle underpinning Internet transmission is mentioned above among the TCP/IP
ground rules as the “black boxes” rule. At its most basic level, the rule says that the Internet
simply transfers packets to their destination points without looking into the packets’
contents; that is, regardless of whether these packets contain e-mails, or Web pages, or Skype
images, or anything else. (In this regard, the Internet operates similarly to the mail system
that delivers letters and parcels without knowing what is inside those envelopes or boxes.) All
data transmission in the Internet is governed by the suite of Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP).
The example of how TCP administers data transmission is the flow control that prevents a
receiver from being overwhelmed with traffic. The task is to make a sender transmit data at such
a rate that a receiver can reliably accept and process incoming packets. The data (bit) rate is the
number of bits per second; implementing the fiow control is done by changing the number of bits
being sent at once. This number is called flow control window size. In reality, this control is a
process of exchang- ing information between a transmitter and a receiver: The transmitter sends a
packet – whose size is equal to a fiow control window – and a receiver sends back
acknowledgment and information of how many bits it can accept at the next step. Thus, the
duration of every cycle of this communica- tion is equal to the round-trip time between two end
devices. The number of bits transmitted for that time is equal to window size plus
acknowledgement, whose size is negligible. Therefore, the bit rate is equal to
Bit rate (b∕s) = Window size (b)∕Round-trip time (s) (1.2.1)
By changing the window size, end devices ensure that communication occurs at a desired rate.
What is the role of the Internet Protocol, IP? It is an addressing system. Every user device connected
to the Internet is identified by its IP address, as mentioned above. You certainly hear about IPv4 and
IPv6, which refers to the IP Version 4 and IP Version 6 addressing systems. The Internet founders
developed IPv4 based on a 32-bit address; this system can accommodate 232 or approximately
4.3 billion of addresses. (Here is an example of IPv4 address in decimal format: 59.48.136.279. You
might want to jump to Appendix 3.A.1 to learn about binary and decimal number systems.)
When the Internet started to expand at an accelerating rate, it became apparent that this system
would soon be exhausted. In 1991, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – the open
international community of network designers, operators, vendors, and researchers dedicated to
developing open standards – decided to develop a new system, IPv6, that uses a 128-bit long
address. This address is arranged in eight 16-bit groups. Each group is presented as four
hexadecimal digits, and the groups are separated by colons. (An example of a IPv6 address in
decimal format is9: FE80:BD00:0000:0CDE:1257:0000:211E:729C.)
With IPv6, we will have 2128 or approximately 1038 the Internet addresses. That should be
enough for the foreseeable future, even after adopting such systems as the IoT (see Section 1.1 on
the IoT). In addition, IPv6 simplifies the use of the addresses and has a number of other advantages
over IPv4. In 2017, IPv6 became an Internet standard; it does not mean, however, that this system
becomes mandatory. There is no deadline for transition from IPv4 to IPv6; this is a long process
because it requires significant changes in both hardware and software of the Internet network.
Finally, let us briefiy consider how data is transmitted through the Internet. This is a big topic
in its own right; its thorough discussion lies outside the scope of this textbook. For this reason,
we will skip the discussion of logical side of data transmission related to the four-layer TCP/IP
model, detailed discussion of the IP addressing system, thorough examination of the structure of
Internet packets, etc. We will simply review this process in general terms.
9 https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/IPv6-address.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 35
As introduced above, the transmission process starts at end devices, including computers,
tablets, smartphones, various sensors, cameras, and similar gadgets. From the logical view, these
devices generate messages (files); from the hardware view, these messages are carried by
electrical or optical signals.
As mentioned several times previously, these files (messages) are disassembled into individual
packets for transmission through the Internet. In the IPv6 system, each packet can carry a 64-
kbyte payload and a 40-byte header. (To recall, 1 byte contains 8 bits.) This string of bits starts
with a header, the packet’s section describing its source and destination addresses. The header
also con- tains other information regarding the transmission conditions, such as traffic class
(transmission priority), payload length (the size of actual data), hop limit (the maximum number
of network hops), and, of course, the next header (ID of the header following the given packet). It
is TCP that controls both the disassembly of a message into packets at the transmitter end and the
reassembly of the packets into the original message at the destination point.
Table 1.2.1 briefiy describes the concept of TCP/IP application for packet transmission through
a router.
Now, consider Figure 1.2.7 that conceptually depicts data transmission through the Internet. A
transmitter sends the request for e-mail, web search, or chat communication wirelessly or
through the wireline to the ISP. (Term ISP denotes both the organization or company providing
access to the Internet and other associated services; it also designates the equipment used to
technically implement this access and services.) The ISP router sends the request to a DNS. Why?
When we want to send an e-mail or reach a certain website, we request access by typing in the
address, for example, as http://www.something.com or [email protected]. We have
learned, how- ever, that all Internet end users are identified by their IP addresses. How, then, can
our web search or e-mail reach a destination point? With the help of the DNS. This server
translates our request into IP addresses; more accurately, for each written request, it finds a
corresponding IP address. After finding the required IP address, the DNS forwards our packets to a
proper domain, where core routers continue to direct them to the destination point. The packets, as
we know, travel by different

Table 1.2.1 Conceptual description of routing operation.

Event Physical operation Logical operation Basis

A packet arrives Accepting the

packet Reading a header TCP
Finding the forwarding direction TCP
(required domain) by comparing the
destination address with the routing
table
Finding the best route to forward IP routing protocols, such
the packet by reviewing the as OSPF (for IPv4 only)
information about immediate and EIGRP
neighboring routes and then
The packet Sending a packet throughout the network
forwarded to the
next router
through the best
route

OSFP, Open Shortest Path First and EIGRP, Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol.
36 1 Modern Communications: What It

Core router

DNS
ISP ISP
The Internet

DNS Core router

Figure 1.2.7 Conceptual view at data transmission through the Internet.

paths and might reach the destination at different times. The difference, of course, is measured by
no more than milliseconds for e-mails and seconds for huge files.
What if a packet or several packets belonging to one file get lost or dropped or corrupted? Since
information about the order of packets within a specific file and the total number of packets
is carried by each packet, the destination device can check the status of the file and request
retrans- mission of the needed packets. This approach is the implementation of the other
ground rule: “Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a packet didn’t make it to the
final destination, it would shortly be retransmitted from the source.” In fact, this rule is another
basis for making the Internet a very effective communication network: A retransmission of a
couple of packets is much easier and faster than the retransmission of an entire file.
(Question: Waiting for acknowledgments and resending dropped packets take time and delay the
throughput message transmission. Do we see this delay in our everyday work with the Internet?)
Regarding routers and servers, which are considered previously, it is worth mentioning that
there are several levels of these devices. For example, there are ISP routers and core routers,
as Figure 1.2.7 shows. Also, it should be clear that routers logically interconnect different
networks, which enables them at every instant to choose the best path for the transmission of
a current packet. This arrangement allows for the fastest transmission of an entire file
because its pieces travel through the Internet by different paths simultaneously.
It is worth mentioning that, thanks to the intelligibility of the Internet transmission, we
can add new applications without restructuring the Internet. If we wanted to develop, for
example, YouTube, we would need to convert the images and sounds into digital signals, break
these streams of bits into packets, transmit these packets through the Internet, reassemble
them, and convert the received streams of bits back into images and sounds. This is it. No
changes in the network hardware or software are needed. This is why new applications appear on
the Internet almost every other day.
To sum up, this brief overview should give you an idea about how the Internet operates; more
importantly, it should inspire you to continue to learn about this technological marvel, which
deci- sively shapes our life today and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.

1.2.2 Optical Communications

Optical (fiber-optic) communications is the backbone of modern communications infrastructure.
Vast majority of global communication traffic is delivered by optical networks. All the features
of modern communications that transform our personal, social, and professional life have been
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 37
brought in by optical communications. It is astonishing that the vital role of optical communica-
tions in our life is mainly unknown to the general public and very few people know what it is.
This short review of optical communications can provide only a cursory survey of the field and
its role in modern communications; you are urged to learn more about this compelling field from
specialized literature. (See subsection Optical Communications in the Bibliography section of
this textbook.) We start with an introduction to the principles of operation of an optical
communication system and the short historical notes.

1.2.2.1 Introduction to Optical Communications

The basic block diagram of a fiber-optic communication system is shown in Figure 1.2.8. A
message in electronic format enters a transmitter whose electronics process the signal and convert
it into a serial stream of pulses. This stream drives a laser diode (LD) that emits optical pulses
carrying the submitted message. The train of optical pulses travels through an optical fiber,
which is a conduit of light signal. At the receiver end, the optical signal falls on a photodiode
(PD) that converts light into electrical current containing the received message. The receiver’s
electronics process the elec- trical signal and present the result to a user. This optical PPT link is a
building block of an optical communication network. (Additional discussion of optical
communications is in Section 10.1.)
Why do we need to convert electrical signals to optical? Why has it been worth to build the whole
new sector of communication industry that has replaced the traditional copper-based
transmission systems? It is because optical communication networks can provide the highest
possible trans- mission rate, that is the number of bits transmitted per one second. The physics
underlying this statement is that the transmission rate of any communication system is directly
proportional to the frequency of an information-carrying wave, and the optical wave has the
highest frequency that can be utilized in practice. Modern optical communication networks are
capable of delivering informa- tion at a mind-boggling rate of 10 15 b/s (petabits per second, Pb/s)
and still have potential for the further increases. To put this rate in perspective, realize that at 1
Pb/s transmission rate it is possible to send 5000 two-hour long HDTV videos in a single second.
This huge transmission rate is a key enabler of hundreds of new online applications. (Exercise:
List all online applications you use and know. For example, streaming video, Google search,
Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp.)
And how does optical communications eliminate the problem of distance in modern communi-
cations? Optical fiber spans the entire globe, and optical signals travel inside an optical fiber at
the velocity close to the speed of light in vacuum. Combining this propagation speed with the
enor- mous transmission rate, optical communications is capable of delivering tremendous
amount of information to the most remote corner of the world almost instantly.
(Question: The text says that optical communications eliminates the problem of distance in
modern communications. How important is this fact for the functioning of the Internet operation?
Explain.)

Figure 1.2.8 Basic block diagram of a Light source (laser diode, LD)
fiber-optic communication system. Info
Electronics
Optical fiber
Transmitter (Tx) Photodiode (PD)

Info
Electronics

Receiver (Rx)
38 1 Modern Communications: What It

But optical communications is responsible not only for long-distance transmissions. In fact, the
scale of operation of optical communication systems range from micro- and even nanometers in
optical interconnects to several kilometers in access networks and data centers to thousands of
kilometers in transcontinental links (see, for example, Mynbaev 2010, pp. 23–42.). Figure
1.2.9 shows that all continents are interconnected by the massive global network of undersea
(subma- rine) cables. You can easily imagine (or better, find it online) the map of terrestrial cables
covering the territory of the United States or any other developed country.
What parameter determines the transmission distance in any type of communications? First
and foremost, the loss introduced by transmission medium. The loss in decibels (dB) of an optical
fiber is given by ( )
LossOF (dB) = 10 log10 (1.2.2)
Pout (W)
Pin
where Pin (W) and Pout (W) are the powers of signals launched into and emerged out of the optical
fiber, respectively. This formula, however, does not include the length of the optical fiber,
whereas we know that the greater the length, the greater the loss. To resolve this issue,
communication industry assesses the quality of a transmission medium not by its losses but by
attenuation, which is the loss per unit of length. Thus, attenuation of an optical fiber, AOF (dB/km),
can be calculated as
−Loss(dB)
AOF (dB∕km) = (1.2.3)
Length
For example, if the input and output powers are Pin = 1 mW and Pout = 1 μW, and there is
Length = 100 km, then AOF = 0.3 dB/km. These numbers are typical for modern optical commu-
nications. They show that the present-day optical fiber operates with very-low-power signals and
it can transmit these signals over 100 km without amplification. (Of course, for delivering optical
signals around the globe, amplification is used.) Attenuation is a universal measure of loss-
related property of a transmission medium; it allows us to make comparisons not only
between the different optical fibers but also between the transmission media of different nature.
(You can jump to Figure 1.3.2 to see such a comparison.) You should be aware that
communication industry uses terms loss and attenuation interchangeably despite their
different meanings; thus, bear that in mind when reading the industry documents.
The second important characteristic of a transmission medium is its bandwidth, BW (Hz). This
is the band of frequencies within which transmission is restricted due to various factors, the main
of which is usually the acceptable value of attenuation. The optical fiber designed for long-
distance transmission (SMF) has the widest bandwidth (about 8 THz) among the two other types of
wired transmission media: twisted pair of copper wires and coaxial cable. The optical fiber
used for short distances (multimode fiber) has a smaller bandwidth, which limits its transmission
distance. Nonetheless, since this fiber is now widely employed in data centers, its importance in
modern optical communications has greatly increased. This stimulates intensive and productive
industry efforts to improve the overall quality of multimode fiber, bandwidth including. We will
discuss these topics – losses and bandwidth of transmission media – in succeeding chapters;
specifically, Section 10.1 might be especially helpful.
(Question: An SMF, a singlemode optical fiber used for long-distance transmissions, has lower
attenuation and higher bandwidth than a multimode optical fiber (MMF) employed in short-distance
networks. It seems natural to use the better optical fiber in all applications, but optical communica-
tion industry still uses MMF. Why? Hint: Refer to the discussion of network hierarchy in the
preceding subsection.)
46 1 Modern Communications: What It

Trunk
network

Optical metropolitan area network

CO CO
BS
RN
BS
RN RN
BS RN
BS BS BS BS
BS
CO Central office
Customer units BS Base station
RN Remote node

Figure 1.2.10 Example of interconnections between wireless and optical networks. Source: Reprinted with
permission of Lim et al. (2010) “Fiber-Wireless Networks and Subsystem Technologies.” Journal of Lightwave
Technology. Vol. 28, No. 4. February 15, 2010. Pages 390–405. © 2010 IEEE.

Returning to general discussion, optical communications has adapted the latest developments in
theory and practice of communication networking, such as SDN architecture, programmable optical
switches, etc. What is more, optical communications stimulates many of the latest advances by
demanding from photonics, electronics, computers, material science, and other related industries
better hardware, software, and firmware products.
Wait a minute, you might say, reading this text, I have an impression that optical communica-
tions is the only type of communications we have, but when we use our smartphones to view the
news online, there is no optical fiber in sight. Yes, are right. Wireless communications become
more and more important as the demand for mobile and fixed short-range connections grow. But
bear in mind that terrestrial wireless connections for mobile devices typically extend over short
distances; then, the radio-frequency signals reach the antennas at nearest base stations and are
transferred to optical networks. In other words, information destined to travel a significant
distance is eventually transmitted through optical fiber. (We will discuss wireless
communications in the next subsec- tion.) Figure 1.2.10 shows an example of interconnections of
wireless and optical networks, where fiber-optic cables are shown as n solid lines. Also, review
Figure 1.1.3 as another example of the linkage of wireless and fiber-optic communications. Both
figures show that wireless communica- tions provide short-range access connections and optical
networks transmit information over the distances. (It helps to re-examine Figure 1.2.4.)
(Question: Figure 1.2.10 shows the cooperation of optical and wireless communications. What is
the role of satellite communications in this cooperation?)

1.2.2.2 Developments in Optical Communications: From First Inventions to Modern Advances

In 1955, Narinder Kapany, working in England, developed optical fiber with a core and cladding.
Dr Charles Kao, also working in England, proposed in 1966 the provocative concept of using
opti- cal fiber for communications. (For his pioneering work leading to development of modern
optical
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 47
communications, Charles Kao was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.) Taking up the chal-
lenge, Corning Corporation developed the process of manufacturing optical fiber in 1970 with
attenuation below 20 dB/km. The era of optical communications had arrived. (Interestingly,
today’s commercial optical fiber has attenuation slightly less than 0.2 dB/km, but this number has
not practically changed over last 30 years.)
Development of a low-attenuation optical fiber was, of course, the main trigger for explosive
growth of fiber-optic communications, but it became immediately clear that an optical communi-
cation system is a complex structure whose all parts must work in concert.
First component needed for building this system was a proper light source. Initially, it was a light
emitting diode (LED); its main advantages were small size and relatively low consumption of
elec- tric power. But the only suitable type of optical fiber for long-distance transmission was (and
still is) a SMF whose inner (core) diameter was smaller than 10 μm. No LED could generate a
light beam with such a directivity; in other words, it was possible to launch only a small portion
of an LED entire beam. Given that the LED’s entire output power was inherently low, the
launched light beam diminished over a short transmission distance. In addition to power
problem, an LED could not support a transmission rate even in the order of hundreds of
megabits per second, let alone much anticipated gigabits per second. And yet another LED
problem was that its beam contained many wavelengths, which put further limits on
transmission rate and distance. Thus, using an LED as a light source, the optical communication
systems could not realize its main advantage – high-bit-rate transmission over long distance.
Reading these explanations, you may naturally want to ask, why not use a laser? Among
all existing types of laser, only laser diodes – thanks to their small sizes and potentially low-
power consumption – could be suitable light source for optical communications. Unhappily, the
first gen- eration of laser diodes could operate only under cryogenic (very low) temperature and
consumed tremendous amount of electric power. So the task was to create a small diode capable
of operating at room temperature, consume little electric power, and generate a laser beam with
all its advan- tages, such as big optical power, high directivity, and few wavelengths. Fortunately,
such a laser diode had been created in research laboratories by the time when the need arose. The
needs of opti- cal communications industry accelerated the process of commercialization of these
laser diodes. Today, various types of laser diodes are the only light sources for optical
communication systems; they support transmission at all the required distances from meters in
data centers to thousands of kilometers in intercontinental networks. In 2000, two scientists,
Zhores I. Alferov from Russia and Herbert Kroemer from the United States were awarded Nobel
Prize for their contribution into developing modern laser diodes.
Besides optical fiber and laser diode, optical communication networks include many other
com- ponents, whose invention and development can readily be a topic of another historical
review. We will just touch two of them: optical amplifier and WDM.
The modern era of worldwide telecommunications can be traced back to the installation of
opti- cal submarine networks. The first such cable was laid between England and Belgium in
1986. The initial transatlantic fiber-optic cable, called TAT-8, was laid two years later. To boost
optical sig- nals, this cable employed electronic repeaters installed every 50 km; these repeaters
performed optical-to-electrical and electrical-to-optical (OEO) conversions – a costly operation
that slows the speed of transmission. What is more, these electronic repeaters consumed
tremendous amount of electric power. On the positive side, this cable can support 40 000 voice
conversation, 10 times more
48 1 Modern Communications: What It

than the preceding transatlantic coaxial cable. TAT-8 was taken out of service in 2002 because the
many new optical cables installed proved far more efficient and less costly to operate.
Why new cables were much better than TAT-8? Mainly thanks to replacement of electronic
repeaters by optical amplifiers that amplified optical signals without OEO conversions. The
advent of optical amplifiers not only dramatically increased efficiency and reduced cost of optical
networks, but it also enabled deployment of new technology – WDM.
In communications, the multiplexing means transmitting several signals through one link.
To avoid interference among these signals, they must differ in one of their properties, such
as transmission time slot, frequency, or space (see Appendix 10.A). The WDM is, in essence,
a frequency-division multiplexing, but since this multiplexing is done in optical domain, the
industry prefers to use wavelength.
Be aware that wavelength, 𝜆 (m), and frequency, f (Hz), are related through the famous equation,

𝜆⋅f =c (1.2.4)

where c = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed of light in vacuum. If one wavelength can transmit at 100
gigabits per second, Gb/s, then multiplexing 80 wavelengths, we transmit 8000 Gbs/s = 8 Tb/s,
where Tb/s stands for terabits per second. The WDM has been a main driving force in incredible
progress of optical communications for the last 20 years, the progress measured by an increase in
transmission rates by 107 (10 million!) times.
There have been many other big and small advances in optical communication technology,
along with laser diodes, optical amplifiers, and WDM. The result is that today the global optical
network carries most of the world’s traffic. The network is interconnected with the world-wide
wireless and satellite communications systems providing access to the global network, national,
regional, and local networks to deliver information to our fixed and mobile devices wherever we
need it. In short, the optical network is the backbone of the Internet and the linchpin of the global
communication infrastructure.
What does the future hold for optical communications? As indicated earlier, the industry has
increased its data transmission rate by 10 million times within the last 25 years. It is easy to under-
stand how many breakthrough improvements had to be made at all levels of fiber-optic
communi- cation technology from a smallest component to the entire global network in order to
achieve such a result. However, the volume of global communication traffic continues to increase
at an exponen- tial rate. (It is interesting to note that this accelerating growth is stimulated by the
availability of a tremendous transmission rate over any imaginable distance provided by optical
communications. Thus, this relationship has created a feedback loop: The more transmission
capacity is available, the more demand for new capacity appears.) To meet the future demands,
optical communication industry must continue to progress in all aspects of its technology,
starting with transmission rate. But the industry is now approaching fundamental limits in
information-carrying capacity of opti- cal fiber, so further advances would be more difficult to
achieve (see, for example, Mynbaev 2016, pp. 1640010-1–1640010-21).
Optical communications is a huge industry; numerous books, innumerable journal and mag-
azine articles, industrial documents, and online resources are devoted to this subject. (See
the bibliography section devoted to optical communications.) This concise overview can give you only
a glimpse on this mammoth field; the objective of this book and the restrictions on its volume
prevent us from more rigorous presentation of this fascinating discipline. We will, however, refer
to optical communications through the course of this textbook to support and exemplify our
discussions of specific topics.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 49
1.2.3 Wireless Communications
1.2.3.1 Introduction to Wireless Communications
The wireless communications is the second of the three pillars of modern communication
indus- try; today, this sector is growing at the fastest pace. This growth is caused by the
advent of ever-increasing new mobile applications and new technologies like the IoT. As a result
of these new developments, the number of mobile devices will exponentially increase and reach
billions in the very near future.
Wireless communications use radio-frequency (RF) waves. These waves occupy the wide range
of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum from 3 kHz to 300 GHz; they are further classified into
indi- vidual categories, depending on their frequencies. Figure 1.2.11 demonstrates this spectrum
and shows the standard designations for each band.
Figure 1.2.11 also shows the wavelengths corresponding to the given frequencies. Conversion
between them can be done according to (1.2.4).
The wireless communication systems, as the name suggests, transmit information without
wired connections. It performs this transmission by radiating electromagnetic (EM) waves from
one point to another. Figure 1.2.12 shows the principle of operation of a wireless communication
system.

Visual light
Wavelength, 𝜆 (m) 700 nm 400 nm
IRUV

1 km
100 m 10 m 1m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 100 µm

MF HFVHFUHFSHFEHF

300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz 3 THz

Microwaves Millimeter Terahertz

waves waves

Wireless
“sweet Frequency, f (Hz)
spot”

RF spectrum
Figure 1.2.11 Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. MF, medium frequency; HF, high frequency; VHF, very high
frequency; UHF, ultra high frequency; SHF, super high frequency; EHF, extremely high frequency; IR,
infrared; UV, ultraviolet. Not shown: ELF, extremely low frequency (3 Hz < f < 30 Hz); SLF, super low
frequency (30 Hz < f < 300 Hz); ULF, ultra low frequency (300 Hz < f < 3000 Hz); VLF, very low frequency
(3 kHz < f < 30 kHz), and LF, low frequency (30 kHz < f < 300 kHz).

Info Info
Tx Rx
Transmitter Receiver

Figure 1.2.12 Principle of operation of a wireless communication system.

50 1 Modern Communications: What It

Information carried by a digital (or analog) signal arrives at the transmitting tower; here the
signal is processed, amplified, and radiated by the antenna in form of RF waves. These waves
reach the receiving antenna; at its tower these waves are processed, amplified, converted into an
electrical or optical signal, and sent to a communication network through an optical fiber.
Obviously, these end points can perform both transmitting and receiving tasks.
Figure 1.2.12 shows antennas installed on towers, which is typical for outdoor systems such as
cellular phone networks; nonetheless, wireless communication systems successfully operate
inside buildings, subway stations, and all other indoor locations. In these installations, antennas
and pro- cessing electronics are parts of mobile or fixed devices.
The main point to draw from Figure 1.2.12 is that RF signal travels through air, regardless of
the Tx and Rx locations. Utilizing air as a transmission medium is, on the one hand, a great
advantage because such a link is always available everywhere and thanks to this feature wireless
systems can provide mobile communications; on the other hand, this medium creates a problem
because we cannot control air conditions. Indeed, in wireline communication systems, we can
improve a coaxial cable or an optical fiber and can protect them from external noise, but in a
wireless system, we can do nothing with air.
Depending on the antenna type and RF frequency, radiation patterns emitting from an antenna
can vary from omnidirectional (all around, no directivity at all) to a light beam (totally directed
radiation). Directivity is typically described by a beam width, which is the area where most of the
radiated power is concentrated. Half power beam width is the angle at which relative beam’s power
is at more than 50% of its peak power. Beam width is a measure of radiation directivity; this is the
characteristic of an antenna.
Wireless antennas exist in a variety of construction principles. For our purpose, it is important
to know that the size of an antenna depends on the frequency (wavelength) of a radiated EM
wave. To estimate the order of magnitude of an antenna’s size, set it to half the wavelength and
use (1.2.1) to compute the frequency. For example, for f = 300 MHz, the antenna size is 0.5 m
because 𝜆 is 1 m, as Equation (1.2.4) and Figure 1.2.11 show.
The RF waves can travel through air in three main propagation modes shown in Figure 1.2.13.

Ground Wave Propagation This propagation mode uses RF waves whose frequencies are up to
2 MHz. In their propagation, these waves follow the contour (curvature) of the Earth far beyond
the horizon, as shown in Figure 1.2.13a. They travel this way because they induce current on the
Earth’s surface and experience diffraction effect due to the size of their wavelengths.
(Exercise: Compute the wavelength of an RF wave whose frequency is 2 MHz.) Both phenomena
tilt the wavefront of traveling RF waves toward the direction of propagation because the wave
part that touches the earth surface travels slower than the part that travels through air. The
best-known application of ground-wave communications is AM radio broadcasting; other
applications include amateur radio, RFID, submarine communication, and long-range
navigation. This mode of propagation can cover distances up to 100 km; the limit, of course,
depends on atmospheric conditions.

Sky Wave Propagation In this mode, as Figure 1.2.13b shows, the RF waves bounce back and forth
between ionosphere and the earth surface due to refiection. (The ionosphere is the layer of
the Earth’s atmosphere containing the charged particles, as its designation suggests.) This
propaga- tion type exists because the RF waves, whose frequencies range from 2 to 30 MHz,
become more directional. Typical applications include amateur radio, citizens band (CB) or short-
distance radio, international (long-range) broadcasting, military communications, and long-
range aircrafts and
52 1 Modern Communications: What It

ships communications. Sky wave propagation can cover distances in the range of thousands of
kilometers.
(Question: International radio broadcasting is often called short-wavelength broadcasting. Why?)

Line-of-Sight (LoS) Propagation The RF waves whose frequencies are higher than 30 MHz do not
follow the earth’s curvature and do penetrate through ionosphere; that is, they cannot support
either ground wave or sky wave types of propagation. These waves travel in a line-of-sight
propa- gation mode, as shown in Figure 1.2.13c. A transmitter and a receiver operating in this
mode must “see” each other, that is the term for this propagation. Applications of the LoS
propagation include cellular communications (starting with cellular phones, of course), FM
broadcasting, TV broadcast- ing, personal communication services (PCS), fixed-wireless links,
and all types of wireless optical communications. For these terrestrial applications, the LoS
transmission can cover distances from meters to tens of kilometers. In addition, this is the mode
of operation for satellite communications, where transmission distances vary from tens to
hundreds of kilometers. Propagation distance for terrestrial outdoor LoS operation can be
approximately estimated
√ as
D (km) ≈ 3.57 h (m) (1.2.5)
where h (m) is antenna height. For example, if h = 25 m for both the Tx and Rx the antennas, then
D ≈ 18 km. For indoor installations, LoS operates at distances from meters to hundreds of meters.
Since wireless communications transmit signals through air, it would seem that the loss of signal
power, and therefore the decrease in transmission distance, would first and foremost depend on
the air quality. Yes, air condition is a big factor, particularly in outdoor transmission; however,
there is a fundamental reason for power loss in wireless communications, regardless of the
propagation mode and air quality. This reason is the spread of an RF signal as it travels down the
transmission distance. Figure 1.2.12 conceptually depicts this spread; corresponding loss of signal
power is called
a FSL. FSL is given by
Pt (W) (4𝜋fd)2 (4𝜋d)2
FSL = = = (1.2.6)
Pr (W) c2 𝜆2
Here Pt (W) and Pr (W) are the powers of the transmitted and received signal respectively, f (Hz)
and 𝜆 (m) are the frequency and wavelength of the signal, d (m) is the transmission distance, and
c (m/s) = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed of light in vacuum. Communication industry measures loss in
decibels, dB; thus, in reference to frequency we find
FSL (dB) = Pt (dB m) − Pr (dBm) = 20 log(f ) + 20 log(d) − 147.56 dB (1.2.7)
Note that (1.2.6) calculates loss as the ratio of transmitted power to received power, whereas
the definition of loss – the measure of how much power is lost due to travelling along the
transmission path – requires the reverse order. Get to know that both definitions are acceptable.
The loss defini- tion given in (1.2.7) produces loss in decibels as a positive number; the inverse
formula gives FSL (dB) as a negative number. Carefully review the loss definition in every case to
avoid confusion. (Exercise: Take reasonable values of Pt (mW) and Pr (mW), select corresponding
frequency and transmission distance for terrestrial LoS propagation type, and compute FSL in
absolute numbers and in decibels. See Problem 48.)
Equation (1.2.6) shows that the FSL is determined simultaneously by two factors – signal
fre- quency and transmission distance. This fact always underlies more detailed analysis of loss
in wireless communications.
We need to firmly realize that (1.2.6) determines the loss of signal power only due to one yet
fundamental reason – the spread of an EM beam. In addition to this, there are a number of other
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 53
mechanisms causing signal loss. In particular, the same message can be simultaneously delivered
by the RF waves traveling through various directions, which is called multipath propagation.
The reasons for splitting one radiated signal into several transmitted signals include refiection of
RF waves from such obstacles as buildings and mountains and their redirection, refiection, and
refraction due to various atmospheric turbulences. (There are no waveguides in wireless commu-
nications, remember?) The losses and other detrimental effects caused by multipath propagation
must be calculated by equations other than (1.2.6).
What problems do modern wireless communications meet? The main one is the scarcity
of spectrum. Examining Figure 1.2.11 suggests that wireless communications can use any
frequency from 300 kHz to 300 GHz, but such a superficial conclusion would be very far from
reality. The fact is that the range of frequencies that can be employed (the usable spectrum, that
is) is determined by a combination of factors, among which are air attenuation, transparency of
obstacles, the size of an antenna, transmission distance, adequate bandwidth to support the
required transmission rate, and – a very practical – availability of electronics to build cost-
effective hardware. On top of these technical requirements, there are government regulations that
are necessary to make use of the spectrum for the whole nation.
In general, spectrum is considered a national treasure just as land, water, and other
natural resources. To prevent interference between users and to avoid chaotic use of the
spectrum, every country controls its spectrum. At the global level, the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) supports worldwide regulatory activities through its sectors:
Radiocommunications (ITU-R), Telecommunication Standardization (ITU-T), and
Telecommunication Development (ITU-D). The ITU is the agency of the United Nations.
Control and management of the spectrum in the USA are executed by the FCC and the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). The FCC administers spectrum for
non-Federal use (i.e. state, local government, commercial, private internal business, and personal
use), whereas the NTIA administers spectrum for Federal use (e.g. the use by the military, the
FAA, and the FBI, and other branches of Federal Government). For our discussion, we need to
know that the licensing of spectrum bands for commercial wireless communications is provided
by the FCC. (For complete information regarding spectrum allocation and licensed bands visit
the FCC website at www.fcc.gov.)
At present time, wireless communications mostly use the spectrum from 300 MHz to 3 GHz
due to a combination of all technological factors. This band is termed sweet spot or beachfront
spectrum (see Figure 1.2.11). Within this band, some ranges are occupied more densely, others less
densely, and some bands are reserved for future needs. The problem is that rapid growth of
wireless com- munications requires more spectrum because of (i) the sheer increase in the
number of users and expansion of the types of cell-phone services and (ii) the improvement in
transmission quality. Today, it is difficult to find a person without a cellular phone in almost any
country in the world. What is more, cellular phones become smarter and demand a variety of
new services (think about an increase in the use of video), for which more spectrum (bandwidth)
is required. Regarding the transmission quality, it suffices to refer to an increase in transmission
rate (bit rate) in mobile com- munications that 5G and other new technologies promise, the
increase which will also demand more bandwidth (spectrum).
Thus, on the one hand, the development of wireless communications requires more spectrum
and, on the other hand, the spectrum is finite and its best bands are almost totally occupied
(licensed). This contradiction threatens to limit further development of wireless communication.
The industry is searching for new solutions to resolve this dilemma; the most promising is
to use the ranges of frequencies higher than 3 GHz. However, two next bands that range from 3
to
54 1 Modern Communications: What It

300 GHz – microwaves and millimeter waves shown in Figure 1.2.11 – include regions where
EM radiation experiences high losses. These regions are approximately determined by frequency
bands of 21–25 GHz, 57–64 GHz, and 164–200 GHz. Also, air attenuation (loss in decibels per
kilometer) tends to increase as frequency gets higher. (You can skip to Figure 1.3.2, where
the spectral attenuation for all transmission media is shown.) Nevertheless, the use of this
open spectrum is the only real opportunity for wireless communications to meet the future
demand.
The use of new ranges of spectrum will open the possibility for development and deployment
of new types of wireless communications. The one of them is, of course, the fifth
generation of traditional, RF-based wireless communications called 5G. It is loosely defined as
the next gen- eration of wireless communication technology with a high bit rate (up to 20 Gb/s)
combined with enhancements to other transmission aspects; the term 5G has been introduced by
ITU. It is pro- jected that 5G systems will use the bands from 600 MHz to 6 GHz and from 24 to 84
GHz. All major companies of the wireless communication industry are involved in developing this
new technology, which creates diversity in the technical approaches and the competition in their
commercialization. ITU plans for 2020 to be the launch year for commercial deployment of 5G.
Since 5G dramatically increases the data rate in mobile communications, exchange of information
between all the users will occur much faster than it does today. All 5G-enabled devices will
communicate and react faster than a human being could, and therefore every task will appear to
be performed instantly. The IoT, autonomous vehicles, health care system, education, sports,
entertainment – all aspects of our life will dramatically change with the advent of new generation
of wireless communications. 5G arguably is the most active research and development area in
modern communications. Compre- hensive information on the state of this supremely important
work can be found, for example, on the website of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE).

1.2.3.2 Contemporary Wireless Communications Technologies

As revolutionary as the 5G and other new wireless technologies are, they all stem from cur-
rent wireless techniques. Let us consider the most popular modern wireless communications
technologies.
The first technology to examine is, of course, Wi-Fi (or WiFi) whose principle of operation
is shown in Figure 1.2.14. Signals from the Internet are delivered to a Wi-Fi access point (AP)
through

Figure 1.2.14 Wi-Fi principle of

operation.

Wi-Fi
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 55
a fiber-optic or coaxial cable. The AP can be a router or other similar device that distributes
the accepted signals wirelessly to all the users. Figure 1.2.14 depicts a home Wi-Fi network; it
shows that signals are transmitted from the Wi-Fi’s AP to a computer, tablet, smartphone, a
printer, a TV set, a video game console, and even to a 3D printer.
Wi-Fi networks mainly have star topology in which the AP is a hub; the end devices can, how-
ever, communicate with each other directly, provided that they are equipped with Wi-Fi
adaptors. (Direct communications between devices are called device-to-device, D2D,
communications.) Wi-Fi networks support two-way communications; they operate in LoS mode, and
cover up to 100 m. To provide Internet connections in large buildings, airports, subways, and
outdoors (think about smart cities), many APs (also called hot spots) are deployed.
Wi-Fi employs 2.4 and 5.8-GHz bands; the first band can only support data rate up to 10 Mb/s,
and the second can provide up to 300 Mb/s but at shorter distances. The latest advances, such
as multiple-input multiple output (MIMO) technique, increases the bit rate up to 3 Gb/s; the next
step – moving the operation into 60-GHz band – promises to achieve 7-Gb/s transmission rate.
The big advantage of Wi-Fi is that it is inherently compatible with the TCP/IP suite of
protocols, that is, with the Internet. Nevertheless, the software required for processing this form
of communi- cations is relatively big in size, complicated, and power-hungry. Power
consumption is a problem for the mobile devices that run on batteries. The tremendous progress
of modern electronics, how- ever, alleviates all these issues, paving the path to further advances
in Wi-Fi applications.
A word about the term: It is a common misconception to interpret Wi-Fi as a short name for
wireless fidelity. In fact, Wi-Fi is simply a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance that manages the IEEE
802.11 standard.11
Wi-Fi is the most ubiquitous technology providing wireless connections to the Internet. It
is so widespread that we often refer to Wi-Fi meaning the Internet connection. The exponentially
increasing demand for high-speed wireless Internet connectivity from mobile and fixed devices
(see discussion of the IoT, smart homes, and smart cities in Section 1.1) assures further advances
in the Wi-Fi technology.
Today, Wi-Fi and some other wireless technologies (Wi-Max and LTE) use new approach
called MIMO. A MIMO system includes several antennas at both transmitter and receiver sides.
This architecture enables the system transmit one high-rate signal as a set of independent low-
rate sig- nals (data streams). Each receiving antenna accepts all low-rate signals but from different
directions and at slightly different times because an individual data stream (a low-rate signal)
travels slightly different path to the destination. Employing the capability of modern electronics
to intelligently process received signals, a receiver recovers the original message from many data
streams obtained. If M is the number of independent data streams, than the total channel
capacity, C (b/s) is multi- plied by M; that is, Shannon’s law for MIMO is read as C (b/s) =
M⋅BW⋅log2 (1 + SNR). There are many important details of this technology to be considered but
we have to leave them for your independent study.
The next ubiquitous current wireless communication technology is Bluetooth, which provides
connections between our personal devices. For example, most modern cars are equipped with
Blue- tooth technology enabling us to talk on the phones even when we are driving because the
phone conversations become hands-free. Wireless headsets are the most common Bluetooth
application. The new additions to our personal devices, such as wearable gadgets, increase the
use and impor- tance of Bluetooth in our everyday life.

11 https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Computer_Science/wifi_explained.asp.
56 1 Modern Communications: What It

Bluetooth standards are controlled by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG); this
industrial consortium also oversees the licensing of Bluetooth word mark and trademark.
Bluetooth operates in the 2.4-GHz range; it supports up to 3 Mb/s bit rate at a distance of 10 m.
Bluetooth provides mainly peer-to-peer communications; that is, it works as a PPT link. It
obviously transmits in LoS propagation mode and it can simultaneously support up to 10 devices
in a star topology.
Rapid development of the IoT opens up a new area for Bluetooth applications, which,
naturally, implies likely further advances in the Bluetooth technology.
Another wireless short-distance technology is called ZigBee, and its main application is
commu- nications in mesh networks connecting thousands of small devices. This technology
predominantly operates in the 2.4-GHz spectrum band; it requires low power and supports low
(up to 250 kb/s) bit rates. ZigBee devices can work on coin cell batteries for years; the latest
versions of them are even provided with energy harvesting ability. It should be clear from this
description that ZigBee is the best candidate for linking the IoT numerous sensors, but this
network needs an external device working as the Internet gateway. The operational standard is
maintained by ZigBee Alliance, whose website contains the detailed information about this
technology.
There are a number of other important and interesting wireless technologies, which we leave
for your self-study if your professional career will so require.
The next type of wireless technologies is called optical wireless communications because
it uses the light spectrum for wireless communications. (Do not confuse the optical [fiber-optic]
com- munications, whose signals are transmitted through an optical fiber [a light conduit], with
optical wireless communications, which transmits its signals through air without cables. Also, be
aware that term optical refers to the spectrum from infrared [μm] to ultraviolet [nm] wavelengths
– see Figure 1.2.11.) Within optical wireless communications, we distinguish three technologies:
Free space optical (FSO) wireless communications, light fidelity (Li-Fi) communications, and visual
light communications (VLC).
The FSO is the outdoor method of optical communications; its principle of operation is easy to
understand by reviewing Figure 1.2.8, where an optical fiber must be substituted by air.
Replacing the antennas by a laser Tx and a photodiode Rx on the top of the towers in Figure
1.2.12 gives the block diagram of an FSO communication system. A laser radiates in the
infrared (IR) region to minimize the light beam absorption. (Exercise: Sketch the block diagram
of a FSO system.)
The most popular FSO terrestrial application is communications between high buildings in
big cities. For a corporation occupying two or more skyscrapers in downtown of New York City,
for example, it is much easier and less expensive to connect their buildings by an FSO
system than dig the city’s streets and install fiber-optic cables. From the capacity standpoint, an
FSO system can deliver information at the same bit rate as a regular fiber-optic system. In
this application, however, an FSO suffers from two major drawbacks: First, weather condition
can drastically affect the quality of transmission; rain and especially snow could even completely
interrupt the transmis- sion. Second, high buildings are in constant motion, and FSO’s laser Tx
and Rx must be dynamically aligned to stay in the line-of-sight.
The other important FSO application is space communications between satellites. Here, the trans-
mission conditions are almost ideal and alignment between satellites Tx and Rx is not a problem.
Li-Fi communications utilizes the entire light spectrum from infrared (IR) to ultraviolet, UV (see
Figure 1.2.11). The principle of Li-Fi operation is shown in Figure 1.2.15. Data stream modulates
the driver of a LED or a laser diode (LD), which results in modulation of intensity of emitting
light.
This modulated light falls on a receiver’s PD that converts it back to electrical signal. Thus,
the original message reaches our laptops, tablets, or smartphones.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 57
Figure 1.2.15 Principle of operation of a
Li-Fi system.
Data LED
driver

Rx

This communications system is called Li-Fi thanks to its similarity to Wi-Fi. The difference
between these two lies in the nature of a signal carrier: Li-Fi utilizes a high-frequency optical
carrier, whereas Wi-Fi relies on a RF carrier. This difference determines the advantages and
disad- vantages of both systems. Li-Fi supports much higher data rates; its transmission is less
susceptible to interference and is much more secure. On the other hand, Li-Fi, as Figure 1.2.15
shows, provides one-way transmission, works only in the LoS mode, and covers much smaller
area due to gener- ating a very focused beam. Its transmission distance is limited by 10 m, and it is
mainly deployed indoors.
The third optical wireless technology is VLC. This is basically a variant of Li-Fi whose car-
rier waves are restricted by visual-light frequencies. Its principle of operation is presented in
Figure 1.2.15; the minor variation is that the LED is used simultaneously for both
illumination and data transmission. In other words, the VLC takes advantage of trend to replace
incandescent lamps by LEDs in factories, offices, and homes. Modulation of the LED light by
high-frequency communication signal does not affect its illumination function because a
human eye cannot follow the high-frequency variations in light intensity. (Refer to our
personal experience: An incandescent lamp becomes totally dark 120 times during each second
and we do not notice these changes.) VLC has the same advantages and disadvantages as Li-Fi,
and the former is even more restricted in carrier frequencies and Tx’s locations than the latter.
Optical wireless communications is an important segment of the wireless communications
industry.
In our preceding discussions, we considered PPT links; today, with an exponentially increasing
number of end users (devices), wireless communications networks start to play the main
role in wireless communications. The IoT shown in Figure 1.1.2 is an example of such a
network. When we use a router at our home to provide access to the Internet for many fixed
and mobile devices, we, in fact, employ a wireless access network (see Figure 1.2.12). You
can readily find many other examples that confirm the ubiquity of wireless networks around us.
The format of this book prevents us from delving deeper into this topic but the overviews of
networks and wireless communications given in this section should prepare you for further
study of wireless networks if the need arises.

1.2.3.3 Mobile Cellular Communications

Discussion of wireless communications cannot be complete without a short review of mobile cel-
lular communications. Today, billions of people carry their phones and other mobile devices
in order to access the Internet while on the road, in train, in an aircraft, or aboard a ship. It is a
com- mon means of communication for local or cross-country communities, but they are also
used for
 58 1 Modern Communications: What It

global connections by taking advantage of optical and satellite communications. (See preceding
and following subsections of this section.)
We will concentrate on terrestrial mobile cellular communications.A cellular network is depicted
in Figure 1.2.16A. The entire communication network blanketing a geographic region is divided
into a number of cells; each cell covers part of the whole region. A cell tower called BTS is located
in the center of each cell. (A BTS is sometimes called base station, BS.) It is the BTS that transmits
and receives the electromagnetic signals to and from mobile devices within its cell. This wireless
communications uses a very limited band of radio frequencies. Figure 1.2.16B shows an individ-
ual BTS operating at the band f 1 (left-hand side) and also the frequency assignments in a cellular
network (right-hand side). The main feature of this arrangement, which enables frequency reuse,

Urban zone

BTS
(A)

BTS
BTS

Internet

Base station (BTS)

Rural zone

(B) f1f 2f 3f1f 2f 3

f 2f 3f1f2f 3f1f 2

f1f 2f3f1f 2f 3
f1
f 3f1f 2f 3f1

(a)
f 2f 3f1f 2

(a) f2

Figure 1.2.16 Cellular mobile networks: (A) General architecture; (B) an individual cell (a) and frequency
assignment in a cell array (b). BTS, base transceiver station; BSC, base station controller; and MSC, mobile
switching station. Source: (A) Reprinted with permission of http://www.thelifenetwork.org/about.html.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 59
is that every cell has its own frequency band and none of the adjacent cells have the same band.
Examine Figure 1.2.16B closely: It takes only three frequency bands , f 1, f 2, and f 3 to cover the
array of 29 cells. This example shows that frequency reuse enables a finite number of
frequen- cies to cover an almost infinite number of customers. Why is this a main feature of
today’s mobile communications? Without a cellular architecture, mobile communications would
require assign- ing an individual frequency to each customer to avoid signal interferences. But
then the number of frequencies (spectrum) available for wireless communications is strictly
limited; therefore, the number of mobile phones would be limited too. Before the advent of
cellular networks, mobile com- munications was called radio-communications and, indeed, every
customer had been assigned an individual frequency. As you can guess, there were very few
such persons in each area and, typi- cally, they were either highly ranked public officials or very
wealthy individuals. What a contrast to today’s situation when the majority of world’s
population carry mobile phones.
Because of their proximity to a nearby antenna, mobile devices do not require high-power
signals from a BTS. This is also very important feature because low-power BTS signals (on the
order of 10 W) diminish when they reach the cell borders and, thus, do not interfere with
frequencies of the adjacent cells. There are, of course, signals overlapping at the borders, as
Figure 1.2.16A shows, but our smart phones “know” how to choose the right frequency. Another
advantage of a cell’s compact area and low-power operation is that it requires very little power
from a mobile device for transmission, thus allowing the cell-phone battery to be so compact.
Today, to improve mobile connectivity, especially indoors, the hierarchical cell architecture
takes further steps placing microcells, picocells, and femtocells inside a single cell in the indicated
consecu- tive order. These mini-cellular base stations are designed to cover small areas and serve a
restricted number of customers. Specifically, a smallest femtocell radiates about 0.1 W of power,
has cover- age radius of 60 ft, and serves less than ten customers. A picocell radiates 1 W, covers
750 ft, and serves 60–70 customers. A microcell, which can also operate outdoors, radiates 5 W,
covers 1000 ft, and serves up to 200 users. These small cells not only improve connectivity but
also add additional capacity in densely populated coverage areas.
Returning to Figure 1.2.16A, we notice that all BTSs are connected to a base station
controller (BSC) which mediates the communications between BTSs and the mobile switching
station, MSC. The MSC is a gateway of this cell array: It prepares the signals received from the cell
array for trans- mission and sends them to the Internet; it also accepts information from the
Internet, processes it, and transmits to the cells through a BSC.
All connections in the cell networks from BTSs to BSC to MSC and to the Internet utilize
fiber-optic cables, shown in Figure 1.2.16A in solid lines.
Mobile technology rapidly evolves and new generations of smart phone appear on the market
regularly, but this cell network architecture is still in use even though it was developed many
years ago. This network architecture’s stability is due to its optimal structure and good
functionality.

1.2.4 Satellite Communications

1.2.4.1 Historical Notes
In 1957, the USSR launched the first satellite, Sputnik. In April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri
Gagarin became the first man to orbit the Earth. The United States took up the challenge and
started to develop its own space program. The first communication satellite was American Echo
1 launched into an orbit in 1960. It was a metallized balloon that worked as a mirror,
passively refiecting signals from the earth back to another point on the earth’s surface. Then,
in 1962, the Telstar satellite relayed the first transatlantic television picture. The globalization of
television had
60 1 Modern Communications: What It

Earth’s axis
of rotation

ATS-3
orbit

14°

Equator

Polar region

Figure 1.2.17 ATS-3 communication satellite orbiting Earth. Source: http://ctd.grc.nasa.gov.

begun. The Applications Technology Satellite (ATS-3) was launched five years later, providing
live TV coverage of the 1968 Mexico City Olympics and obtaining the first color pictures of the
entire disk of the earth. Figure 1.2.17 depicts the ATS-3 communications satellite orbiting the
earth.
A number of interesting American projects, such as Iridium, Globalstar, Teledesic, and GTS,
had launched over these years, making the satellite communications a vitally important
component of our life. Many other countries joined the space race launching their satellites onto
various orbits. Today, even private companies can afford to deliver satellites on geocentric orbits.
In 2018, NASA counted 20 000 satellites orbiting our planet. Unfortunately, in addition to regular
satellites pur- posely launched onto orbits, there are hundreds of thousands of small objects
(debris, in fact) in space.
Remember, satellite communications enables us to reach any distant corner of the globe
without installing a cable there. This unique property of satellite communication makes it the
major player in international mobile communications. Today, hundreds of communication
satellites are in orbit, providing truly global connectivity for citizens of the Earth.

1.2.4.2 Principle of Operation of Satellite Communication Systems

Communication satellites are spacecraft orbiting the earth. They serve as intermediate
nodes (active mirrors) for redirecting the EM signals from one point on the earth’s surface to
another. The first communication satellite worked as a mirror, merely refiecting signals back to
earth. Today, all communication satellites are the active spacecraft that receive signals from the
ground, amplify them, change their frequencies, and transmit the signals back to the
predetermined area on the earth’s surface. To perform these tasks, a satellite carries appropriate
equipment, including receiv- ing and transmitting antennas. This equipment is powered by solar
panels. Figure 1.2.18 presents the concept of satellite communications.
Transmission from an earth ground station to a satellite is called uplink; transmission from
a satellite to another ground station is called downlink. Satellite’s equipment that processes
the received signal and transmits it back to earth is called transponder; this term combines
words
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 61

Satellite

Ground station
Ground station
Figure 1.2.18 Satellite communication system.

transmitter and responder – two main blocks of the unit. A transponder connects satellite’s
receiving and transmitting antennas. It is a transponder that accepts the received signal,
processes and amplifies it, changes the carrier frequency to avoid interference with internal and
external signals, and transmits the signal back to another ground station. A transponder is a
sophisticated module that must not only filter, clean of noise, and decipher a weak received
signal but also produce a powerful (from tens to a hundred watts) output signal. Given that the
distance between earth stations and satellites can reach 36 000 km and more, it is understandable
that a big power output is needed to assure that the surface station receives a recognizable
message. This is why a transponder is a power-hungry device; it is fed by energy constantly
generated by solar panels, which are the necessary attributes of any communication satellite.
And, again, the transponder has to preserve the received information while performing all of
its operations.
Regarding the frequencies used in satellite communications, they are concentrated in the
microwave region of the EM spectrum (see Figure 1.2.11). Three frequency bands – L-band, C-
band, and Ku-band – are mostly employed.
The L-band lies between 1 and 2 GHz. Since its carrier frequencies are low, L-band has
restricted transmission bandwidth; on the other hand, its low-frequency range enables easier
implementa- tion of both hardware and software modules. Applications of L-band are numerous;
they start with GPS, without which we cannot imagine today’s traveling. This band is also used
for mobile com- munications. For example, have you heard of LTE, long-term evolution, which is
the highest-speed version of the fourth-generation (4G) mobile communications? This standard
utilizes L-band fre- quencies. The Iridium satellite mobile phones that communicate directly with
an Iridium satellite (to be discussed shortly) operate in L-band too. In addition, L-band is used in
aircraft communica- tions to ground stations and between them, in amateur radio, in digital
audio broadcasting, and in astronomy.
The C-band ranges from 4 to 8 GHz and covers large areas of earth. Since its beam is widely
spread, the ground stations receive low-power signals, which requires large ground anten-
nas and other equipment to achieve high-quality reception. Typically, the C-band transmits
uplink at 5.925–6.425 GHz and downlink transmission occurs at 3.7–4.2 GHz frequencies; there
are, however, other versions of uplink and downlink frequencies within the given margins.
C-band – the first frequency range used for satellite communications – has been in service for
more
62 1 Modern Communications: What It

than 40 years. Today, according to ITU-D, about 180 satellites in orbit provide more than 2000
transponders utilizing C-band frequencies; this band plays a key role in the global
communications infrastructure.
Applications of C-band are too many to be discussed in detail; we just list the main of
them: provide weather forecasts, support humanitarian activities and e-learning and e-healthcare
sys- tems, enable businesses (maritime operations, oil and gas remote platforms, ATM machines,
and mobile-phones communications), and broadcast TV. The popularity of C-band stems from its
abil- ity to cover large areas by a single beam and withstand the rain attenuation. Due to
these and other technological advantages, the C-band is actively used not only for satellite but
also for terres- trial wireless communications. The band becomes overcrowded, and this has
become an issue at national and international levels.
The Ku-band operates on frequencies from 12 to 18 GHz. Its beam is more focused and covers
small ground areas. Thanks to the high directivity of its beam, Ku-band delivers more power to
surface stations, which relaxes the requirements for ground-station equipment, enabling the use
of small-size antennas. This is why the Ku-band is widely employed for direct-to-home service,
the application that most of us are familiar with because dish antennas as small as 60 cm in
diameter are seen on many houses and buildings. For this service, called direct broadcast satellite
(DBS), the uplink transmission occurs at 17.3–17.8 GHz and downlink is at 12.2–12.7 GHz.
In addition to a very focused beam delivering enough power for individual dish antennas, Ku-
band withstands the interference with terrestrial wireless transmissions better than other
bands. The signals in Ku-band range, however, are susceptible to rain fading; that is, the
variations in signal attenuation due to rain. Also, the Ku-band focused beam might be a
disadvantage when the coverage of a large geographical area is needed. In addition to DBS
service, applications of Ku-band include fixed satellite services, FSSs, and space
communications with International Space Station.
There are several other frequency bands used in satellite communications, which we leave to
specialized sources.
(Exercise: Summarize all applications of the satellite communications discussed above.)
(Question: You probably notice that uplink transmission in any band always occurs at the higher
frequency than the downlink. Why is this so?)

1.2.4.3 Satellite Orbits

How, you may reasonably ask, can satellite orbit the earth and what orbits are best for commu-
nications? To answer these questions, let us consider Figure 1.2.19.12
A satellite is a projectile; that is, a body on which a single force – gravity – is exerted. If we dropped
a satellite well above earth’s surface and pushed it at the horizontal velocity of 8000 m/s, it would
seem that the satellite should move to a new position shown as a shaded body in Figure 1.2.19A.
Gravity, however, makes it fall toward the earth center. The result of these two motions (shown
in dashed arrows) is that the satellite’s trajectory will be a curve. If over one second the
satellite travels horizontally 8000 m and falls to the earth center by 5 m, it will keep a constant
distance from the earth because the earth curves at the same rate. This is how a satellite moves in
a circular orbit. If satellite’s velocity exceeds 8000 m/s, its orbit will be elliptic and the earth will
be one of two foci. Circular and elliptic orbits are shown in Figure 1.2.19B. If satellite’s velocity is
smaller than 8000 m/s, the satellite’s spiral-like trajectory will end on the earth surface.

12 https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-4/Circular-Motion-Principles-for-Satellites.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 63
v = 8000 m/s

(A)

(a) (b)

(B)

Figure 1.2.19 Satellite for communications: (A) Satellite motion (not to scale); (B) circular (a) and elliptic
(b)satellite orbits.

Both elliptic and circular orbits used for satellite communications are represented by the
term geocentric orbits, which means “orbits around the earth.” Three main types of geocentric
orbits – high, medium, and low – differ in their distances (that is, altitudes) from the earth center.
High-altitude orbits start with geostationary earth orbit, GSO, whose distance from the Earth’s
surface is approximately 35 700 km. This circular orbit lies on the equatorial plane. A satellite
placed into this orbit is stationary with respect to a point on the earth’s surface. Thus, this surface
point and the satellite are constantly in the line-of-sight, which eases their communications. The
concept of such satellite communications was devised by prominent futurist writer and the
originator of many brilliant ideas Artur C. Clark in 1945. He calculated that the satellite placed
at such an orbit will rotate at the same angular velocity as the earth and will therefore remain
fixed with respect to a ground point. (In other words, the given earth’s surface and the GSO
satellite cover the same angle over the same time interval; put in another way, both the earth
point and the GSO satellite com- plete their full rotational cycle in sync for 24 hours.) This orbit is
the most used in modern satellite communications. The GSO satellites deliver the majority of
weather monitoring and forecasting
information; the weather-related images we see on TV or online are provided by these satellites.
The GSO satellites operate mostly in Ku frequency band, though C-band and L-band are also
employed at this orbit.
64 1 Modern Communications: What It

There is a version of a GSO orbit called geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO). This orbit has
some inclination and may be eccentric; nevertheless, this orbit serves the same purpose as the
GSO.
An example of a MEO, is a semi-synchronous orbit at which satellites travel the full orbit in
12 hours. Such orbits are about 20200 km above the earth’s surface. The GPS satellites rotate on
this orbit. There are a number of other MEOs whose altitudes vary from 2000 to 35 700 km.
The low earth orbits (LEOs) range in altitude from 160 to 2000 km. (There is no standard for
the range of the LEO altitudes; you may find many versions of these distances. Nevertheless, the
given numbers define the order of magnitudes.) The LEO satellites, thanks to their proximity to
the earth’s surface, perform a variety of functions that require immediate responses. They include
weather information, mobile communications, and Internet connectivity. The International Space
Station is on this orbit. Since these satellites rotate around the earth at short intervals (from
88 to 127 minutes), they pass over the same ground point many times a day; thus, to support
con- stant satellite communications, a constellation of satellites must be on the orbit. Compare:
Three GSO satellites can cover the whole Earth, but it takes 15 LEO satellites to do the same
job. (The best-known example of the LEO satellite system is the Iridium Communications’ cluster
whose 66 active satellites cover the whole globe, providing connections to and from every point
on Earth. This program was established to launch 77 low-orbit satellites. Seventy-seven is the
atomic num- ber of the element iridium, hence, the name of the project. Originally, devised as a
mobile phone network, this system today provides all kind of mobile connections.) The LEO
orbits exist with all
inclinations from zero (in equator plane) to 90∘ (polar orbits).
(Exercise: Sketch a figure showing the earth and three LEO where inclinations are equal to 0 ∘,
45∘ and 90∘.)
All three orbit types employ all available frequency bands in different proportions. There is no
rule for choosing a specific band for a specific orbit; it is determined by the task and technological
and economic variables. For example, Ku-band is mostly used by GSO satellites partly because of
its high directivity; nevertheless, this band is also in use for LEO satellites communications,
though in a smaller volume.
The approximate distribution of satellites among the orbits in 2018 have been as follows13:
2% are in elliptical orbits, 29% are in geostationary earth orbits (GSO), 6% are in MEOs, and
63% are in LEO.
Why do we need the orbits of various altitudes and shapes? Consider, for example, GSO satellites:
From the preceding discussion, we can deduce that they are needed when the satellites and their
ground stations must be in permanent contact. In addition, the beam of a GSO satellite covers
large ground area; that is, one satellite can serve many customers. Does it mean that GSO
satellites are the best, and we should employ only them? What drawbacks do these satellites
have?
It is intuitively clear that the higher the satellite orbit, the greater the signal power loss.
Indeed, Equations (1.2.6) and (1.2.7) – applicable for any wireless transmission, including the
satellite – show that the FSL (dB) directly depends on distance. To apply this rule to all three orbit
types, let us take f = 12 GHz and distances dLEO = 2000 km, dMEO = 20 200 km, and dGSO = 35 700
and compute FSL (dB) by using (1.2.6) as follows:
FSLLEO(dB) = 20 log(f ) − 147.56 + 20 log(dLEO) = 180.02 dB
FSLMEO(dB) = 20 log(f ) − 147.56 + 20 log(dMEO) = 200.13 dB
FSLGSO(dB) = 20 log(f ) − 147.56 + 20 log(dGSO) = 205.07 dB

13 https://www.pixalytics.com/sats-orbiting-the-earth-2018/.
 Objectives and Outcomes of Section 1.2 65
The obtained, well-predictable results show that the longer the distance, the greater the loss.
This relationship implies that a ground station and a satellite transponder must generate the
greatest signal power for GSO communications, the lesser for the MEO, and the least for the LEO.
In this example, we keep frequency constant to emphasize the dependence of FSL on distance
only. Also, be aware that the wireless communications industry, as (1.2.6) attests, considers loss
as a ratio of transmitted (input) power to the received (output) power. This is why in our example
the FSLs are positive numbers. Optical communications industry, as mentioned previously,
Pout (W)
practices the inverse approach, Loss = ; this produces Loss (dB) as a negative number.
P
in

Bear in mind that Equations (1.2.6) and (1.2.7) describe only the power loss caused by one fun-
damental reason – the spread of the EM wave due to propagation over distance. Even though
the calculated FSLs are close in the orders of magnitude to the actual values, the realistic analysis
of the satellite link budget required a much more sophisticated approach. Here are some num-
bers from an example of such calculations14: The downlink transmission of an LEO satellite
whose altitude is 800 km and carrier frequency is f = 437 MHz experiences FSL = 151.4 dB,
generates a transmitter power Pt = 27 dBm, and delivers received power Pr = –116.74 dBm. The
detailed cal- culations for power budgets of uplink and downlink transmissions considering many
transmission impedances can be found in specialized literature. (See section Satellite
Communications in the textbook’s bibliography).
Another consequence of placing satellites on various orbits is the different propagation delay,
td, of a signal. It is clear that an increase in transmission distance increases the time interval
needed for a signal to reach its destination point. Satellite communications operate at thousands
of kilome- ters; therefore, we can expect significant propagation delays. To calculate td for a
specific ground station, it is necessary to know the exact distance between the satellite’s
transmitting antenna and the ground receiving antenna. There are formulas enabling these
calculations that are derived from the straightforward geometrical considerations. We can,
however, estimate the delay’s minimum value by simply dividing an orbit’s distance by the
signal’s velocity, which can be approximated by the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 × 108 m/s.
That is,
dLEO(m)
td (s) c(m∕s) (1.2.8)

Thus, for distances considered in the preceding example, dLEO = 2000 km, dMEO = 20 200 km, and
dGSO = 35 700 km, we find
dLEO(m)
td (LEO) = = 0.0066 s.
c(m
dMEO(m)
td (MEO) = c(m = 0.0673 s.

dGSO
c(m(m)
td (GSO) = = 0.119 s.

Given that the delay is doubled due to round-trip transmission, the wait of 0.238 s is significant
even for voice communications, let alone more urgent messages, such as navigational
information for autonomous vehicles. Nothing can be done to decrease a given propagation
delay because we cannot exceed the speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m/s. Thus, to minimize the delay,
we must shorten the distance; that is, lower the satellite orbit. This is another reason for
having a variety of orbit altitudes.

14 https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-R/space/workshops/2016-small-sat/Documents/Link_budget_uvigo.pdf.
66 1 Modern Communications: What It

(Question: The decrease in propagation delay is the obvious reason to keep the communication
satellite at a low orbit. Do you know the reason for keeping the satellites at the medium and high
orbits? Explain.)
How do satellite communications relate to the other two sectors of communications
indus- try – optical and wireless? Optical communications can deliver signals only to stationary
points located on the earth’s surface. When a satellite signal reaches a ground antenna, the
signal is converted into optical and gets transmitted over an optical fiber to any other destination
point connected to the optical network. As for the relationship between the satellite and wireless
com- munications, the situation is slightly ambiguous. On the one hand, both segments transmit
their signal wirelessly; from this standpoint, satellite communications can be considered a
segment of the wireless sector. (Many textbooks devoted to wireless communications indeed
include satellite communications in their content.) On the other hand, the realm of satellite
communications is outer space, whereas wireless communications employ the thin lowest layer
of the earth’s atmo- sphere. Thus, we can say that satellite communications are the space wireless
communications and wireless communications is terrestrial communications.
It is worth mentioning that it is ITU that coordinates the placement of communication satellites
and the frequencies they use for communications.
The last and may be the most significant point regarding satellite communications is its impor-
tance for military operations. All stationary military installations (bases, camps, stations, ports,
airfields, command centers, etc.) are connected by closed optical communication networks. These
installations, of course, have access to the Internet through these networks. All mobile military
objects (vehicles, ships, aircrafts, and spacecrafts) communicate wirelessly, where terrestrial and
satellite communications are equally important. Satellite communications connect military per-
sonal engaged in field, sea, and air operations with their command centers, provide them with
navigational information, and coordinate the logistical actions; it also supports the distant control
of weaponry and autonomous vehicles, such as drones. Of course, we cannot overestimate such
an important function of military satellites as reconnaissance. To put it plainly, satellite
communica- tions are vitally important to military operations; the interruptions of these
connections undermine the military’s ability to perform its tasks. As you can guess, this
importance of the satellite com- munications for defense makes the developed countries take all
possible measures to protect their satellites and ground equipment in order to sustain reliable
communications.
Satellite communications are a well-developed branch of modern communications industry
based on fundamental scientific achievements and the state-of-the-art hardware and software
technologies. It is impossible to fully describe this sector in such a brief overview. Nevertheless, it
is our hope that the glimpse of the modern satellite communications presented here will give you
an idea about this subject and inspire you to a deeper study of this captivating topic.
Figure 1.2.20 summarizes our discussion of operation of the three main branches of
communica- tions industry – optical, wireless, and satellite – by demonstrating an example of
interconnections of all three types. It shows that in the center of the entire communication
infrastructure lies a core fiber-optic network that links all other types of communications.
Communications between satel- lites occurs by optical wireless system and between satellites and
earth it is done by RF waves. All terrestrial stations are linked to the core network by fiber-
optic cables. Then the end users are reached via optical wireless communications (e.g. between
tall buildings), via Wi-Fi links (e.g. between a router and individual devices) and even via Li-Fi (e.g.
between lighting LED and personal devices). Of course, this figure does not show the entire
modern communication infrastructure; nevertheless, it demonstrates how various types of
modern communication technologies work together.
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.2 67
Free space
optical wireless
communications Satellite
communications

Core fiber-
optic network

Wi-Fi
Communications
Visible light
communications

Figure 1.2.20 Interconnections of optical, wireless, and satellite communication system. Dashed
lines – wireless RF communications, zigzag lines – optical wireless communications, solid
lines – fiber-optic communications. Source: Borah et al. (2012). A review of communication-oriented optical
wireless systems. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking 2012:91 http://jwcn
.eurasipjournals.com/content/2012/1/91 doi: 10.1186/1687-1499-2012-91.

Questions and Problems for Section 1.2

• Questions marked with an asterisk require a systematic approach to finding the solution.
• Many questions and problems, including those marked with an asterisk, imply that you, in
addi- tion to reading the textbook, will do your research to find the answers. Consider such
questions as mini-projects.

The Internet

1 Name three pillars of modern communications and explain the role of each of them.

2 Compare a point-to-point (PPT) link and a network:

a) Sketch their basic layouts.
b) Explain their principle of operations.

3 In a network’s layout, two adjacent nodes and their link make up a PPT; thus, every network
is built from the PPTs. Why, then, does a network constitute a different from PPT
entity?
*According to the text, “a network is a set of nodes connected by links:”
a) What are the nodes? Give the examples.
b) What are the links? Give the examples.
68 1 Modern Communications: What It

c) Consider a communication network in your home or in your academic laboratory: Sketch

its layout and identify nodes and links.

4 What is the difference between a network and a communication network?

5 *The text explains that a communication network, in addition to physical layout, must have
an intelligent (logical) ability:
a) Why does a communication network need intelligence?
b) The network’s intelligent agents are located in its nodes. Why? Where else they might be
located?

6 Examine Figure 1.2.2: You find three Nodes. How can you distinguish among them?

7 *Discuss a communication protocol:

a) What is it?
b) Why do we need protocols?
c) What protocol do you follow sending an e-mail?

8 Explain the difference between switching and routing.

9 Consider five main network topologies:

a) Sketch their physical layout.
b) Explain intended logical topology (the fiow of information) of each network.
c) Explain how can a network with mesh physical topology execute star logical topology.
d) *Sketch point-to-multipoint topology. This is a version of which of the man topologies?

10 Examine Figure 1.2.4 showing the network hierarchy:

a) Why is an access network also called local network?
b) Is the network of your organization of the access or metro level? Explain.
c) *Find the example of a long-distance network. (Hint: Go online and find the example of a
submarine (undersea) network.)
d) *The text says that the level of a network in the hierarchy determines the quality of
the network’s components. Why?

11 A circuit-switching network is shown in Figure 1.2.5a:

a) How does a circuit-switching network operate? How does information fiow in this net-
work?
b) PSTN is an example of a circuit-switching network. Explain why.
c) What are the main advantage and main drawbacks of a circuit-switching network?
d) *It is known that the first Internet transmissions were done through the existing
telephone network and show inadequacy of PSTN for digital transmission. Why?

12 Consider a packet-switching (routing) network depicted in Figure 1.2.5b:

a) How does a packet-switching network operate? How does information fiow in this net-
work?
b) The Internet is an example of a circuit-switching network. Explain why.
c) What are the main advantages and main drawbacks of a packet-switching network?
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.2 69
13 The concept of control plane and data plane of a network can be discussed
based on Figure 1.2.6:
a) What is a control plane? What is its function?
b) What is a data plane? What is its function?
c) Why do we need two planes?
d) Are the control plane and data plane two physically separate networks or one network?
Explain.
e) *The text says that the control plane makes a data plane protocol-independent. How do
you understand this statement? Explain, considering transmission through the Internet.

14 *Discuss the network security:

a) Why is the network security important? Give an example.
b) Does the advent of the Internet make the networks more or less secure? Explain.
c) List and discuss all the measures providing network security.
d) What is the weakest point in encryption? What measure can be taken to improve the situ-
ation?

15 What is the Internet?

16 Consider the Internet and World Wide Web, the Web;

a) What is the difference between them?
b) Why do people often confuse one with another?
c) Give a detailed explanation.

17 *It says that the Internet is the network of networks. Does it mean that the special
network was built for the Internet?

18 The text says that the Internet successfully operates thanks to TCP/IP protocol suite:
a) What is TCP/IP stands for?
b) Why is it called suite?
c) *List all the functions of TCP suite do you know.
d) *List all the functions of IP suite do you know.

19 Consider the IP addressing system:

a) What is an IP address?
b) What are IPv4 and IPv6?
c) Why do we need two addressing systems?

20 We know that a message (file) to be transmitted through the Internet is disassembled

into packets:
a) Describe the general structure of the packet.
b) What is the function of a header?
c) Why do we need a payload section of the packet?
d) In percentage, what is the ratio between the header and the payload in a single IPv6 packet?

21 *Follow the path of a message through the Internet based on Figure 1.2.7:
a) In what form – as a file or packet – the message travel from your computer (or
smartphone) to the ISP router? To DNS? To a core router? To the receiving end user?
 70 1 Modern Communications: What It

b) What is an ISP? Why do we need it?

c) What is DNS? What is its role in the Internet transmission?
d) What is the function of a core router?

22 *Consider packet transmission through Internet:

a) When a router inspects a packet, what information does it retrieve?
b) How does a destination point know that the received message is complete?
c) If a packet gets lost or corrupted, what measure does the network take?

23 *Consider the fiow control in the Internet transmission: If the original TCP window size
is equal to 65 535 bytes and an entire round-trip time given as 31 ms, what is data
rate for this communications? (Hints: 1. One byte is 8 bits. 2. Refer to Eq. (1.2.1). Note:
Actually, the window of 65 535 bytes is transmitted from a client to a server in small portions
(fiow control window sizes) and the round-trip time for each cycle is much shorter than 31
ms. Thus, the obtained bit rate is the throughput number.)

Optical Communications

24 Starting from the mid-1980s, optical communications quickly, for less than 15 years, replaced
electronic – copper-based wired and microwave wireless – communications at every
distance from several hundreds of meters to thousands of kilometers and became the
linchpin of the global communications infrastructure. Why?

25 *Consider the basic block diagram of an optical communication system shown in Figure 1.2.8:
a) Suppose that there is no light at the frontend of a photodiode. What are the possible faults?
b) If a bit stream is presented to a transmitter and the laser diode emits unmodulated light,
what are the possible faults?
c) If the photodiode can detect light but cannot decipher the message, what are the possible
faults?

26 *Consider Figure 1.2.9 showing the world-wide map of submarine cables. If one cable can
carry 10 terabits per second (10 × 1012 Tb/s), why do we need so many cables in
general and transatlantic cables in particular?

27 Suppose that power of light launched into an optical fiber is Pin = 5 mW and light power
emerged from the optical fiber is Pout = 5 μW. What is the loss introduced by this optical fiber
in absolute numbers and in decibels?

28 If one manufacturer offers you an optical fiber with loss of −30 dB and the other offers the
opti- cal fiber with loss of −50 dB, which optical fiber will you choose?

29 Consider the power losses in an optical fiber:

a) If Pin = 5 mW, Pout = 5 μW, and the fiber length is L = 120 km, what is the optical fiber’s
attenuation?
b) If one manufacturer offers you an optical fiber with A1 = 0.3 dB/km and the other offers
the optical fiber with A2 = 0.5 dB/km, which optical fiber will you choose?

30 What is the maximum transmission distance the optical fiber whose A = 0.25 dB/km can sup-
port if Pin = 5 mW and Pout = 3 μW?
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.2 71
31 *Compare the bandwidth of an optical fiber with two other wireline media – twisted pair
and coaxial cable – based on the data shown in Figure 1.3.3a reproduced here:

30

25
0.5 mm twisted pair

20
Attenuation

15
9.5 mm coax

10
Typical optical fiber

0
103
106 109 1012 1015
1 kHz
1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz

Figure 1.2.P31 (1.3.3aR) Bandwidths of copper wire (twisted pair), coaxial cable, and optical fiber.

a) Figure 1.3.3a shows that the twisted pair introduces attenuation of about 30 dB/km
at 10 MHz. We know that the optical fiber has minimal attenuation 0.2 dB/km. Cal-
culations show that a signal becomes a thousand times weaker after transmission
over LTP = 1 km for the twisted pair and LOF = 150 km for optical fiber. Perform these
calculations.
b) Examination of Figure 1.3.3a makes an impression that a twisted pair has bandwidth
from 1 kHz to 10 MHz, a coaxial cable’s bandwidth ranges from 1 to 100 MHz, and the
bandwidth of an optical fiber varies approximately from 100 to 500 THz. Is this correct
estimation of the bandwidths?

32 If optical communications is everywhere, why are we using wireless communications at an

increasing pace? (Optical communication is fixed and wireless communications is mobile.)

33 Describe the fiow of information in the network shown in Figure 1.2.10. Identify all shown
optical networks in terms of their place in the network hierarchy.

34 *Consider the history of development of optical communications:

a) Why the development of a low-attenuation optical fiber was the decisive point in this his-
tory?
b) There are a number of laser types (solid-state laser, gas laser, laser diode, fiber laser, to
name a few) invented over the last 50 years. Why only development of laser diode was
recognized by the Nobel Prize?

35 The optical long-distance transmission occurs at the set of wavelengths centered around
1550 nm. What is the frequency of this wavelength?

36 Using wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) we can transmit more bits per second over
the same optical fiber. If a single wavelength carries 120 Gb/s, what will be the total bit rate
after multiplexing 120 wavelengths?

37 *What obstacles might restrict further progress in development optical communications?

72 1 Modern Communications: What It

Wireless Communications

38 The rapid growth of wireless communications is caused by the advent of ever-increasing

new mobile applications. List and explain new mobile applications you have started to use
over the last five years.

39 What is the main advantage of wireless communications? Why is this filed advancing so
rapidly?

40 Sketch the basic block diagram of a wireless communication system showing transmission
from one smartphone to the other. Explain its operation.

41 Why is this type of communications called wireless?

42 The transmission medium for wireless communications is air. Is this an advantage or a

draw- back? Explain.

43 A radiation pattern emitting from an antenna can vary from omnidirectional to a light beam:
a) Sketch the diagrams showing these two patterns and add two other intermediate
radiation patterns.
b) Show the beam width for each pattern.

44 Estimate the size of an antenna radiating at f = 600 MHz.

45 Figure 1.2.13 shows three main propagation modes of EM waves used in wireless communi-
cation:
a) What factor does determine which mode will actually occur? Explain.
b) Why do EM waves propagate differently depending on radiated frequencies?

46 If an antenna height is h = 10 m, what is the propagation distance for this antenna?

47 What is the mechanism of free space loss (FSL)? Sketch the diagram supporting your expla-
nation.

48 *The minimum received power needed to support streaming video is Pr = –67 dBm. If
operating frequency is 600 MHz and the transmission distance is 800 m, what must be
the transmitted power, Pt in dBm and in absolute numbers? What is FSL (dB)? (Hint: P
(P(mW)
(dBm) = 10 log 1(mW)

49 *What is the maximum transmission distance covered by a base transceiver station (BTS)
whose signal power is Pt = 18 dBm, the required received power is Pr = −67 dBm, and operat-
ing frequency is f = 600 MHz?

50 The segment of the EM spectrum suitable for wireless transmission is severely

restricted and must be regulated:
a) What agency controls this segment in the USA?
b) What agency regulates the use of the EM spectrum at the international level?
c) In what forms is this control executed? Explain.
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.2 73
51 Discuss scarcity of spectrum for wireless communications:
a) Why do developments of wireless communications require more spectrum?
b) If the available spectrum is occupied, how can the further development of wireless com-
munications progress?

52 Much expected new type of wireless communications is 5G – the fifth generation of

traditional, RF-based wireless communications. Describe main advantageous features of 5G.

53 Explain the principle of operations and applications of the following contemporary wireless
communications technologies:
a) Wi-Fi.
b) Bluetooth.
c) ZigBee
d) Free space optical communications (FSO), light fidelity communications (Li-Fi), and
visual light communications (VLC).

54 Explain why has Li-Fi become popular technology today?

55 Examine Figure 1.2.20 and discuss how contemporary wireless communications technology
work in conjunction with other modern communications technologies.

56 Explain the concept of a cellular wireless network with reference to Figure 1.2.16A. What is
the main advantage of this architecture?

57 The mobile communications, that we have today, has become a reality thanks to the concept
of frequency reuse. What is this concept?

58 Mobile cellular communications occurs in a low-power mode. Why so?

59 Consider government regulations of communications industry:

a) Why did the federal government have to intervene with regulations in the affairs of the
communications industry?
b) What federal agency is responsible for implementing government policy in modern com-
munications? Explain.

Satellite Communications

60 *Consider the operation of satellite communications:

a) What is the difference between satellites and communication satellites?
b) What is the function of a communication satellite?
c) Why does a satellite’s transponder change the frequency of a downlink transmission
com- pared to a carrier frequency of an uplink transmission?
d) What other operations does a satellite’s transponder perform?
e) A satellite’s transponder is an active device. Where is its power supply located?

61 Review the frequencies used in satellite communications:

a) What are three main frequency bands? List the range of frequencies for each of them.
74 1 Modern Communications: What It

b) Group the applications of each band. Explain why is each application used with a given
frequency band.
c) Build a table to summarize your responses.

62 Carrier frequency of an uplink transmission is always higher than that in downlink

transmis- sion, which holds true for any frequency band. Explain why?

63 Discuss celestial mechanics of satellite communications:

a) A satellite is a heavy object. How, then, does it not fall on the earth but keeps orbiting it?
b) What orbits are called geocentric? Are circular and elliptic satellite orbits geocentric?
Explain.
c) How can we make a satellite to move on a circular or an elliptic orbit?
d) *It says that the velocity of 8 km/s is the minimal that keeps a satellite on a geocentric
orbit. What happens if the velocity will be less than 8 km/s? What if it will be greater than
8 km/s;
e.g. v = 11 km/s? If much greater; e.g. v = 16 km/s?
e) What is the inclination of an orbit? Sketch a figure showing the earth and three
circular orbits with inclinations equal to 0∘, 45∘, and 90∘.

64 There are three main types of geocentric orbits – high, medium, and low:
a) How can we distinguish among them?
b) Explain the difference between geostationary earth orbit (GSO) and geosynchronous
earth orbit (GEO). Explain their applications.
c) Give an example of an MEO orbit and its applications.
d) Explain the use of LEO orbits.
e) Why do we need the orbits of various altitudes and shapes?
f) Add to the table built for Problem 60 three main orbits and their applications. The
objective of building this table is to summarize all our findings regarding the satellite
communica- tions.

65 Compare the free space loss, FSL (dB), for high, medium, and low orbits:
a) Compute FSLLEO (dB), FSLMEO (dB), and FSLGSO (dB) if f = 10 GHz and dLEO = 2000 km,
dMEO = 20 000 km, and dGSO = 36 000 km.
b) If the minimum received power is Pr = –91.24 dBm for the LEO satellite whose f = 10 GHz
and dLEO = 2000 km, what is its transmitted power, Pt?

66 Consider propagation delay in satellite communications:

a) What is this?
b) Calculate round-trip propagation delay for dLEO = 800 km, dMEO = 20 000 km,
and dGSO = 36 000 km.
c) We calculate one-way propagation delay by using (1.2.8), td = d(m) , where d (m) is
c(
the satellite’s altitude. Is this minimum or maximum delay? Explain.
d) *Equation (1.2.8) approximates the velocity of EM waves in air by the speed of light in
vac- uum. How accurate this approximation?

67 *Figure 1.2.20 shows, in particular, the satellite communications. Why is the communications
between the satellites shown as lighting, but between the satellites and ground as dashed
line?
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 75
68 Discuss Figure 1.2.20, explaining every block, every component, unit, and module, and rela-
tionship among all them. The result of this discussion should be a picture of the global com-
munications infrastructure.

1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications

Several fundamental laws and principles govern modern communications regardless of the
status of technological development at any given time. In this section, we will briefiy discuss those
of them that are most relevant to the objective of this book. In addition, we will consider such
important parameters as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and spectral efficiency. We also discuss the
limitations in applications of these laws and principles and briefiy examine the relationship
between real objects and their models.
In the subsequent chapters, all these principles and their applications will be considered in
greater detail.
It is worth noting that the fundamentals of modern communications were laid out in the twen-
tieth century by many scientists and engineers; among them the three towering figures – Ralph
Hartley, Harry Nyquist, and Claude Shannon – played the pivotal role in this development.

1.3.1 Fundamental Laws of Modern Communications

1.3.1.1 Hartley’s Information Law
In communications, we are concerned with the relationship among the amount of information
to be transmitted, the speed of its transmission, and the time required for its transmission.
This relationship is intuitively clear:

The greater the amount of information to be transmitted during a given time interval, the higher the transmission
H (b) = BR (b∕s) × T (s)(1.3.1)
where H (b) is the amount of information, BR (b/s) is the bit rate (transmission speed), and T (s) is the transmission

Pay attention to the units: The volume (amount) of information is measured in bits, which
stands for binary units; the transmission speed – formally called bit rate or transmission rate or
data rate – is measured in bits per second, b/s; and time is measured in second, s. Notice that the
commu- nication industry uses notations bit/s, b/s, or bps for bit rate. We will mainly use b/s, but
sometimes refer to the other designations.
This relationship is known as Hartley’s information law, after R.V.L. Hartley,15 a prominent
Amer- ican scientist who was among the pioneers of information theory. Of particular note
is that he introduced bit as a unit of information volume in 1928.

15 R.V.L. (Ralph) Hartley (1888–1970) worked for Western Electric and Bell Labs. He made seminal contributions
into both electronics and theory of information. He invented an electronic oscillator bearing his name and he
developed the formal approach to quantification of information.
76 1 Modern Communications: What It

Example 1.3.1 Application of Hartley’s Information Law

Problem
Assume that a professor delivered lectures using slides prepared in Microsoft PowerPoint
format. The size of the entire file was 15 Mbytes. (You will recall that 1 byte is 8 bits.) He placed
this file on the department’s website. How long will it take to download this file to a student’s
platform in the following three cases:
1. The platform is connected to the Internet with an obsolete dial-up modem whose transmission
speed is 56 kb/s? (Nobody uses this modem anymore, but we refer to this museum artifact for an
illustrative purpose.)
2. The platform uses another old-fashion digital subscriber line (DSL) transmitting at 1.5 Mbit/s?
(A digital subscriber line (DSL) is the technique that has been used to transmit a computer
signal over a telephone line at high speed.)
3. The platform employs modern passive optical network (PON) line with bit rate 10 Gb/s? (PON
is the optical network on which modern access lines are based.)

Solution
Rearrange (1.3.1) as
T (s) = H (bit)∕C (bit∕s).
Thus,
With a dial-up modem (do not forget to convert bytes to bits),
6 3
T = [8 × 15 × 10 bit]∕[56 × 10 bit∕s] = 2142.9 s = 35.7
minutes With a DSL modem,
T = 80 s = 1.3 minutes
With PON,
3
T = 12 × 10− s = 12 ms

Discussion
These simple computations show the paramount importance of transmission speed for timely
deliv- ering information.

Hartley’s information law emphasizes the main point: Communications networks must
provide high-speed transmission. If you look at the history of electronic communications – from the
Morse telegraph to modern optical networks – you will see one major force driving the
development of this technology: the quest for increasing the transmission speed. But on what
parameters the trans- mission speed (bit rate, remember?) depends. To answer this question, we
need to consider the relationship between bandwidth and bit rate.

1.3.1.2 Signal Bandwidth and Transmission Bandwidth from the Transmission Standpoint
First, we have to distinguish between bandwidth and bit rate. We recall that bandwidth is a fre-
quency range measured in hertz. The terms frequency and hertz are applied only to the
analog format. Thus, bandwidth is a characteristic of both analog signal and analog transmission.
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 77
Table 1.3.1 Analog and digital transmission characteristics.

Analog Digital

Signal Signal bandwidth (Hz) Bit rate (bit/s)

Link Channel bandwidth (Hz) Channel capacity (bit/s)
Note that signal bandwidth is also called signal spectrum.

Bit rate, on the other hand, is the number of bits per second. The terms bits and bit-per-second
are applied only to the digital format. Thus, bit rate is a characteristic of both digital signal and
digital transmission.
Second, we have to distinguish between signal bandwidth and transmission (channel) bandwidth
on the one hand, and between bit rate and channel capacity on the other hand.
We use the term bandwidth in two meanings: as the range of frequencies that a given signal
occupies (signal bandwidth) and as a measure of the transmitting capacity of a link (channel
band- width). Thus, signal bandwidth is the characteristic of an analog information signal
presented for transmission; the similar characteristic of a digital signal is bit rate. On the other
hand, transmis- sion bandwidth is a characteristic of a transmission link (channel) designed for
transmitting analog signals; it is a channel’s ability to accommodate a certain range of
frequencies. The similar charac- teristic of a digital transmission is channel capacity. Table 1.3.1
clarifies this point:
Unhappily, in the communications industry, the use of the term bandwidth in the sense of chan-
nel capacity is applied today to both analog and digital transmissions. But since digital transmission
is the predominant form of today’s transmission, using the term bandwidth usually does not cause
any ambiguity. For example, it is commonplace today to use the term bandwidth when
talking about broadband transmission. However, broadband transmission means using a high-
speed con- nection to the Internet, which, obviously, can be done only in digital format (the
computer is a digital machine, remember?). Thus, the term bandwidth, as applied to broadband
transmission, means the channel capacity of the link that provides access of home or office
computers to the Internet.

1.3.1.3 Bandwidth and Bit Rate, Nyquist’s Formula, and Hartley’s Capacity Law
Is there any relationship between signal bandwidth and bit rate? In general, it depends on
the transmission code. Let us consider, for example, the simplest code, NRZ. (NRZ stands for
nonreturn-to-zero. This code will be discussed in Chapter 3.) Suppose we transmit a pulse train
where 1s and 0s appear one after the other. We can inscribe a sinusoidal signal in the way shown
in Figure 1.3.1. It is clearly seen that for one period of an analog sinusoidal signal, a digital, the
NRZ signal delivers two bits. Therefore, the bit rate (BR) in this case is twice as much as the
bandwidth, BW; thus, we can write (Mynbaev and Scheiner 2001, pp. 69–71)
BW (Hz) = BR (b∕s)∕2 (1.3.2a)
This intuitive approach leads to the answer to the more fundamental question: What bit rate can
a link with given bandwidth support? It follows from (1.3.2a) that the first answer is
BR (b∕s) = 2BW (Hz) (1.3.2b)
This formula states that a transmission channel must have bandwidth 2BW to transmit bit
rate BR. For example, if the bandwidth of a Wi-Fi channel is 40 MHz, then, according to (1.3.2b),
it can support 80 Mb/s bit rate.
78 1 Modern Communications: What It
Amplitude

1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Time (s)
T = 1/f

Figure 1.3.1 Bandwidth and bit rate: Two bits are delivered per cycle of a sinusoidal signal with
NRZ code.

However, a more thorough look reveals a more complicated relationship between bandwidth and
transmitting capacity. We owe this development to Harry Nyquist, 16 who in 1927 came up with his
renowned formula,
BR (b∕s) ≤ 2BW (Hz) (1.3.3)
which states that the bit rate is not equal but is restricted by the transmission link bandwidth. Soon
after, in 1928, Ralph Hartley further developed this idea, by expanding the Nyquist formula to
the multilevel binary coding in his celebrated law,
BR (b∕s) = 2BW (Hz) log2 M (1.3.4)
where M is the number of discrete levels carrying binary information. If we substitute maximum
channel capacity,C (b/s), for bit rate, we obtain Hartley’s capacity law in its original form:
C (b∕s) = 2BW (Hz) log2 M (1.3.5)
(Note that in Eq. (1.3.1), we introduced the other Hartley law, the one concerned with the vol-
ume of information, transmitting capacity, and transmission time. That law is sometimes called
the Hartley Information Law. Both of these laws are rightly attributed to Hartley.)
For simple binary coding, where one level carries 1 bit, we have M = 2, which brings us back
to (1.3.2b):
BR (b∕s) = 2BW (Hz) log2 M = 2BW (Hz) log2 (2) = 2BW (Hz)
A word about multilevel coding: The idea is to make one symbol (level, or signal) carry more
than 1 bit, or – put it another way – we can encode many bits in one symbol. If we managed, for
example, to encode 4 bits in one level, then we will need M = 16 because 24 = 16. We use base 2
because we are coding binary information. We tackle the role and meaning of M in Sections 3.2
and 10.1.

16 Harry Nyquist (1889–1976) was an American scientist who worked for Bell Laboratories from 1917 to 1954. He
was born in Sweden and immigrated to the United States in 1908. He earned his PhD in physics from Yale
University. He is famous for his foundational contribution to communication and control theory and practice. He
obtained many significant results, but his truly fundamental contributions were the sampling theorem, the stability
criterion, and the theory of thermal (Nyquist–Johnson) noise. He also developed a filter prototype that bears his
name. In addition to his theoretical work, he obtained 138 patents relating to communications.
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 79
Equation (1.3.5) determines the transmitting capacity of a channel, depending on its
bandwidth. However, this formula does not take into account the infiuence of noise; in other
words, it holds true only for a noiseless channel. It was Claude Shannon, who further developed
this idea and came up with his famous formula, which is discussed next.

1.3.1.4 Shannon’s Law (Limit)

In July and October 1948 issues of the Bell System Technical Journal, which published the
results of research conducted at Bell Laboratories, a seminal article, “A Mathematical Theory of
Commu- nication,” appeared. In 1998, the global telecommunications community celebrated 50
years of the tremendous accomplishments of information theory that have been the outgrowth of
that article by Claude Shannon 17. (Interestingly that Shannon entitled the second edition of his
work pub- lished in 1949 The Mathematical Theory of Communication to refiect the grown
confidence in his theory which was generally accepted by research and industrial communities
after year of intense discussion.)
The content of Shannon’s work is fundamental. We cannot afford to discuss all its aspects in
this section; however, we return to this law in later chapters (particularly in Sections 3.2 and 9.1),
where both the theory and applications of Shannon’s work will be considered. For now, we will
briefiy review Shannon’s law:

C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 (1 + SNR) (1.3.6)

where C (b/s) is the maximum transmission rate (speed) that a communication channel can reliably
provide; BW (Hz) is the available channel bandwidth, which can be effectively used for
transmis- sion; and SNR (or S/N) is the signal-to-noise ratio. But (1.3.6) not simply add noise
into another formula. In effect,

Shannon’s law establishes the upper limit of the transmission rate of a communication system to reliably deliver inf

Understandably, Shannon’s law is often referred to as Shannon’s limit because it says that an
actual transmission (bit) rate, BR (b/s), should not exceed channel capacity, C (b/s), to
support error free transmission. This means that BR (b/s) ≤ C (b/s). This condition justifies the
term limit and can be traced to Nyquist criterion (1.3.3).
We need to know, however, that C (b/s) in (1.3.6) is not an absolute limit. We can transmit at the
bit rate higher than C (b/s) but with the increasing probability of errors. In other words,
Shannon’s law delimits the bit rate supporting a reliable transmission whose probability of error
tends to zero. This is why (1.3.6) is often called Shannon’s law for error-free transmission.
Clearly, the practical error-free bit rate, BR (b/s), is always smaller than C (b/s) given by (1.3.6);
that is,

BR (b∕s) < C (b∕s) (1.3.7)

17 Claude E. Shannon (1916–2001) earned his degrees in electrical engineering and mathematics from MIT. While
with Bell Laboratories (1941–1972), he did his milestone work on information theory. After leaving Bell Labs, he
held a professorial position at MIT. His work laid a strong foundation for the development of both
communications and computer theory. He was primarily interested in solving problems rather than seeking new
applications. A shy, reserved scientist, his death in February 2001 was noted only by the academic scientific
community.
80 1 Modern Communications: What It

It is important to know that (1.3.6) is derived under the condition that the noise is simply
added to a signal and its energy is evenly spread along the whole spectrum (spectrally fiat); such
noise model is called additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
Bear in mind that, taking into account the history of its development presented above, Eq.
(1.3.6) is often referred to as the Shannon–Hartley theorem.
Again, in-depth consideration of this formula is the subject of many academic treatises; we con-
centrate here on its pragmatic engineering applications.
(Revisit the part of Section 1.2 where the block diagram of a communication system and its
oper- ation are discussed. It helps to fully understand the following considerations.)
Note that the channel capacity depends on the SNR defined as the ratio of a signal’s power to
noise’s power; that is,
Psignal (W)
SNR = Pnoise (W) (1.3.8)
The Shannon law shows that the greater this ratio, the higher the communications
system’s capacity – that is, the transmission speed.

Example 1.3.2 The Role of SNR in Shannon’s Law

Problem

1. For more than a hundred years, voice (the telephone signal) has been transmitted over a
copper telephone line (a twisted pair), in which the available bandwidth was equal to 4 kHz.
What was the capacity of this channel if SNR was equal to 1000? To 10 000?
2. Modern wireless technology called Wi-Fi provides high-speed mobile access to the Internet
for personal devices as cell phones, tablets, and laptops (see Section 1.2). The Wi-Fi bit
rate could be as high as 0.5 Gb/s. We all enjoy this technology, but everyone is familiar with its
main problem: The signal is nonreliable. This is because noise, which interferes the signal,
is typi- cally high for a radio-wave transmission. Consider the typical values of the signal power at
1 μW and the channel bandwidth at 40 MHz, compute the maximum bit rate for Wi-Fi
transmission if the noise power is 0.03 μW.
Solution
1. Formula 1.3.6 shows
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 (1 + SNR)
(For convenience, we convert the base-2 logarithm into base-10 one as follows: log2 M = log10
M/ log10 2 = 3.32 log10 M.)
Thus, we compute
3
C = 4 × 10 × 3.32 log10 (1001) = 39.8 kb∕s
With a better SNR, we can achieve
3
C = 4 × 10 × 3.32 log10 (10001) ≈ 53.1 kb∕s
2. To apply (1.3.6), we first need to compute SNR by using (1.3.8). We obtain
PS (W) 1 μW
SNR = = = 33.3.
PN (W) 0.03 μW
Plugging the SNR and BW values into (1.3.6), we compute
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 (1 + SNR) = 203.88 Mb∕s
The problem is solved.
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 81
Discussion
• This example demonstrates the role of SNR: The transmission speed increases with the increase
of SNR, but logarithmically, not linearly. In this example, C (b/s) increases only 1.3 times when
SNR increases 10 times.
• For Wi-Fi transmission, the computed channel capacity (the maximum bit rate) is far less
than the declared 500Mb/s speed. What can be done to increase the BR (b/s)? Hypothetically,
the bandwidth should be increased, but in practice the bandwidth in any wireless transmis-
sion, including Wi-Fi, is strongly regulated and cannot be changed. Therefore, we need to
increase SNR. What SNR is needed in order to achieve C = 400 Mb/s? Rearranging (1.3.6), we
compute
C∕BW)
SNR = 2( − 1 = 5792.
Thus, to increase the bit rate 2.5 times (from about 200 to 500 Mb/s), we need to increase SNR
more than 176 times, from 33.3 to 5792. This is another example of the difficulty in achieving a
high-speed transmission.
• How can SNR be increased? Since we do not control the noise power, the only solution is
increas- ing the signal power. This solution, however, meets its practical limitations because
generating more signal power requires bigger power source, which is not always desired
approach. For example, for wireless communications systems, such as Wi-Fi, it is simply
impossible to sig- nificantly increase the size and weight of our mobile devises by including a
heavier battery. Nev- ertheless, today’s communications technology manages to achieve this
and even higher goals in increasing the transmission rates of various communications systems.
Note that wired transmis- sion systems (e.g. telephone lines or optical fiber lines) have much
better SNR than the wireless systems – just compare the SNR values given in this example.
This difference is determined by the nature of a transmission link.
• Last, but not least point: What if we have a noiseless transmission channel? In such a hypothet-
ical case, when noise power is zero, SNR goes to infinity and a channel capacity, according to
(1.3.6), should go to infinity too, even at a very small bandwidth. More rigorous analysis
shows, however, that Shannon’s law works only for a noisy channel; for noiseless channel, the
Nyquist formula, C (b/s) = 2BW (Hz) given in (1.3.3), would be applied. In reality, obviously,
noise always exist.

Another important consequence of the Shannon formula is that channel capacity is

proportional to channel bandwidth. Note that the channel bandwidth here is the range of
frequencies within which the channel can transmit a signal without significant distortion (error-
free channel, remem- ber?). Thus, the amount of information that can be transmitted over a channel
per second (bit rate, that is) depends on the channel’s bandwidth available for transmission.

Example 1.3.3 The Role of Channel Bandwidth in Shannon’s Law

Problem

1. Example 1.3.2 shows that the maximum transmission speed over a copper telephone line
whose SNR = 10 000 is only 53.1 kb/s; however, Example 1.3.1 refers to the transmission speed
of 1.5 Mb/s that a DSL modem can support over the same old-fashioned telephone line. The
contradiction is obvious. How can this be explained?
2. Today, vast majority of all telecommunications traffic is delivered by fiber-optic communica-
tions (optical communications) in which the available bandwidth is equal to 8 THz. What is
the transmitting capacity of an optical communications system if SNR is equal to 100?
82 1 Modern Communications: What It

Solution
1. Analyzing (1.3.6), we realize that increasing C (bit/s) can be achieved by either increasing BW
(Hz) or SNR. In this example, SNR is given. Thus, for the transmission of 1.5 Mbit/s, the band-
width must be properly increased. Let us compute the required bandwidth:
Referring to (1.3.6), C (b/s) = BW (Hz) 3.32 log10(1 + SNR), and plugging in the given numbers,
we find
1.5 × 106 (bit∕s) 6
BW (Hz) 3.32 log(100 01) = 0.11 × 10 Hz = 0.11 MHz
Indeed, a real DSL modem occupied bandwidth from 0.1 to 1.1 MHz.
2. Applying (1.3.6) again, we compute:
12
C = 53.2 × 10 b∕s = 53.2 Tb∕s.

Discussion
• This and the previous examples clearly show that the bandwidth plays the major role in Shan-
non’s law. Indeed, when channel’s bandwidth equals 4 kHz, the transmitting capacity reaches
only 53.1 kb/s and when BWchannel = 0.11 MHz, C = 1.5 Mb/s – in both cases at SNR = 10 000.
At the same time, when BWchannel = 8 THz, C = 53.2 Tb/s in spite of SNR = 100. This result
clearly follows from the structure of (1.3.6): System’s transmitting capacity is directly proportional
to channel’s bandwidth and depends on SNR only logarithmically.
• It seems that with increasing bandwidth to infinity, the channel capacity should go to infinity
too. However, this is not so because an increase in bandwidth results in the increase in
noise power simply because the channel with greater bandwidth will collect more noise. (You
can skip to Section 9.1 to learn more about noise.) Therefore, there is trade-off between
BW and SNR, which is not shown explicitly in the Shannon formula.
• How can a DSL system utilize 1.1-MHz bandwidth over a telephone line if we continue to
stress that this line has 4-kHz bandwidth? The answer is that 4-kHz restriction is caused
not by a twisted pair (traditional telephone line) itself but the whole transmission system.
The twisted-pair cable allows for transmission of the higher frequencies. Using multilevel
modulation (discussed in Section 3.2 and especially in Section 10.1) also helps to significantly
increase the bit rate.

The question that crops up now is what limits the bandwidth? We postpone answering to this
question to the later subsection; for now, let us consider two important points regarding Shan-
non’s law.

1.3.1.5 More Clarifications of the Shannon Law

Look closely at the Shannon law, (1.3.6): You will surely notice that channel capacity, C (b/s), is
measured in bit-per-second, b/s, whereas the bandwidth, BW (Hz), is measured in hertz, Hz.
What may puzzle you is how different dimensions can be equal to one another given that
logarithm is the dimensionless quantity. Formally, this is possible because b/s is the same as 1/s,
since bit stands for the number of bits and a number carries no dimension. At the same time, Hz is
also 1/s, since hertz is the number of cycles per second; thus, both sides have the same dimensions:
1/s.
Another point to be clarified regarding (1.3.6) is that channel capacity, C, is measured in
bits per second, b/s, for digital transmission; when communications is based on analog signals,
how- ever, the measure of channel capacity is bandwidth (BW) measured in hertz. Unhappily,
industry
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 83
uses both terms – bandwidth and channel capacity – interchangeably, which can be confusing.
This confusion stems from the fact that the term bandwidth carries many meanings. For example,
bandwidth can be the range of frequencies that a given signal occupies; thus, here BW is a
sig- nal’s bandwidth. Bandwidth, however, can be the range of frequencies needed for
transmission of a given signal and this is the required bandwidth of a transmission channel. The
practical example is the bandwidth of a current optical fiber. This medium can transmit
signals within the entire optical band; that is, from 400 to 1600 nm, which ranges from 750 to
187.5 THz. (Remember, 𝜆 (m)⋅f (Hz) = c (m/s) = 3 × 108 (m/s) as given in (1.2.4).) However, only
“small” 8-THz band located around 200 THz region is available for communication
transmission because only within those 8 THz an optical fiber has the minimum attenuation.
Obviously, the communication industry has chosen 1550 nm (193.5 THz) as a center wavelength
(frequency) and has used 8-THz band to add more wavelengths (frequencies) for transmission.
So what is the bandwidth of an optical fiber? To be able to transmit an optical signal, the optical
fiber must have 208-THz bandwidth; however, to deliver information, the available bandwidth of
an optical fiber must be 8 THz. It is BW = 8 THz that we have to plug into Shannon’s law to
calculate the fiber-optic channel capacity.
You have to carefully analyze the content and formulas of the text you are reading to understand
what meaning of bandwidth is involved.
To further delve into content of Shannon’s law, we urge you to refer to Questions and Problems
for this section.

1.3.1.6 The Shannon Law for Digital Communications

The Shannon law can be presented in the form specific for digital communications, which is
impor- tant because modern communications is mostly digital.
Let us introduce Eb (J) – energy in joules needed to deliver a single bit. This is energy per bit
that a transmitter provides on its side. If we remind that power of a bit generated by the
transmitter is Pb (W) and introduce the bit rate, BR (b/s), of the transmitter, then
Ps (W)
Ps
Eb (J) BR = (W s) (1.3.9)
(b∕s)
B
Why? You are reminded that power is the rate at which energy is transmitted; that is, for a
single bit we can write
E b ( J)
Pb (W) =
Tb (s) (1.3.10)

But bit rate, BR (s), is inversely proportional to the bit duration, Tb (s), because the shorter the Tb
(s), the greater the number of bits transmitted for one second; that is,
1
Tb (s) = (1.3.11)
BR
(b
Thus, (1.3.9) follows from (1.3.10) and (1.3.11). In words, the energy of a single bit, Eb (J), is
equal to the power of the bit, Pb (W), divided by the number of bits generated by a transmitter per
second, BR (b/s).
Let us stress again that BR (b/s) is the transmitter bit rate, whereas C (b/s) is the
communica- tion’s channel capacity. A transmitter could generate 100 Gb/s, but the system could
transmit only 40 Gb/s, which means that a receiver would “see” only transmission speed equals
40 Gb/s.
Since bit is a unit of information transmitted digitally, any equation involving Eb (J) can be
applied to digital transmission only.
84 1 Modern Communications: What It

Another quantity we need to introduce is the noise spectral density, N0 (W s), as

PN (W)
N0 (W s) = (1.3.12)
BW
You reminded that PN (W) is power of noise and BW (Hz) is the available (used) bandwidth.
Thus, the noise spectral density is the noise power measured within 1 Hz of bandwidth. We need
to real- ize that BW (Hz) here is the bandwidth occupied by the noisy signal being transmitted
through a channel. (Notice that hypothetically a channel could have BW = 100 MHz, but the
transmitted signal occupies on 60 MHz. In this case, noise obviously can interfere only with 60
MHz signal.)
Refer to SNR given in (1.3.8) and take into consideration (1.3.10)–(1.3.12) to obtain:
Pb (W) Eb (J) ⋅ BR (b∕s)
SNR = = (1.3.13)
PN (W) N0(W s) ⋅ BW (Hz)
Thus, we derived that for digital communications, the SNR can be presented through the ratio Eb .
N0
Equation (1.3.13) shows that E 0 is the dimensionless quantity, as an SNR should be.
b

N
The ratio Eb/N0 is called digital, or normalized SNR and is considered a figure of merit for digital
communications.
Now, we can derive the Shannon law for digital communications from (1.3.6) and (1.3.13) as
( )
Eb (J) ⋅ BR (b∕s)
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 (1 + SNR) = BW (Hz) log2 1 + (1.3.14a)
N0(W s) ⋅
This form of Shannon’s law brings us to understanding that this law sets another limit – this time
b (J)
the limit on E . Indeed, assume we manage to transmit binary digital signal at the
maximum N0
bit rate; that is, BR (b/s) = C (b/s). Then (1.3.14a) can be rewritten as
( )
Eb (J) ⋅ C (b∕s)
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 1 +
N0(W s) ⋅ BW
This equation can be rearranged as
( )
C EbC
= log2 1 + (1.3.14b)
B N 0B
(We temporarily omit the units to simplify presentation of the formulas.) From here, the digital
SNR can be obtained in the form
Eb BW ( )
= 2 BW − 1
C
(1.3.14c)
N0 C
Equation (1.3.14c) shows relationship between digital SNR, Eb/N0 (J/(W s)) and the ratio C
(b/s)/BW (Hz) called spectral efficiency, SE ((b/s)/Hz). (SE will be discussed shortly.) Figure
1.3.2 graphically demonstrates this relationship.
(
= –1.59 dB, at which
Analysis of (1.3.14c) reveals that digital SNR has its minimal value, limit
) N
Eb

SE approaches zero; that is, Shannon’s law cannot be applied beyond this limit. In other words,
(b
when )E approaches –1.59 dB, “no error-free communications is possible, regardless of the chan-
N
nel capacity. 1” This digital SNR value is sometimes called Shannon’s limit. In fact, this is one of
the limits hidden in Shannon’s law.
(
Interestingly that when )Eb goes to infinity, SE theoretically goes to infinity
N
too. Let us consider an example regarding Eq. (1.3.14a).
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 85
18 http://www.dip.ee.uct.ac.za/~nicolls/lectures/eee482f/04_chancap_2up.pdf.
86 1 Modern Communications: What It

101
Spectral efficiency

100

10−1

0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70
Eb/Na (dB)

( E (J)
b
= −1.59 (dB)
)N (W s)
0
lim

Figure 1.3.2 Spectral efficiency vs. digital SNR.

Example 1.3.4 Shannon’s Limit in Digital Transmission

Problem
Compute the Shannon limit for digital communications if Eb/N0 = 100, BR = 100 Gb/s,
and BW = 100 GHz.

Solution
Solution is straightforward: Just plug the numbers into (1.3.14a) and compute:
( )
Eb (J) ⋅ BR (b∕s)
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 1 + = 665.4 Gb∕s
N0(W s) ⋅

Discussion
• This example again demonstrates the main point that follows from the Shannon law: Capacity
of a digital channel is determined by its bandwidth and logarithmically depends on digital
SNR. (Question: C = 655.4 Gb/s seems to be a very good capacity for 100-GHz bandwidth and
SNR = 100. Have you expected such a good result? What number have you expected?)
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 87
• There is another interesting fact regarding energy of a single bit (Mynbaev 2016, p. 1640010-1).
Information is physical because it is stored in physical, electronic, and optical systems and
there- fore, it must obey the laws of physics, specifically, thermodynamics. Thermodynamic
entropy, S, has been related to information entropy, H, by Claude Shannon in 1948 as

S = kBH (1.3.15)

where kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. Rolf Landauer, then at IBM, derived from
(1.3.15) the formula that determines minimum amount of energy needed to erase one bit
of information; it is given by Landauer (1966, pp. 183–191)
21
Emin (J) = kB ⋅ T ⋅ ln(2) ≈ 3 × 10− J (1.3.16)

where T is room absolute temperature in K. When we reach this limit, we would not be
able to process a digital signal with modern CMOS-based electronic devices. To take this
number in perspective, the energy of a photon in optical transmission frequency is about 1.3 ×
10−19 J, and thus, optical communications always sustains bit energy above the Landauer limit.

The importance of the Landauer limit is that information, regardless of the form in which it is
transmitted, must be eventually presented in the form in which a human being can perceive it;
that is, the end equipment must be physical, which today means electronic.

At the time of publishing the Shannon’s paper in 1948, the limit he imposed on the
transmis- sion rate looked more like the point of academic curiosity rather than a practical
guideline. Today, just 70 years later, optical communications – the industry that delivered most
of the Internet traf- fic world wide – approaches to Shannon limit very closely. To meet the
exponentially increasing traffic demand, the industry must continue to raise the transmission rate
of the global optical com- munication network by the orders of magnitude. To achieve this, there
are only two ways, as (1.3.6) shows: either increase the bandwidth of a transmission channel or
decrease SNR. The channel in this case is an optical fiber and increasing its bandwidth faces
severe technological restrictions that stemmed from the optical fiber’s nature. In any event, the
bandwidth could be increase at most three times, not an order of magnitude. Practically
achievable decrease in SNR would affect C (b/s) even in smaller scale.
Today, the optical communication industry is seeking the solutions to this problem. One of the
solutions is to actively employ multilevel modulation, the method to increase the channel
capacity without increasing its bandwidth (see Section 10.2). Besides that, the industry is looking
for the answers outside the traditional, based on information theory approach. One of the
possible direc- tions, where the Shannon limit is not applied, is to involve the other
dimension, such as space, to build new types of communication system. Even more promising
direction, that could drasti- cally change the communication landscape, is developing quantum
communications governing by absolutely different laws and principles.

1.3.2 Fundamental Principles of Modern Communications

1.3.2.1 Channel Capacity, Bandwidth, and Carrier Frequency
Let us review: Channel capacity (maximum transmission rate) is proportional to the bandwidth
of a transmission channel. But what does channel bandwidth depend on, we asked in the
preceding subsection? Now, it is time to answer this question.
88 1 Modern Communications: What It

First, let us clarify an important point: A transmission channel is made up of a

transmission medium. This is the physical medium through which the signal is transmitted, as
was discussed in Section 1.2. To remind, these media are copper wire (twisted pair), coaxial cable,
air, and optical fiber. Due to the properties of the material from which a medium is composed,
each of these media has its specific bandwidth. This bandwidth is determined by the medium’s
attenuation, which is the loss of signal power per kilometer of transmission. For example, a
copper wire cannot transmit the signals even in a megahertz range over a significant distance
because losses become intolerable. A coaxial cable can transmit megahertz signals over a
longer distance than a copper wire can, but still has a severe restricted bandwidth. We can
transmit low-gigahertz-range signal through air over thousands of kilometers, as satellite
communication systems do. Air can even transmit terahertz-range optical signal but over a short
distance to provide a reliable communication. An optical fiber is capable to transmit signals in
200-THz frequency range around the globe, but it can do this only within a relatively narrow 8-THz
band. Why bandwidths of these media are restricted? Because, again, signals rapidly lose their
power outside of their bandwidths. Figure 1.3.3 shows how much signals attenuate traveling
through different transmission media. (We will elaborate on this topic in Section 10.1.)
So the channel bandwidths are predetermined by the properties of the channel materials,
specif- ically, by their spectral attenuations.
However, to understand a transmission operation in its entirety, we need to consider the spec-
trum of a signal being transmitted. We have to know that the signal consists of a message signal
containing the information to be delivered and a carrier that carries this message signal. A
message signal, by its very nature, is always a low-frequency (baseband) signal. In contrast, a
carrier signal must be a high-frequency signal because the higher the carrier frequency, f C (Hz), the
more infor- mation this signal can carry. (You can skip to Sections 9.1 and 10.1 to read more on
modulation principle.)
How does the bandwidth of a transmission channel relate to a carrier frequency? Refer to
an optical fiber whose transmission bandwidth is about 8 THz concentrated around 200-THz
central wavelength. This means that the frequency of a carrier to be used in fiber-optic
communications must be about 200 THz. Indeed, we cannot send a carrier signal in radio-
frequency range (about 50 MHz) through an optical fiber because attenuation will be so high that
this signal will com- pletely diminish after traveling a very short distance (see Figure 1.3.3a).
Similarly, we cannot trans- mit optical carrier with frequency about 200 THz through a copper wire
whose bandwidth is in a low-megahertz range.
Even more straightforward example: If we set the maximum allowed attenuation for a
communication system as 20 dB/km, then using a twisted pair, we can transmit signals from
1 kHz to 1 MHz, as Figure 1.3.3 shows. Thus, its available transmission bandwidth is BWtp
(MHz) = 10 − 0.001 = 9.999 MHz. But at the same attenuation of 20 dB/km, a coaxial cable can
transmit signal from 1 MHz to approximately 100 MHz and therefore its transmission bandwidth
is given by BWcc (MHz) = 99 MHz. Important point to realize is that the twisted pair can transmit
signals at the higher than 1-MHz frequencies; similarly, the coaxial cable can transmit higher than
100-MHz signals, but – since the channel must meet a 20 dB/km requirement – their bandwidths
that can be employed for the transmission are restricted by 9.999 and 99 MHz, respectively.
The above discussion brings us to the important deduction:

The greater is the needed transmission bandwidth, the higher must be the frequency of a carrier wave.
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 89
30

25
0.5 mm twisted pair
20
Attenuation

15
9.5 mm coax
10
Typical optical fiber

0
103 106 109 1012 1015
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz
(a)

WAVELENGTH (mm)
30 20 15 10.0 8.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8
100
40
20
10
4
2
1
ATTENUATION

0.4
0.2
1 H2 O
H2 O
0.04 A
0.02 O2
O2
0.01
0.004 B H2O
0.002
0.001
10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400
FREQUENCY (GHz)
(b)

Figure 1.3.3 Bandwidths of four transmission media: (a) Copper wire (twisted pair), coaxial cable, and
optical fiber; (b) air. Source: Stallings (2014), William, Data and Computer Communications, 10th Ed.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York. (b) U.S. Department of Transportation
- Federal Highway Administration (2007).

Therefore, the bit rate – the key parameter of a communication system in this consideration – is
proportional to the carrier frequency; that is,
BR (b∕s) ∼ fC (Hz) (1.3.17)
In practice, (1.317) is often replaced by the following rule of thumb: The available
transmission bandwidth is approximately equal to one-tenth of a carrier’s frequency; that is,
BW (Hz) ∼ 0.1fC (Hz). (1.3.18)
We can summarize this fundamental relationship as follows:
C (bit∕s) ∼ BW (Hz) ∼ fC (Hz) (1.3.19)
90 1 Modern Communications: What It

Marconi Satellite Visible X-rays

Morse radio communications light
telegraph Ionizing radiation
Bell telephone Mobile devices Optical
communications Ultravioletγ-rays

4 kHz
100 MHz 200 THz 30 PHz 30 EHz
0 Hz 50 MHz 20 GHz 600 THz 3 EHz

Carrier frequency

Figure 1.3.4 The progress in modern communications and a historical increase in the carrier frequency.

The principle (1.3.9) demonstrates why communication industry kept increasing the carrier fre-
quency through the history of its development: Using the radio frequencies ranged from 300 kHz
to 300 MHz, we can convey voice and music; using frequencies from 300 MHz to 3 GHz, we can
transmit a television signal that delivers video information; using optical frequencies in 200 THz
range, we can provide streaming services, which transmit online everything we want to watch in
real time.
Figure 1.3.4 shows that the communication industry consistently increases the frequency of the
carrier, f C (Hz), to achieve the greater transmission capacity. Consider the EM spectrum from the
carrier-frequency perspective: The Morse telegraph uses DC current, the Bell telephone utilizes
the spectrum up to 4 kHz, the Marconi radio employs the spectrum between hundreds of
kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, mobile devices use the upper range of radio frequencies,
satellite commu- nications utilizes tens of gigahertz, and modern optical communications
operates at about 200 THz. (Figure 1.3.4 shows just the range of frequencies, not precise
values.)
(Exercise: Build the tables showing all major types of modern communications and the range
of their carrier frequencies. Referring to Section 1.2, show how the advances in communication
technologies relate to the carrier frequencies. (Hint: Consider, for example, 5G mobile communi-
cations.)
Now we comprehend why, for the last three decades, optical communications has become the
major transmission technology: It is simply because light (optical signal) has the highest
frequency among all possible carriers.

Example 1.3.5 A Carrier Frequency and Channel Capacity

Problem
A SNR is equal to 10 000. What capacity, C (b/s), can be achieved if a carrier’s frequency equals
200 kHz? 200 MHz? 200 THz?

Solution
Plug the given frequency figures in (1.3.18) and find that the transmission bandwidths that can
be employed with these carrier frequencies are approximately equal to 20 kHz, 20 MHz, and
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 91
20 THz. Now we must use (1.3.6) and compute. (See calculations in Examples 1.3.2 and 1.3.3.) The
results are
For BW = 20 kHz, C = BW log2 (1 + SNR) = 265.6
kb∕s For BW = 20 MHz, C = 265.6 Mb∕s
For BW = 20 THz, C = 265.6 Tb∕s
These straightforward computations highlight the point we discussed earlier: The channel
capac- ity is restricted by its bandwidth available for transmission, which, in turn, is limited by
the fre- quency of a carrier.

To sum up: Equation (1.3.19) describes the first fundamental principle of communications: The
achievable bit rate is restricted by the carrier frequency.
(Question: Can we use a carrier whose frequency would be higher than the optical? Justify your
answer.)

1.3.2.2 Bandwidth-Length Product

This fundamental principle of communications states that for any given transmission medium,
bandwidth-length product is constant; that is,
BW (Hz) × L (km) = constant (1.3.20)
where BW (Hz) is the bandwidth as a measure of capacity (transmission bandwidth) and L (km)
is the length of the transmission medium. This principle states that there is a trade-off
between bandwidth and length for any given medium.
An example of the implementation of this fundamental principle can be found in the
computer-hardware area. One company had developed a new chip enabled data transmission
within a computer circuit board at the bit rate as high as a trillion bits per second. A key to
this success was putting the transmitter and receiver chips in direct contact, thus eliminating the
need for connecting wires. In other words, this design shortens the transmission distance from
millime- ters to micrometers enabling the company to increase the transmission speed
substantially. This is how the bandwidth-length-product principle works in practice. (We will
return to justification and discussion of this principle in the subsequent chapters.)

Example 1.3.6 Application of the Bandwidth-Length-Product Principle

Problem
A manufacturer specifies the bandwidth-length characteristic of a multimode optical fiber
as 300 MHz km. What is the transmission bandwidth of this fiber if the distance is equal to 2 km?

Solution
The answer is found by applying (1.3.20): The bandwidth in question times the given length must
be equal to 300 MHz-km; that is,
BW (MHz) × 2 km = 300 MHz × km
Thus,
BW (MHz) = 300 MHz × km∕2 km = 150 MHz
The problem is solved.
92 1 Modern Communications: What It

Discussion
Can we use this optical fiber to transmit at 600 MHz? (Remember, the bandwidth here is the mea-
sure of capacity of this optical fiber.) Yes, we can but only if the length of the optical fiber would
be equal to
L (km) = 300 MHz × km∕600 MHz = 0.5
km This is because, again,
600 MHz × L (km) = 300 MHz × km
This is a practical example of implementation of the bandwidth-length-product principle.

Consider another example of the use of this principle: Standards regulating transmission in
LANs, which connects several computers within a short distance, always specify bandwidth and
transmission distances for the medium being used. The popular medium in LAN connections,
Category 5 cable (which is the unshielded twisted pair that is a copper wire) can be used for
transmission of 100 MHz up to 800 m (2624 ft). If we need to transmit 200 MHz, we must either
halve the distance or, to save the distance, use a better medium, such as an optical fiber.
Still another example: A cooper wire (twisted pair), the link traditionally associated with
low-bit-rate transmission, is still in use in the modern data centers transmitting data stream
at 25 Gb/s. The secret? It does so only over a few meters.
Thus, when someone asks what is the bandwidth of this or that medium, our response must be,
“For what distance?”
Why does the product of so different entities as bandwidth and length impose a limit on
the capacity of a transmission channel? As discussed above, the channel’s bandwidth is the
measure of the channel ability to transmit data fiow at a certain bit rate. If we consider a
transmission channel (link) as a pipe, then the bandwidth corresponds to the diameter of this
pipe. Then, the greater the diameter (bandwidth, that is), the faster the data fiow this pipe (link)
can afford. In this analogy, the bandwidth-length product is the volume of our pipe; this volume
determines how many bits in total this pipe (link) can accommodate. This number – the maximum
amount of bits a given channel (link) can accommodate – is constant and determined by the
physical properties of a medium from which the link is made up.
In computer networks, the important parameter is a message latency (delay) rather than
the channel length. Nevertheless, since the latency is mainly determined by the link length, the
prin- ciple BW (Hz) × L (km) = constant can be also applied in this case.

1.3.2.3 Power-Bandwidth Trade-Off

Referring to definition of SNR given in (1.3.8), we can rewrite the Shannon law given in (1.3.6) as
( )
PS (W )
C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 1 + (1.3.21)
PN
Since C (b/s) is the limit (constant), (1.3.21) determines the power-bandwidth trade-off. Indeed, we
cannot control the noise power; hence, we consider PN (W) as a given number. Thus, increasing
the signal power, PS (W), must cause reducing the bandwidth, BW (Hz) in order to satisfy (1.3.21).
The well-known application of this principle is the spread-spectrum transmission technology.
Once classified and only military-applicable technique, the spread-spectrum communications
today is the basis for GPS and for many mobile transmission technologies, including 4G and
Bluetooth, all of which are available for civilian service.
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 93
The technology spreads a transmitted signal over the bandwidth much larger than the signal’s
original bandwidth. As a result, the power of individual signal’s component gets smaller than the
power of noise so that SNR becomes less than 1. This exchange power for bandwidth enables the
technology provide secure and reliable communications, as we – the users of GPS, cell phones,
and Bluetooth – can attest.
S ( W)
Under condition SNR = P ≪ 1, Eq. (1.3.21) can be reduced to19
N
P
BW (Hz) ⋅ PS (W) ≈ C (b∕s) ⋅ PN (W) (1.3.22)
Since C (b/s) is the limit and PN (W) is fixed for a given communications, (1.3.22) shows that the
bandwidth-power product in a spread-spectrum technology is constant.
Another important example of employing this principle is multilevel modulation (signaling).
This communications technique packs several bits in one symbol for transmission at a given bit
rate but within a smaller bandwidth. Saving the transmission bandwidth is achieved by inject-
ing more power in a transmitted signal. Section 10.1 provides a detailed discussion of multilevel
signaling; one of its subsections is devoted to the use of bandwidth-power trade-off in this com-
munication technology. Chapters 7 and 9 further clarify this trade-off by considering it from the
spectral-analysis standpoint.

1.3.2.4 Spectral Efficiency and Transmission Technology

Spectral efficiency is not a principle, but the measure – the figure of merit, if you wish – of mod-
ern electronic communications. First, let us introduce the concept of spectral efficiency, SE: This
measure determines how efficiently a given bandwidth is used for transmission of a required
data stream. The more bits per second we can transmit per 1 Hz of available bandwidth, the more
effi- ciently we use this bandwidth. Thus, spectral efficiency is defined as follows:
Actual bit rate (b∕s) BR (b∕s)
SE ((b∕s)∕Hz) = = (1.3.23)
Available bandwidth (Hz) BW (Hz)
To fully understand any term, we should analyze the dimension of this term: Here, the unit
(b/s) is the measure of an actual transmission (bit) rate and (Hz) is the measure of the bandwidth
avail- able for transmission of this data stream. A thorough look at the SE dimension reveals
that this quantity is, in fact, dimensionless because b/s = 1/s and Hz = 1/s. The industry, however,
always keeps the dimension ((b/s)/Hz) to emphasize the meaning of spectral efficiency.
The importance of SE cannot be overestimated: Bandwidth is a commodity; all frequency
spectra usable for electronic communication in the United States is controlled by the FCC and the
spec- tra are mostly assigned or licensed (refer to Section 1.2). A provider of mobile phone
service, for example, needs to purchase a license for certain portion of the spectrum, which then
will be locked in with a given bandwidth. But the company needs to constantly increase the data
rate because the volume of telecommunications traffic continuously grows. Ultimately, the faster
a provider can transmit data, the greater will be its revenue. One way to increase bit rate is to use
more bandwidth, as Shannon’s law shows, but this approach does not work since the bandwidth
is fixed. Therefore, in reality, the only way to increase the data rate is increasing spectral
efficiency, as (1.3.23) indicates.
The principle concerning spectral efficiency can be formulated as follows:
The greater the spectral efficiency of a transmission system, the better the system.
The term better can be quantified by various measures but all of them will stem from the
key point: the spectral efficiency shows how efficiently we use an available transmission
bandwidth, which is commodity.

19 https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/app-notes/index.mvp/id/1890.
94 1 Modern Communications: What It

This parameter and its applications will be discussed in later chapters, especially in Chapters 9
and 10; here we need to make one point:
How can we improve (increase) the spectral efficiency? Equation (1.3.23) shows the possible
ways: Either increase the bit rate over the fixed bandwidth or reduce the bandwidth with the
given bit rate or (ideally) do both.
Increasing the bit rate (BR) implies squeezing more bits per second. We can increase the
BR by reducing bit time, Tb, the time occupied by each bit. However, this straightforward
approach confronts a serious practical hurdle: At 100-Gb/s bit rate, the bit time becomes equal
0.01 ns, or 10 ps, and modern electronic technology experiences difficulty in directly generating
such a bit stream without significant errors. To resolve this problem, the industry employs
various methods to directly raise bit rate; the most popular among them is multiplexing –
transmitting several (many) channels over the same transmission line.
Reducing the required bandwidth can be achieved by using multilevel modulation techniques
and by employing filters, the circuitry that filters out unnecessary (unwanted or negligible) parts
of the spectrum.
In any event, increasing (improving) the spectral efficiency relies on using better (that is, more
sophisticated and, therefore, more expensive) equipment; hence, implementation of this principle
depends on technology. Thus, we see the consequence of this principle:
The better the spectral efficiency, the more sophisticated (complex) the equipment that must be used
in a transmission system.
This statement shows that there is a trade-off between the spectral efficiency of transmission
and the complexity of the technology used for this transmission.
Spectral efficiency is one of the most important characteristics of communication systems, but it
is not the only one. For example, an updated DSL transmission mentioned above could have an
SE up to 14 (b/s)/Hz, but nobody wants to replace the modern optical access networks with a DSL
line just to achieve higher spectral efficiency. This is because the optical network yields a much
higher transmission rate, which is the decisive factor in choosing the link type to provide the
access from an individual customer to the global communications infrastructure. Nevertheless,
increasing the spectral efficiency is one of the major objectives of a designer of modern
communications networks. Finally, it must be noted that Shannon’s law (1.3.6) imposes the limit
on the spectral efficiency.
Indeed, dividing channel capacity, C (b/s) by channel bandwidth, BW (Hz), in (1.3.6) yields
C (b∕s)
= SEmax = log2(1 + SNR) (1.3.24)
BW (Hz)
It follows from (1.3.24) that SElim is the measure of capacity per unit bandwidth and it is limited
by the channel’s SNR. (Refer to discussion of Figure 1.3.2.) Do not forget that C (b/s) determines
the maximum bit rate for error-free transmission.
We will discuss spectral efficiency in later chapters.

1.3.2.5 Bit Rate vs. Bandwidth in Digital Transmission

To summarize our discussion of the fundamental principles of modern communications, we need
to discuss why signal’s bit rate is proportional to channel’s bandwidth, as predicted by the main
communication laws (1.3.3), (1.3.4), and (1.3.6).
As we will learn in Chapter 7, the pulse bandwidth, BW (Hz), is inversely proportional to the
pulse duration, Tb (s); that is, the narrower the pulse, the larger the signal’s bandwidth and
vice versa. This is a well-known phenomenon called reciprocal spreading. The physics behind this
phe- nomenon is that the faster the time variations of a signal the greater the number of frequencies
that its spectrum contains and vice versa. A pulse perfectly exemplifies this point: Pulse’s width, Tb
(s),
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 95
shows how fast the pulse changing in time. Specifically, the smaller the Tb (s), the faster the
changes; hence, a narrower pulse has a greater number of frequencies in its spectrum than a
wider one. Therefore, Tb (s) is a measure of the broadness of a pulse spectrum; that is, its
bandwidth.
On the other hand, pulse’s width, Tb (s), is inversely proportional to bit rate, BR (b/s); that is, BR
(b/s) = 1/Tb (s). Now, it would seem that we arrive to a familiar relationship: Both bandwidth and
bit rate are inversely proportional to Tb (s), and therefore, one is proportional to the other. But we
need fully understand that it is a digital signal’s bandwidth, BW sig (Hz), that is inversely proportional
to pulse width, Tb (s), whereas Shannon’s and other fundamental laws refer to a channel’s
bandwidth, BW channel (Hz). This logical gap is closed by the following reasoning: An increase in BR
(b/s) requires the decrease in Tb (s), which causes the increase in BW sig (Hz), which – in turn– leads to
the increase in BW channel (Hz).

1.3.3 Laws, Principles, and Models – Importance, Limitations, and Applications

1.3.3.1 Limitations and Applications of the Laws and Principles
Every principle, law, and equation are based on assumptions and have their limitations, that is,
the boundary of their applicability.
Let us start with Ohm’s law, the first law that electrical engineering students meet in their spe-
cialty classes. The law states

V (V) = R (Ω) ⋅ I(A) (1.3.25)

But even for DC circuit, this law holds true only if the ambient temperature is constant.
This is the first condition (or limitation, if you wish) to observe when performing measurements.
Why temperature is a factor in Ohm’s law? Refer to basic physics underlining this law: Current is
a fiow of electrons; the electrons, on their way from one circuit terminal to the other, bouncing
among heavy ions that make up the structure of a conductor. These ions constantly vibrate.
When the electrons collide with the ions, they are refiected or defiected; in either event, the
electron fiow gets impeded. The level of this impedance is the measure of a conductor
resistance. When temperature rises, amplitudes of ion vibrations increases; consequently,
impedance to electron fiow raises, which is measured as an increase in conductor’s resistance.
In discussion of the meaning and limitations of any equation, it is always useful to consider the
extreme conditions. Let us return to Ohm’s law: How (1.3.25) will work if ambient temperature
approaches the absolute zero? (Reminder: Absolute zero means 0 K.) What if ambient
temperature is equal to 5778 K? (Get to know that 5778 K is the temperature at the sun’s surface.)
Answering these questions (qualitatively, of course) help you to fully understand limitations of
Ohm’s law in regard to temperature. (Be aware that as conductor’s temperature approaching 0 K,
its resis- tance drops to zero, the condition called superconductivity. This phenomenon enables
many mod- ern technological marvels, the chief among them being Large Hadron Collider
[LHC]. This is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator and is, in fact, the
largest machine in the world. For its operation, LHC needs electric current up to 12 000 amperes
(!), for which the super- conducting cables have to be used. Ohm’s law given in (1.3.25) certainly
cannot be applied here. Go online to learn more about this unique apparatus operating at the
very boundary of scientific knowledge.)
Another limitation in Ohm’s law concerns with signal’s frequency. Electrical engineering stu-
dents usually study Ohm’s law in analyses of DC and AC circuits, where AC typically refers to
the signals in a low-frequency range. But will Ohm’s work for high-frequency signals? The
answer to this question depends on our interpretation of Ohm’s law. If we define Ohm’s law as
Eq. (1.3.25), the
96 1 Modern Communications: What It

answer is no because this equation is fully true only for DC circuits. It can be used for low-
frequency AC circuits as long as we are satisfied with this approximate approach. Also, this
consideration implies that the law is applied to a circuit with lumped elements. However, if we
consider Ohm’s law as the rule of linearity between current-related and voltage-related
quantities, then the answer is yes because (1.3.25) can been generalized as
2
E (V∕m) = 𝜌 (Ω m) ⋅ J (A∕m ) (1.3.26)

Here E (V/m) is the electric field strength, 𝜌 (Ω m) is the resistivity, and J (A/m2) is the current
density. Equation (1.3.26), however, describes not circuits but electromagnetic (EM) field, where
high-frequency signals belong. Bear in mind, too, that in EM field there is no lumped elements
and its property (resistivity in this example) is distributed in space.
Is there a strict frequency value that would border the low-frequency and high-frequency
ranges in terms of applications of (1.3.25) and (1.3.26)? No. Engineers have to decide which model
serve better for every specific problem they encounter.
(Question: Can Ohm’s law (1.3.25) be applied to an electrical circuitry whose operational voltage
is 100 kV? How about 100 A? Explain.)
Let us now consider Shannon’s law – the fundamental relationship governing modern com-
munications regardless of its technology. Equation (1.3.6) states the maximum channel capacity,
C (b/s), is determined by the channel’s bandwidth, BW (Hz), and depends on SNR.

C (b∕s) = BW (Hz) log2 (1 + SNR) (1.3.6R)

We studied that Shannon’s law puts, in fact three limits:

1. A communication system’s bit rate, BR (b/s), cannot exceed the channel capacity, C (b/s), to support error-free

( )
E
2. A digital SNR has the minimum value, bN0 = −1.59 dB, delimiting the possibility of
limit
error-free transmission. See Figure 1.3.2.
3. Spectral efffciency, SE ((b/s)/Hz), is limited by the channel’s SNR; that is, C (b∕s) = SElim =
BW (Hz)
log2(1 + SNR). See Eq. (1.3.24).

Besides these limitations, it appears that application of Shannon’s laws has its boundaries too:
Transmission channels of communication technology of 1940s, when Shannon presented his law,
were copper wires and cables. These communication links have been adequately described by
linear models; that is, their properties (resistance, capacitance, and inductance) do not depend on
the strength of transmitted signals.
Situation has changed completely with the advent of optical fiber. Today, vast majority of the
global communication traffic is delivered optically, whereas copper-based transmission links
play minor role. An optical fiber is a nonlinear transmission channel because its refractive index
depends on the strength of an optical signal being transmitted. (See, for example, Mynbaev and
Scheiner 2001, pp. 195–204.) When the power of an input signal is small, Shannon’s law
works well; when, however, the input power is big, Shannon’s equation does not hold true. To
explain, we refer to spectral efficiency given in (1.3.24) that states that SE should grow
indefinitely with an increase in a signal power because this increase raises SNR. Including
nonlinear effect in analysis of transmission capacity of an optical fiber (Mitra and Stark 2001, pp.
1027–1030) shows that the
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 97
Figure 1.3.5 Spectral efficiency vs. signal power in optical
fiber. (a.u. stands for arbitrary units.)
Spectral efficiency

Plin
Input signal power (a.u. in logarithmic scale)

capacity of nonlinear channel has its limit. The graphs depicting a linear course (dotted line) and
nonlinear Shannon’s law (solid line) are in Figure 1.3.5. It shows that when signal power exceeds
a linear value, Plin, the spectral efficiency not only stops growing but starts declining. The further
increase of the signal power causes bigger decrease in spectral efficiency. Therefore, Shannon’s
law in form (1.3.24) does not hold true.
This example demonstrates that even such fundamental law as Shannon’s limit must be
applied only after verifications of all conditions and assumptions under which the law holds true.

1.3.3.2 Models
We constantly refer to model of a component, system, or other entity but have never defined what
it is. In engineering,
a model is a mathematical description of a real system or a real process.
Here is the simple example: The model of a circular wire resistance, which every electrical engi-
neering student knows very well. Referring, for certainty, to a popular textbook on circuit
analysis (Boylestad 2016, pp. 63–75.), we find the following model that emerged from brief
explanations:
l (cm)
R (Ω) = (Ω cm)
� A (cm2) (1.3.27)
Here, R (Ω) is the resistance, 𝜌 (Ω cm) is the material resistivity, l and A are the length and the
cross area of the wire. This model gives the correct resistance value if the ambient temperature is
constant. To consider the temperature effect, more sophisticated model given as
l (cm)
R (Ω) = (Ω cm)
� A (cm2) (1 + 𝛼ΔT) (1.3.28)

is needed. Here 𝛼 (1/∘C) is the temperature coefficient of resistance and ΔT (∘C) = T − 20 ∘C with
T (∘C) being an actual ambient temperature. Using (1.3.28), our calculations of the resistance pro-
duce more accurate result than model given in (1.3.27). But we must be aware that both of
the above models give us an average resistance, whereas in reality its value changes every
instant. (See subsection “The model of noise in Shannon’s law” in Section 9.1.) What if we
need to know an instantaneous resistance value? We must further develop model determined by
(1.3.25) to refiect this phenomenon. If we need to take into account the effect of the material
(contents of alloy), we must add new equation to (1.3.25). So, to increase the accuracy of our
model, new equations or new members of the existing equations must be added. Eventually, the
model of resistance becomes very accurate but too complicated for the practical use. So at what
stage the further increase in a
98 1 Modern Communications: What It

model accuracy should be stopped? Obviously, it depends on the application: For rough estima-
tion of resistance at an entry-level student laboratory (1.3.27) would work perfectly; for precise,
nano-scale measurements the most accurate model would be needed.
The conclusion we should draw from this discussion is that choosing the good model is more
art than science.
So should we avoid modeling altogether? No, we must create models because the real-life
situa- tions are too sophisticated, and they are affected by so many factors that we simply cannot
describe these situations by reasonably sized mathematics. What is the solution to this problem?
Create a model that, from the one hand, provides the best description of a real system and, from
the other hand, be computational and capable to deliver the results at the reasonable expenditure
in both time and cost. How? Again, there is no equation or scientific method to follow; this is not
a science but art based on the knowledge, experience, intuition, deep understanding of the
situation, and eventually the talent of an engineer and scientist.
Let us consider the classical example from the history of physics related to the fundamental
laws of nature: As we know, special theory of relativity (1905) and general theory of relativity
(1915), the mathematical theories of processes in our nature, were discovered by Albert Einstein.
Nat- urally, their creation was a difficult journey; in developing these theories, Einstein tried
various approaches, abandoned some of them, tried new ones, and repeated his attempts again
and again. Fortunately, he succeeded on both efforts; the results were the equations describing
the subjects of his research. While working at special theory of relativity, Einstein learned that the
famous French mathematician named Henri Poincare was also developing equations describing
the same problem. Similar situation appeared again in 1915, when Einstein got to know that
another prominent math- ematician, David Gilbert from Germany, was working at the
developing field equations, the core results of general theory of relativity. But today, we rightly
consider Albert Einstein as an author of both theories, even though the mathematical results of
Henri Poincare and David Gilbert are very close to the equations discovered by Einstein. This is
because Einstein’s results are closer to real- ity; the most predictions of his theories are confirmed
today by the experiments. Why Einstein was more successful in these cases than his rivals who
seemed to be more mathematically qualified for the research? In developing his theories
(models, in essence), he mainly relied on his intu- ition and deep understanding of physical
processes. This approach enabled him to correctly decide what features of the processes must be
included into his mathematical models and what might be neglected for simplifying the
mathematics without increasing the gap between the models and the real processes. This
approach allowed him to develop the correct mathematical description of the concepts of physics.
The point we can draw from these historical episodes is that successful describ- ing real-life
processes and situations by mathematical equations requires the reasonable approach, but the
term reasonable cannot be described by a mathematical equation.
We cannot underestimate, however, the role of mathematics in revealing the real processes of
our world. Here there are two examples, again regarding the fundamental laws of the universe.
Every engineer and physicist know positron, an elementary particle that has the same
proper- ties as electron except of the positive electric charge. The existence of positron was
predicted in 1928 by Paul Dirac, prominent British scientist and one of the fathers of quantum
mechanics. This prediction appeared because Dirac’s equation required the existence of a particle
which would mir- ror an electron but must be positively charged. It was even initially called anti-
electron. Again, positron appeared under the Dirac’s pen. In fact, by his equation, Dirac predicted
the existence of anti-matter, the result that changes our view of the universe. Positron was
discovered experimen- tally in 1932; the existence of anti-matter has also been confirmed in
numerous experiments since then. Anti-matter and its interaction with matter play important role
in understanding the natural
 1.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles of Modern Communications 99
processes in our universe; as for positron, it finds its applications in medicine and science. And
all these vitally important results emerge from one mathematical equation.
The second example: In 1964, British physicist Peter Higgs published a paper in which he
math- ematically predicted existence of what is now called Higgs field and Higgs boson
(elementary par- ticle). The Higgs’s theory fundamentally changes our understanding of how the
universe “works.” This is why it must be proved or disapproved, for which a particle accelerator
must be created. It took 13 years (from 1995 to 2008), about $10 billion, and collaboration of the
world-wide scientific and engineering community to build and put in operation Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). This is, as mentioned previously, the greatest scientific instrument ever built. In
2012, after series of exper- iments and long period of calculations and verifications of the results,
it was announced that Higgs boson had been discovered. Incidentally, calculations were done
simultaneously in 170 computer centers located in 36 countries through the grid-based computer
network. To constantly analyze all collision events produced by 2012, 25 petabytes (25 × 1015
bytes) collision data had to be transmit- ted annually. And all these expenditures, intellectual and
material global efforts were put in action based only on the mathematical prediction!
These two modern examples show that mathematical models can initiate the practical steps
that change our understanding of the universe and result in creating new practical
applications. As a scientist puts it, regarding LHC story, “Before the elusive Higgs boson could
be discovered – a smashing success – it had to be imagined.20”

1.3.3.3 Modeling and Simulation

Nowadays, the role of mathematical models in engineering practice keeps increasing. This is
because an enormous progress in computer science in both software and hardware areas enables
the industry replace the tangible prototyping by accurate computer simulation. Traditionally,
engineers first built a physical prototype of a designed circuitry, machine, or system. Then they
tested it, changed the pieces or even whole design, tested again, and repeated this process many
times before starting the mass production. It required huge amount of efforts, resources, and –
most importantly – time to complete the design process from an idea to the final product. Fifty
years ago, this cycle typically took from 5 to10 years. Fortunately, these days long gone.
Today, for a typical midsize product, such a cycle can take from hours to days to months. Of
course, designing a new spacecraft will take much longer period of time, but, still, it will be
very short interval comparing with the design of such an object 50 years ago. The advantage of
application of digital technology in the real manufacturing processes enabling industrial
companies not only optimize these processes but also hone the usage of their products. For
example, General Electric (GE) is creating virtual replica (called digital twin) for each its aircraft
engine being in use. This allows GE to follow the aging of each individual engine and prevent
their possible malfunctions.
All this progress in designing and manufacturing processes has been achieved thanks – let
us repeat – precise computer simulation of a real systems and processes. But – this is the
main point – computer simulation is based on the mathematical models of a real product,
and the simulation accuracy cannot be better than the accuracy of the model. Returning to the
story about the Higgs boson and the LHC operation, to verify the discovery, all obtained
experimental data were compared with simulation data and only those experimental data
that coincided with the simulated ones were selected for the further processing. This fact
highlights the role of a mathematical model in such an epochal experiment. The success of this
experiment is the triumph of power of a correct mathematical model.

20 Greene (2013).
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.3 99
We must remember, nevertheless, that there is always a gap between the model and its real-life
object and even smallest deviations the model from the real object could result in erroneous out-
comes.
The conclusion we should draw from this subsection is that the laws and principles used as guid-
ing instruments in analysis of real-life engineering tasks are not more than models having their
limitations and constrains; therefore, we have to use them mindfully.

Questions and Problems for Section 1.3

• Questions marked with an asterisk require a systematic approach to finding the solution.
• Many questions and problems, including those marked with an asterisk, imply that you, in
addi- tion to reading the textbook, will do your research to find the answers. Consider such
questions as mini-projects.

Fundamentals Laws of Modern Communications

1 Average size of an HD (high-definition) movie is approximately 7.5 gigabytes. How long will it
take to download this movie if the maximum transmission rate of an access link is 500 Mb/s?
(Use (1.3.1), T = H/BR = 8 × 7500/500 = 120 s.)

2 What bit rate is required to deliver 32-megabyte file for 4 ms? (BR = 32 × 8/4 = 64 Gb/s)

3 Typical real transmission speed provided by PON (passive optical network) is 10 Gb/s. What
volume of information can be downloaded with this technique for 1 ms? 10 ms?

4 In Section 1.2, we compare a communication point-to-point link with a water supply system.
Based on this analogy, derive the equation governing the relationship among water volume,
the velocity of water stream, and time of supply process.

5 The bandwidth of a Bluetooth channel is 20 kHz. What bit rate it can support?

6 It would seem that Eqs. (1.3.2b) and (1.3.3) state basically the same: The bit rate that a trans-
mission link can support is either equal or less than the link’s bandwidth. Why then,
Nyquist formula, (1.3.3), is considered as a fundamental statement?

7 Compare (1.3.3) and (1.3.5): Why does the text say that Hartley’s capacity law, (1.3.5),
followed from Nyquist formula, (1.3.3) given that the former is an equation and the latter
contain an inequality sign?

8 *Consider Hartley’s capacity law, (1.3.5): As we will learn in Section 10.1, the number of bits
per level (symbol), N b , relates to the number of levels (symbols), M, as M = 2Nb , or N b = log2
M (see Eqs. (10.1.2a) and (10.1.2b).)

9 If we use multilevel modulation in which one level carries two bits, what will be
channel capacity, C (b/s), with respect to channel bandwidth, BW (Hz)?
100 1 Modern Communications: What It

10 We know that a channel bandwidth, BW (Hz) is restricted by the properties of a

transmission medium and by regulations, but it seems that (1.3.5) states that we can increase
the channel capacity indefinitely by increasing M. Are there limitations on M in reality? Give
the answer on the intuitive level, providing your reasoning. Then, for extra credit, jump to
Section 10.1 to study the topic.

11 Equation (1.3.5) works only for a noiseless channel, the abstraction that cannot exist in
reality. What is, then, the value of this equation?

12 Discuss Shannon’s law (limit). Explain the meaning of each member of this formula.

13 *Consider Shannon’s law (1.3.6):

a) The bandwidth of a twisted copper pair is 10 MHz and the signal-to-noise ratio is 1000.
What is the channel capacity of this medium?
b) Assume the capacity of a fiber-optic link is 100 Tbit/s. What bandwidth this link provides
if its signal-to-noise ratio is 6200?
c) What signal-to-noise ratio is required to provide channel capacity equals bandwidth of
the link? Do you want this equality? Explain.
d) What will be the ratio of channel capacity to bandwidth for signal-to-noise ratio equals
100? 1000? 10 000? Comment your results.

14 The most popular wavelength used in fiber-optic communications technology is 1550 nm,
which is approximately 193.5 THz. What bandwidth do you expect of an optical fiber operating
at this wavelength?

15 *The strict formulation of Shannon’s law states: If bit (data) rate, BR (b/s), does not exceed
the maximum channel capacity, C (b/s), then the transmission can be provided with
arbitrarily low error probability by using intelligent coding techniques. This statement is
usually sim- plified as follows: If BR (b/s) ≤ C (b/s), then transmission is error free. What if
BR (b/s) > C (b/s)?

16 *Shannon’s law, (1.3.6), states that the channel capacity, C (b/s), is proportional to the
channel bandwidth, BW (Hz). Why? What physics does underlie this phenomenon?

17 If BW = 8 THz and SNR = 14, then C = 31.24 Tb/s. If SNR increases to 28 and BW decreases
to 6.43 THz, then C will stay the same. Why?
18 *Equation (1.3.14c) shows relationship between digital SNR, Eb (J)/N0 (W s), and spectral effi-
BW (
ciency, SE = C (b/s)/BW (Hz), as E0
b
)
= 2 BWC − 1 :
N C
a) Prove that digital SNR has its minimal value. Find this value.
b) What will be the value of SE when digital SNR reaches its minimum?
c) According to the text, Shannon’s law cannot be applied beyond the minimal value of SE.
Why?

19 Compute the Landauer limits at the following values of ambient temperature:

a) Room temperature of T = 27 ∘C.
 Questions and Problems for Section 1.3 101
b) Cryogenic temperature of –271.3 ∘C, at which the main magnets of the Large Hadron
Col- lider (LHC) operate.
c) Sun’ surface of 6000 ∘C.
d) Comment on your results. (Hint: T∘K = T∘C + 273.)

20 To increase achievable channel capacity, C (b/s), we need, according to Shannon’s law,

increase the channel bandwidth. The text explains that increasing optical fiber’s bandwidth
faces severe technological restrictions that stemmed from the optical fiber’s nature. What
restrictions does the text refer to?

Fundamental Principles of Modern Communications

21 Examine Figure 1.3.3a:

a) Can a 0.5-mm twisted pair transmit at 1 GHz?
b) Is it possible to transmit a signal at 1 GHz through a 9.5-mm coaxial cable?
c) Can a typical optical fiber deliver a signal at 1 GHz?
d) Explain your answers.

22 Figure 1.3.3a shows spectral attenuation of a typical optical fiber: At f C = 100 THz,
A1 ≈ 5 dB/km and when f C = 200 THz, A2 ≈ 0.2 dB/km. What transmission distances
can be covered with A1 and A2 if losses in both cases are equal to −30 dB? (Hint:
−Loss (dB)
A (dB∕km) =Distance (km) .)

23 Review Figure 1.3.3a: In the order of magnitudes, what channel capacities can a twisted pair,
a coaxial cable, and optical fiber support provided that each medium utilizes its minimal
atten- uation? (Hint: Refer to (1.3.19.))

24 Wireless transmission, as explained in Section 1.2, needs to expand its spectrum to high-
frequency range. What frequency windows on the graphs shown in Figure 1.3.3b would you
choose for this expansion and why?

25 History of communication technology shows that to increase the maximum transmission

rate, C (b/s), we need to increase a carrier frequency, f C. Why, then, modern communications
does not pursue this trend and stop at optical frequencies?

26 A manufacturer specifies the bandwidth-length product of a multimode optical fiber as

600 MHz-km. Over what distance can this fiber transmit 1200 MHz? 300 MHz?

27 Category 6 cable, which is unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable, can transmit 250 MHz over
800 m (2624 ft). What distance you can reach if you need to transmit 500 MHz? 125 MHz?

28 Usually standards for local area networks (LAN) specify transmission speed for these net-
works. For instance, a specific type of LAN called Ethernet was specified as 10-Mbit/s and
100-Mbit/s Ethernet. However, latest standards developed by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers) for LANs specify the length of a cable rather than transmission speed.
For example, Gigabit Ethernet is specified as 2 km transmission length with multimode
optical fiber and 10-Gigabit Ethernet allows for 300-m distance. Comment on these
specifications.
102 1 Modern Communications: What It

( W)
Equation (1.3.22) shows that, under condition SNR = P
S
29 ≪ 1, the bandwidth-power
PN
prod- uct is constant. How this constancy is used in a spread-spectrum technology?

30 A multilevel modulation packs several bits in one symbol for transmission at a given bit rate
but within a smaller bandwidth. How bandwidth-power trade-off is used in this technique?

31 Consider spectral efficiency, SE ((b/s)/Hz), as defined in (1.3.23):

a) What is the meaning of this parameter?
b) Do you want big or small SE? Explain.
c) List all the directions for increasing SE ((b/s)/Hz) and show their limitations.
d) Is there a limit for increasing spectral efficiency? (See (1.3.24).)

32 Calculate spectral efficiency of various communication systems:

a) A Wi-Fi transmission uses 22-MHz channel bandwidth to transmit at BR = 54 Mbps.
What is SE of this transmission?
b) A fiber-optic communication system support BR = 10 Tb/s over 4.45-THz bandwidth.
Find the SE.
c) Which system does utilize its bandwidth more efficiently? Explain.

33 Consider dimension of spectral efficiency, (b/s)/Hz:

a) The text says that the spectral efficiency is a dimensionless quantity. Why?
b) If SE ((b/s)/Hz) is the dimensionless, why does communications industry continue to
show this dimension?

34 *Compare Eqs. (1.3.14c) and (1.3.24): Do they describe the same phenomenon? Explain.

35 We distinguish between bandwidths of a signal and a channel. What other bandwidths we

need to take into account considering a communication system?

Laws, Principles, and Models – Importance, Limitations, and Applications

35 Consider limitation in application of Shannon’s law shown in Figure 1.3.5:

a) Equation (1.3.24) states that C (b∕s) = SElim = log2 (1 + SNR). Where is signal’s power,
BW
Psignal, in this equation?
b) How will this equation change after Psignal becomes greater than Plin?

36 Equations (1.3.3)–(1.3.6) are the mathematical models of a communication system. Which of

these models better describe a real-life communication system? Why?

37 Describe the relationship between modeling and simulation of real systems and processes.
Give examples.