MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY

OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT: DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

UNIT CODE & NAME SPH 111 – FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS II

WRITTEN BY: HENRY BARASA EDITED BY:

WAFULA
PATRICK TONUI

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Copyright © MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY 2012

All Rights Reserved

Published By:

MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY PRESS

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INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Module SPH 111; Fundamentals of Physics. This is a First year second semester
module and we expect you to have gone through the previous module year 1 semester 1
which is a prerequisite of this module.

In this module, you will learn about fundamentals of physics equips the learner with
knowledge and skills, that will give you an overview of the basic tenets of the physical
world. The module sph 111 Fundamentals of physics II provides a comprehensive
background in the fundamental areas of the discipline in pure physics and applied physics as
a prerequisite learner should have done module SPH110 Fundamentals of Physics I.

This module has six major topics. Every topic has sections as you will see in the module.
Ensure that you have read and understood every topic before you proceed to the next one. In
every topic you will find symbols that give instructions on what is expected of you for
example to take a note on an important aspect; to do an activity or even to refer to previous
modules. At the end every topic there will be a self check where you are expected to assess
your understanding and to give yourself a score in order to measure your level of
understanding. It is my hope that you will enjoy reading this module and please feel free to
comment on the whole module.

AIM
This module SPH 111 intends to equip you with knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to help you
apprehend fundamentals of physics necessary in understanding basic operations of modern equipments
and instrumentation.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this course, the learner will be able to:

1. Explain the principles of the magnetic field define magnetic flux, magnetic flux
density, permeability, reluctance, magneto motive force and discuss hysteresis
curve.
2. Use Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's rules to determine the current through each resistor
and the voltage drop across each resistor in a single loop or multiloop dc circuit.
3. Determine the equivalent resistance/capacitance of resistors/capacitors arranged in
series or in parallel or the equivalent capacitance of a series parallel combination.
4. Determine impedance and phase angles of series RC, RL and RCL circuits.
5. Explain the function of semiconductors; describe the basic differences between
intrinsic and doped semiconductors and trace how current flows through these
different materials.
6. Use the conditions for constructive and destructive interference of waves to explain
the interference patterns observed in the Young's double slit experiment, single slit
diffraction, diffraction grating, and thin film interference.
7. Locate by ray tracing the image of an object formed by spherical mirrors/lenses.
8. List Bohr's postulates and use these postulates to explain the emission spectra
produced by the hydrogen atom, explain X-ray spectra and distinguish between
fusion and fission.

This module consists of six topics namely;

Topic 1: Magnetism 1

Topic 2: Direct and alternating current electricity

Topic 3: Basic electronics and Semiconductor theory

Topic 4: Optics

Topic 5: Particle and wave theories of light

Topic 6: Modern physics

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Magnetism:

Properties of magnetic materials and their uses;

Direct and alternating current electricity;

Measurement of resistance, inductance and capacitance.

Basic electronics and Semiconductor theory

Transistors and diodes characteristics and application.

Working principle and application of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

Optics

Review of mirrors and lenses;

Defects in lenses;

Types of microscopes and telescopes;

Particle and wave theories of light;

Phenomena and application of interference, diffraction and polarisation of light.

Modern physics:

Bohr's theory and Heisenberg's quantum concept;

Explanation of atomic spectra; X-rays; Structure of the nucleus;

Radioactivity.

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TOPIC 1: MAGNETISM

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Magnetism is a phenomena well developed in early 1800 from the mysteries of the
lodestones attracting iron shields, this topic equips learners with knowledge and skills in;
magnetic properties, types of magnetic materials, description of the origin of magnetism,
magnetization curve and uses of magnets. We begin the discussion of magnetic materials by
defining the different terms used. It is necessary to investigate the magnetic properties of
various materials because it leads us to decide whether they are suitable for permanent
magnets such as are used in loudspeakers or temporary magnets as are used in transformers
(as cores). The magnetic properties of materials are attributed to the motion of electrons
inside atoms.

1.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• Define magnetism
• Describe the origin of magnetism
• State magnetic properties of materials
• Classify magnetic properties
• Discuss magnetic field intensity, magnetic flux, magnetic moment, and
magnetization
• Discuss the magnetization curve.

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1.3 Magnetic Properties of Materials and Their Uses

1.3.1 The magnetic field intensity B

We define the space around a magnet or a current carrying conductor as the site of a magnetic field. The
magnetic field is represented by the field vector H characterizing the force due to this field. Its direction
at a point is the direction of the force experienced by a north seeking pole at a point. The other basic

magnetic field vector B, is called the magnetic field induction or the magnetic flux density. It is
represented by lines of induction. The tangent to a line of induction at any point gives the direction of B
at that point.

The lines of induction are drawn so that the number of lines per unit cross-sectional area is proportional
to the magnitude of B. Where the lines are close together B is large and where they are far apart then B
is small.

In order to define B and its units consider a positive charge qo moving with velocity v through a point
and it experiences a force F due to the field. Then we say that the magnetic field is present at the point,
and B is the vector whose magnitude is given by the relation F = q 0 vB sin θ

Where F is in a direction perpendicular to both v and B and θ is the angle between v and B. The units for
B from the above relation is thus Newton/(metre/second) which is referred to as Tesla, T. B may also be
defined from this relation as the force per unit current length and at right angles to the magnetic field.

Note:

The product qv is a current so any assembly of moving charges or current will

experience a sideways force when in a magnetic
7 field
In general B is proportional to H and the constant of proportionality µ (called the permeability) depends
on the medium of the space where H is present Thus B = µH

In a vacuum µ = µo and is called the permeability of free space. The ratio of µ to µo is called the relative
permeability and is thus the ratio of the value of B when there is material medium to the value when
µ B
there is only vacuum i.e. µr = =
µo Bo

What is the relative permeability of vacuum?

What are the units of μr

1.3.2 Magnetic flux Φ

The product of intensity B normal to an area and the cross-sectional area A through which B passes is
called the flux. Flux is thus the number of field lines crossing an area A and is usually denoted by Φ and
its SI unit is the Weber (Wb). Thus we can write Φ = BA cos θ

Here θ is the angle between the lines and the area.

1.3.3 Magnetic moment

The orientation of a magnet is specified by means of a vector µ(called the magnetic moment) along the
axis of the magnet pointing in the direction from the south seeking end toward the North seeking pole.
The orientation of the magnetic moment due to a coil is specified by the vector µ lying along the axis of
the coil and pointing in the direction related to the current by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment
of a small plane coil is a vector whose magnitude is the product of the number of turns, N, the current in
each turn, I, and the area A of the circuit. The direction of the vector is perpendicular to the plane of the
coil in the same sense given by the right hand rule, that µ = NAI and is measured in Am2

A magnet in a uniform magnetic field experiences a couple which gives it an angular acceleration and
provided there is damping ultimately comes to rest with its axis parallel to the field and so the magnetic
moment vector and the field vector align. The direction of the magnetic intensity at a point is the
direction into which the magnetic moment vector of either a small plane coil or a small magnet tends to
turn when the small coil or magnet is placed at that point in space.

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1.4 Magnetization

1.4.1 Magnetization Theory

In materials the electrons moving round the nucleus constitute current loops and so the atoms may have
resultant magnetic moments. This may happen in the presence or absence of a magnetic field. The
physical quantity used to describe the magnetic state of a material is the magnetic moment per unit
Total magnetic dipole moment
volume. This is called the magnetization M i. e. M =
Volume

What are the units of Magnetization?

Let us now evaluate the expressions for B and M and their relationship for a point in a material placed in
a magnetic field. Consider a Toroid of length L, as shown:

Let the total number of turns = N, mean radius = r, and circumference = L. The total flux density B
depends on the following factors:

(i) The current flowing in the wire

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 (ii) The magnetization of the material.
Thus we have B = Bo + Bm

Where Bo is the flux density due to the current I in the wire, and Bm is the flux density due to the
magnetization of the material. Usually Bo>> Bm .

Magnetization is related to the average magnet dipole moment for many molecules. The magnetization
flux density Bm is produced by many small circulating currents inside the magnetic material, due to the
circulating and spinning electrons in the atoms. This is shown in the diagram below:

In the same way, the small circulating currents inside the magnetic materials add up to a single current
Im flowing in the coil wound round the core. This current is called Surface or Magnetization current,
which adds up to the actual current I flowing in the coil. The actual current produces a flux density Bo.

Let n be the turns per unit length (n = N/L), where L = 2πr. Then

µo NI N
Bo = µ o nI = = µo L
2πr 2πr

Surface current Im produces a flux density Bm, which is given by the equation below

Bm = µ o nI m

Therefore, the total flux density B is given by

B = Bo + Bm
B = µo n(I + I m )
1.4.2 Intensity of Magnetization
The magnetic moment of each current turn due to the surface current Im is given as

µ = A× Im

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Where A is the cross-sectional area of each turn. For the whole Toroid, the magnetic moment is given by

µ = nLAI m , nL = N
Magnetic moment per unit volume, i.e. intensity of magnetization M, is then

nLAI m nLAI m
M = = = nI m
V AL
⇒ Bm = µ o nI m = µ o M
Similarly, the magnetic field density or magnetic intensity due to the actual (applied) current I is given by

B = µonI

Hence the total flux density B in the material is given by

B = Bo + Bm = µ o nI + µ o nI m = µo H + µo M
= µ o (H + M )

What are the units for H?

What are the units μ, also find out the value for μ0

1.4.3 Relative Permeability and magnetic susceptibility

From the foregoing discussion

B = µ o (H + M )
∴ µH = µ o (H + M )
µ H +M M
= = 1+
µo H H

M
And µ r = 1 + ,
H

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The ratio M/H is called the magnetic susceptibility, χM, of the material. Hence µr = 1 + χM

Thus we see that M is also proportional to H and the constant of proportionality is the magnetic
susceptibility i.e. M = χM H

When a magnetic material, originally unmagnetized, is subjected to an increasing field, the intensity of
magnetization M increases until it reaches a maximum value, as shown below.

Then the material is saturated, i.e. it’s magnetic domains are completely aligned with the field H. But B can
still continue to increase with H.

1.4.4 Types of Magnetic Materials

Various materials respond differently to changes in the field H. The magnetic materials are put into three
main categories of magnetic behaviour, mainly;
(i) Diamagnetism
(ii) Paramagnetism
(iii) Ferromagnetism
(i) Diamagnets
These are materials whose induced current gives rise to a magnetic field which opposes the applied
magnetic field H. Thus magnetization, M will be in the opposite direction to H and therefore H/M is
negative, and hence susceptibility χ is negative. Example is Bismuth with χ = -0.000015.

(ii) Paramagnets
In these materials that atoms are always in thermal motion which causes the magnetic moments to be
oriented purely at random and therefore no resultant magnetization. But if a field is applied, each atomic
moment will try to align in the direction of the field even though thermal motion will prevent complete
alignment. In this case there will be weak magnetization in the direction of the applied field. Hence
susceptibility χ of a paramagnet substance is very small and positive. Example is Platinum with χ =
+0.0001.

(iii) Ferromagnets

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In a ferromagnetic material the magnetization due to orbital electrons is in the same direction as the applied
field. Thus a ferromagnetic material aligns itself with an applied field. Hence it has high positive
susceptibilityχ. Ferromagnetic materials are further grouped into two:

(a) Soft Magnetic Materials

These magnetise easily and demagnetise when the applied field is removed. Example is Iron used
in transformers.

(b) Hard Magnetic Materials

These are hard to magnetise but retain their magnetism when the applied field is removed. Example
is Steel used in making permanent magnets.

1.4.5 Hysteresis Loop

The variation of B with applied field H when magnetic material specimen is taken through a complete circle
is as shown below

oa → the field B increases with increase in applied field H.

ab → the applied field H is reduced to zero and the field B follows the path ab.

bc → the applied field H is increased in the opposite direction.

The same process is done with cd and da.

→ The point ‘a’ is the saturation point for the material. When the applied field H is reduced to zero, there is
still some magnetic field remaining in the specimen as indicated at b. This is because the specimen is
strongly magnetised, setting up a flux density Br. This flux density is called the remanance; it is due to the

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tendency of groups of molecules, or domains to stay put once they have been aligned. At the point b, the
reverse applied H is applied to the specimen. Each increment of applied field causes a decrease in flux
density. Eventually, the flux density is reduced to zero, when the opposing field H has a value Hc. Hc is
called the coercive force of the specimen. This is a measure of the difficulty of breaking up the alignment
of the domains. We observe that once a specimen is magnetised, its magnetisation curve never passes
through the origin again. Instead it forms a closed loop called hysteresis loop. Hysteresis is defined as the
lagging of the magnetic induction B behind the applied field H when the specimen is taken through a
magnetic cycle.

Summary

The topic Magnetism covered the discussion of magnetic materials by defining the various terms used.
investigated the magnetic properties of various materials which gave the criteria for selection of
materials for particular use either as permanent magnets used in loudspeakers or temporary magnets
used in transformers (as cores). The topic discussed the origin of magnetism and the magnetization
theory.

Self Test Questions

1. Give an account of the domain theory of magnetisation (5marks)

2. (a) What is meant by magnetic hysteresis? Sketch a typical hysteresis curve and explain. What can be
deduced from this about the magnetic properties of the material?
(b) What are the desirable magnetic properties for the material of (i) the core of an electromagnet and
(ii) a permanent magnet? (7marks)

3. A Toroid core has N = 1200 turns, length L = 80cm, cross-sectional area A = 60cm2, current I = 1.5A.
Compute B and H. Assume an empty core. (5marks)
-4 2
4. A cast iron ring has a mean diameter of 0.2m and an area of cross-section of 5x10 m . It is uniformly
wound with 2000 turns carrying a current of 2.0A and the magnetic flux in the iron is 8x10-3Wb. What
is the relative permeability of the iron? (3marks)

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SCORE BOARD

Score Remark Tick

16-20 Very Good

12-15 Good

10-12 Satisfactory

0-9 Reread the topic

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Now that you have learnt the topic Magnetism, the learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick in the
column that best reflects your understanding of the topic:

No. Learning outcome Yes No

1 I can now discuss the origin of magnetism in materials

2 I can now describe magnetic materials giving examples

3 I can now describe magnetic flux, magnetic moment, magnetic

susceptibility, and magnetization

4 I can now discuss the magnetization curve

If you have put a tick at No, go back and study the respective section of the topic, before proceeding. If
you ticked yes in all the rows, you are ready for the next unit.

Congratulations you are now ready to do topic two.

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TOPIC 2: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the last topic you learned about Magnetism, we stated that a changing magnetic field
induces an electromotive force which cause current to flow. In this topic you will learn more
on electrical circuits and components in simple circuit networks and determine various
electrical characteristics in networks.

2.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• State Ohms law
• Analyze circuits using kirchoff’s laws
• Describe charging and discharging of capacitors
• Determine the reactance’s and Impedance of capacitor, Inductor and Resistor circuits

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2.3 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

Most electrical circuits comprise a number of sources, resistors or other elements such as capacitors,
motors, etc., interconnected in a more or less complicated manner. The general term applied to such a
circuit is a network.

Relation between Q and I

The quantity of electricity is measured in coulombs. Electric current I, is the drift of free electrons and is
Q
given by I= Therefore Q = It (t in seconds)
t

Current and drift velocity

Suppose there are n 'free' electrons per unit volume in a conductor of cross-section area A drifting with
velocity v in the same direction. The number of electrons passing a given section is nx(volume occupied in
1sec)=nvA

I = quantify of electricity in 1 sec = neAv

I
Current density = = nev
CSA

To maintain a current I, a source of EMF (Electromotive force) V must furnish power at a given rate. A
source of EMF of one volt is a source that does one joule of work on each coulomb of charge that passes
through it from the low potential side to the high.

2.3.1 Ohms law

Ohm's law states for a given conductor at a given temperature, the current is directly proportional to the
difference of potential between the ends of the conductor. That is I ∝ V. The constant of proportionality is
called the conductance G, and so we may write I=GV. More frequently used is the reciprocal of
conductance, R=1/G which is called the resistance. In terms of the resistance we have:

V
I= or V=IR
R

The unit of resistance is the Ohm, usually denoted by Ω

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Resistivity (r)

The resistance of a wire at constant temperature is found to be proportional to its length l and inversely
proportional to its corresponding area A that is

l l
R∝ ⇒R = ρ
A A

R is called the resistivity of the wire.

2.3.2 Electrical circuit arrangements

(i) Resistors in series

Consider the resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected as shown above. If the current I is flowing through the
circuit between points a and b then

Vax = IR1, Vxy = IR2, Vyb = IR3

The total voltage between points a and b is

Vab = Vax + Vxy + Vyb

= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

Let R be the total resistance (equivalent). Then

Vab = IR

⇒ R = R1 + R2 + R3

Note:

Thus the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of
the individual resistances.

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(ii) Resistors in parallel.

Let the currents flowing in the resistors R1, R2 and R3 be I1, I2 and I3. Then
V V V
I 1 = ab , I 2 = ab , I 3 = ab
R1 R2 R3
Let the equivalent current be I. Then
V V V
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 = ab + ab + ab
R1 R2 R3

 1 1 1 
I = Vab  + + 
 R1 R2 R3 

Let the equivalent resistor be R. Then

Vab  1 1 1 
I= = Vab  + + 
R R
 1 R 2 R3 
1 1 1 1
⇒ = + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1
If a network has only two resistors in parallel, then = +
R R1 R2
R1R 2
R=
R1 + R 2

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Note:

Thus in General, for any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance equals the sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.

2.3.3 Kirchoff's Laws

When a network is complex, there are various methods of analysing it. One of them is the method
developed by Kirchoff after he extended Ohm's laws to networks and came up with two laws.

(i) Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL)

This states that the algebraic sum of the current flowing into a junction is zero.

∑I = 0
I + (− I1 − I 2 ) = 0
I - (I1 + I 2 ) = 0
I1

I
I2

(ii) Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

States that the algebraic sum of all potential differences in a closed loop (or a closed circuit) is equal to
zero. ∑V = 0 = ∑ IR
S

⇒ ∑V S − ∑ IR = 0

Where Vs is the voltage source

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Example

Consider the following circuit. Calculate the current I1, I2 and I3 in the above circuit.

Note:

1. The Emf is counted as positive when it is traversed from –ve to +ve and
negative when it is traversed from +ve to –ve.

2. An IR term (Pd) is counted as negative if the resistor is traversed in the

same direction as the assumed current and positive if in the opposite
direction.

Solution.

Using KCL at node b

I1 − I 2 − I 3 = 0.................... .....................(i )
Using KVL at:

loop abda
− 4 I1 + 10V − 12 I 2 = 0
4 I1 + 12 I 2 = 10
2 I1 + 6 I 2 = 5.................... ..............(ii )

loop abcda − 4 I1 − 6V − 8 I 3 + 10V = 0

− 4 I1 − 8I 3 + 4V = 0
4 I1 + 8 I 3 = 4
I1 + 2 I 3 = 1.................... ..............(iii )

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Make I3 the subject in eqn(i) and substitute it in (iii).

I 3 = I1 − I 2
I1 + 2(I1 − I 2 ) = 1
I1 + 2 I1 − 2 I 2 = 1
3I1 − 2 I 2 = 1.............................. .........(iv)

Multiply eqn(iv) by 3 and add it to eqn(ii)

9 I1 − 6 I 2 = 3
2 I1 + 6I 2 = 5
11I 1 =8
I1 = 8 A
11

Now substitute I1 in (iv)

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− 2I2 =1
11
13
= 2I2
11
I2 =13 A
22
8 13 16−13 3
∴I3 = − = = A
11 22 22 22

ACTIVITY

Calculate the three currents indicated in the circuit diagram below.

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2.3.4 Energy and power in DC circuits
When a steady current I flows through a load( e.g resistor, electric motor, accumulator on charge etc) it
dissipates energy in it which is equal to the potential energy lost by the charge as it moves through the
potential difference that exists between the input and output terminals of the device. The energy is given by

W = QV

Where Q is the charge that flows in 1 sec and V the potential difference across the load.

Since Q = It

V2
Then W = Vit = I2Rt = ( )t
R

Power is the rate of dissipation of energy

dW V2
P= = VI = I2R =
dT R

2.3.5 Resistor-Capacitor Circuits

Capacitors

A capacitor is a device which is used to store electric charge. Consider two conductors a and b put at a
reasonable distance from each other. When a positive voltage is applied on a and a negative voltage of the
same magnitude is applied on b, the positive charges (+Q) and the negative charges (-Q) accumulate on
plates a and b. These charges cause an electric field which creates a potential difference Vab. Hence the
magnitude of the charges is directly proportional to the potential difference between the conductors.

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Q ∝ Vab
Q = CVab

C is called the capacitance (or charge storing ability) of the conductors.

C =Q
Vab

The two conductors are mostly called the capacitor plates.

Symbol:

Capacitance units: CV-1 or Farads (F)

Defn: Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge Q on either conductor to the
magnitude of the potential difference Vab between the conductors.

Capacitor Networks

(a) Capacitors in Parallel

V C1 Q1 C2 Q1 C3 Q1

Consider capacitors C1, C2 and C3 arranged in parallel as shown above. The applied p.d V is the same
across each but the charges are different. And therefore

Q1 = VC1, Q2 = VC2, Q3 = VC3

Total charge Q on the three capacitors is

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q2 = V(C1+ C2 +C3)
Let C be the equivalent capacitance. Then

C = C1+ C2 +C3 = Q/V

The equivalent capacitance equals the sum of the individual capacitances.

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(b) Capacitors in Series
Activity

1 1 1 1
Show that the reciprocal of equivalent capacitances in series is given by = + +
c c1 c 2 c 3

Charging and discharging a capacitor

Consider the circuit below

1
C
S R

Consider the switch in position 1. Initially the capacitor is uncharged, Q = 0, hence the p.d Vc across it is
zero, Vc = 0. The potential difference across the resistor R, VR is equal to the source voltage V, VR = V.
When capacitor C starts charging the charge starts increasing, the p.d Vc across the capacitor plates
increases. But the p.d across the resistor decreases and thus the current also decreases.

Let the instantaneous charge on the capacitor be Q. The current in the circuit at any time t is given by

VR V − VC
I= =
R R
But

Q
VC =
C

Therefore

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 dQ VC − Q
I= =
V −Q dT RC
I= C = VC − Q but
R RC dQ dT
=
VC − Q RC
But

Let U = VC – Q ⇒ dU = -dQ dU 1
⇒ −∫
RC ∫
= dT
U

dx
But ∫ x
= ln x

t
⇒ ln U = − + constant
RC
t
⇒ ln(VC − Q ) = − + constant
RC

at t = 0, Q = 0, hence ln (VC − 0 ) = − 0 + constant

RC
⇒ ln (VC ) = constant

t  VC − Q  t VC − Q −t
ln (VC − Q ) = − + ln(VC ) ⇒ ln =− , ⇒ = e RC
RC  VC  RC VC
Q Q
= 1 − e RC or Q = CV 1 − e RC 
−t −t −t
⇒ 1− = e RC , ⇒
VC VC  

Hence Q = Qo 1 − e RC 
−t
Let CV = Qo ⇒ maximum charge
 

Half-Life(t1/2)

1
This is the time it takes the capacitor to obtain a charge of Qo .
2

1  t1
 1 
t1

Qo = Qo 1 − e RC , ⇒ = 1 − e RC , ⇒ t 1 = RC ln 2 = 0.693RC
- 2 - 2
Q=
2   2  
   2

26
Discharging a capacitor
Now consider the switch is put in position 2. The capacitor will be discharged through resistor R. Suppose
the capacitor was charged to a p.d V so that the charge is Q = CV.

At a time t after the discharge through R has begun, the current I flowing = VR/R where VR = VC which is
the p.d across C. Now VR = VC = Q/C and I = -dQ/dT (-ve indicates Q decreases with increasing t). Hence
from

VC Q  dQ  1
I= , VC = then −  = Q
R C  dT  CR
Q dQ 1 t Q  t
⇒∫ =− ∫ dT ∴ ln  = −
QO Q RC 0  Qo  RC
−t
⇒ Q = Qo e RC

Hence Q decreases exponentially with time t.

Time Constant (T)

The time constant T of the discharge circuit is defined by CR seconds where C is in farads and R is in
Ohms. At time t = RC then Q = Qo e −1

27
Thus the time constant is defined as the time for the charge to decay to 1/e times the initial value.

⇒ T = RC

2.3.6 Energy stored by a charged capacitor

A charged capacitor is a store of electrical energy. Assume a capacitor of capacitance C charged with a
charge Q and to a potential difference V. Consider the charge is increased by a small value δQ, and then
δQ
this will cause a change in p.d by a value δV. δV =
C

If δQ is very small then p.d will almost be constant at the value V. Then the work done in displaying the
charge δQ will be δW = VδQ (since work done =energy stored =charge x p.d)

Q
But V = Q/C ∴ δW = δQ
C

The total work W, in increasing the charge from 0 to Qo is therefore given by

Qo Q 1 Qo
W =∫ dQ =
0 C 2 C2

Types of Capacitors
For a parallel plate capacitor large capacitances can be achieved if

(i) The plates are of large area

(ii) The plates are close together
(iii) A dielectric material with large permittivity is used.
Different capacitors used to achieve a desired need include paper capacitors, electrolytic capacitors and
variable air capacitors

2.3.7: Alternating Current Circuits

Many electric circuits of practical importance including nearly all large-scale electric-power distribution
systems and much electronic equipment use alternating current (a.c) in which the voltages and currents vary
with time, often in a sinusoidal manner i.e.

I = Imsinωt

V = Vmsinωt

In commercial practice, a.c is always expressed in terms of the root mean square (r.m.s) value. The r.m.s of
an alternating current is defined as that value of steady current which would dissipate heat at the same rate
in a given resistance.

Power dissipated by a d.c current was found to be given by

28
 P=I2R For a.c P= I 2r R

Average power = Average value of (I2R) = average of(I2)xR (because R is constant

Taking the average value of I over a cycle I 2r = average value of I2 called the mean square current. The
variation of I2 as seen below is symmetrical and so the mean square current is I 2m /2 where Im is the peak
current.

Note:

Im
Thus I r = = 0.707 I m similarly Vr = 0.707Vm
2

We shall now study the varying voltages and currents in relation to the circuit behaviour of inductors and
capacitors. The symbol for a.c is

AC and Resistor.

When a current I passes through a resistor R, we obtain the instantaneous voltage VR from Ohms law

VR = IR = RImsin(2πft)

29
If we write this relation in the form

VR = VRmsin(2πft) We see that VRm =RIm

And so the current and voltage are in phase 2v r = R 2I r or Vr =RIr

Thus the a.c. expression for the relationship between current and voltage hold if we use r.m.s values or if we
use peak values.

A.C. Power in resistor

Power is supplied when current flows in either direction through the resistor. The instantaneous power
supplied to the resistance is given by IVR = R I 2M sin(2πft)

I M VM I M VM
Average power P = = = IrVr = I 2r R
2 2 2

Thus r.m.s values must be used for a.c. power.

AC through a Capacitor
Consider capacitor plates being continually charged, discharged and charged the other way round by the
alternating voltage of the mains. Let a p.d V be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C and let its value
at time t be given by

V = VM sin2πft,

VM is the peak voltage and f is the frequency of the supply. The charge Q on the capacitor at time t is

Q = CV

The current I flowing in the capacitor is then given by I = rate of change of charge

dQ d(CV) dV d
= = =C = C (VM sin(2πft ) = 2πfCV M cos(2πft )
dt dt dt dt

30
where 2πfCVM = IM the peak value

The current flowing "through" the capacitor (cosine function) leads the applied p.d (a sine function) by one
quarter of a cycle.

VM VM 1 1
Consider the ratio = = =
IM 2π fCVM 2π fC ωC

1
This expression resembles V/I=R which defines resistance with replacing R. This quantity is taken
2π fC
as a measure of the opposition of a capacitor to a. c. and is called capacitive reactance Xc

1 1
That is Xc = =
2π fC ωC

AC through an Inductor
Let us suppose that the resistance of the coil is negligible. An inductor in an a.c circuit behaves like a
capacitor in that it causes a phase difference between the applied p.d and the current. In this case the
current lags behind the voltage by π/2

Consider an inductor L through which current I flows at time t where I = IMsin2πft

IM is the peak current.

An alternating current flows through the the inductor and sets up a changing magnetic flux. This induces a
dI
back e.m.f given by E = − L at some time t. L is the inductance of the coil
dT
Suppose that the value of the applied p.d at time t is V. By Kirchoff's Voltage Law, ∑ E = ∑ IR and
therefore, since R=0, The p.d V in the inductor due to the changing current is

dI d
V −L = 0 i.e., V − L (I M sin ωt ) = 0 ⇒ V − ωLI M cos ωt = 0
dT dt

31
Writing VM= ωLIM = 2πfLIM gives V = VMcos ωt = VMcos2πft

Thus V is a cosine function whereas I is a sine function and therefore there is a phase difference of p/2
radians between the current and the applied p.d. The voltage reaches its maximum value before the current
i. e. voltage leads the current.

VM 2πfLI M
= = 2π fL = ω L
IM IM

The quantity 2πfL is called the inductive reactance χL of the inductor χL = 2πfL = ωL

Note:

If ω is in radians per second and L is in henrys, then χL is in ohms

VRMS = VM and I RMS = I M

2 2
V RMS VM V
∴ = = χL ≠
I RMS IM I

2.3.8 Series Circuits

We are going to consider the network consisting of C, R and L together.

32
Vector Diagram

A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating vector (often called a phase vector or a
phasor). Suppose we have two waves

y1 =Y1sinωt, y2 = Y2 sin(ωt - φ) then it can be demonstrated as shown

Resistor and Capacitor

Suppose an alternating p.d V is applied across resistor R and capacitor C in series, as shown below. Our
reference vector will be that representing I.

(1) The p.d VR across R is always in phase with I

(2) The p.d Vc across C lags behind I by π/2

I
VC
VR
Φ

VR

VC

The vector sum of VR and Vc equals the p.d V hence

33
V 2 = VR2 + VC2
But VR = IR, and VC = Iχ C χ C = 2πfC
⇒V =I R +χ
2 2
( 2 2
C )
(
∴ V = I R 2 + χ C2 )
The quantity (R 2
)
+ χ C2 = Ζ, where Ζ is called the impendance of the circuit and
measures its opposition to a.c.
V
Ζ=
I
= (R 2
+ χ C2 )
VC χ C
Phase angle φ is given by tanφ = =
VR R

(b) Resistor and Inductor

The analysis is similar but in this case the p.d VL across L leads on the current I and the p.d VR across R is
again in phase with I.

VL

φ
I V

34
The p.d V equals the vector sum of VL and VR

1
V 2 = VR2 + VL2 , But VR = IR, and VL = Iχ LC , χ L =
2πfL
( )
⇒ V 2 = I 2 R 2 + χ L2 , ∴ V = I R 2 + χ L2 ( )
The quantity (R 2
+χ 2
L ) = Ζ, where Ζ is called the impendance of the circuit and measures its opposition to a.c.
V VL χ L
Ζ=
I
= (R 2
+ χ L2 ) Phase angle φ is given by tanφ =
VR
=
R

(c) Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor in Series

An R-C-L circuit is shown below

Since VL leads the current I by 900 and Vc lags I by 900 then VL and Vc are 1800 (half-cycle) out of phase,
i.e. antiphase. If VL is greater than Vc, then the resultant is VL - VC

35
The p.d V is given by
2
(
V 2 = VR + VL − VC
2
) But V =IR, V =Iχ and V =Iχ
R L L C C hence

V2 = I2[R2+(χL+χC)2] [
∴ V = I R 2 + (χ L − χ C )2 ]
V
= R 2 + (χ L − χ C )
2
The impedance Z is given by Z=
I

VL − VC χ L − χ C χ − χC
The phase angle φ is given by tan φ = = , ∴ tan φ = L
VR R R

Electrical Resonance in the L-C-R Series Circuit

The expression just derived for the impedance of an R-C-L circuit show that Z varies with the frequency f of
the applied p.d, since both χL and χC depend on f.

- χLα f and the variation of χL with frequency is a straight line passing through the origin.

- χCα 1/f and the variation of χC with frequency is a curve approaching through the two axes.

- The resistance R is independent of frequency and thus is represented by a straight line.

This is summarised on the diagram shown below

At a certain frequency, χL= χC. This frequency is called the resonant frequency (fo) and Z is a minimum.
Then

1 1
χC = χ L ⇒ = 2πf o L, ∴ f o =
2πf o C 2π LC

36
 χ L − χC
The phase angle φ is given by tan φ = =0
R

Implying that the applied p.d V and the current are in phase.

How to measure fo

The circuit shown above is used to measure either L or C. As the frequency increases the milliameter
reading rises to a maximum and then falls. When various values of I and f are collected the graph of I vs. f
is drawn, the peak is the resonance frequency.

Activity

Read about L-R-C circuits in parallel

37
Self Test Questions

1. In the circuit below, C1 = 2µF, C2 = C3 = 0.5µF and V = 6V. For each capacitor, calculate
(a) the charge on it
(b) the p.d across it.
2. A 10µF capacitor is charged from a 30V supply and then connected across an uncharged 50µF
capacitor. Calculate the
(a) the final p.d across the combination

(b) the initial and final energies.

3. (a) A capacitor of capacitance 10µF is fully charged from a 20V d.c supply.
(i) Calculate the charge stored by the capacitor.
(ii) Calculate the energy delivered by the 20V supply.
(iii) Calculate the energy stored by the capacitor.
(iv) Account for the difference between the answers for (ii) and (iii).
(b) The 10µF capacitor in part (a) above was charged from the supply through a resistor

of resistance 2.0KΩ.

(i) Calculate the time constant for this circuit

(ii) When the capacitor was charged from zero charge, how long did it take for V, the potential
difference across the capacitor to reach 99% of its final value?
4. A parallel plate capacitor is completely filled with two dielectrics of equal volume as shown below.
If the dielectric constants are K1 and K2 show that the capacitance is
K + K2
C = C0 1 Where Co is the value when there is vacuum between the plates.
2

38
5. Consider the diagram below. If all capacitances are in µF
(i) Find the equivalent capacitance between a and b
(ii) Find the charge on each capacitor nearest a and b if Vab = 900V
(iii) Find Veff if Vab = 900V

Self Test Questions

1. A sinusoidal voltage of frequency f=60Hz and peak value 150V is applied to a series R-L circuit where
R=20Ω and L=40mH.

(a) Compute the period T, ω, χL, Z and φ.

(b) Compute the amplitudes I, VR, VL and the instantaneous values i, VR and VL at t=T/6

(c) Compute the IRMS, VRMS and the average power into the circuit.

2. A 1000µF capacitor is joined in series with a 2.5V, 0.3A lamp and a 50Hz supply. Calculate

(a) the p.d of the supply to light the lamp

(b) the p.ds across the capacitor and the resistor respectively.

3. A 2.0H inductor of resistance 80Ω is connected in series with a 420Ω resistor and a 240V, 50Hz supply.
Find (a) the current in the circuit and

(b) the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current.
4. A circuit consists of an inductor of 200µH and resistance 10Ω in series with a variable capacitor and a
1.0V, 1MHz supply. Calculate (a) the capacitance to give resonance

(b) the p.d's across the inductor and the capacitor at resonance.

5. A capacitor from a 50V DC supply is discharged across a charge-measuring instrument and found to
have carried a charge of 10µC. What was the capacitance of the capacitor and how much energy was
stored in it?
6. (a) Explain the meaning of the terms capacitance, relative permittivity and time constant.

39
 (b) Two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series and then charged with a battery. The battery is
disconnected and C1 and C2, still in series, are discharged through an 80KΩ resistor. The time
constant for the discharge is found to be 4.8 seconds. Calculate the capacitance of C1 and C2 in series
and the capacitance of C1 if C2 has a capacitance of 100µF.

SCORE BOARD

Score Remark Tick

16-20 Very Good

12-15 Good

10-12 Satisfactory

0-9 Reread the topic

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Now that you have learnt the topic current electricity, the learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick in
the column that best reflects your understanding of the topic:

No. Learning outcome Yes No

1 I can now state ohms law

2 I can now analyze an electrical circuit using kirchoff’s law

3 I can now determine the reactance and impedance of a circuit

4 I can now discuss the charging and discharging process of a

capacitor

If you have put a tick at No, go back and study the respective section of the topic, before proceeding. If
you ticked yes in all the rows, you are ready for the next unit.

Congratulations you are now ready to do topic 40

three.
TOPIC 3: BASIC ELECTRONICS AND SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous topic you learned about direct and alternating current electricity, where you
analyzed electrical circuits, in this topic you will study the electronic components and how
they are applied in electrical circuits, you will also be introduced to basic semiconductor
theory and the working of a cathode ray oscilloscope

3.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:

• Define a semiconductor
• Describe the rectification process using diodes
• Explain transistor characteristics
• Explain the working of a cathode ray oscilloscope

3.3 JUNCTION DIODES, TRANSISTORS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

3.3.1 Semiconductor - this is a class of solids whose electrical conductivity lies between a conductor and
an insulator e.g. silicon and germanium (generally group IV elements). At 0 K all its valence electrons are
firmly bound to the nucleus; it is an insulator. At room temperature the covalent bond is broken hence
creating charge carriers; (thermal energy overcomes the energy binding the electrons to the nucleus); it
becomes a conductor.

Therefore a semiconductor is a solid which is a conductor at room temperature and an insulator at 0K.

41
P and N Semiconductors

When a semiconductor has charge carriers, which are thermally generated, it is called a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor. Mostly these charge carriers are relatively few in number. To improve the conductivity of
silicon, impurities are introduced. The process of introducing an impurity is called doping. The impurities
are atoms from elements in group III or V. This type of semiconductor is called impure or extrinsic
semiconductor.

p-type semiconductors

When silicon is doped with atoms from group III,e.g. Boron. The boron atom has less electrons in its outer
shell and so in bonding with silicon there is a deficiency or missing

electron in the matrix. This missing electron is called a hole. The hole is mobile because it can be filled by
an electron from a neighbouring atom and move about as a positive charge carrier. Such an tom as boron in
silicon which causes a deficiency is called an acceptor atom. If a semiconductor has a large number of
acceptor atoms then it has more holes than electrons and it is said to be p-type. The semiconductor has
excess holes and hence is positively charged.

n-type semiconductor

When silicon is doped with atoms from group V e.g Arsenic, the semiconductor has excess electrons as
charge carriers, hence negatively charged.

The Arsenic atom has more electrons in its outer shell and so in bonding with silicon there is an extra
electron in the matrix. Such an atom as Arsenic in silicon which provides an extra electron is called a donor
atom. If a semiconductor has a large number of donor atoms then it has more electrons than holes and it is
said to be n-type. The semiconductor has excess of electrons and hence is negatively charged. Thus in n-
type the majority carriers are electrons.

42
3.3.2 P-N Junction Diodes

A diode is an electrical element that allows current to flow only in one direction. When a p-type
semiconductor is joined to an n-type semiconductor, the electrons from the n-type move to the p-type
semiconductor side and recombine with the holes. The holes disappear and excessive negative charge
appears on this side.

Similarly, an excessive positive charge builds up in the n-semiconductor. Because of the negative charges
on one side and the positive charges on the other the p.d is formed which opposes further flow of charge,
hence forming a barrier or junction and hence forcing positive and negative polarity.

Junction Diode connected to a battery

When the p-n junction diode is connected as shown, the holes cross over to the n-type and electrons cross
over to the p-type, then appreciable current flows through the circuit, hence the diode is forward biased.
When the polarities of the battery are reversed, a very small current flows in the circuit, hence the diode is
reverse biased. This time only the minority (carriers which were thermally generated) negative charges flow
from p to n, and minority positive charges flow from n to p.

The characteristics of the diode can be summarised on the graph below.

43
3.3.3 Rectification

Rectification is the process to convert a.c voltage to d.c voltage. Diodes are mostly used.

Half-wave rectification

During the positive half cycle the diode D is forward biased, so there is a voltage drop across R. But during
the negative half cycle the diode D is reverse biased, there is no voltage drop across R.

Full-wave rectification

Rectification by centre-tapped secondary

During the positive half-cycle D1 is forward biased and during the negative half-cycle the

Diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The voltage output is as shown in diagram (ii). The
capacitor C helps to filter out the a.c voltage so that we have only the steady-state d.c as shown in the
diagram

44
Bridge Circuit

This is a full wave rectification with diodes networked in a bridge form.

On the positive half-cycle D1 and D3 are forward biased while D2 and D4 are reverse biased. The current
flows through R. During the negative half-cycle D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse
biased. Still current flows through R. Capacitor C are used for filtering the a.c voltage so that we only
remain with steady-state d.c voltage.

3.4 TRANSISTORS

A transistor is a single crystal of semiconducting material doped in such a way that a piece of p-type
material is fixed between two pieces of n-type material, or such that a piece of n-type material is fixed
between two pieces of p-type material. These are called n-p-n or p-n-p transistors respectively. They can
function as an amplifier, switch or oscillator.

45
Foward and Reverse-bias

- The Emitter is heavily doped and it emits and ejects electrons across the base.

- The Base is lightly doped and it passes electrons to the collector.

- The Collector collects electrons from the base.

The current in an n-p-n transistor is due mainly to electrons flowing from the emitter to the collector. The
base is much thinner than the emitter and the collector. When a transistor is in use the base-emitter junction
is normally forward-biased and the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. For n-p-n the base must be
positive with respect to the emitter and the collector must be positive with respect to the base.

When the VEB is greater than the barrier potential, the emitter electrons enter into the base. Because of the
small base and high field in the collector, most of the electrons will cross over the collector hence very few
will flow through the base. Hence the base current will be small.

n-p-n transistors are most widely used. This is because they can be used for higher frequencies than the p-
n-p types as the main charge carriers are electrons which have greater mobility than holes.

The transistor above can be compared to two diodes, connected back to back.

For n-p-n

46
For p-n-p

Note:

The voltage to overcome the barrier voltage in the Base-Emitter junction is given as
VBE = 0.6V for silicon and VBE = 0.2V for Germanium

Transistor Connections

Transistors can be connected into circuits in three different ways:

(i) Common emitter connection

(ii) Common base connection

47
(iii) Common collector connection

The common emitter connection is the most widely used and is the only one that we shall consider.

Transistor in active mode

From the diagram and Kirchoff's voltage law,

Ie = Ib + Ic (i)

Divide the above equation by Ic

I e Ib
= +1 (ii)
Ic Ic

The relationship between Ib and Ic is called current gain βd.c . This is also the static value of the forwarded
current transfer ratio hfE.

Ic
i.e. h fE = β d .c = (iii).
Ib

The ratio of Ic to Ie is given by

Ic
α d .c = (iv).
Ie

48
Usually it is a unity because most electrons flow across the base to the collector. Substituting (iii) and (iv)
in (ii) we get

1 1 β dc
= + 1, ∴ α dc =
α dc β dc 1 + β dc

Transistor Characteristics: Common emitter circuit

(a) Input Characteristics

VCE is kept constant and the base-emitter voltage VBE is measured at various values of base current Ib. A
typical graph for silicon is shown below:

Ib is negligibly small until Vbe exceeds about 0.6V and thereafter small changes in Vbe cause large changes
∆Vbe
in Ib. The input resistance is ri =
Ib

(b) Output (collector) Characteristics

Ib is kept at a low value, say 10µA and Ic is measured as VCE is increased in stages by varying RC. This is
repeated for various values of Ib to give a family of curves as shown below.

49
Two of the most important and basic uses of a transistor is as a switch or as an amplifier. As a switch, the
transistor operates before saturation point. It changes over rapidly from the "off" state in which IC = 0 (cut-
off) to the "on" state in which IC is maximum (saturation).

As an amplifier, it operates after the saturation where IC varies linearly with VCE for a given Ib. Output
∆VCE
resistance ro = ⇒ very large (≈10KΩ to 50KΩ).
∆I C

Typical transistor circuit

C1 - isolates the d.c component in the input signal of the circuit.

C2 - prevents undesirable feedback of the amplified signal to the base-emitter circuit.

C3 - Isolates the d.c component in the output signal.

RL - produces the output VO

RB - provides the necessary base-bias.

50
Example

Let RB=1MΩ, VBB=30V, VCC=30V, RE=10KΩ, RC=5KΩ and β=100. Calculate Ie, Ic, Ib, VC, VE and VCE.

Soln

VBB=IBRB+VBE+IERE But IC/Ib=β and IE≈IC. ∴β = IE/Ib.

IE R 
VBB = RB + VBE + I E RE = I E  B + RE  + VBE
β  β 
∴ V − VBE 30 − 0.6
I E = BB = = 1.5mA
RB 1 × 106
+ RE + 10 × 10 3
β 102

VCC = VC + I C RL
∴VC = VCC − I C R L = 30 − 1.5 × 10 −3 × 5 × 10 3 = 30 − 7.5 = 22.5V
VC = VCE + VE , but VE = I E RE ,
IC 1.5 × 10 3
∴VCE = VC − VE = 22.5 − 15 = 7.5V , I B = = = 15µA
β 10 2.

3.5: CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

A CRO is an instrument for plotting one varying physical quantity - p.d, sound, and pressure, heart beat -
against current, displacement or time. The following are the main parts of the CRO

(a) Electron gun

The gun comprises an indirectly heated cathode C, a grid G, and the two anodes A1 and A2. G has a
negative voltage with respect to C, and controls the number of electrons reaching A from C. The brightness
of the screen S, is controlled by controlling the voltage on G; i.e. if the voltage is made less negative, then
the brightness increases. The anodes have positive potential relative to C. They accelerate the electrons to
a high speed down the tube (A2=1000V, A1=200 to 300V and G is between -50V to zero).

(b) Deflecting system

The beam from A2 passes first between a pair of Y-plates and X-plates, which deflect the beam vertically
and horizontally respectively.

51
(c) Fluorescent Screen

The screen S is coated with a phosphor such as zinc sulphide, which produces light or fluorescence when
struck with fast moving electrons.

(d) Time base

When the voltage is applied to the Y-plates, the electron beam is deflected to the vertical. To trace the
wave-form of the voltage applied to the Y-plates, the X-plates are used to provide the time-axis.

Uses of the CRO

1. Measures a.c and d.c voltages

2. Measures frequencies

3. Measures phase differences

4. Measures small time differences.

Self Test Question

1. The diagram below shows a possible voltage amplifier.

52
 Given that for the transistor while in operation VCC=10V, VCE=0.5VCC, VBE=0.5V, IC=3mA, the
current gain β=200. Calculate R1, Ib and R2.

2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic conduction in semiconductors. Explain the terms donor
impurity and acceptor impurity. Explain the effect of an increase of temperature on intrinsic
conduction. How does this differ from the effect of an increase in temperature on a metallic
conductor?

3. Give an account of the mechanism of the flow of electric current in the n-type and p-type
semiconductors. Explain the process by which a current is carried by the doped material. Describe
the structure of a solid-state diode. Draw a circuit diagram showing a reverse-biased diode and
explain why very little current will flow.

Self Test Questions

1. Two signals of identical voltage, amplitude and frequency, but different phase are fed to a cathode ray
oscilloscope, one to the X-plates and one to the Y-plates. Sketch and briefly explain what form of trace
you would get if the phase difference was
(i) zero
(ii) 900
(iii) 1800
2. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a cathode ray tube showing to which of the electrodes the following
controls would be connected: brilliance, focus, X and Y shifts, time base.

(b) Explain how you would use an oscilloscope to measure an alternating p.d of the order of 10V peak-
to-peak.

53
SCORE BOARD

Score Remark Tick

16-20 Very Good

12-15 Good

10-12 Satisfactory

0-9 Reread the topic

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Now that you have learnt the topic basic electronics and semiconductor theory, the learning outcomes are
listed below. Put a tick in the column that best reflects your understanding of the topic:

No. Learning outcome Yes No

1 I can now discuss the semiconductor doping process

2 I can now describe the rectification process

3 I can now explain transistor characteristics

4 I can now discuss the operation of a CRO

If you have put a tick at No, go back and study the respective section of the topic, before proceeding. If you
ticked yes in all the rows, you are ready for the next unit.

Congratulations you are now ready to do topic four.

54
TOPIC 4: OPTICS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this topic you will learn about mirrors and lenses, their applications in modern instruments
and the properties of light

4.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:

• State the mirror formula
• Describe the defects of spherical lenses
• Explain the working of optical instruments
• Explain properties of light

4.3.1 Review of mirrors and lenses

A ray of light is the direction along which the light energy travels. A collection of rays is called a beam of
light.

(a) The laws of reflection

(i) the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

(ii) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

55
(b) Curved mirrors (spherical mirrors)

There are two types of curved mirrors, called the concave and convex mirrors, as illustrated below.

where P is the pole of the mirror, C is the centre of curvature, AB is the aperture of the mirror and PC is the
principal axis

For a convex mirror, when a beam of parallel rays is incident on it, the reflected rays form a divergent beam
which appears to come from a point F behind the mirror. It forms a virtual image.

For a concave mirror, when a beam of parallel rays is incident on it, the reflected rays converge to a point F
on the principal axis. It forms a real image.

(c) Relationship between focal length f and radius of curvature

56
Consider a ray AM, parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror of small aperture, is reflected through
the principal focus F. If C is the centre of curvature, then CM is the normal to the mirror at M. By the law
of reflection

∠ AMC = ∠ CMF = θ

∠ AMC = ∠ MCF (alternating angles)

∴ ∠ MC F= ∠ CMF

∆ FCM is thus isosceles and FC=FM. If M is very close to P then

FM = FP, ⇒ FC = FP or FP = 1/2 CP

But FP = f, CP = r ∴ f = 1/2 r

(d) Mirror formula

The diagram above shows a ray OM from a point object O on the principal axis reflected at M so that the
angle θ, made by the incident and reflected rays with the normal CM, are equal. Let anglesα, β and γ be as
shown. In

∆ CMO, β = α + θ θ=β-α (i)

∆ CMI γ = β + θ θ=γ+β (ii)

⇒ β - α = γ + β, 2β = α + γ (iii)

If the mirror is of small aperture, then M will be close to P and α, β and γ are small.

⇒tan α = α, tan β= β, tan γ = γ

57
 MP MP MP
α= , β = ,γ=
OP CP IP
Substituting in (iii) above

MP MP MP 2 1 1
2 = + , = +
CP OP IP CP OP IP

CP-radius of curvature, r, OP-object distance, u, IP-image distance,v

2 1 1 r 1 2
= + but f = ⇒=
r u v 2 f r
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + Real Image = − virtual image
f u v f u v

(e) Magnification M

The lateral or linear magnification M, produced by a mirror is defined as

Length of the image

M= .
Length of the object
To find the magnification graphically, three types of rays are very important as shown in the diagram.

58
 h ' Image distance v
m= = =
h object distance u
4.4 Thin Lenses

A lens is an object, usually made of glass, bounded by one or two spherical surfaces. Types of lenses are

The following diagrams show the rays falling on the convex and concave lenses.

The lens formula

59
u - Object distance

v - Image distance

f - Focal length

1 1 1
= +
f v u

To distinguish real and virtual images and converging and diverging lenses, we employ the following sign
convention:

(i) f is positive for converging lens

f is negative for diverging lens

(ii) u and v are positive for converging lens

u and v are negative for diverging lens

The relationship between the focal length of thin lens, the radii of curvature of its surfaces, r1 and r2, and the
refractive index of the lens material n, is given by

1 1 1
= (n - 1) + 
f  r1 r2 

Example

An object is placed 20cm from (a) a converging lens, (b) a diverging lens, of focal length 15cm. Calculate
the image position and magnification in each case.

60
Solution.

(a) Converging

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ + = , v = + 60cm
f v u v 20 15
v 60
m= = =3
u 20
The image is real, and is three times as high as the object.

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ + =- , v = − 8.6cm
f v u v 20 15
60
( )
v 3
m= = 7 =
u 20 7
(b) Diverging

The image is virtual and three-sevenths as high as the object.

1 1 1
= + multiply by v
f v u
v v v v
1 + = , but = m ⇒ m = - 1
u f u f

Relationship between m and f

Power of a lens

The shorter the focal length of a lens, the more it converges or diverges light. The power F of a lens is

1
Power , F =
f
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length f in metres.

61
Defects of Lenses

Our previous discussion of formation of images by spherical mirrors and lenses has been confined to
paraxial rays, i.e., rays close to the axis and making very small angles with it. However, when rays are non-
paraxial and objects are extended and mirrors and lenses are of large aperture, the image can differ in shape,
sharpness and colour from the object. This is called image defect or aberrations.

(a) Spherical aberration

The paraxial rays and non-paraxial which fall on the lens are not brought to a common focal point. The
rays close to the principal axis are focused on one point and the rays outward are focused on a different
focal point.

- The rays from the object which is close to the principal axis are focused at O'

- Rays from object at the outer parts of the lens are focused at O

- The image is found between O and O' in a circle form. The resultant image is not clear.

Correction

Use an opaque disc having a hole in it so that light only incident at the middle to cut off marginal rays, but
this has the disadvantage of the image being less bright.

(b) Chromatic aberration

62
This defect is in the colouring of the image. The white light is dispersed into different colours and brought
to different focal points as shown below for red and blue lights. This is because of dispersion. A single

lens has slightly different focal lengths for various colours which make up white light.

Correction

Can be corrected by placing diverging lens beside the convex lens. This causes the deviations produced to
be in the opposite directions. They are arranged in such a way that it is possible for the dispersion to cancel
out.

4.3.2 Optical Instruments

Visual angle and angular magnification

The near point - The position at which an object is seen most clearly is called the near point. This distance
is called the least distance of distinct vision (D ≈ 25cm) from the eye. At the near point, the angle
subtended at the unaided eye by the object is given as α

63
 If α is small then tanα = α

Magnifying glass (Simple microscope)

When a converging lens is is caused to produce a virtual, upright and enlarged image it is being used as a

β
M=
α
magnifying glass. Generally, the magnifying power (angular magnification)

β - the angle subtended at the eye by the image

α - the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object.

Image at near point

β h
With an aid M = , where β = i , (this assumes that β is a small angle)
α D

hi
h hi
Without an aid, α = 0 M = D = =m (m is lateral magnification)
D h0 h0
D
64
 h0
h h D
Different method for M β= 0, α= 0 M = u =
u D h0 u
D

ACTIVITY

D
Show that M = 1 +
f

Image at infinity

h0
β D
M = , M = f =
α h0 f
D

65
Compound Microscope

The microscope is used to obtain greater magnifying power. It consists of two separated converging lenses
of short focal lengths. L1 is near to the object, and it is called the objective. It forms a real magnified
inverted image I1 of an object O placed just outside its principal focus Fo. I1 is just inside the principal focus
Fe of the second lens L2 called the eyepiece, which acts as a magnifying glass and produces a magnified
virtual image I2 of I1.

Magnifying power

h2 h β h2 h 2 h1
β= , α = , M= = , M= x
D D α h h1 h

h2
≡ Linear magnification Me produced by the eyepiece
h1

h1
≡ Linear magnification Mo due to the objective
h

V  D 
M = Me x Mo , Mo =  1 −1 , Me =  −1
 fo   fe 

V D 
Thus M =  1 −1  −1 And so M is large when fo and fe are small
 fo   fe 

66
Astronomical Telescope

It consists of two converging lenses: one is an objective of long focal length and the other an eyepiece of
short focal length fe. The objective L1 forms a real diminished inverted image I1 of an infinity object at its
principal focus Fo The eyepiece L2 acts like a magnifying glass and forms a magnified virtual image of I.
At normal adjustment final image is at infinity, therefore I1 must be at the principal focus Fe of L2, hence Fe
and Fo coincide.

Magnifying power
h1
h1 h β f f
β = , α = 1 M= = h e = o
fe fo α 1
fo fe
This expression for M is true only for normal adjustment: the separation between objective and eyepiece
then fe+fo.

67
Telescope with final image at near point

h2
h1 h β D fo h2
α = , β = 2 M= = h1
= x
fo D α fo D h1

h2 V D fo  D 
But = m = -1 = -1 Thus M =  − 1
h1 fe fe D  f e 

5.3 Interference of light

Interference occurs whenever two waves come together. The following are the two conditions which need
to be fulfilled if interference is to be observed.

(i) The source must be coherent, i.e. there must be a constant phase difference between them and
therefore they must have the same frequency.
(ii) The waves that are interfering must have approximately the same amplitude.
Constructive interference: Occurs when we have two waves superposed at the same phase.

Destructive interference: Occurs when the two waves are out of phase.

68
Young's Double-Slit Experiment

The first demonstration of optical interference was done by Thomas Young in 1801. The diagram was as
shown below.

S, S1 and S2 are narrow slits which are parallel to each other. S diffracts the light that falls on it, and so
illuminates both S1 and S2. Diffraction also occurs at S1 and S2 and interference occurs in the region where

the light from S1 overlaps that from S2.

A series of alternating bright and dark bands (interference fringes), which are equally spaced and parallel to
the slits, can be observed on a screen placed anywhere in the region of overlap.

69
Calculation of fringe separation

Suppose P is the position of the mth bright fringe. Then BP - AP =m

Let O be the center of the fringe system and OP = Xm. Let MO be the perpendicular bisector of AB. If a
length PN=PA then BN=BP-AP=m. AN is the perpendicular bisector of BP.

<PMO = <BAN = θ

BN mλ PO X
From triangle BAN, sinθ = = , From triangle PMO, tanθ = = m
AB a MO D

From small θ , tanθ ≈ θ ≅ sinθ, Thus tanθ = sinθ

Xm mλ mλ D
= or Xm =
D a a

If we have mth and (m-1)th fringes then the separation y between successive fringes

λD ay
y = Xm - Xm-1, y= , Therefore λ =
a D

Interference on thin films

The brilliant colours that are sometimes seen when light is reflected from a soap bubble or a thin layer of
floating oil on water are produced by the interference effects between two light waves reflected at opposite
surfaces of the thin film of soap solution or oil.

The two reflected rays bc and ef interfere either constructively or destructively depending on their phase
relationship. Since white light has different colours and hence different wavelengths, the colours we see are
constructively interfered and those we do not see are destructively interfered.

70
Interference in thin wedge film

An air wedge is a wedge shaped film of air such as could be produced by placing the edge of a razor blade
or a piece of thin foil between two microscope slides at one end only. There is a geometrical (optical) path
difference of 2d between the waves from X and those from Y. The waves reflected at Y are being reflected
λ
at a more dense medium and therefore undergo a phase change of , which is equivalent to optical path
2
difference of **. Waves reflected at X suffer no such phase changes.

2d = nλ , n = 0,1,2,3,4, - - -

which represents dark fringes

2d = (n-½)l , n = 1, 2, 3, 4, - - -

which represents bright fringes

d h hl
tanθ = = thus d =
l L L

Newton's rings

Newton discovered an example of interference which is known as Newton's rings.

71
A lens L is placed on a sheet of plane glass HT having a lower surface of very large radius of curvature. G
reflects monochromatic light from S to the lens L, and when light is reflected from points P and A it is
observed through a microscope M. This forms dark and bright rings with the dark ring at the centre. If t is
the distance between P and A then

2t = nλ for dark fringes

2t = (n+½)λ for bright fringes

The observed pattern is shown below

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading of light around the edges of barriers.

The plane waves passing through an opening spreads so long as the size of the aperture is close to the
wavelength of the waves.

There are two types of diffraction patterns:

(i) Fresnel diffraction (ii) Fraunhoffer diffraction

(i) Fresnel diffraction

72
Diffracted light is focused to the screen without using the lens. The phenomenon is called Fresnel
diffraction.

(ii) Fraunhoffer diffraction

The diffraction pattern appears on a screen in the second focal plane of the lens. The phenomenon is called
Fraunhoffer diffraction.

Diffraction pattern of a single slit

73
The minima

For destructive interference to occur at D then the path difference is **

λ λ a λ
AN = ACsinθ = sinθ = a sinθ =λ
2 2 2 2

for n fringes then

nλ
sinθ = , this is the angular position of the minimum
a

nλ
When a>>λ then sinθ ≈ θ, Therefore θ=
a

Diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is an arrangement which consists of a large number of closely spaced parallel lines
ruled on glass or polished metal. Each space acts like a very narrow slit and diffracts the incident light. It is
used to produce optical spectra and for measuring wavelengths.

74
There are two types of grating:

(a) Transmission grating: glass is used; the lines scatter the incident light and are more or less opaque
while the spaces between them transmit light and act like slits.
(b) Reflection gratings: the lines ruled on metal are again opaque, but the unruled parts reflect regularly.

This has the advantage that radiations absorbed by reflection grating material can be studied and if it is

ruled on a concave spherical surface it focuses the radiations as well as diffracting it and no lenses are
needed.

AB is the grating element. Path difference for a given maximum is given by λ = asinθ

Then for m order of spectra asinθ =mλ

POLARIZATION

(a) The phenomena of polarization

There are two types of wave motion: longitudinal and transverse. These two types of waves may be
distinguished in that transverse waves can be polarized while longitudinal waves cannot be polarized. If all
the vibrations of a transverse wave are in a single plane which contains the directions of propagation of the

75
wave, the wave is said to be plane-polarized (or linearly polarized).

Wave A is plane-polarized to the XY-plane and wave B is plane-polarized in the XZ-plane.

(b) Polarization and light waves

Light is an electromagnetic wave in which the electric and magnetic fields are oscillating with the same
frequency but tangential to each other. The direction of oscillation of the E and B are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. Light is a transverse wave and that is why it can be polarised in different ways.

The direction of propagation is given by ExB. When light interacts with matter, effects of the electric field
usually dominate those of the magnetic field. For example, it can be shown by experiment that it is the
electric component of light which affects photographic film and which produces fluorescence. Hence the
plane which contains the electric field is regarded as the plane of polarization. Waves may be polarized in
plane, circular or elliptical.

76
(c) Measure of polarization

A polarizer is an optical device that selectively transmits light having its plane of polarization parallel to
that of the polarizer transmission axis, but blocks the light with its plane of polarization tangential to the
transmission axis.

A second polarizer called analyser is used to determine the intensity of polarized light which is transmitted
by a polariser. The azimuth angle θ is a measure of the orientation of the polariser's transmission axis
relative to the analyser's transmission axis. An analyser transmits only the component of the linear light
parallel to its transmission axis.

(d) Percentage of polarization

Consider the photocell connected to the current reading meter. If the reading is maximum then the
polarised light is parallel to the transmission axis of the polariser, and the reading is minimum when
polarised light is tangential to the transmission axis. Let IH be the current at the parallel axis and IT be the
current at the tangential axis.

IH - IT
The percentage of polarisation =
IH + IT

Consider an analyser is inserted between the polariser and the photocell having a vertical transmission axis,
as shown above. Let the transmission axis of the polariser make an angle θ with the vertical. The linear
light transmitted by the polariser can be resolved to two components (Eocos θ and Eosin θ ), one parallel
(Eocos θ and another one tangential (Eosin θ ) to the transmission direction of the analyser.

77
Evidently only the parallel component of amplitude Eocos θ will be transmitted by the analyser. Given that
intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude

Amplitude Io ∝ E o2 , But I ∝ (Eocosθ)2, ∝ E o2 cos2θ

Therefore I = Io cos2θ

If θ =0o, this means that the axes of transmission of the analyser and the polariser are parallel, then I =
maximum.

If θ =90o, then I = 0 (minimum).

Methods of polarization

(i) Reflection

If an unpolarised beam of light is incident on a glass surface at an angle of about 57o, the light that is
reflected from the surface is plane polarised. This can be checked by looking through as piece of polaroid.
If the polaroid is slowly rotated about the line of vision, the intensity of the light reaching the eye varies
from some maximum value to zero.

78
(ii) Double refraction

If an unpolarised light is incident on a crystal of Calcite, it is split into two rays. These are known as the
ordinary ray (O-ray) and extra-ordinary ray (E-ray). Each ray is plane polarised in a direction which is
tangential to that of the other. If an object is viewed through a crystal of Calcite, two images are seen. The
phenomenon is called double refraction.

Sunglasses

The reflected light from a road can be reduced by using Polaroid sunglasses i.e. sunglasses which contain
suitably oriented polariser

Scattering

If a beam of unpolarised light passes through a region, which contains particles (e.g. smoke particles) the
intensity of the straight through beam is reduced as a result of scattering produced by the particles. The
light that passes straight through is unpolarised but the rest is plane polarised to an extend which depends on
the angle of scattering. Light scattered at 90o to the direction of incidence is completely plane polarised.

Self Test Questions

1. (a) Define the following

(i) Principal axis
(ii) Principal focus
(iii) The near point
(iv) Focal length
(v) Linear magnification
(b) State the laws of reflection and refraction
(c) State briefly the position of the image when the object is placed in front of (1) Converging lens
(2) Diverging lens
(i) At infinity
(ii) At the centre of curvature
(iii) Between the centre of curvature and the focal point
(iv) Between the pole and the focal point

79
 (v) At the focal point
(d) A converging lens has a focal length of 12.0cm. Calculate the power of the lens
(e) An object is placed 10.0cm from a concave mirror and a real image of magnification 2 is formed.
Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
2. (a) Explain why light can be polarised but sound cannot. Describe a method by which a plane
polarised of light can be distinguished from a partially plane polarised beam
(b) Describe two distinctly different methods of producing plane polarised light

3. The phenomenon of Fraunhoffer diffraction may be demonstrated by illuminating a wide slit by a

parallel beam of monochromatic light and focusing the light that passes through the slit on a white
screen. A diffraction pattern may then be observed on the screen.
(i) Sketch the intensity variation in the diffraction pattern as a function of distance
across the screen.
(ii) What would happen to the intensity variation if the width of the slit were halved

SCORE BOARD

Score Remark Tick

16-20 Very Good

12-15 Good

10-12 Satisfactory

0-9 Reread the topic

80
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Now that you have learnt the topic optics, the learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick in the column
that best reflects your understanding of the topic:

No. Learning outcome Yes No

1 I can now derive the mirror formula

2 I can now explain the defects of spherical lenses

3 I can explain the working of optical instruments

4 I can now explain the properties of light

If you have put a tick at No, go back and study the respective section of the topic, before proceeding. If you
ticked yes in all the rows, you are ready for the next topic.

Congratulations you are now ready to do topic five.

81
TOPIC 5: MODERN PHYSICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In the topic optics you learned about light and the devices that utilize light, in this topic you
are going to learn about particulate nature of light the atom and properties related to atomic
interactions.

5.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• State Bohr’s postulates about a hydrogen atom
• Describe the transition spectra of a hydrogen atom
• Describe the production of x-rays
• Define radioactivity
• Derive the decay law
• Discuss nuclear Fusion, Fission and their applications

5.3 Quantisation of Energy; Energy Levels: Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

An atom has energy levels which are separate from each other. The energy of the atom is the total energy of
its electrons which occupy the allowed levels.

82
The angular momentum of the electrons are whole number multiples of h where h is Planck's constant,
2π
i.e., the angular momentum does not have a continuous range of values - it is quantized. This leads to
Bohr's three postulates of the hydrogen atom:

Postulate 1

Electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain "allowed orbits" and while in these orbits they do
not emit radiations. Total energy E of the system is given by

me 4
E = Ek + E p = − 2
, (n = 1,2,3…….)
8ε o n 2 h 2

Where m = mass of the electron, e = charge on electron, r = radius of orbit.

This nullifies the idea (by Rutherford, senior scientist to Bohr, Geiger and Marsden), that the electrons
should continuously emit radiation, for if they were to do so, they would lose energy continuously and
would need to have a continuous range of energies available to them. The allowed energy levels are often
referred to as stationary states since an electron can remain in a given state indefinitely without radiating
any energy. The energy is always negative because work has to be done to remove the electron to infinity
where it is considered to have zero energy, i.e., the electron is bound to the atom.

Postulate 2

For circular motion, the allowed orbits are determined by the quantum condition that the angular
momentum is nћ where ћ = h/2π; h is Planck's constant and n can take positive integral values.

Postulate 3

Energy changes can only occur from one energy level to another and not between levels. The energy
change E2 - E1 = hf = hc/λ where f is the frequency of the radiation emitted by the energy change from a
high (E2) to a lower (E1) value. This change produces emission spectra. At high temperature, hydrogen

83
produces ultraviolet, visible and infrared emission spectra.

me 4
En = − 2 2 2
8ε o n h

E1 E 1 - 13.6
E1 =-13.6eV, En = Thus E2 = = = 3.4 eV
n2 22 4

Energy levels and transition for atomic hydrogen

me 4 1
En = − 2 2 2
8ε o h n

The ground state minimum energy E corresponds to n=1 if En is the energy value of a higher level
corresponding to n=n1 then

me 4 1 1 
E n1 - E 1 =  2 − 2  , n1 = 2, 3, 4, ……
8ε o2 h 2 1 n1 

hc me 4  1 
therefore = 1 − 2 
λ 8ε o2 h 2  n1 

1 me 4  1 
and = 1 − 2 
λ 8ε o2 ch 3  n1 

This may be written as

1  1 
= R 1 − 2 
λ  n1 

Where R is a constant called the Rydberg constant.

Wavelengths calculated using this expression agrees well with those observed in the line spectrum of
atomic hydrogen which is experimental evidence that the energy levels exist.

The above equation represents the spectral transition of hydrogen known as the LYMAN series whose
lines are in the ultraviolet and each is associated with a transition involving the level n=1

84
The BALMER series which are in the visible involves transitions to the level with n=2 and as a
consequence smaller energy differences are involved

1  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  , n1 = 3, 4, 5, - - - -
λ 2 n1 

The PASCHEN series which are in the infrared involves transitions to the level with n=3 and even much
smaller energy differences are involved.

1  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  , n1 = 4, 5, 6, - - - -
λ 3 n1 

Similarly for the hydrogen spectrum we have other series

1  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  , n1 = 6, 7, 8, - - - - Brackett series
λ 5 n1 

85
 1  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  , n1 = 7, 8, 9, - - - - Pfund series
λ 6 n1 

Ionisation energy

This is the energy required to remove the electrons from the atom completely.

E ∞ - E 1 = (0-E1)

= -E1eV

5.4 X-RAYS

X-rays are short (10-10m) wavelength electromagnetic radiations.

A focused beam of electrons is accelerated towards the anode made of copper rod, in which the target is
embedded. On collision the electrons decelerate rapidly and x-rays are produced. Over 99% of the kinetic
energy of the electrons goes on producing heat. The target is a high melting point metal such as tungsten.
The purpose of the copper rod is to conduct the heat away from the target. The rod is cooled by circulating
oil through it or by the use of cooling fins. The intensity of the x-rays increases with the number of
electrons hitting the target and therefore depends on the filament current. The penetrating power (quality)
of the x-rays increases with the operating voltage of the tube. There are two types of x-rays:

(i) Soft x-rays - have low penetrating power

(ii) Hard x-rays - Have high penetrating power

86
Properties of X-rays

(i) They travel in a straight line at the speed of light

(ii) They cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic field

(iii) They penetrate matter

(iv) They can be reflected, but only at very large angles of incidence

Properties used to detect X-rays

(i) They ionise gases through which they pass

(ii) They affect photographic films

(iii) They produce fluorescence

(iv) They produce photoelectric emission

Uses of X-rays

(i) They are used in medicine to

- locate bone fractures

- destroy cancer cells

(ii) They are used to locate internal imperfections in welded joints

(iii) X-ray diffraction has been used to determine the structure of complex organic molecules.

87
5.5 RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the process in which radiations are emitted when an unstable nucleus disintegrates to
acquire a more stable state. The disintegration is spontaneous and most commonly involves the emission of
an α-particle or a β-particle. In both α and β emissions, the parent nucleus (i.e. the emitting nucleus)
undergoes a change of atomic number and therefore becomes the nucleus of a different element. This new
nucleus is called a daughter nucleus. It often happens that the daughter nucleus is formed when it is in the
excited state so it reaches its stable state by emitting γ-rays.

α -particles

Consists of two protons and two neutrons, i.e. it is identical to a helium nucleus. It is the most energetic
form of radiation produced by radioactive decay. They have the least penetrating power with a range of
only a few centimetres in air. They are more effective in producing ionisation in the gases through which
they pass. They move relatively slowly since they are relatively heavy particles. A strong magnetic field
deflects them and the direction and magnitude of the deflection suggests that an α particle is positively
charged.

When a nucleus undergoes α-decay it loses four nucleons, two of which are protons. Thus the mass number
A decreases by 4 and its atomic number Z decreases by 2
A A -4
That is Z X → Z-2 Y + 42 He

Uranium 238 decays by α-particles to thorium 234

238 234
92 U → 90 Th + 42 He
Parent Daughter α - Particle

β-particles

These are very fast electrons. β-Particle is emitted by nuclei which have too many neutrons to be stable.
These particles are more penetrating and have a range of several metres in air. They have less ionising
power than alpha particles but are more easily deviated by magnetic or electric fields due to their small
mass. They have higher speeds than alpha particles. When a nucleus undergoes β decay its mass number A
does not change but its atomic number Z increases by 1

A A 0
Z X → Z +1 Y + -1 e

88
Carbon 14 decays by β-emission to Nitrogen 14.
14
6 C → 14 0
7 N + −1 e

γ-Rays

γ-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength. And are highly penetrating having a range of
several centimetres in lead. They have far less ionising power compared to b particles and are not deflected by a
magnetic field

5.5.1 ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT

The activity of a radioactive nuclide is the rate at which the nuclei of its constituent atoms decay. If N is
the number of nuclei present in a sample at a certain time, its activity R is given by

dN
R=− 1
dt

dN
The negative sign makes R positive since is a negative quantity. The SI units of activity is
dt
1Becquerel whereby 1Becquerel (1Bq) = 1 event/s

Half life
Half life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for the nuclei in the sample to decay by half.
Experiments have shown that the activity of a radioactive sample falls off exponentially as shown below

If the activity of a given sample is Ro when an observation started, after one half life it decreases to
0.5Ro and after another half life, it decreases to 0.25Ro and so on. Every radionuclide has a characteristic
half life, with some half lives being short and others very long.

From experiments therefore R =Roe-λt where λ is the decay constant

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After one half life i.e. t = T½, the activity R drops to ½Ro, Hence
− λT1
R = Roe-λt becomes, ½Ro = Ro e 2

λT1
⇒e 2
=2 or λ T½ = ln2

ln2 0.693
⇒ T½ = ⇒ T½ =
λ λ

If a sample contains N undecayed nuclei, the number dN that decay in a time dt is the product of the
number of nuclei N and the probability λdt that each will decay in dt. That is

dN = -Nλdt, where the negative sign is because N decreases with increasing time

dN
⇒ = -λdt
N
N t
dN
⇒ ∫N N = - λ ∫ dt
0
o

⇒ lnN – lnNo = -λt

⇒ N = Noe-λt

Example How long does it take for 60% of a sample of radon to decay? Half life of radon is 3.8days

Solution
Using N = Noe-λt

N N 1 No
= e -λ t or - λ t = ln ⇒ t = ln
No No λ N

0.693 0.693
Here λ = = and N = (1 - 0.6)N o = 0.4N o
T½ 3.8days

3.8 days
∴ t = ln ( 0.4
1
) = 5.02 days
0.693

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5.5.2 ACTIVITY AND DECAY CONSTANT

dN
We saw earlier that the activity of a radioactive sample is R = -
dt

d(N o e - λ t )
But N = Noe-λt ⇒ R = - ⇒ R = λ N o e -λ t
dt

so that R= λN

ACTIVITY

Find the activity of 1µg (10-6 Kg) of Radon 222

RR

5.5.3 CARBON DATING

The activity law Ro = Roe-λt may be used to determine the age of substances. This is done by using
radiocarbon, which is the beta active carbon isotope 146 C . We know that every living plant contains
some radiocarbon. Also when animals eat the plants they also incorporate some radiocarbon into their
bodies. Thus living plants and animals have the same ratio of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon 126 C .
When the plants and animals die they no longer take in radiocarbon but the radiocarbon they contain
keeps decaying away to 14 N . The half life of this decay is 5760years.

By determining the proportion of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon therefore it is possible to evaluate the
ages of ancient objects knowing their organic origin. In order to measure the 146 C content, the total
carbon content in a sample from an organism that died a time t ago is usually converted into a gas such
as CO2 which is then used to fill a special beta-sensitive detector. If the activity of a certain mass of
carbon from a plant or animal that was recently alive is Ro and the activity of the same mass of carbon of
the sample to be dated is R, then from the activity law we have

Ro = Roe-λt

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 R R
⇒ = e -λ t o = e λ t
Ro R
1
or t =
λ
ln ( )
Ro
R

ACTIVITY

14
A piece of wood from the ruins of an ancient dwelling was found to have a 6 C activity of
13 disintegrations per minute per gram. The activity of the living wood is 16 disintegrations
per minute per gram. How long ago did the tree from which the wood came die?

5.5.4 BINDING ENERGY

Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation

If the particle of mass m is moving at the speed of light c then energy is

∆E ∝ ∆M E = mc2

It follows that whenever a reaction results in a release of energy there is an associated decrease in mass.

Unified atomic mass u is defined as

1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg = 931MeV.

Binding energy

An atom has lass mass than the total mass of its constituent particles. The hydrogen isotope deuterium
2
1 H for instance, has a neutron as well as a proton in its nucleus. Thus we would expect the mass of the

deuterium atom to be equal to the mass of a proton and the mass of the neutron as shown

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 Mass of proton = 1.0078u

+ Mass of neutron = 1.0087u

Expected mass of 21 H atom 2.0165u

However the measured mass of 21 H is found to be 2.0141u, which is 0.0024u less than the combined
mass of a proton and a neutron. The missing mass of 0.0024u corresponds to the energy given off when
a 21 H nucleus is formed from a free proton and neutron. Since the energy equivalent of 1u of mass is
931MeV, the energy corresponding to the missing deuterium mass of 0.0024u is

(0.0024ux931MeV/u) = 2.2MeV.

This energy equivalent of the missing mass of a nucleus is called binding energy of the nucleus. If the
binding energy is large, it implies that more energy has to be added to break the nucleus. The binding
energy per nucleon is obtained by dividing the total binding energy by the number of nucleons

22MeV
Thus binding energy per nucleon for deuterium = = 1.1MeV/nucleon
2

NUCLEAR FISSION

Nuclear fission is the process of splitting heavy nuclei into two medium sized nuclei, in which, each of
the new nuclei has less binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus. Nuclear fission is
accompanied by the emission of energy and it involves many times more energy per atom than burning
coal or oil etc.

NUCLEAR FUSION

This is the process of joining two light nuclei together to give a single nucleus. This process also
involves the emission of energy and it is a very effective way of obtaining energy. In fact nuclear fusion
is the main energy source of the sun and the other stars.

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Self Test Questions

1. Some of the energy levels of a mercury atom are shown below

(i) Why are the energies negative

(ii) Calculate the wavelength of the energy emitted when an electron moves from level 4 to 2. In what
part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength lie
(iii) Calculate the ionization energy of a mercury atom in eV and in joules
2. Draw a clean well labelled diagram of a modern x-ray tube.
(a) How can the intensity and the penetrating power be controlled
(b) Describe the properties of x-rays and compare them with those of ultraviolet radiation.
(c) Outline the evidence for the wave nature of x-rays
(d) Molybdenum Kα rays have λ=7x10-11m find
(i) Minimum x-ray tube potential difference that can produce these x-rays
(ii) Their photon energy in eV
3. (a) What is meant by the half life of a radioactive element? Draw a well labelled sketch of the
relation N=Noe-λt to illustrate your answer

(b) The initial number of atoms in a radioactive element is 6.0x1020 and its half life is 10Hrs calculate
(i) The number of atoms which have decayed after 30Hrs
(ii) The amount of energy liberated if the energy liberated per atom decay is 4.0x10-13J

4. (a) In a fusion reaction

2 3 4 1
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 n

How much energy in joules is liberated?

2
Masses 1 H =3.345x10-27kg

3
1 H =5.008x10-27kg

4
2 He =6.647x10-27kg

1
0 n =1.675x10-27kg

(b) Describe the functions of the various components of a nuclear power station
(c) Explain briefly what is meant by
(i) Nuclear fusion

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 (ii) Nuclear fission
(iii) Nuclear binding energy
64 64
(d) Calculate the activity of 2.0µg of 29 Cu ( the half life of 29 Cu =13Hrs, Avogadro's constant
=6.0x1023mol-1)

5. A uranium bearing rock is found to contain 9 uranium 238 atoms for every 8 helium atoms present in the
rock. Assuming that the decay process which eventually converts a uranium atom to lead involves the
emission of 8 α particles calculate the age of the rock
6. Briefly discuss the dangers posed by exposure to radiation from radioactive elements
7. Part of the Uranium decay series is shown below
238 (1) 234 (2) 234(3) (4) 234 230 (5) 226
92 U → 90 Th → 91 Pa → 92 U → 90 Th → 88 Ra

(i) What particle is emitted at each decay

(ii) List the pairs of isotopes in the series.

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REFERENCES

1. University Physics by Young, Freedman, Sears and Zemansky (Pearson International Edition)

2. Advanced level physics by Nelkon and Parker

3. Advanced Physics by Tom Duncan 5TH Edition.

4. Physics for Scientists and Engineers Strategic Approach by Randall D. Knight 2ND Edition.

5. Introductory College Physics by Joseph F. Mulligan

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