Power System Control – 2023 Dr Alaa Abdel Razek

Excitation System – AVR

Synchronous Machine –
Excitation System
Automatic Voltage Regulator

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Power System Control – 2023 Dr Alaa Abdel Razek
Excitation System – AVR

The Excitation System:

The excitation system provides the necessary field current to the rotor winding of the
synchronous machine. The required amount of excitation depends on the required emf
voltage:

𝑬𝒇 = 𝒌 ∙ Ø ∙ 𝒇 · 𝝎
1- Basic Function:
The basic function of an excitation system is to provide a continuous (DC) current to
the field winding of a synchronous machine. This is achieved using closed-loop control
(or feedback control). Modern excitation systems also include diagnostics functions to
simplify troubleshooting, communication protocols for SCADA integration, and limiter
/ protection functions to ensure that the synchronous machine is operated within its
capability curve.
2- Objective:
The objective of an excitation system depends on the application:
• For synchronous generators, it is responsible for maintaining a constant
terminal voltage.
• For synchronous motors, it is responsible for maintaining a constant power
factor.
3- Working Principle:
The synchronous machine, which consists of a rotor and stator, produces AC currents
using the principle of electromagnetic induction. The DC current passing through the
field winding of the rotor produces a static magnetic field. As the rotor is rotated by the
prime mover (such as a hydro or steam turbine), the magnetic field is also rotated.
Since the rotor is contained within the stator, the rotating magnetic field creates a
varying magnetic flux as it intersects the stator windings. This varying magnetic flux
induces AC currents in the stator windings of the synchronous machine. An excitation
system is necessary since, without excitation current, the machine operates without
field current and consequently, no voltage is generated (induced) in the stator windings
of the machine.

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Excitation System – AVR

4- Capability Curve
The capability curve of a synchronous machine is a graphical representation of the
operating limits of the machine. The capability curve is a plot of the machine active
power (MW) versus the reactive power (MVAR). Typically, the following physical
operating limits are represented:
• Rotor thermal limit
• Turbine limit
• Practical stability limit
• Pole slip limit
In addition, the following limiters are typically represented:
• Over Excitation Limiter (OEL)
• Under Excitation Limiter (UEL)
Excitation systems manufactured by Reivax include a dynamic capability curve that
can be used to monitor operating conditions in real-time. An example of such a
capability curve is shown below.

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Excitation System – AVR

Types of excitation Systems:

Different types of excitation systems have emerged over the years in the power
industry. They are classified into two general categories, depending on the power
source:
A: Rotating Exciters, and
B: Static Exciters
A. Rotating excitation Systems
In rotating excitation systems, there are two exciters:
The main exciter and The pilot exciter.
The main exciter supplies the pilot exciter, and the pilot exciter in turn directly supplies
the synchronous machine.
There are two sub-categories of rotating excitation systems: AC and DC.
1- AC Brushless Exciter
In an AC excitation system, the main power rectifier supplies an intermediary AC
exciter. This AC exciter contains an internal power rectifier which then supplies the
field winding of the synchronous machine.
A single-line diagram of an AC rotating exciter is shown below.

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Excitation System – AVR

A single-line diagram of an AC rotating exciter

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Excitation System – AVR

2- DC Exciter
In a DC excitation system, the power rectifier supplies an intermediary DC exciter, which in turn supplies the field winding of the
synchronous machine. A single-line diagram of a DC rotating exciter is shown below.

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Excitation System – AVR

B- Static Excitation Systems – Terminal-Fed

In static excitation systems, the power rectifier directly supplies the field winding of the
synchronous machine. There is no pilot exciter.
A static excitation system is terminal-fed (also called bus-fed) when the supply is
taken from the machine itself through a power potential transformer (PPT). The
primary of the PPT is connected to the stator of the machine and the secondary
supplies power to the rectifier.
Static excitation systems are not inherently self-exciting, so they require an external
supply to jump-start the excitation process and build up sufficient magnetic flux. This
process is called field flashing.

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Excitation System – AVR

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Excitation System – AVR

Advantages of Static Excitation Systems:

Static excitation systems provide several benefits that make them an attractive option
for synchronous machine control:
• Simple, reliable, and cost-effective design
• Minimal maintenance requirements
• High performance and fast response characteristics
Main Components:
The main components of a static excitation system are listed below:
1- Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
The automatic voltage regulator (AVR), commonly known simply as voltage regulator,
executes all control functions of the system, including the following:
• Operating breakers
• Sending firing pulses to bridges
• Responding to operator commands or grid disturbances
• Monitoring system, I/Os and taking appropriate actions in response to them
• Maintaining the excitation system within safety and stability limits using
limiters and protections
• Issuing notifications to the plant SCADA system if anomalous conditions
occur
• Tripping the excitation system if a critical failure or dangerous condition
occurs
The main elements of an AVR are as follows:
• Control loop
• Limiters
• Power system stabilizer
Redundant control solutions are common. In a redundant configuration, there are two
voltage regulators, one that executes the control functions while the other is in hot
standby.
2- Power Rectifier
Static excitation systems typically use a power rectifier that converts AC to DC current
and provides a controlled field current to the synchronous machine. Power rectifiers
typically use thyristor or IGBT technology.

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Excitation System – AVR

Heat generation is a concern for the power rectifier. For bridge cooling, redundant fan
sets are typically provided.
Redundant bridge configurations are common. In case multiple bridges are present,
the excitation system will perform current equalization to balance the bridge outputs.
3- Converter Interface
The converter interface consists of all intermediary devices between the controller and
power rectifier. It converts the control signal to firing pulses and isolates the control
electronics from the power section.
On excitation systems manufactured by “Reivax”, diagnostics tools for monitoring the
power rectifier are provided on the HMI. The status of fans, fuses, and semiconductor
temperatures can be checked in real-time, as shown below.

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Excitation System – AVR

This screen demonstrates normal bridge operation. All 6 thyristors are conducting
normally. The current is equally balanced between the 3 branches. Fan set 1 (A&B) is active,
while fan set 2 is on standby.

In this screen, the HMI is indicating a problem with fan A. As a result, the exciter has
automatically transitioned to fan set 2 (D&E). There is also an indication of a fuse problem
with thyristor #5. The measured current through this thyristor has dropped to zero,
indicating that there is no conduction.

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Excitation System – AVR

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Excitation System – AVR

4- Power Potential Transformer (PPT):

The PPT is a 3-phase step-down power transformer used in static excitation systems.
Its purpose is to step down incoming AC voltages from the synchronous machine to a
level that can be supplied to the power rectifier.
5- Field Breaker (AC or DC)
The main purpose of the field breaker is to interrupt the excitation and serve as an
isolation point for performing maintenance and troubleshooting.
Both AC and DC solutions are common. The field breaker can be installed either
directly in the field circuit, or between the secondary of the excitation transformer and
the rectifier of the system. In the latter case, the breaker is often called an AC contactor
instead.
6- DC Field Flashing
The field flashing circuit is used in the start-up process when the magnetic flux in the
generator is too low. The field of the synchronous machine is temporarily connected
in parallel to an external DC supply, such as a station battery, until the synchronous
machine develops enough terminal voltage such that the excitation becomes self-
sustaining. Afterwards, the field flashing is interrupted.
7- Crowbar and Discharge Circuit
The crowbar is a safety feature designed to protect the excitation system and field
winding from external surges, generator pole displacement, etc.

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Excitation System – AVR

Limiters and Protection:

Modern excitation systems are responsible for protecting the synchronous machine,
the excitation system itself, and other devices. Limiters (OEL, UEL, VHz, SCL) and
protections (24, 27, 32, 37F, 40/32Q, 50/51, 59, 59F, 76F, 81O/U) are software
features designed to limit the machine operation in undesirable conditions and are
implemented as add-ons to the AVR control loop. Limiters will ensure that the machine
is always operated within the machine’s capability, while the protection functions will
protect the machine by initiating a trip. The excitation protective functions are typically
duplicated in a separate unit protection relay. It is possible to disable the excitation
protective functions and only rely on the unit protective relay or both protective
functions can be utilized, in which case there needs to be a coordination between the
two protective functions.
The most common limiters and their functions are given below:

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Excitation System – AVR

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Excitation System – AVR

Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

A power system stabilizer (PSS) is a control system installed on a generation unit that
monitors variables such as current, voltage and shaft speed. When necessary, it then
sends the appropriate control signals to the voltage regulator to damp system
oscillations so that frequency does not stray beyond tolerances.

Rapid small positive and negative changes in frequency in the range of 0.2 to 3 Hertz,
called frequency oscillations, occur in bulk electrical systems due to small variations
in load. These oscillations must be damped (reduced) to avoid the potential for growing
oscillations that could ultimately push frequencies outside of system tolerances. If this
happens, the system will begin shutting down to protect equipment, thus resulting in
wide-scale outages.
Frequency

50
Hz

A frequency oscillation; note the oscillation is reduced over time due to damping.

When small oscillations occur, the generator’s rotational speed increases or

decreases due to the frequency fluctuation. However, the turbine control that manages
the speed by injecting slightly more or less fuel is not always fast enough to respond
to such oscillations. And given that a variety of generators are interconnected in a bulk
electric system, each may respond differently, potentially resulting in generators no
longer spinning in synch. Thus, it is important to respond to these oscillations quickly.
A PSS does this by sending a control signal to the generator voltage regulator when
such oscillations are observed. This rapidly changes the generator operation to
counteract the frequency oscillations.
The PSS output is added to the AVR control loop.

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Excitation System – AVR

Functional block diagram of a synchronous generator excitation system:

• Exciter: Provides dc power to the synchronous generator field winding.

• Regulator: Processes and amplifies input control signals to a level and form
appropriate to control exciter. It regulates the excitation system and also does
stabilizing functions (rate feedback or lead lag compensation).
• Terminal Voltage Transducer and Load Compensator: Senses generator
terminal voltage, rectified and filters into DC quality and compares it with the
reference terminal voltage. In addition, load compensation may be provided, if
it is desired to hold constant voltage at some remote location from the generator
terminal.
• Power System Stabilizer: Provides an additional input to the regulator to damp
power system oscillations. Signals used are speed deviations, accelerating
power and frequency deviations.
• Limiters and Protective Circuits: These include arrays of circuits to control
and protect the DC exciter and generator so that they don't exceed their
capability limits. Some of the commonly used functions are field current limiter,
maximum excitation limiters, terminal voltage limiter, V/Hz regulator and
protection and under excitation limiter.

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Power System Control – 2023 Dr Alaa Abdel Razek
Excitation System – AVR

Functional block diagram of a synchronous generator excitation system

Limiters & Protective

Circuit

Voltage
Reference Terminal Voltage
Transducer and

Load Compensator
To Power
Regulator Exciter Generator Network
Referenc
e

Power System
Stabilizer

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Excitation System – AVR

Exciter System Model:

The first a brief description of the AVR loop indicated as:

Exciter Synchronous
𝑰𝒆 𝑰𝒇 Generator
+
Comparator
+
|𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝒆 𝐺𝐴 𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒇
−
− + −

𝐺𝑓
Rotating Components Potential
Stability Compensators Transformer
Rectifier
|𝑉|𝑆 and
Filter

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Excitation System – AVR

It is to be noted that error voltage:

𝑒 = |𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 | − |𝑉𝑆 |
Assume that for some reason the terminal voltage of the main generator decreases.

This will result in decrease in |𝑉𝑆 |. This immediately results in an increased “error
voltage” 𝑒 which in turn, causes increased values of 𝑉𝑅 ; 𝐼𝑅 ; 𝑉𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑓 . As a result of

the boost in 𝐼𝑓 , thus raising the magnitude of the internal generator emf E and hence
the terminal voltage V.
Mathematical modeling of the exciter and its control follows. If for the moment we
disregard the stability compensator (shown dashed lines I the above figure) we have
for the comparator and amplifier and amplifier respectively:

𝛥|𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 | − 𝛥|𝑉𝑆 | = 𝛥𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑

∆𝑣𝑅 = 𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑒
where 𝑘𝐴 is the amplifier gain

Laplace transformation of these two equations yields:

𝛥|𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 |(𝑠) − 𝛥|𝑉𝑆 |(𝑠) = 𝛥𝑒(𝑠)

𝛥𝑣𝑒 (𝑠)
= 𝑘𝐴
𝛥𝑒(𝑠)
This equation implies instantaneous amplifier response. The amplifier will have a time
delay that can be represented by a time constant 𝜏𝐴 , then:

𝛥𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑘𝐴
𝐺𝐴 = =
𝛥𝑒(𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠
If 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑒 represent respectively the resistance and inductance of the exciter field,
we have for voltage equilibrium in the latter:
𝑑
∆𝑣𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 ∆𝑖𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 (∆𝑖𝑒 )
𝑑𝑡
Measured across the main field exciter produces 𝑘𝑓 armature volts ∆𝑣𝑓 per ampere

of field current 𝑖𝑒 , in the range of proportionality:

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Excitation System – AVR

∆𝑣𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 ∆𝑖𝑒
Upon Laplace transformation of the last two equations and elimination of ∆𝑖𝑒 , we

obtain the transfer function of the exciter:

𝛥𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑘𝑓 ∆𝑖𝑒 (𝑠)
𝐺𝑒 = =
𝛥𝑣𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑒 ∆𝑖𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝐿𝑒 𝑠(∆𝑖𝑒 (𝑠))
𝛥𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝜑
𝐺𝑒 = = =
𝛥𝑣𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝜑 𝑠
where,
𝑘𝑓 𝐿𝑒
𝑘𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝜑 =
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
Using these equation and using accepted block symbols we assemble directly the
transfer function model as shown:

Comparator Amplifier Exciter

∆𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) ∆𝑒(s) ∆𝑣𝑒 (s) ∆𝑣𝑓 (s)

+ 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝜑
1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝜑 𝑠
−

∆𝑣𝑠 (s)
Linear model of the comparator-amplifier-exciter portion of the AVR loop

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Excitation System – AVR

Generator Modeling:
To close the AVR loop, by establishing the missing dynamic link between the field

voltage 𝑣𝑓 and the generator terminal voltage 𝑣𝑠 .

The terminal voltage equals the internal emf minus the voltage drop across the internal

impedance, the relationship between 𝑣𝑓 and 𝑣𝑠 depends on the generator loading.

The simplest possible relationship as the following:

𝑑
∆𝑣𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓 + 𝐿𝑓𝑓 (∆𝑖 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑓
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝐸 = 𝐿𝑓𝑎 ∆𝑖𝑓 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑅𝑓 𝑑 1 𝑑
∆𝑣𝑓 = [∆𝐸 + 𝜏𝐹 (∆𝐸)] = [1 + 𝜏𝐹 ] ∙ ∆𝐸
𝐿𝑓𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑘𝐹 𝑑𝑡
where,
𝐿𝑓𝑎 𝐿𝑓𝑓
𝑘𝐹 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝐹 =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

∆𝐸(𝑠) 𝑘𝐹
=
∆𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐹 𝑠
If we consider low or zero load, let ∆𝐸 ≅ ∆𝑣𝑠 , then

∆𝐸(𝑠) ∆𝑣𝑠 (𝑠) 𝑘𝐹

≅ =
∆𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) ∆𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐹 𝑠
The complete AVR loop is shown below:

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Excitation System – AVR

Comparator Amplifier Exciter Generator

∆𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) + ∆𝑒(s) ∆𝑣𝑒 (s) ∆𝑣𝑓 (s) 𝑘𝐹 ∆𝑣𝑠 (s)

𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝜑
1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝜑 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝐹 𝑠
−
∆𝑣𝑠 (s)

∆𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) + ∆𝑒(s) ∆𝑣𝑠 (s)

G(s)
−

∆𝑣𝑠 (s)
∆𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) 𝐺(𝑠)
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)

The open-loop transfer function G(s) equals:

𝑘
𝐺 (𝑠) =
(1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝜑 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝐹 𝑠)
where the open - loop gain k equals:

𝑘 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝜑 𝑘𝐹
The AVR loop must:

1- Regulate the terminal voltage to within required static accuracy limit.

2- Have sufficient speed of response.

3- Be stable.

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