TUTORIAL 2 : NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND COMMUNICATION

G1
Q1P) The rules or agreements to govern the conversation in a network communication are
protocols. Protocols refers to a set of rules or guidelines that dictate how data is transmitted
over a network or communication channel. Protocols define the format and sequence of
messages exchanged between devices or applications, as well as the actions that are taken in
response to these messages.

The protocols will define areas such as:

● Sender and receiver (Source to destination)
● Message encoding
● Message encapsulation
● Message Delivery options
● Message timing
● Message size

Effective communication
Rules or protocol must be followed in order to make sure message to be delivered successfully
and understood

G2 Q2 (A) Network protocol is the predetermined rules for network communication. It functions
is to governs how network devices should communicate such as determine the format of the
message, initiating and terminating communication session, error handling and etc. Examples of
network protocol are TCP, IP, HTTP,FTP and Ethernet.

Protocol Suite is a set of interrelated protocols that work together to provide comprehensive +

network communication services. Examples of protocol suite are TCP/IP, OSI, Apple Talk and
Novell Netware.

Protocol refers to a set of predetermined rules which govern all communication, whether face to
face or over a network.

Protocol suite is a group of interrelated protocols that are necessary to perform a

communication function. These protocols are implemented in software and hardware that is
loaded on each host and network device.

(B)
Layer Functions

L7 Application Layer ● Performs services for the applications

software used by the end users
 ● Support process-to-process
communications
● Initiate necessary protocols
(HTTP,FTP,SMTP,POP)

Contains protocols used for process-to-process

communications

L6 Presentation Layer ● Performs data encryption/decryption and

data conversion
● It serves as data translator/ syntax
translator
● Transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept (ASCII,
EBCDIC)

Provides for common representation of data

transferred between application layer services

L5 Session Layer ● Deals with communication session and

connection coordination
● Establishes, manages and terminates
connections between applications

Provides services to the presentation layer to

organise its dialogue and to manage data
exchange

L4 Transport Layer ● Breaks data (into segments), numbers the

segments, transfers the segments and
reassembles the segments in the
destination
● Ensures complete data delivery(reliability)
and handles error recovery
● Example protocol involved: TCP, UDP

Define services to segment, transfer and

reassemble the data for individual
communications between end devices

L3 Network Layer ● Route and forward data to different LANs

or WANs according to their logical
 address using best path - inter networks
communication
● Protocol involved: IPv4, IPv6

L2 Data Link Layer ● Concern about node-to-node delivery

within the same network using the
physical address - intra network
communication
● Protocol involved: Ethernet, Token Ring,
PPP(Point-to-point Protocol)

L1 Physical Layer ● Describes the mechanical, electrical,

functional and procedure means of the
transmission media
● Concern about the bit transmission
to/from the network device
● Protocol involved: CSMA/CD, Token
passing

activate , maintain and deactivating the physical

connection

G3 Q2 (C )
Layer 7 - Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP), File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
Layer 4 - Transmission Control Protocol(TCP), User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
Layer 3 - Internet Protocol version 4(IPv4), Internet Protocol version 6(IPv6)
Layer 2 - Ethernet, Token Ring

G4 Q3 (a) Large streams of data are divided into smaller, more manageable pieces to send
over the network.
(b) Increase speed and increase efficiency.
A large pieces of data might cause delay

G5 Q3
(c) If the file server breaks down, the message becomes inaccessible. Increase level of
complexity, time consuming
(d)Application layer - Data
Transport layer - Segments
Internet layer - Packets
Network access - Frames & bits

Q2 b)

TUTORIAL 3

Q1 G1

a) OSI Physical layer provides the means to transport the frame across the network.
Physical layer accepts frame from Data Link Layer, encodes the frame and creates the
electrical, optical or radio waves signals that represent the bits in each frame.
-retrieve these individual signals from the media, restore them to their bit representation,
pass the bits up to the data link layer as a complete frame

b) Copper cable: patterns of electrical pulse

Fiber optic cable: patterns of light
Wireless: patterns of microwave transmission

Q2 A G2

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given duration and usually
measured in kilobits per second(kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps). It is theoretical(Ideal)
transmission rate

-Capacity of medium to carry data

-measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time

- measure in kbps, Mbps, Gbps

Throughput is the measure of the actual amount of data transmitted over a given period of
time.It is an actual network performance.

Factors:-amount of traffic, type of traffic, latency (delay of data transfer) or created by number of
network devices encountered between source and destination

Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. It is the quality of
transmission.
Q2B C G3

Cable Type Cable Use / Applications

Straight-through cable Connects a network host to a network device
such as a switch or hub

Crossover cable
● Connects two network hosts

● Connects two network intermediary

devices (switch or router to router)
● Direct connection between network host
and router

Rollover cable Connects a workstation serial port to a router

(also known as “Cisco” cable) console port, using an adapter.

EXTRA Q’S
Q1 G4
I. Bandwidth
Ii.Due to a number of factors such as traffic and latency
Network congestion, packet loss, latency that can reduce throughput speed
Q2 G5
(i)
Yes, the network media is necessary to exist in a network. This is because it acts as the
communication channels used to interconnect nodes on computer networks.
(ii)
- Copper Media: carrying signal in electrical pulse signal
- Fiber Media: carrying signal in light pulse signal
- Wireless Media: carrying signal in microwaves signal
(iii)
The distance the media can successfully carry a signal
- For example if the traveling time for signals is longer, the more it will be distorted.
Bandwidth speed
- The wired network media has higher bandwidth speed as compared to wireless network
media.
- If the user wants to use higher bandwidth within a small area, choosing copper media is ideal.

TUTORIAL 4
Q1 G5
It is called Logical Link Control sublayer (LLC). This upper sublayer defines the software
processes that provide services to the Network Layer protocols.

Q2(a)(i)

Label Connecting IEEE Networking

media Standard

Wireless WIFI 802.11

Ethernet Copper wire 802.3

(ii)

Contention-based Access with carrier sense multiple access/ collision avoidance

G2
(iii) G3
CSMA/CA:
● deals with transmissions after a collision has occurred
● prevents collisions before they happen
● used in wired networks(Ethernet)
● used in wireless networks(WLAN)

Q2(b)It allows upper layer protocols to access the physical layer media and encapsulates Layer
3 packets (IPv4 and IPv6) into Layer 2 Frames.
It also performs error detection and rejects corrupts frames.

(d)Half-duplex communication and full-duplex communication both devices can both transmit
and receive on the media but half-duplex communication cannot do so simultaneously while full-
duplex communication can do it at the same time. G4

Q’S EXTRA G1

Token Ring topology is used in the above figure. The characteristics of a ring topology is it only
allows one station to transmit data at a time. Thus, other devices that are wishing to transmit the
data must wait for their turn. Hence, no collision occurs between the transmission.
TUTORIAL 5
Q1 G1

A
(i) Three primary functions of data encapsulation are frame delimiting, addressing, and error
detection. Frame delimiting is the process in which the start-of-frame and the end-of-frame bits
are provided to make up a frame for transmission. Addressing is the process of including the
MAC address to the header of the packet. Error detection is the process of including CRC value
in FCS field for error checking purpose.

(ii) One of the primary functions of Media Access Control is to control the placement of the
frame on the media. Another primary function of the MAC layer is to retrieve the frame from the
media.

Media access control is use to put / retrieve frame on the

media. The sublayer connects directly with the physical layer. The media access uses multi
access bus topology that all nodes share a single transmission medium.

Q1
B

● Store-and-forward - A store-and-forward switch receives the entire frame and computes

the CRC. If the CRC is valid, the switch looks up the destination address, which
determine the outgoing interface. The frame is then forwarded out the correct port
● Cut-through - A cut-through switch forwards the frame before it is entirely received . At a
minimum, the destination address of the frame must be read before the frame can be
forwarded

Descriptions MAC or LLC?

1. Controls the network interface

card through software drivers LLC

2. Works with the upper layers to

add application information LLC

for delivery of data to higher level

protocols

3. Works with hardware to support

bandwidth requirements MAC

and checks errors in the bits sent

and received

4. Controls access to the media

through signaling and physical MAC
 media standards requirements

5. Supports Ethernet technology by

using CSMA/CD or MAC

CSMA/CA

6. Remain relatively independent of

physical equipment LLC

G2

Q2 A I II III G3
(i) sending node needs a way to find the MAC address of the destination for a given Ethernet link
(ii) The node that matches the IP address in the ARP request will reply with it’s MAC address
(iii) If no device responds to the ARP request, the packet/frame (ARP request) is dropped because a frame
cannot be created

Q2 IV
ARP Spoofing. Attacker will inject the wrong MAC address associated into a network by issuing
fake ARP request. - security

Q3 A
I.Yes
Ii.No. It is not hexadecimal address
iii. No.

Q3
G5
(b)
Unicast
- Example: when you click a hyperlink in a web browser, you are requesting HTTP data from the
host defined in the link which delivers the data to your browser.

Multicast
- Allow a source device to send a packet to a group of devices. For example, send an email
message to a mailing list

Broadcast
- All hosts on that local network will receive and process the packet. For example, television and
radio.

(c) The switch will forward the frame to all ports except port 4. The MAC address of PC3 is not
present in the MAC table of the switch because the switch does not know where to send the
frame that is addressed to PC3. It will forward the frame to all switch ports except for 4, which is
the incoming port.

Tutorial 6
Q1 G1
ai)
Directly connected network
● 192.168.1.0/24
● 192.168.2.0/24
Remote network
● 172.16.1.0/24
● 172.16.2.0/24

ii)
5 network

iii)
● 192.168.2.1 (PC4)
● 172.16.1.1 (PC6)

iv)
No, because they are in the same network
PC1 and PC2 are in the same network
It will forward message directly if another host in the same network

v)
Yes, because they are in the different network

vi)
The hop address for router 1 when PC5 sends data to PC7 is 209.150.210.226. While the hop
address for router 2 is 209.150.210.225

vii)

Q1 b G2
Yes. IPv4 uses 32-bit address and IPv6 uses 128-bit address which will need a
mechanism called protocol translation, where a device such as a gateway or router can
translate between IPv4 and IPv6 packets, allowing communication between the two
networks.

Dual stack device

Translation migration technique
Tunneling techniques

Q2 G3
Router1
Remote network : 192.168.2/30
next hop:10.1.0.0/16

Router 2
Remote network : 0.000.10
next hop: 172.30.2.0/24

Q3 a G4
(i)A:IPv4
B: IPv6

(ii) IPv6 addresses are based on 128-bit hierarchical addressing as opposed to IPv4 with 32
bits.
Fields such as header length, identification flags,etc are available for IPv4 as Fields such as
header length, identification and flags are not available for IPv6

Q3 b G5
i)R2
Directed connected network:
- 209.150.210.224/30
- 11.1.10.0/24
- 11.1.20.0/24
Remote network:
- 192.168.10.0/24
- 192.168.20.0/24

ii) 5 networks

iii)
- PC1 will consult the host routing table.
- It found no match recorded for the remote network.
- It will send the request to the default route (0.0.0.0).
- It then will send the packet to the R1 using its own interface (PC1).
- R1 then forwards the packet to the remote network using the best path.

iv)