1.

1 Introduction to control system

• A control system is an interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired system response.
• Automatic control is essential in any field of engineering and
science.
• It is an important and integral part of
space-vehicle systems, robotic systems, modern
manufacturing systems, and
Any industrial operations involving control of temperature,
pressure, humidity, flow, etc.
 Some basic terminologies must be defined.
 Controlled Variable is the quantity or condition that is measured
and controlled.
• Control Signal or Manipulated Variable is the quantity or condition
that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable.
• Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.
• Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of
the system and applying the control signal to the system to correct
or limit deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
In studying control engineering, we need to define additional
terms that are necessary to describe control systems.
• Plant: any physical object to be controlled (such as a
mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor, or a
spacecraft) a plant.
• Processes: process to be a natural, progressively continuing
operation or development marked by a series of gradual
changes that succeed one another in a relatively fixed way and
lead toward a particular result or end.
• System: A system is a combination of components that act
together and perform a certain objective.
• Disturbance: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely
affect the value of the output of a system.
• If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside
the system and is an input.
• Feedback control: Feedback control refers to an operation
that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the
difference between the output of a system and some
reference input and does so on the basis of this difference.
 1.2 Examples of control systems
• Speed Control System.
• Business Systems.
• Robust Control System
• Temperature Control
System

Figure:1 Temperature Control System

 1.3 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL VERSUS OPEN-LOOP CONTROL
 Closed loop control system
• It is a control system where its control action depends on both
of its input signal and output response.
• This systems are often referred to as feedback control systems.
• Actuating error signal, which is the difference between the
input signal and the feedback signal
• Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed
control of DC motor, etc.
  Open loop control
• It is a control system where its control action only depends on input
signal
• But does not depend on its output response.
• Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc.
Fig.1.1. An open-loop system

Fig.1.2. A closed-loop system

1.31 Advantages and dis-advantages Open loop control system
Advantages
• Simple design and easy to construct
• Economical
• Easy for maintenance
• Highly stable operation
Dis-advantages
• Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters
are variable in nature
• Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time
1.32 Advantages and dis-advantages closed-loop control system
Advantages
• More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system
• Can operate efficiently when system parameters are variable in nature
• Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
• High bandwidth of operation
• There is facility of automation
• Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required
Dis-advantages
• Complex design and difficult to construct
• Expensive than that of open-loop control system
• Complicate for maintenance
• Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system
No. Open-loop control systems Closed-loop control systems
1 No feedback is given to the control system A feedback is given to the control system
2 Cannot be intelligent Intelligent controlling action
3 There is no possibility of undesirable system Closed loop control introduces the possibility of
oscillation (hunting) undesirable system oscillation (hunting)
4 The output will not vary for a constant input, In the system the output may vary for a constant
provided the system parameters remain input, depending upon the feedback
unaltered
5 System output variation due to variation in System output variation due to variation in
parameters of the system is greater and the parameters of the system is less.
output vary in an uncontrolled way
6 Error detection is not present Error detection is present
7 Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
8 More stable Less stable or prone to instability
9 Affected by non - linearity Not Affected by non-linearity
10 Very sensitive in nature Less sensitive to disturbances
11 Simple design and cheap Complex design and costly
 2. Laplace Transform
• The ability to obtain linear approximations of physical systems
allows the analyst to consider the use of the Laplace
transformation.
• Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic
equations.
• They are related to frequency response.
• The Laplace transformation for a function of time , f(t) is
∞

𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿{𝑓 𝑡 }

0
 2.1 Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form
• Laplace transforms can be solved using partial fraction
method.
• A system is usually represented by following dynamic
equation.
𝐴 𝑠
N(s) =
𝐵 𝑠
The factor of denominator, 𝐵 𝑠 is represented by following
forms
i. Unrepeated factors
ii. Repeated factors
iii. Unrepeated complex factors
i. Unrepeated factors
𝑁 𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏) 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑏
𝐴 𝑠 + 𝑏 + 𝐵(𝑠 + 𝑎)
=
(𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏)
By equating both sides, determine A and B.
Example 2.1: Expand the following equation of Laplace transform in
terms of its partial fractions and obtain its time-domain response.
2𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
𝑌 𝑠 = = +
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2
• By equating both sides, A and B are determined as 𝐴 = −2, 𝐵 = 4 .
Therefore
−2 4
𝑌 𝑠 = +
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
• Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
𝑦 𝑡 = −2𝑒 −𝑡 + 4𝑒 −2𝑡
ii. Repeated factors
𝑁 𝑠 A 𝐵 A + B(s + a)
2
= 2
+ =
(𝑠 + 𝑎) (𝑠 + 𝑎) 𝑠+𝑎 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2
By equating both sides, determine A and B.
Example 2.2:
2𝑠 A 𝐵 𝐶
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
= 2
+ +
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 𝐴) 𝑠+𝐴 𝑠+2
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as 𝐴 = −2, 𝐵 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 =
− 4 . Therefore,
2𝑠 2 4 4
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
=− 2
+ −
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) 𝑠+𝐴 𝑠+𝐴 𝑠+2
• Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
2𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 4𝑒 −𝑡 − 4𝑒 −2𝑡
III. Unrepeated complex factors
• They contain conjugate pairs in the denominator.
EXAMPLE 2.3:
2𝑠 + 1
𝑌 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗)(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗)
Solution

2𝑠 + 1
𝑌 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)2 +1
𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
2.2 Laplace transform theorem
• Initial value theorem:
lim 𝑦 𝑡 = lim[ 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)]
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
Example2.4: Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of
the following equation using the initial-value theorem.

2𝑠 + 1
𝑌 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗)(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗)

𝑠(2𝑠 + 1)
lim[ 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)] = =2
𝑠→∞ (𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗)(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗)
Final value theorem:
lim (𝑦 𝑡 ) = lim[ 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)]
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
Example 2.5:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following
equation using the initial-value theorem.

2𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1 2 (𝑠 + 2)
𝑦 𝑡 = −2𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 4𝑒 −𝑡 − 4𝑒 −2𝑡

lim[ 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)] =
𝑠→0
 3. Mathematical modeling
3.1 Introduction
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical,
electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be
described in terms of differential equations.
• Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws
governing a particular system for example, Newton’s laws for
mechanical systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems.
• Mathematical models of the system have many different
forms.
• For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous
to use state-space representations.
• For transient-response or frequency-response analysis of
single-input, single-output, linear, time-invariant systems,
the transfer-function representation may be more
convenient than any other.
3.2 Transfer Function.
• Definition: it is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output signal to
the Laplace transform of the input signal (driving function), assuming
that all initial conditions to be zero.
• Let, there is a given system with input r(t) and output c(t) as shown in
Fig.3.1 (a), then its Laplace domain is shown in Fig.3.1 (b). Here, input
and output are R(s) and C(s) respectively.

Fig.3.1. (a) A system in time domain and (b) a system in frequency domain
• G(s) is the transfer function of the system. It can be mathematically
represented as follows.
𝐶 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 = … … … … … … (3.1)
𝑅 𝑠
Example 3.1: Determine the transfer function of the system showninFig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. (a) a system in time domain (b) is redrawn in frequency domain as

shown in Fig.3.2.
Solution:
• Applying KVL to loop-1 of the Fig.3.2
𝑑𝑖 𝑡 1
𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + L + න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
• Take Laplace transform
1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼 𝑠 + L𝑠𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
1
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅 + L𝑠 + 𝐼 𝑠 3.2
𝐶𝑠
• Applying KVL to loop-2 of the Fig.3.2
1
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
1
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 3.3
𝐶𝑠