J. Opt. Commun.

2021; aop

Waseem Raza, Farhan Qamar*, Aroosa Jabbar, Romana Shahzadi, Saleha Maqsood,
Mudassar Ali, Asim Shahzad and Muhammad Khawar Islam

A review on signal generation techniques in radio

over fiber systems
https://doi.org/10.1515/joc-2021-0068 emergence of GSM and WLAN technologies. Wireless sys-
Received March 11, 2021; accepted July 9, 2021; tems mostly operate at comparatively lower frequencies
published online August 2, 2021
where components tend to be less expensive; for instance,
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) compliant networks operate in the
Abstract: In this paper a review on different signal gener-
2.4–2.5-GHz band, GSM cellular telephone systems operate
ation techniques for Radio over Fiber systems is presented.
below 2 GHz. However, at these frequencies the bandwidth
Radio over fiber has become a conspicuous contender in
and thus the supported data rate is lesser than Millimeter
upcoming high data rate demands from household and
enterprises users. Radio signals or waves can be generated Wave (MMW 30–300 GHz) frequencies. Future wireless
back from optical signals at RAU (radio access unit) so that networking applications would require much more band-
they may be transmitted to mobile stations. This generation width due to high data rate demand. IEEE has already
is first assembled into different categories on the basis of defined a high-bandwidth Wireless Personal Area Network
some similar parameters, various aspects of each category (WPAN) standard IEEE 802.15.3c specifying wireless data
are given and then a comparison between different aspect of rates up to
each technique is summarized in table. Analysis of these 5.28 Gb/s operating on RF carrier frequencies of
techniques on the basis of ranges of radio frequencies that 58.3–64.8 GHz. There are some disadvantages of wireless
can be generated is also proposed in this paper. technologies: low bandwidth, security issues, and suscep-
tive to channel impairments like attenuation, scattering etc.
Keywords: intensity modulation; direct modulation; external On the other side, optical fiber has very attractive
modulators; phase modulation; up-down conversion; optical features comprising attenuation and crosstalk with very
heterodyning. high data rates (10 Gbps for GPON), but off course lack of
mobility. So, there has always been a desire to merge these
two schemes and exploit the benefits of both wireless
1 Introduction schemes and fiber. Radio over fiber is basically unification
and exploitation of benefits of both. This unification results
Wireless communication has been very fascinating tech- to the emergence of Radio over Fiber [1–3]. RoF ensures to
nology since its initial development in late 1800s and early control complex signal processing tasks at one centralized
1900s particularly for end users. The wireless communica- and shared location and distribution of radio signal
tion helps in achieving the mobility and flexibility, low cost through fiber too far away devices. RoF may have different
and ease to expand the network, access to remote and deployment scenarios listed below [3]:
physically far areas. In last couple of decades there has been – Cellular wireless network via RoF
remarkable progress in wireless technologies, specifically – WiMAX using RoF links
– CaTV with RoF
– Service Integration with RoF
*Corresponding author: Farhan Qamar, Department of FT & IE, UET, – 60 GHz home area network
Taxila, 47050, Pakistan, E-mail: [email protected].
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4406-4308
Waseem Raza, Research Center at Oklahoma University, Norman, OK, A typical RoF system consists of a Base Station (BS) and one
USA or more Remote Antenna Units (RAUs). Link from BS to
Aroosa Jabbar, Romana Shahzadi, Saleha Maqsood and Mudassar RAU is termed as downlink and from RAU to BS is termed as
Ali, Department of FT & IE, UET, Taxila, 47050, Pakistan uplink. Radio signal is transmitted over fiber by, either
Asim Shahzad, Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal Urdu
directly or indirectly modulating the optical carrier at BS
University, Karachi, Pakistan
Muhammad Khawar Islam, Department of Electrical Engineering,
for downlink communication. This same radio to optical
Taibah University, Al Madinah Al Munawarah, K.S.A, Medina, Saudi conversion is accomplished at RAU for uplink communi-
Arabia cation. In RoF systems optical signals modulated with
2 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems

radio are converted back to radio signals at RAU to be transmitted high data rate orthogonal frequency division
transmitted to mobile stations. This generation of radio multiplexing video signal over 1 km Multi Mode Fiber.
signal can be done by numerous ways depending upon This is simple and efficient method to generate radio
system architecture and range of frequencies to be gener- signals through optical fiber. But there are some limitations
ated. In photonic generation optical signals are used to in this scheme. Operating RF frequencies should be less
generate radio signal at RAU. than modulation cut off frequencies of laser source. So,
In this paper a review on various signal generation there is a limitation in terms upper bound of frequencies to
techniques is investigated. Rest of the paper is organized be generated by this method.
as: Section 2 emphasizes on techniques of signal genera-
tion, Section 3 describes them on the basis of range of
frequencies generation, evaluate the best technique for a 2.2 Signal generation using external
particular range and in Section 4 summarizes conclusion
modulator
and future work.
In this scheme, RF signal modulates the light signal using
external modulators - MZM (Mach-Zehnder Modulator) or
2 Signal generation techniques EAM (Electro Absorption Modulator) as shown in Figure 2.
In a typical external modulator strategy a single DFB laser
There have been many techniques to generate signals operating in CW mode is coupled with MZM to modulate
either solely in optical domain or involving some electronic laser output signal. RF signal is fed to MZM in such a way
devices [4, 5]. In some applications authors have used that optical carrier at central frequency is suppressed. At
combination of two or more techniques simultaneously. MZM output of only two first order side bands are gener-
This section briefly describes each category. ated; these sidebands are beaten on photodetector in RAU
to generate microwave signal. The frequencies generated
by this method are twice the RF frequencies modulating the
2.1 Direct intensity modulation light carrier at MZM.
First of this scheme was proposed by O Rcilly in 1992
Direct Intensity Modulation involves a carrier signal to bias a [7]. In order to generate higher frequencies microwave
laser. A radio signal is used to directly modulate a laser signal another variant of this scheme is the use of multiple
source and then direct detection at the remote antenna unit modulators in cascaded fashion. Many researchers have
retrieves the radio signal. A typical direct intensity modu- adopted this strategy in literature. In [8] proposed a 4 to 40
lation RoF system is shown in Figure 1a. RF signal is com- GHz frequency quadrupler for Radio over Fiber system.
bined with laser bias current to feed laser source. Direct Here optical carrier is suppressed in two cascaded intensity
detection at photo detector in RAU generate RF signal which modulators. Some other schemes of this category have
is transmitted through antenna. In [6], Hartmannor et al. been proposed to generate frequency quadrupled [9–11],

Figure 1: Intensity modulation – (a) direct

modulation (b) up conversion and down
conversion.

RF Input Antenna
EDFA

DFB MZM PD BFP

Bias

CS RAU Figure 2: External modulation.

 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems 3

sixtupled, octupled, and twelvetupled [12] microwave sig- and Φ is the polarization related phase difference and τ
nals. In [9] authors used external modulator for MMW (Milli represents the delay factor while implementing modula-
Meter Wave) generation. Optical carrier suppression ex- tion index.
ploits highest spectral efficiency and smallest power pen- sin(ωRF × τRF )
alty. Optoelectronic oscillator, along with non-linear r= (3)
(ωRF × τRF )
effects of semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) was used
for frequency up conversion in [13]. π × VRF
β= (4)
This scheme is further divided into two categories. Vπ

2.2.1 Intensity modulation based approach 2.2.2 Phase modulation based approach

In this scheme intensity of the optical carrier is modulated Suppression of sidebands of MZM modulated carrier cau-
with RF signal. Initially optical carrier is used to generate a ses bias drifting problem, leading to poor system response.
carrier and DSB signal. This signal is transmitted over the One solution to alleviate this problem is the use of PM
fiber and suffers from chromatic dispersion. An improvement instead of MZM. PM is not dc biased, so it is immune to
was SSB signal generation and Optical Carrier Suppression biased drifting problems and provides stable output. This
(OCS). This strategy ensures high receiver sensitivity, high is also a simple and efficient approach, but intrinsic non-
spectral efficiency, low spectral occupancy and low band- linearity of modulators is a drawback. Other limitations
width requirement for RF signals. include dispersion effects and high insertion loss. This
IMDD (Intensity Modulation Direct Detection) is also approach is reported in [15, 16].
employed in [14] with bias free tunable transfer function and
a Sagnac loop filter as in Figure 3. The input light is split into
two parts half traveling in clockwise (CW) and other half in 2.2.2.1 Up and down conversion
counterclockwise (CCW) direction. RF signal is applied to This technique converts MMW-RF signals to some IF (In-
Phase Modulator (PM). Two polarization controllers, one termediate Frequency) signals using a mixer and LO (Local
placed outside the loop (PC1) and other inside the loop (PC2) Oscillator), and then transmits them over fiber. At the
are also used. PC1 is to adjust the optical signals which travel receiver, IF signal is up converted to RF signal as depicted
in CW direction, and align with PM. PC2 adjust the phase in Figure 1b. So this technique endorses IF over fiber (IFoF)
difference in CCW traveling signals. Relation between rather than RoF as shown in Figure 4. Role of circulator is to
output optical power Pout, input optical power Pin and phase filter out the RF output whereas EA is used to amplify
difference between CW and CCW Δϕ is given as: signal. Intermediate frequency bands are extensively used
in AM receiver around 455 kHz for AM receiver and
P out = 2∗P in ∗LP (1 + sin(Δϕ)) (1)
10.7 MHz for FM receivers. In AM, FM radio, analogue TV,
where Lp is optical loss by polarization when CW and CCW and radar applications: receivers are required to be tuned
optical signals recombine at output of coupler. if a micro- with different frequencies as per demand. Therefore,
wave signal of angular frequency ωRF is fed to PM total instead of having multiple or multistage amplifiers and
phase difference is given by: filters; it is convenient to build a tunable local oscillator.
Super-heterodyne receiver is capable to receive multiple
Δϕ = (1 − r)β ∗ cos(ωRF t) + ∅ (2)
frequencies by adjusting frequency of local oscillator.
where r is backward to forward modulation index ratio Moreover, narrow bandwidth with more selectivity can be
given in Eq. (3) and modulation index β is given in Eq. (4) realized by IF frequencies rather than RF signals.

IF Input
RF Ouput Antenna MS

LD PD Filter EA

Circulator MS

CS RAU Figure 3: Up conversion.

4 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems

2.3 Optical heterodyning

This technique employs transmission of two or more opti-

cal signals over fiber and then heterodyning the signal at
receiving end. Beating at the photodetector yields fre-
quencies, corresponding to wavelength spacing of two
optical signals. Although generation of frequency band is
of course confined by photodetector bandwidth. There are
two optical signals SA(t) and SB(t) defined by Eqs. (5) and
(6), beat at the photodetector.
SA (t) = A sin(ωA t + φA ) (5)

Figure 4: SLF based Intensity Modulator. SB (t) = B sin(ωB t + φB ) (6)

where A and B are the amplitudes of corresponding

This technique was initially reported in [17, 18]. Inter- signal and ω is the angular frequency of these signals.
mediate Frequency over fiber systems, with various ap- Output current generated at PD IPD(t) is given by Eq. (7) of
plications have been discussed by many researchers in amplitude to signal A and B. Chi et al. [23] used optical
literature. In [19] authors experimentally compared several heterodyning to produce radio signal, this was quite pro-
multi-IF carrier generation methods based on IQ modula- ductive method as it was oscillator free generation, but
tion for IFoF systems. PM is used at two stages, one in frequencies depend on dispersive components. Authors in
transmitter for external modulation, and other in receiver [24] generated ASK signal by optical heterodyning and
to remodulate the optical carrier with a local oscillator beating at photodetector. But ASK signal is more suscep-
tone. Direct detection of IF signal is done by removing the tive to attenuation and degradation.
carrier with a notch filter. For performance evaluation, they I PD (t) = RPD [C × sin((ωA − ωB ) + (φA − φB ))] (7)
used back-to-back EVM method with five 64-QAM LTE
signals, 20 MHz bandwidth and 30 MHz frequency spacing. where RPD is the responsivity of PD. C = A∗B is the product
A digitized IFoF system based on delta sigma modulation In [25] authors reported the generation of combined
is, reported in [20]. Authors used 622 MHz 130 nm CMOS FSK/IM modulation format by using GCSR tunable laser
DSM chip for IF signals digitization. A noise figure of sources. FSK modulation, up to 100 Mbit/s, has been ach-
32.5 dB is observed when a 30 GHz is down converted to ieved by modulating the phase section of a GCSR laser
140 MHz IF. source. They experimentally demonstrated generation of
Guillory et al. [21] proposed a point-to-point RoF link combined FSK/IM modulation at 100Mbit/s and 10 Gbit/s,
with two hops in air known as RoF tunnel. It is required that respectively.
this Home Area Network (HAN) architecture must be of low
cost. Down conversion of mm signal to a low frequency IF
signal is performed with a local oscillator before modu- 2.4 Optical Locking
lating the laser, then up conversion is performed after
receiving the optical signal. This work is extended in [22], a The fundamental drawback of optical heterodyning is laser
multipoint-to-multipoint architecture is used with multi- phase noise, as phase of two optical signals may be un-
mode fiber to enhance the radio coverage of 60 GHz IFoF aligned. One of the possible solutions is to use Optical
system for HANs. For propagation in MMF RF signal is Locking to mitigate this effect. Optical Locking is a general
transited to IF signal. term that refers to different locking mechanism: Optical
It is worth mentioning that some authors used term Injection Locking (OIL), Optical Phase Lock Loop (OPLL),
“up conversion” when using external modulators along Optical Injection Phase Lock Loop (OIPLL). These schemes
with other necessary devices in different systems. They are elaborated in detail.
also fall in external modulation category. This technique is
efficient for DWDM networks as it contains small amount of 2.4.1 Optical injection locking (OIL)
bandwidth and generated signals are free from fiber
dispersion effects. But it requires additional components OIL was initially reported in literature [26–28]. A typical
for mixing and frequency conversion. OIL system is shown in Figure 5, it consists of a master laser
 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems 5

diode as shown in Figure (6). This feedback phenomenon is

RF
SL1 used to control laser injection current according to output.
OPLL has been used by many researchers for the photonic
signal generation. In [33] authors used an OPLL with two
OpƟcal
Master Laser OC OC PD CW lasers for low phase noise MMW photonic signal gen-
Isolator
eration up to 64 GHz. Balakier et al. [34, 35] presented a
monolithically integrated OPLL synchronized with a OFCG,
SL2 and generated 2.5–21.5 GHz with phase noise −80 dBc/Hz.
Authors also presented review on design aspects for
monolithically integrated OPLL. Locking range of OPLL
Figure 5: OIL - optical injection locking.
can be enhanced by linewidth and loop length of laser
diode.
fed by frequency modulated RF signal, its output is fed to
other slave laser diodes. operating wavelength of slave
2.4.3 Optical Injection Phase Lock Loop (OIPLL)
laser is such that it is closely related to some sidebands
order of master laser [4, 29]. Phase of slave laser is locked
OIPLL is the combination of OPLL and OIL. It merges phase
with the sidebands of master laser, so beating on the PD
noise suppressing property of OIL and tracking character-
produce microwave signals. Self-Injection Locking with
istics of OPLL. This system consists of an OIL with free
monolithic dual wavelength amplified feedback laser is
running master and slave laser, and generally a feedback
reported in [30]. In this scheme signal range is from 29 to
mechanism (to include the effect of OPLL). Feedback is
37 GHz with linewidth less than 4 kHz. In another scheme
applied to OIL to overcome the slow drifts of injection
[31] a quantum dot laser with dual mode optical injection
locking. OIPLL has been examined in various papers. In
locking is employed to generate high frequency signals.
[36, 37] authors presented a heterodyne OIPLL to generate
In [32] OIL is employed with DFB laser for optical
microwave carriers of eight or 16 GHz. Johansson et al. [38]
frequency comb generation. Multi-wavelength injection
employed OIPLL to generate 36 GHz 140 Mbps in a RoF
is done after single-wavelength OIL experiment to obtain
system. Some other techniques using OIPLL are reported in
injection locking parameters for the distributed feedback
[39–41]. Experimental setup using OIPLL reported in [40] is
(DFB) laser. Three lines generated from intensity mod-
shown in Figure 7. Two DFB lasers of 1450 nm are used and
ulation; necessary minimum guard band of 20 GHz
in order to eliminate optical alignment fiber based system
spacing is used to prevent locking cross talk. Theoretical
employed with pig tailed optical components are also uti-
injection locking limit is calculated based on injected
lized. Output of reference signal is divided into two parts,
laser rate Eq. (8).
one of which is fed into master DFB laser. Output of master
c √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ laser is divided into 20/80 ratio. 80% part is combined with
ΔfOIL = fML − fLO = ± ηI e (1 + α2 ) (8)
4πng L slave laser output in a 50/50 coupler. Second output of
reference signal fed into slave laser, after passing through
where fML is the master laser frequency, fLO is the frequency
loop filter. Injected master laser field is kept separated from
of free running local oscillator, ng is group refractive index,
slave laser emitted field with optical circulator. Two feed-
α is the linewidth enhancement factor, L is the cavity length
back control mechanism are employed. One feedback is
of LO laser. Ie is the measured injection ratio and coupling
used for final output to feed it to the output of master DFB
losses during the injection process are given in factor η. OIL
laser passed from a polarization controller. 20% output of
is very promising technique, with large intensity locking
optical circular is detected on PIN diode and other feed-
gain and more frequency locking range. Semiconductor
back is used to mix this output with the input of slave DFB
laser also acts as a coherent amplifier. Phase noise issue
laser. Spectral characteristics and phase noise perfor-
has been effectively minimized.
mance of OIPLL is given by following equations. Spectral
density of phase noise Sθ (f ) is given:
2.4.2 Optical Phase Lock Loop (OPLL)
dfms ⃒⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒
Sθ (f ) = ⃒1 − H(2πjf )⃒⃒2 + N PLL ⃒⃒H(2πjf )⃒⃒2 9(a)
2πf 2
An OPLL consists of two laser sources, PD, Phase detector
and feedback mechanism. Output to PD is injected to Phase where d fm is FWHM (Full Wave Half Maximum), NPLL is
detector, mixed with RF signal, and amplified subse- received noise in phase locked loop. OIPLL transfer func-
quently, then its output is fed back to input of one laser tion is given:
6 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems

LD-1
Mixer Amplifier

OpƟcal Coupler PD Loop Filter

LD-2 RF

Figure 6: OPLL - optical phase locked loop.

K OIL + KF(s)h(s)e−sτd 2.5 Other methods

H(s) = 9(b)
s + K OIL + KF(s)h(s)e−sτd

where KOIL is locking gain, F(s) is filter response of PLL Photonic signal generation can also be realized by
loop, and h(s) FM response of slave laser. locking gain is employing Stimulated Brillion Scattering (SBS). This
given by following equation: method exploits non-linear behavior of external modulator
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ to generate side bands of a CW laser. Two sidebands are
ρ(1 − α2 )
K OIL = cos(θms − tan−1 (α)) 9(c) amplified in optical fiber due to SBS and rest is attenuated.
τ0
These two sidebands at photodiode beat to produce radio
where ρ is injection ratio, θms is injection phase, signal. This method has been studied by various researcher
Summary of all these methods can be seen and in literature [42–49]. Impairment, Four Wave Mixing
compared in table 1. (FWM) has also been employed by several researchers to

Figure 7: OIPLL experimental arrangement.

Table : Summary and Comparison of all techniques.

Photonic Generation Description Advantage Disadvantage

Technique

Direct modulation mm source directly modulate an LD Simple efficient tunable with a mm wave Response of LD is bottleneck
source
External modulation CW laser is (externally) modulated using Simple. High spectral purity. Low noise Cost. High insertion loss
MZM/EAM
Up-and down- IF hand signal and IF-to-RF up conversion Direct IF modulation negligible chromatic High-freq. FAM high cost due to
conversion dispersion additional components
Optical Beating of two optical waves of different High frequency generation. Full modula- Complicated light source later
heterodyning wavelength at PD tion depth. Fiber dispersion effect free phase noise
Optical lacking Synchronization of a free running oscillator High quality phase correlated mm Cost is increased as more de-
according to reference of oscillator signals. vices are required
OPLL Phase tracking using feedback Pulse width is controlled Loop delay, and laser linewidth
requirements
OIL Phase noise suppression using master and Narrow Narrow locking range
slaw laser
OIPLL Master and slave lasers with feedback Overcome drawbacks of OIL and OPLL complexity and costly
 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems 7

generate millimeter wave signals. Wang et al. [50, 51] frequency quadrupling with 8.28125 GHz basic signal and
employed OPLL along with FWM in SOA to generate two stage cascaded MZM to generate 33.125 GHz signal.
millimeter wave signals. Signal generation in V band particularly around
Arbitrary Waveform Generation based on pulse 60 GHz band (57–63) GHz has gained attention of re-
shaping along with Spatial Light Modulator has been dis- searchers. The dominant reasons being license free spec-
cussed. The pulse shaping module consists of an SLF trum and high bandwidth for future wireless network
(Sagnac Loop Filter) and dispersive elements. Range of demands. Different strategies have been described to
generated frequencies confide on FSR (Free Spectral generate signal in this range. One obvious choice is to
Range) of SLF and dispersive elements [23]. utilize tupling, by selecting appropriate LO and multiple
stages in modulator: 12 tupling using 5 GHz signal [12],
eight tupling to generate 64 GHz signals using a 8 GHz in
3 Generation of frequency ranges [60], employing quadrupling to generate 64 GHz in [11].
Other approach to generate signal in 60 GHz range to use
This section covers different signal generation schemes optical heterodyning with remote heterodyne detection
keeping in view the range of frequencies to be generated method and locking mechanism. These techniques are
from that method. Frequency ranges are divided as stated examined in [22, 25, 61–64].
in table 2, including UWB band (3.1–10.6 GHz), X band W band signal generation have been reported in [65].
(8–12 GHz), V band (50–75 GHz), W Band (75–110 GHz), Ito et al. proposed a module to generate high power signal
sub-Tera Hertz and THz frequency ranges. It is also worth in W band [65]. The size and specifications of the module
mentioning that different schemes with some combina- are identical to optoelectronic devices [66]. 100 GHz signal
tions are also capable to generate different ranges. Direct generation at 775 nm with carrier and unnecessary side
intensity modulation has an upper threshold in terms of band suppression and pulse shaping is presented in [67].
range of frequency and this occurs due to laser modulation Shi et al. [68] suggested MMW chirped waveform to
cutoff frequency. Most of the lasers have cutoff frequencies accomplish ultrahigh TBP (Time Bandwidth Product). Au-
around 10 GHz so direct intensity modulation is simple and thors utilized specially designed Wavelength Swept Laser
optimum method to generate signals in the range 1–20 GHz and broadband photonic transmitter to generate contin-
as in table 2. In [52] authors employed direct modulation to uous chirped MMW in W band. kue et al. [69] presented a
generate signal in Ku band (12–18 GHz). A local oscillator of remotely up converted 93 GHz optical pulse train genera-
15.5 GHz upconverts 500 MHz signal to 16 GHz. Signal tion method with 31 GHz initial signal. W band OFDM
generations in this range is utilized: in up conversion of signal generation for RoF has also been investigated in [70]
2.4 GHz IF signal to 12.4 GHz RF signal [53] and in Opto- employs nonupling optical up conversion.
electronic Oscillator and frequency doubling to generate Communication system working in sub-THz range
20 GHz signals [13]. (above W band till 300 GHz) are demonstrated in [71]. In
To generate frequencies in 20–40 GHz use of external this system multichannel 200 GHz signals are generated by
modulation and up-conversion has been analyzed [54–59]. optical heterodyning with digital coherent detection. In
In [10] frequency quadrupling is used to generate 40 GHz [72] authors provided a mechanism for narrow line width
signal using 10 GHz RF signal. Chi et al. [9] employed and large coverage for THz and sub-THz generation based

Table : Generation of frequency ranges.

Frequency Range Techniques used Best and Optimum Technique

(– GHz) including UWB band Direct modulation, frequency tupling, heterodyning Direct modulation sufficient
(– GHz) External modulation, up conversion, tupling, External modulation
heterodyning
(– GHz) Heterodyning, up conversion, tupling Optical heterodyning including
locking
(– GHz) W band Tupling, heterodyning, up conversion Tupling
Greater than  GHz (THz and sub THz Locking Optical heterodyning
generation)
8 W. Raza et al.: A review on signal generation techniques in radio over fiber systems

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