Mathematics Engineers
Uploaded by
buruaccMathematics Engineers
Uploaded by
buruaccCROFT AND ANTHONY CROFT AND ROBERT DAVISON
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS DAVISON
Fifth edition
MATHEMATICS
ENGINEERS
MATHEMATICS FOR
Understanding key mathematical concepts and applying them successfully to solve problems are vital skills
FOR ENGINEERS
that all engineering students must acquire. Mathematics for Engineers introduces, teaches, develops and
nurtures those skills. Practical, informal and accessible, it begins with the foundations and gradually builds
upon this knowledge as it introduces more complex concepts. Learn everything you will need for your first year
engineering mathematics course, together with a wealth of introductory material for even more advanced
topics such as Laplace and Fourier transforms and partial differential equations.
Key features
• Applications of mathematics are drawn from a wide range of engineering areas: aeronautical, automotive,
FIFTH EDITION
chemical, civil, computer, electrical and electronic, manufacturing, materials, mechanical, production,
reliability, and systems engineering.
• Hundreds of interactive examples are provided in the context of various engineering disciplines, so you
are able to both engage with the problems and also see the relevance of the maths to your wider studies.
• A wealth of practice and revision exercises with solutions help test your knowledge.
• Key points and important results are highlighted throughout.
• Computer and calculator examples and exercises are incorporated in relevant sections.
• Specimen examination papers give further opportunity to practise.
• A foundation section gives you a firm base in arithmetic, the building block of many high-level
mathematical topics.
New to this 5th edition
• Significant enhancements integrating the use of computer software in the solution of engineering
mathematics problems.
• Widening of the applications base to include more from mechanical, materials and aeronautical
engineering.
• Introductory material on the solution of partial differential equations, loci in the complex plane and the
equation of a circle.
Anthony Croft is Emeritus Professor of Mathematics Education at Loughborough University and
FIFTH
Robert Davison spent over 30 years teaching and writing mathematics for higher education students. EDITION
They have authored many best-selling mathematics textbooks including several for engineering students.
Cover image: © shutterstock Premier/ Ekaphon maneechot www.pearson-books.com
CVR_CROFT_05_53640.indd 1 12/12/18 9:45 AM
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Mathematics for Engineers
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Mathematics for
Engineers
Fifth Edition
Anthony Croft
Loughborough University
Robert Davison
Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong
Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 11/27/18 1:06 PM Page iv
PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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KAO Park
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United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
Web: www.pearson.com/uk
First published 1998 (print)
Second edition published 2004 (print)
Third edition published 2008 (print)
Fourth edition published 2015 (print and electronic)
Fifth edition published 2019 (print and electronic)
© Pearson Education Limited 1998, 2004, 2008 (print)
© Pearson Education Limited 2015, 2019 (print and electronic)
The rights of Anthony Croft and Robert Davison to be identified as authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in
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mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or,
where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be
obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Barnard’s Inn, 86 Fetter Lane, London
EC4A 1EN.
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ISBN: 978-1-292-25364-0 (print)
978-1-292-25370-1 (eText)
978-1-292-25369-5 (ePub)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for the print edition is available from the Library of Congress
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Cover: © Shutterstock / Ekaphon Maneechot
Print edition typeset in 10/12 Times by Pearson CSC
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NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
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To Kate and Harvey (AC)
To Kathy (RD)
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Brief contents
Contents ix
Publisher’s acknowledgements xv
Preface xvi
Using mathematical software packages xx
1 Arithmetic 1
2 Fractions 18
3 Decimal numbers 35
4 Percentage and ratio 45
5 Basic algebra 57
6 Functions and mathematical models 136
7 Polynomial equations, inequalities,
partial fractions and proportionality 215
8 Logarithms and exponentials 289
9 Trigonometry 335
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page viii
viii Brief contents
10 Further trigonometry 401
11 Complex numbers 450
12 Matrices and determinants 521
13 Using matrices and determinants to solve equations 600
14 Vectors 669
15 Differentiation 740
16 Techniques and applications of differentiation 771
17 Integration 826
18 Applications of integration 895
19 Sequences and series 943
20 Differential equations 977
21 Functions of more than one variable
and partial differentiation 1048
22 The Laplace transform 1094
23 Statistics and probability 1129
24 An introduction to Fourier series
and the Fourier transform 1213
Typical examination papers 1242
Appendix 1: SI units and prefixes 1248
Index 1249
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page ix
Contents
Publisher’s acknowledgements xv
Preface xvi
Using mathematical software packages xx
1 Arithmetic 1
Block 1 Operations on numbers 3
Block 2 Prime numbers and prime factorisation 10
End of chapter exercises 17
2 Fractions 18
Block 1 Introducing fractions 20
Block 2 Operations on fractions 25
End of chapter exercises 33
3 Decimal numbers 35
Block 1 Introduction to decimal numbers 37
Block 2 Significant figures 42
End of chapter exercises 43
4 Percentage and ratio 45
Block 1 Percentage 47
Block 2 Ratio 51
End of chapter exercises 56
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x Contents
5 Basic algebra 57
Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols 59
Block 2 Indices 72
Block 3 Simplification by collecting like terms 88
Block 4 Removing brackets 91
Block 5 Factorisation 99
Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions 106
Block 7 Formulae and transposition 119
End of chapter exercises 133
6 Functions and mathematical models 136
Block 1 Basic concepts of functions 138
Block 2 The graph of a function 147
Block 3 Composition of functions 155
Block 4 One-to-one functions and inverse functions 158
Block 5 Parametric representation of a function 165
Block 6 Describing functions 168
Block 7 The straight line 177
Block 8 Common engineering functions 192
Block 9 The equation of a circle 209
End of chapter exercises 212
7 Polynomial equations, inequalities,
partial fractions and proportionality 215
Block 1 Solving linear equations 218
Block 2 Solving quadratic equations 230
Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving
polynomial equations 243
Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations 252
Block 5 Solution of inequalities 261
Block 6 Partial fractions 270
Block 7 Proportionality 282
End of chapter exercises 286
8 Logarithms and exponentials 289
Block 1 The exponential function 291
Block 2 Logarithms and their laws 306
Block 3 Solving equations involving logarithms and exponentials 316
Block 4 Applications of logarithms 321
End of chapter exercises 332
9 Trigonometry 335
Block 1 Angles 337
Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios 341
Block 3 The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants 352
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Contents xi
Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs 360
Block 5 Trigonometrical identities 372
Block 6 Trigonometrical equations 377
Block 7 Engineering waves 386
End of chapter exercises 399
10 Further trigonometry 401
Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution
of right-angled triangles 403
Block 2 Solving triangles using the sine rule 413
Block 3 Solving triangles using the cosine rule 419
Block 4 Surveying 424
Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces 435
End of chapter exercises 447
11 Complex numbers 450
Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers 452
Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number 465
Block 3 The exponential form of a complex number 490
Block 4 De Moivre’s theorem 496
Block 5 Solving equations and finding roots of complex numbers 504
Block 6 Phasors 512
End of chapter exercises 518
12 Matrices and determinants 521
Block 1 Introduction to matrices 523
Block 2 Multiplication of matrices 534
Block 3 Determinants 544
Block 4 The inverse of a matrix 563
Block 5 Computer graphics 572
End of chapter exercises 595
13 Using matrices and determinants
to solve equations 600
Block 1 Cramer’s rule 603
Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations 607
Block 3 Gaussian elimination 615
Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 628
Block 5 Iterative techniques 646
Block 6 Electrical networks 655
End of chapter exercises 665
14 Vectors 669
Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors 671
Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors 685
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xii Contents
Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product 703
Block 4 The vector product, or cross product 715
Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane 726
End of chapter exercises 738
15 Differentiation 740
Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative 742
Block 2 Using a table of derivatives 755
Block 3 Higher derivatives 764
End of chapter exercises 769
16 Techniques and applications of differentiation 771
Block 1 The product rule and the quotient rule 773
Block 2 The chain rule 779
Block 3 Implicit differentiation 785
Block 4 Parametric differentiation 791
Block 5 Logarithmic differentiation 795
Block 6 Tangents and normals 799
Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function 809
End of chapter exercises 823
17 Integration 826
Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse 828
Block 2 Definite integrals 840
Block 3 The area bounded by a curve 847
Block 4 Computational approaches to integration 857
Block 5 Integration by parts 867
Block 6 Integration by substitution 874
Block 7 Integration using partial fractions 885
Block 8 Integration of trigonometrical functions 888
End of chapter exercises 892
18 Applications of integration 895
Block 1 Integration as the limit of a sum 897
Block 2 Volumes of revolution 903
Block 3 Calculating centres of mass 910
Block 4 Moment of inertia 923
Block 5 The length of a curve and the area of a surface
of revolution 929
Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square
value of a function 935
End of chapter exercises 942
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Contents xiii
19 Sequences and series 943
Block 1 Sequences and series 945
Block 2 Sums of whole numbers, their squares and cubes 958
Block 3 Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem 961
Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series 967
End of chapter exercises 975
20 Differential equations 977
Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations 980
Block 2 Separation of variables 995
Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an integrating factor 1003
Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations 1011
Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I 1021
Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II 1034
End of chapter exercises 1046
21 Functions of more than one variable
and partial differentiation 1048
Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs 1050
Block 2 Partial differentiation 1060
Block 3 Higher-order derivatives 1070
Block 4 Partial differential equations 1075
Block 5 Stationary values of a function of two variables 1087
End of chapter exercises 1092
22 The Laplace transform 1094
Block 1 The Laplace transform 1096
Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform 1107
Block 3 Solving differential equations using
the Laplace transform 1116
End of chapter exercises 1126
23 Statistics and probability 1129
Block 1 Data 1131
Block 2 Data averages 1133
Block 3 Variation of data 1141
Block 4 Elementary probability 1146
Block 5 Laws of probability 1155
Block 6 Probability distributions 1169
Block 7 The binomial distribution 1177
Block 8 The Poisson distribution 1185
Block 9 The normal distribution 1194
End of chapter exercises 1210
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xiv Contents
24 An introduction to Fourier series
and the Fourier transform 1213
Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation 1215
Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform 1232
End of chapter exercises 1240
Typical examination papers 1242
Appendix 1: SI units and prefixes 1248
Index 1249
Companion Website ON THE
WEBSITE
For open-access student resources specifically
written to complement this textbook and support
your learning, please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/croft
Lecturer Resources
For password-protected online resources tailored to support
the use of this textbook in teaching, please visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/croft
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 11/9/18 2:57 PM Page xv
Publisher’s acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
The screenshots in this book are Copyright © Waterloo Maple Inc., xxi and
The MathWorks, Inc., xxii and reprinted with permission.
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page xvi
Preface
Audience
This book has been written to serve the mathematical needs of students engaged in a
first course in engineering or technology at degree level. Students of a very wide
range of these programmes will find that the book contains the mathematical
methods they will meet in a first-year course in most UK universities. So the book
will satisfy the needs of students of aeronautical, automotive, chemical, civil,
electronic and electrical, systems, mechanical, manufacturing, and production
engineering, and other technological fields. Care has been taken to include illustra-
tive examples from these disciplines where appropriate.
Aims
There are two main aims of this book.
Firstly, we wish to provide a readable, accessible and student-friendly introduc-
tion to mathematics for engineers and technologists at degree level. Great care has
been taken with explanations of difficult concepts, and wherever possible statements
are made in everyday language, as well as symbolically. It is the use of symbolic
notation that seems to cause many students problems, and we hope that we have
gone a long way to alleviate such problems.
Secondly, we wish to develop in the reader the confidence and competence to
handle mathematical methods relevant to engineering and technology through an
interactive approach to learning. You will find that the book encourages you to take
an active part in the learning process – this is an essential ingredient in the learning
of mathematics.
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Preface xvii
The structure of this book
The book has been divided into 24 chapters. Each chapter is subdivided into a unit
called a block. A block is intended to be a self-contained unit of study. Each block
has a brief introduction to the material in it, followed by explanations, examples and
applications. Important results and key points are highlighted. Many of the examples
require you to participate in the problem-solving process, so you will need to have
pens or pencils, scrap paper and a scientific calculator to hand. We say more about
this aspect below. Solutions to these examples are all given alongside.
Each block also contains a number of practice exercises, and the solutions to these
are placed immediately afterwards. This avoids the need for searching at the back of
the book for solutions. A further set of exercises appears at the end of each block.
At the end of each chapter you will find end of chapter exercises, which are
designed to consolidate and draw together techniques from all the blocks within the
chapter.
Some sections contain computer or calculator exercises. These are denoted by the
computer icon. It is not essential that these are attempted, but those of you with
access to graphical calculators or computer software can see how these modern
technologies can be used to speed up long and complicated calculations.
Learning mathematics
In mathematics almost all early building blocks are required in advanced work. New
ideas are usually built upon existing ones. This means that, if some early topics are
not adequately mastered, difficulties are almost certain to arise later on. For example,
if you have not mastered the arithmetic of fractions, then you will find some aspects
of algebra confusing. Without a firm grasp of algebra you will not be able to perform
the techniques of calculus, and so on. It is therefore essential to try to master the full
range of topics in your mathematics course and to remedy deficiencies in your prior
knowledge.
Learning mathematics requires you to participate actively in the learning process.
This means that in order to get a sound understanding of any mathematical topic it is
essential that you actually perform the calculations yourself. You cannot learn math-
ematics by being a spectator. You must use your brain to solve the problem, and you
must write out the solution. These are essential parts of the learning process. It is not
sufficient to watch someone else solve a similar problem, or to read a solution in a
book, although these things of course can help. The test of real understanding and
skill is whether or not you can do the necessary work on your own.
How to use this book
This book contains hundreds of fully worked examples. When studying such an
example, read it through carefully and ensure you understand each stage of the
calculation.
A central feature of the book is the use of interactive examples that require the
reader to participate actively in the learning process. These examples are indicated
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page xviii
xviii Preface
by the pencil icon. Make sure you have to hand scrap paper, pens or pencils and a
calculator. Interactive examples contain ‘empty boxes’ and ‘completed boxes’. An
empty box indicates that a calculation needs to be performed by you. The corres-
ponding completed box on the right of the page contains the calculation you should
have performed. When working through an interactive example, cover up the com-
pleted boxes, perform a calculation when prompted by an empty box, and then
compare your work with that contained in the completed box. Continue in this way
through the entire example. Interactive examples provide some help and structure
while also allowing you to test your understanding.
Sets of exercises are provided regularly throughout most blocks. Try these exer-
cises, always remembering to check your answers with those provided. Practice
enhances understanding, reinforces the techniques, and aids memory. Carrying out a
large number of exercises allows you to experience a greater variety of problems,
thus building your expertise and developing confidence.
Content
The content of the book reflects that taught to first-year engineering and technology
students in the majority of UK universities. However, particular care has been taken
to develop algebraic skills from first principles and to give students plenty of oppor-
tunity to practise using these. It is our firm belief, based on recent experience of
teaching engineering undergraduates, that many will benefit from this material
because they have had insufficient opportunity in their previous mathematical edu-
cation to develop such skills fully. Inevitably the choice of contents is a compro-
mise, but the topics covered were chosen after wide consultation coupled with
many years of teaching experience. Given the constraint of space we believe our
choice is optimal.
Use of modern IT aids
One of the main developments in the teaching of engineering mathematics in recent
years has been the widespread availability of sophisticated computer software and its
adoption by many educational institutions. Once a firm foundation of techniques has
been built, we would encourage its use, and so we have made general references at
several points in the text. In addition, in some blocks we focus specifically on two
common packages (Matlab and Maple), and these are introduced in the ‘Using
mathematical software packages’ section on page xx. Many features available in
software packages can also be found in graphical calculators.
On pages xxiii–xxiv we provide a reference table of Maple and Matlab commands
that are particularly useful for exploring and developing further the topics in this
book.
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Preface xix
Additions for the fifth edition
We have been delighted with the positive response to Mathematics for Engineers
since it was first published in 1998. In writing this fifth edition we have been guided
and helped by the numerous comments from both staff and students. For these com-
ments we express our thanks.
This fifth edition has been enhanced by the addition of numerous examples from
even wider fields of engineering. Applicability lies at the heart of engineering math-
ematics. We believe these additional examples serve to reinforce the crucial role that
mathematics plays in engineering. We hope that you agree.
Following useful suggestions from reviewers we have added new sections to cover
the equation of a circle, locus of a point in the complex plane and solution of partial
differential equations. We have enhanced and integrated the use of software in the
solution of engineering problems.
We hope the book supports you in your learning and wish you every success.
Anthony Croft and Robert Davison
May 2018
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/8/18 7:28 PM Page xx
Using mathematical software packages
One of the main developments influencing the learning and teaching of engineering
mathematics in recent years has been the widespread availability of sophisticated
computer software and its adoption by many educational institutions.
As engineering students, you will meet a range of software in your studies. It is
also highly likely that you will have access to specialist mathematical software.
Two software packages that are particularly useful for engineering mathematics,
and which are referred to on occasions throughout this book, are Matlab and Maple.
There are others, and you should enquire about the packages that have been made
available for your use. A number of these packages come with specialist tools for
subjects such as control theory and signal processing, so you will find them useful in
other subjects that you study.
Common features of all these packages include:
• the facility to plot two- and three-dimensional graphs;
• the facility to perform calculations with symbols (e.g. a2, x + y, as opposed to
just numbers) including the solution of equations.
In addition, some packages allow you to write computer programs of your own that
build upon existing functionality, and enable the experienced user to create powerful
tools for the solution of engineering problems.
The facility to work with symbols, as opposed to just numbers, means that these
packages are often referred to as computer algebra systems or symbolic processors.
You will be able to enter mathematical expressions, such as (x + 2)(x - 3) or
t - 6
2
, and subject them to all of the common mathematical operations:
t + 2t + 1
simplification, factorisation, differentiation, integration, and much more. You will be
able to perform calculations with vectors and matrices. With experience you will
find that lengthy, laborious work can be performed at the click of a button.
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page xxi
Using mathematical software packages xxi
The particular form in which a mathematical problem is entered – that is, the
syntax – varies from package to package. Raising to a power is usually performed
using the symbol ^. Some packages are menu driven, meaning that you can often
select symbols from a menu or toolbar. At various places in the text we have pro-
vided examples of this for illustrative purposes. This textbook is not intended to be a
manual for any of the packages described. For thorough details you will need to refer
to the manual provided with your software or its on-line help.
At first sight you might be tempted to think that the availability of such a package
removes the need for you to become fluent in algebraic manipulation and other
mathematical techniques. We believe that the converse of this is true. These pack-
ages are sophisticated, professional tools and as such require the user to have a good
understanding of the functions they perform, and particularly their limitations. Fur-
thermore, the results provided by the packages can be presented in a variety of forms
(as you will see later in the book), and only with a thorough understanding of the
mathematics will you be able to appreciate different, yet correct, equivalent forms,
and distinguish these from incorrect output.
Figure 1 shows a screenshot from Maple in which we have defined the function
f (x) = x2 + 3x - 2 and plotted part of its graph. Note that Maple requires the
following particular syntax to define the function: f: = x : x 2 + 3x - 2. The
quantity x2 is input as x^2.
Finally, Figure 2 shows a screenshot from the package Matlab. Here the package
is being used to obtain a three-dimensional plot of the surface z = sin(x2 + y2) as
described in Chapter 21. Observe the requirement of Matlab to input x2 as x # ^2.
Figure 1
A screenshot from
Maple showing
the package being
used to define
the function
f (x) = x2 + 3x - 2
and plot its graph.
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD 10/1/18 3:58 PM Page xxii
xxii Using mathematical software packages
Figure 2
A screenshot from
Matlab showing the
package being used
to plot a three-
dimensional graph.
Where appropriate we would encourage you to explore the use of packages
such as these. Through them you will find that whole new areas of engineering
mathematics become accessible to you, and you will develop skills that will help
you to solve engineering problems that you meet in other areas of study and in the
workplace.
Useful mathematical software commands used throughout the book
The following commands are indicative only and should be read in conjuction with the software’s on-line help and the examples found later
in the book.
Purpose Maple example Matlab example Page
Test whether an isprime(n) isprime(n) 11
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD
integer, n, is prime
Produce a prime ifactor(n) factor(n) 12
factorisation of
10/16/18
an integer, n
Plot graph of y = f(x) plot(x^3,x=-3..3,y=-20..20); x=-3:0.1:3; y=x.^3; 152
plot(x,y);
9:12 AM
Finding partial convert(x/(x^2+3*x+2), n = [1];
fractions expansion parfrac); d =[1 3 2]; 279
[r,p,k] = residue(n,d)
Complex numbers use I use i or j 461
Page xxiii
(1+3*I)/(2-I) (1+3*j)/(2-j)
Find roots of a solve(s^3+s^2+s+1=0) roots([1 1 1 1]) 462
polynomial
Defining matrices A:= Matrix([[1,2,3], A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] 530
[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
Eigenvalues and Eigenvalues(A) [V, D] = eig(A) 641
eigenvectors Eigenvectors(A)
Vectors: scalar with(LinearAlgebra); a=[1 -2 3] 724
and vector products a:= Vector[row]([1,-2,3]); b=[2 -1 1]
b:= Vector[row]([2,-1,1]); dot(a,b)
DotProduct(a,b); cross(a,b)
CrossProduct(a,b);
(Continued)
Purpose Maple example Matlab example Page
First and higher f:=t-> t^2*sin(3*t); syms f(t) 766
derivatives D(f)(t); or diff(f(t),t); f(t) = t^2*sin(3*t)
A01_CROF5939_04_SE_A01.QXD
D(D(f))(t); or diff(f(t),t,t); y = diff(f(t))
z = diff(f(t),2)
Indefinite and int(x*cos(x)^2,x) syms x t 857
10/1/18
definite integration int(1/t,t=1..2) int(x*cos(x)^2,x)
int(1/t,1,2)
Differential equations dsolve(diff(y(x),x) - x*y(x)=0); dsolve('Dy-x*y=0','x') 1011
3:58 PM
with or without conditions dsolve({diff(y(x),x) - x*y(x)=0,y(0)=3}) dsolve('Dy-x*y=0',
'y(0)=3','x')
Sums of series sum(1/k,k=1..10); sym k 950
symsum(1/k,k,1,10)
Page xxiv
Taylor series taylor(sqrt(x),x=4,4); taylor(sqrt(x), 972
'ExpansionPoint',4,
'Order',4)
3d plots plot3d(x^2+y^2,x=-2..2,y=-2..2); [x,y]=meshgrid(-2:0.1:2, 1059
-2:0.1:2); z = x.^2+y.^2;
mesh(z);
Laplace transform with(inttrans): syms t s 1100
f:=t->t^2; f=t^2
laplace(f(t),t,s); laplace(f,t,s)
Fourier transform with(inttrans); syms t w 1235
f:=t->Heaviside(t)*exp(-t); f = heaviside(t)*exp(t)
fourier(f(t),t,w); fourier(f,t,w)
M01_CROF5939_04_SE_C01.QXD 9/21/18 1:51 PM Page 1
Chapter 1
Arithmetic
This chapter reminds the reader of the arithmetic of whole numbers.
Arithmetic is the study of numbers. A mastery of numbers and the
ways in which we manipulate and operate on them is essential. This
mastery forms the bedrock for further study in the field of algebra.
Block 1 introduces some essential terminology and explains rules that
determine the order in which operations must be performed. Block 2
focuses on prime numbers. These are numbers that cannot be
expressed as the product of two smaller numbers.
Computers are used extensively in all engineering disciplines to
perform calculations. Some of the examples provided in this book
make use of the software packages Maple and Matlab which are
commonly available for use in academic and industrial settings.
Because Maple and Matlab, in common with many similar packages, are
designed to compute not just with single numbers but with entire
sequences of numbers at the same time, data are sometimes entered in
the form of arrays, as we will demonstrate. Arrays are multi-
dimensional objects. Two particular types of array are vectors and
matrices, which are studied in detail in Chapters 12–14.
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Chapter 1 contents
Block 1 Operations on numbers
Block 2 Prime numbers and prime factorisation
End of chapter exercises
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Operations on numbers
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Whole numbers are the numbers . . . -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . Whole numbers are
also referred to as integers. The positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . The negative inte-
gers are . . . , -4, -3, -2, -1. The . . . indicates that the sequence of numbers contin-
ues indefinitely. The number 0 is an integer but it is neither positive nor negative.
Given two or more whole numbers it is possible to perform an operation on them.
The four arithmetic operations are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*)
and division (, ).
Addition (+)
We say that 4 + 5 is the sum of 4 and 5. Note that 4 + 5 is equal to 5 + 4 so that
the order in which we write down the numbers does not matter when we are adding
them. Because the order does not matter, addition is said to be commutative. When
more than two numbers are added, as in 4 + 8 + 9, it makes no difference whether
we add the 4 and 8 first to get 12 + 9, or whether we add the 8 and 9 first to get
4 + 17. Whichever way we work we shall obtain the same result, 21. This property
of addition is called associativity.
Subtraction (-)
We say that 8 - 3 is the difference of 8 and 3. Note that 8 - 3 is not the same as
3 - 8 and so the order in which we write down the numbers is important when we
are subtracting them. Subtraction is not commutative. Adding a negative number
is equivalent to subtracting a positive number; thus 5 (2) 5 2 3. Sub-
tracting a negative number is equivalent to adding a positive number: thus
7 - (-3) = 7 + 3 = 10.
Key point Adding a negative number is equivalent to subtracting a positive number.
Subtracting a negative number is equivalent to adding a positive number.
Multiplication (*)
The instruction to multiply the numbers 6 and 7 is written 6 * 7. This is known as
the product of 6 and 7. Sometimes the multiplication sign is missed out altogether
and we write (6)(7). An alternative and acceptable notation is to use a dot to repre-
sent multiplication and so we could write 6 # 7, although if we do this care must be
taken not to confuse this multiplication dot with a decimal point.
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1 4 Block 1 0perations on numbers
Note that (6)(7) is the same as (7)(6) so multiplication of numbers is commutative.
If we are multiplying three numbers, as in 2 * 3 * 4, we obtain the same result if we
multiply the 2 and the 3 first to get 6 * 4, as if we multiply the 3 and the 4 first to get
2 * 12. Either way the result is 24. This property of multiplication is known as
associativity.
Recall that when multiplying positive and negative numbers the sign of the result
is given by the following rules:
Key point (positive) * (positive) = positive
(positive) * (negative) = negative
(negative) * (positive) = negative
(negative) * (negative) = positive
For example, (-4) * 5 = -20 and (-3) * (-6) = 18.
Division ( , )
The quantity 8 , 4 means 8 divided by 4. This is also written as 8>4 or 84 and is
known as the quotient of 8 and 4. We refer to a number of the form p>q when p and
q are whole numbers as a fraction. In the fraction 84 the top line is called the
numerator and the bottom line is called the denominator. Note that 8>4 is not the
same as 4>8 and so the order in which we write down the numbers is important.
Division is not commutative. Division by 0 is never allowed: that is, the denomi-
nator of a fraction must never be 0. When dividing positive and negative numbers
recall the following rules for determining the sign of the result:
Key point positive
= positive
positive
positive
= negative
negative
negative
= negative
positive
negative
= positive
negative
Example 1.1
Evaluate
(a) the sum of 9 and 4
(b) the sum of 9 and -4
(c) the difference of 6 and 3
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1.1 Introduction 5 1
(d) the difference of 6 and -3
(e) the product of 9 and 3
(f) the product of -9 and 3
(g) the product of -9 and -3
(h) the quotient of 10 and 2
(i) the quotient of 10 and -2
(j) the quotient of -10 and -2
Solution
(a) 9 + 4 = 13
(b) 9 + (-4) = 9 - 4 = 5
(c) 6 - 3 = 3
(d) 6 - (-3) = 6 + 3 = 9
(e) 9 * 3 = 27
(f) (-9) * 3 = -27
(g) (-9) * (-3) = 27
10
(h) 2 = 5
10
(i) - 2 = -5
- 10
(j) -2 = 5
Example 1.2 Reliability Engineering – Time between breakdowns
Reliability engineering is concerned with managing the risks associated with break-
down of equipment and machinery, particularly when such a breakdown is life-critical
or when it can have an adverse effect on business. In Chapter 23 we will discuss the
Poisson probability distribution which is used to model the number of breakdowns
occurring in a specific time interval. Of interest to the reliability engineer is both the
average number of breakdowns in a particular time period and the average time between
breakdowns. The breakdown rate is the number of breakdowns per unit time.
Suppose a reliability engineer monitors a piece of equipment for a 48-hour
period and records the number of times that a safety switch trips. Suppose the engi-
neer found that there were three trips in the 48-hour period.
(a) Assuming that the machine can be restarted instantly, calculate the average
time between trips. This is often referred to as the inter-breakdown or
inter-arrival time.
(b) Calculate the breakdown rate per hour.
Solution
(a) With three trips in 48 hours, on average, there will be one trip every 16 hours.
Assuming that the machine can be restarted instantly, the average time
between trips is 16 hours. This is the inter-breakdown time.
(b) In 16 hours there is one trip. This is equivalent to saying that the breakdown
1
rate is 16 of a trip per hour.
More generally,
1
the breakdown rate =
the inter-breakdown time
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1 6 Block 1 0perations on numbers
Exercises
per day and produces 60 electrical components
1 Find the sum of -9 and 11.
every hour. Find the number of components
produced during a working week of 5 days.
2 Find the product of 13 and 9.
6 Computer Networking – Routing of data.
3 Find the difference of 11 and 4.
Computer network traffic can be routed along
any of four routes. If a total of 1680 Mbit/s are
4 Find the quotient of 100 and 5.
distributed equally along the four routes,
calculate the data rate on each. If one of the
5 Manufacturing Engineering – Production of
routes is disabled, calculate the data rate on
components. A production line works 14 hours
each of the three remaining routes.
Solutions to exercises
1 2 4 20
2 117 5 4200
3 7 6 420 Mbit/s, 560 Mbit/s
1.2 Order of operations
The order in which the four operations are carried out is important but may not be
obvious when looking at an expression. Consider the following case. Suppose we
wish to evaluate 2 * 3 + 4. If we carry out the multiplication first the result is
2 * 3 + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10. However, if we carry out the addition first the result is
2 * 3 + 4 = 2 * 7 = 14. Clearly we need some rules that specify the order in
which the various operations are performed. Fortunately there are rules, called
precedence rules, that tell us the priority of the various operations – in other words,
the order in which they are carried out.
Knowing the order in which operations will be carried out becomes particularly
important when programming using software such as Maple, Matlab and Excel if
you are to avoid unexpected and erroneous results.
To remind us of the order in which to carry out these operations we can make use
of the BODMAS rule. BODMAS stands for:
Key point Brackets, ( ) first priority
Of, *
Multiplication, * M
Division, , second priority
f third priority
Addition, +
Subtraction, -
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1.2 Order of operations 7 1
Here ‘of’ means the same as multiply, as in ‘a half of 6’ means ‘12 * 6’.
Later in Chapter 5 we meet a further operation called exponentiation. We shall
see that exponentiation should be carried out once brackets have been dealt with.
Example 1.3
Evaluate
(a) 2 * 3 + 4
(b) 6 , 2 - 1
(c) 2 * (3 + 4)
(d) 6 , (2 - 1)
Solution
(a) There are two operations in the expression: multiplication and addition.
Multiplication has a higher priority than addition and so is carried out first.
2 * 3 + 4 = 6 + 4
= 10
(b) There are two operations: division and subtraction. Division is carried out first.
6 , 2 - 1 = 3 - 1
= 2
(c) The bracketed expression, (3 + 4), is evaluated first, even though the addition
has a lower priority than multiplication.
2 * (3 + 4) = 2 * 7
= 14
(d) The bracketed expression is evaluated first.
6 , (2 - 1) = 6 , 1
= 6
This example illustrates the crucial difference that brackets can make to the value of
an expression.
When all the operations in an expression have the same priority, then we simply
work from left to right.
Example 1.4
Evaluate
(a) 9 + 3 - 6 + 2 - 4
(b) 12 * 2 , 4 * 3
Solution
(a) Noting that the operations addition and subtraction have the same priority we
work from left to right thus:
9 + 3 - 6 + 2 - 4 = 12 - 6 + 2 - 4
= 6 + 2 - 4
= 8 - 4
= 4
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1 8 Block 1 0perations on numbers
(b) Since multiplication and division have equal priority we work from left to right.
12 * 2 , 4 * 3 = 24 , 4 * 3
= 6 * 3
= 18
Example 1.5
Evaluate
(a) 27 , (7 - 4) + 3 * 4
(b) [(6 * 2) , (1 + 2)] , [3 + 5 - 7 + 3]
Solution
(a) Evaluation of the expression in brackets is performed first to give
27 , 3 + 3 * 4
The resulting expression contains the operations of division, multiplication and
addition. Division and multiplication have higher priority than addition and so
are performed first, from left to right. This produces
9 + 12
Hence the result is 21.
(b) Evaluating the innermost bracketed expressions gives:
[12 - 3] , [3 + 5 - 7 + 3]
Evaluating each of the two remaining bracketed expressions results in
4 , 4
and so the final result is 1.
Often a division line replaces bracketed quantities. For example, in the expression
7 + 9
3 + 1
there is an implied bracketing of the numerator and denominator, meaning
(7 + 9)
(3 + 1)
16
The bracketed quantities would be evaluated first, resulting in , which simplifies
to 4. 4
Exercises
(e) 12 + 6 , 2
1 Evaluate the following arithmetic expressions
(f) 12 , 6 + 2
using the rules for priority of operations:
8-2
(a) 12 , 2 * 6 (g)
(b) 12 * 6 , 2 2 + 1
(c) 12 , (2 * 6) -10 , 2
(h)
(d) (12 , 2) * 6 -6 + 1
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1.2 Order of operations 9 1
(b) 12 * (15 ? 5) + 9 = 45
2 Insert an appropriate mathematical operation
as indicated in order to make the given 5 + (14 ? 2)
(c) = 3
expression correct: 4
(a) 11 - (5 ? 3) * 2 = 7
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 36 (b) 36 (c) 1 (d) 36 (e) 15 2 (a) - (b) , (c) ,
(f) 4 (g) 2 (h) 1
End of block exercises
1 Find 3 Evaluate the following expressions:
(a) the product of 11 and 4 (a) 6 - 4 * 2 + 3
(b) the sum of -16 and 3 (b) 6 - 4 , 2 + 3
(c) the difference of 12 and 9 (c) (6 - 4) * 2 + 3
(d) the quotient of 12 and -2 (d) (6 - 4) * (2 + 3)
(e) (6 - 4 , 2) + 3
2 Evaluate the following arithmetical
expressions: 4 Evaluate
(a) 10 - 5 + 2 9 + 3 * 3
(b) 10 - (5 + 2) 10 - 3 , 3
(c) 10 , 5 + 2
(d) 10 * 5 + 2
(e) 10 * (5 + 2)
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 44 (b) -13 (c) 3 (d) -6 3 (a) 1 (b) 7 (c) 7 (d) 10 (e) 7
2 (a) 7 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 52 (e) 70 4 2
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Prime numbers and prime factorisation
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
A prime number is a positive integer, larger than 1, which cannot be written as the
product of two smaller integers. This means that the only numbers that divide exactly
into a prime number are 1 and the prime number itself. Examples of prime numbers
are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19. Clearly 2 is the only even prime. The numbers 4 and
6 are not primes as they can be written as products of smaller integers, namely
4 = 2 * 2, 6 = 2 * 3
When a number has been written as a product we say that the number has been
factorised. Each part of the product is termed a factor. When writing 6 = 2 * 3
then both 2 and 3 are factors of 6. Factorisation of a number is not unique. For ex-
ample, we can write
12 = 2 * 6, 12 = 3 * 4, 12 = 2 * 2 * 3
All these are different, but nevertheless correct, factorisations of 12.
When a number is written as the product of prime numbers we say that the num-
ber has been prime factorised. Prime factorisation is unique.
Prime numbers have a long history, being extensively studied by the ancient Greek
mathematicians including Pythagoras. There has been significant renewed interest in
prime numbers once it was recognised that they have important applications in cryp-
tography and particularly Internet security. Whilst it is easy to multiply two very
large prime numbers together it is very difficult then to factorise the result to obtain
the original primes. Prime numbers form the basis of systems such as the RSA cryp-
tosystem in which a message is encoded, but can only be decoded by someone who
has knowledge of the original prime numbers.
Example 2.1
Prime factorise the following numbers: (a) 18, (b) 693.
Solution
The technique of prime factorisation entails repeatedly dividing the number and its
factors by prime numbers until no further division is possible.
(a) Starting with the first prime, 2, we note that 18 may be written as
18 = 2 * 9
We now consider the factor 9. Clearly 2 is not a factor of 9 so we try the next
prime number, 3, which is a factor.
18 = 2 * 3 * 3
All the factors are primes: that is, 18 has been prime factorised.
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2.1 Introduction 11 1
(b) We note that 2 is not a factor of 693 and so try the next prime, 3. We see that 3
is a prime factor and write
693 = 3 * 231
Looking at 231, we note that 3 is a factor and write
693 = 3 * 3 * 77
Looking at 77, we note that 3 is not a factor and so try the next prime, 5. Since 5 is
not a factor we try the next prime, 7, which is a factor. We write
693 = 3 * 3 * 7 * 11
All the factors are now prime and so no further factorisation is possible.
Since ancient times methods have been developed to find prime numbers. The inter-
ested reader is referred, for example, to the sieve of Eratosthenes, which is an effi-
cient method for finding relatively small prime numbers.
The computing packages Maple and Matlab have several built-in commands
for performing prime number calculations. For full details you should refer to the
on-line help.
Example 2.2
(a) Use software to determine whether the integers 1017, 5607 and 787777 are
prime.
(b) Use software to prime-factorise the integers in part (a) that are not prime.
Solution
(a) The Maple command isprime(n) is used to test whether an integer, n, is
prime. It returns true if the integer is prime, and false otherwise. Matlab can
test whether each element in an array, A, is prime or not. It does this in a single
command isprime(A). This returns a corresponding array containing ones
or zeros with 1 corresponding to true (i.e. prime) and 0 corresponding to false
(i.e. not prime).
Maple
> isprime(1017), isprime(5607), isprime(787777);
and Maple outputs
false, false, true
indicating that only 787777 is a prime number.
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1 12 Block 2 Prime numbers and prime factorisation
Matlab
>> A=[1017 5607 787777]
>> isprime(A)
and Matlab outputs
A =
1017 5607 787777
ans =
0 0 1
again indicating that 787777 is a prime number.
(b) The Maple command ifactor(n) produces a prime factorisation of an
integer n. The Matlab command factor(n) lists all the factors of n including
repeated factors from which the prime factorisation can be deduced.
Maple
> ifactor(1017), ifactor(5607)
and Maple outputs
113 * 32; 7 * 32 * 89
which means 1017 = 3 * 3 * 113, and 5607 = 3 * 3 * 7 * 89.
Matlab
>> factor(1017)
ans =
3 3 113
from which we can deduce 1017 = 3 * 3 * 113.
>> factor(5607)
ans =
3 3 7 89
from which we can deduce 5607 = 3 * 3 * 7 * 89.
Exercises
1 Explain why 2 is the only even prime number. 3 Prime factorise the following numbers:
(a) 30 (b) 96 (c) 500 (d) 589 (e) 3239
2 State all prime numbers between 50 and 100.
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2.2 Highest common factor 13 1
Solutions to exercises
2 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97 (c) 2 * 2 * 5 * 5 * 5
(d) 19 * 31
3 (a) 2 * 3 * 5 (e) 41 * 79
(b) 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 3
2.2 Highest common factor
Suppose we prime factorise the numbers 12 and 90. This produces
12 = 2 * 2 * 3, 90 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 5
Some factors are common to both numbers. For example, 2 is such a common factor,
as is 3. There are no other common prime factors. Combining these common factors
we see that (2 * 3) is common to both. Thus 6 (i.e. 2 * 3) is the highest number
that is a factor of both 12 and 90. We call 6 the highest common factor (h.c.f.) of
12 and 90.
Key point Given two or more numbers, the highest common factor (h.c.f.) is the largest (highest)
number that is a factor of all the given numbers.
To put this another way, the h.c.f. is the highest number that divides exactly into each
of the given numbers.
Example 2.3
Find the h.c.f. of 16 and 30.
Solution
We prime factorise each number:
16 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2, 30 = 2 * 3 * 5
There is only one prime factor common to both: 2. Hence 2 is the h.c.f. of 16 and 30.
Example 2.4
Find the h.c.f. of 30 and 50.
Solution
Prime factorisation yields
30 = 2 * 3 * 5, 50 = 2 * 5 * 5
The common prime factors are 2 and 5 and so the h.c.f is 2 * 5 = 10.
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1 14 Block 2 Prime numbers and prime factorisation
Example 2.5
Find the h.c.f. of 36, 54 and 126.
Solution
Prime factorisation yields
36 = 2 * 2 * 3 * 3
54 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 3
126 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 7
The common factors are 2, 3, 3
Hence the h.c.f. is 2 * 3 * 3 = 18.
Note that the factor of 3 is included twice because 3 3 is common to all
factorisations.
Exercises
1 Calculate the h.c.f. of the following numbers:
(a) 6, 10 (c) 36, 60, 90
(b) 28, 42 (d) 7, 19, 31
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2 (b) 14 (c) 6 (d) 1
2.3 Lowest common multiple
Suppose we are given two or more numbers and wish to find numbers into which all
the given numbers will divide. For example, given 4 and 6 we see that both divide
exactly into 12, 24, 36, 48, and so on. The smallest number into which they both
divide is 12. We say that 12 is the lowest common multiple of 4 and 6.
Key point The lowest common multiple (l.c.m.) of a set of numbers is the smallest (lowest)
number into which all of the given numbers will divide exactly.
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2.3 Lowest common multiple 15 1
Example 2.6
Find the l.c.m. of 6 and 8.
Solution
There are many numbers into which both 6 and 8 divide exactly: for example, 48, 96
and 120. We seek the smallest number with this property. By inspection and trial and
error we see that the smallest number is 24. Hence the l.c.m. of 6 and 8 is 24.
For larger numbers it is not appropriate to use inspection as a means of finding the
l.c.m.; a more systematic method is needed, and this is now explained.
The numbers are prime factorised. The l.c.m. is formed by examining the prime
factorisations. All the different primes that occur in the prime factorisations are
noted. The highest occurrence of each prime is also noted. The l.c.m. is then formed
using the highest occurrence of each prime. Consider the following example.
Example 2.7
Find the l.c.m. of 90, 120 and 242.
Solution
Each number is prime factorised to yield
90 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 5
120 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 3 * 5
242 = 2 * 11 * 11
The different primes are noted: these are 2, 3, 5 and 11. The highest occurrence of
each prime is noted:
Prime 2 3 5 11
Highest occurrence 3 2 1 2
The highest occurrence of 2 is 3 since 2 occurs three times in the prime factorisation
of 120. The highest occurrence of 3 is 2 since 3 occurs twice in the prime factorisa-
tion of 90.
The l.c.m. is then 2 2 2 3 3 5 11 11, which is 43560. Hence
43560 is the smallest number into which 90, 120 and 242 will all divide exactly.
Example 2.8
Find the l.c.m. of 25, 35 and 45.
Solution
Prime factorisation of each number yields
25 = 5 * 5
35 = 5 * 7
45 = 3 * 3 * 5
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1 16 Block 2 Prime numbers and prime factorisation
Hence the primes are 3, 5 and 7.
The highest occurrence of 3 is 2
The highest occurrence of 5 is 2
The highest occurrence of 7 is 1
Hence in its prime factorised form the l.c.m. is
3 * 3 * 5 * 5 * 7
The l.c.m. is 1575.
Example 2.9
Find the l.c.m. of 4, 8 and 24.
Solution
Each number is prime factorised: 4 = 2 * 2, 8 = 2 * 2 * 2 and 24 = 2 * 2 *
2 * 3. The l.c.m. is formed using the highest occurrence of each prime and is then
2 * 2 * 2 * 3 = 24. Note from this example that the l.c.m. of a set of numbers
can be one of the numbers in the set.
Exercises
1 Find the l.c.m. of
(a) 6, 16 (d) 22, 32, 45, 72
(b) 6, 16, 20 (e) 11, 17, 21, 100
(c) 20, 30, 75
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 48 (b) 240 (c) 300 (d) 15840 (e) 392700
End of block exercises
1 Find the h.c.f. of the following sets of numbers: 3 Prime factorise the following numbers:
(a) 20, 30, 40, 50 (b) 60, 108, 180 (c) 18, 126, (a) 315 (b) 2695 (c) 988 (d) 16905
198, 324 (d) 105, 147, 210, 273
2 Find the l.c.m. of the following:
(a) 5, 8, 12 (b) 6, 8, 9, 10 (c) 15, 18, 20, 25
(d) 20, 22, 30, 35
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End of chapter exercises 17 1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 10 (b) 12 (c) 18 (d) 21 3 (a) 3 * 3 * 5 * 7
(b) 5 * 7 * 7 * 11
2 (a) 120 (b) 360 (c) 900 (d) 4620 (c) 2 * 2 * 13 * 19
(d) 3 * 5 * 7 * 7 * 23
End of chapter exercises
1 Evaluate 3 Calculate the h.c.f. of the following sets of
(a) 12 - (3 , 3) numbers:
(b) (12 - 3) , 3 (a) 6, 21 (b) 16, 24, 72 (c) 30, 45, 60
(c) 12 - 3 , 3 (d) 18, 30, 42, 100
(d) 2 * (6 , 3)
(e) (2 * 6) , 3 4 Find the l.c.m. of the following:
(f) 2 * 6 , 3 (a) 4, 10 (b) 16, 30, 40 (c) 15, 16, 25, 32
2 Prime factorise the following numbers:
(a) 15 (b) 16 (c) 50 (d) 91 (e) 119
(f) 323 (g) 682
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 11 (b) 3 (c) 11 (d) 4 (e) 4 (f) 4 3 (a) 3 (b) 8 (c) 15 (d) 2
2 (a) 3 * 5 (b) 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 4 (a) 20 (b) 240 (c) 2400
(c) 2 * 5 * 5 (d) 7 * 13 (e) 7 * 17
(f) 17 * 19 (g) 2 * 11 * 31
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Chapter 2
Fractions
The methods used to simplify, add, subtract, multiply and divide
numerical fractions are exactly the same as those used for algebraic
fractions. So it is important to understand and master those methods
with numerical fractions before moving on to apply them to algebraic
fractions.
Block 1 introduces basic terminology and the idea of equivalent
fractions. Fractions that are equivalent have the same value. Using
prime factorisation a fraction may be expressed in its simplest form.
Block 2 illustrates how to add and subtract fractions. Key to these
operations is the writing of all fractions with a common denominator.
Mixed fractions – those fractions that have a whole number part as
well as a fractional part – are introduced. Finally multiplication and
division of fractions are explained and illustrated.
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Chapter 2 contents
Block 1 Introducing fractions
Block 2 Operations on fractions
End of chapter exercises
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Introducing fractions
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In this block we introduce some terminology. Fractions can be classed as either
proper or improper and this classification is explained. We introduce the idea of
equivalent fractions. Using the prime factorisation technique of Chapter 1 we
explain how to write a fraction in its simplest form.
p
A fraction is a number of the form q , where p and q are whole numbers. So, for
2 5 11 100
example, 3, 9, 3 and 4 are all fractions.
The number p (the ‘top’ of the fraction) is called the numerator. The number q
(the ‘bottom’ of the fraction) is called the denominator.
Key point Fraction =
p
=
numerator
q denominator
Note that the denominator is never zero because division by 0 is not permissible.
Fractions can be classified as either proper fractions or improper fractions.
When determining whether a fraction is proper or improper we ignore any negative
signs in the numerator and denominator.
If the numerator, p, is less than the denominator, q, then the fraction is proper. If p
is equal to or greater than q then the fraction is improper. Examples of proper frac-
99
tions are 12, 100 and 52 . Examples of improper fractions are 23, 55 and 100
99 .
Exercises
1 Classify each fraction as either proper or improper:
(a) 97 (b) 25 (c) 55 (d) - 57 (e) 6
- 11 (f) -3
2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) proper (b) improper (c) improper
(d) proper (e) proper (f) improper
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 21
1.2 Simplest form of a fraction 21 2
1.2 Simplest form of a fraction
Every fraction can be expressed in different forms. For example, you may know that
1 2 3
2 , 4 and 6 all have the same value. These are examples of equivalent fractions.
Equivalent fractions have the same value.
We note that multiplying or dividing both numerator and denominator of a frac-
tion by the same number produces an equivalent fraction: that is, a fraction with the
same value as the original fraction. Consider the following example.
16
Starting with the fraction 24 we
1 multiply both numerator and denominator by 2 to obtain 32 48
2 multiply both numerator and denominator by 10 to obtain 160240
3 divide both numerator and denominator by 4 to obtain 46
4 divide both numerator and denominator by 8 to obtain 32 .
16 32 160 4
Hence 24 , 48, 240, 6 and 32 are all equivalent fractions. They all have exactly the same
value.
A fraction in its simplest form is one that has no factors common to both numer-
ator and denominator. This means that it is not possible to divide both numerator and
17
denominator exactly. For example, 49 is in its simplest form; there is no number
which can divide exactly into both 17 and 49. However, 18 48 is not in its simplest form:
6 is a factor of both numerator and denominator. It is thus possible to divide both
numerator and denominator by 6 to obtain 38 . This is an equivalent fraction and is in
its simplest form.
Example 1.1
36
Express 120 in its simplest form.
Solution
We seek factors that are common to both numerator and denominator. By using
prime factorisation we can find the h.c.f. of 36 and 120 to be 12. Dividing numerator
3 36 3
and denominator by this h.c.f. yields 10 . Hence in its simplest form 120 is 10 .
An alternative way to find the simplest form is to prime factorise numerator and
denominator: thus
36 2 * 2 * 3 * 3
=
120 2 * 2 * 2 * 3 * 5
We note all of the factors common to both numerator and denominator: these are
2 * 2 * 3. These factors are cancelled.
2 * 2 * 3 * 3 2 * 2 * 3 * 3 3 3
= = =
2 * 2 * 2 * 3 * 5 2 * 2 * 2 * 3 * 5 2 * 5 10
Cancelling all the common factors is equivalent to dividing numerator and denomi-
nator by the h.c.f., 12, so these two approaches, while appearing different, are in fact
the same.
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 22
2 22 Block 1 Introducing fractions
Example 1.2
90
Express 210 in its simplest form.
Solution
Prime factorising numerator and denominator yields
90 2 * 3 * 3 * 5
= 2 * 3 * 5 * 7
210
The factors common to both numerator and denominator are
2, 3, 5
Cancelling the common factors yields
3
7
90
Hence 210 in its simplest form is 73 .
Sometimes we need to write a fraction in an equivalent form with a specified denomi-
nator. The following example illustrates the technique.
Example 1.3
Express 34 as an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 24.
Solution
The original denominator is 4; the desired denominator is 24. Thus the original
denominator must be multiplied by 6. To produce an equivalent fraction, then, both
numerator and denominator must be multiplied by 6. Thus
3 3 * 6 18
= =
4 4 * 6 24
Recall that multiplying both numerator and denominator by the same number does
not change the value of the fraction.
Example 1.4 Mechanical Engineering – Force on a bar
The force on a metal bar is increased by 15
25 N. Express the increase in force as a
fraction in its simplest form.
Solution
By prime factorising both numerator and denominator and then cancelling common
factors we find
15 3 * 5 3
= =
25 5 * 5 5
In its simplest form, the increase in force is 35 N.
Example 1.5 Thermodynamics – Temperature of a cooling liquid
Experiments are conducted to measure the rate at which the temperature of a liquid
cools. The reduction in temperature over a measured time is noted. In the first
20 minutes the temperature drops by 6 ºC. The average rate of fall of temperature is
6
therefore 20 ºC per minute.
Express this rate of decrease in temperature as a fraction in its simplest form.
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 23
1.2 Simplest form of a fraction 23 2
Solution
6 2 * 3 3
= =
20 2 * 2 * 5 10
3
The rate of decrease in temperature is 10 ºC per minute.
Example 1.6 Reliability Engineering – Quality control
A quality control officer tests 300 items taken from a production line and finds that
15 of the items are faulty.
(a) Express the number of faulty items as a fraction of those tested.
(b) Express this fraction in its simplest form.
Solution
(a) There are 15 faulty items from a total of 300. So the fraction of items that are
15
faulty is 300 .
(b)
15 3 * 5 1
= =
300 2 * 2 * 3 * 5 * 5 20
Exercises
(b) Improvements to the production process
1 Express each fraction in its simplest form:
9 16
mean that the number of faulty items is
(a) 12 (b) 20 (c) 20 72 30 - 20
16 (d) 96 (e) - 42 (f) - 45 halved. Express the number of faulty items
now as a fraction of the total number tested.
2 (a) Express 35 as an equivalent fraction with a
denominator of 40. 6 Thermodynamics – Temperature of a metal
9
(b) Express 30 as an equivalent fraction with a bar. A metal bar is heated and its temperature
denominator of 10. is measured every 5 minutes. The table records
(c) Express 6 as an equivalent fraction with a the temperature readings.
denominator of 4.
3 Express each fraction as an equivalent fraction Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
with a denominator of 32: Temp (°C) 21 27 31 33 35
1
(a) 16 (b) 83 (c) 14
Calculate the rate of increase of temperature in
4 Consider the fractions 32, 56 and 78 .
units of °C per minute
(a) Calculate the l.c.m. of their denominators.
(a) in the first 5 minutes
(b) Express each fraction as an equivalent
(b) in the first 10 minutes
fraction with the l.c.m. found in (a) as the
(c) in the first 15 minutes
denominator.
(d) in the first 20 minutes
(e) in the last 5 minutes
5 Reliability Engineering – Quality control.
(f) in the last 10 minutes
(a) Quality control checks find six faulty items
In each case express your answer as a fraction
from 200 that were tested. Express the
in its simplest form.
number of faulty items as a fraction, in its
simplest form, of the total number tested.
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 24
2 24 Block 1 Introducing fractions
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 43 (b) 54 (c) 54 (d) 43 (e) - 57 (f) 49 4 (a) 24 (b) 16 20 21
24 , 24 , 24
24 3
2 (a) 40 (b) 10 (c) 24
4 5 3
(a) 100 3
(b) 200
2 12 8
3 (a) 32 (b) 32 (c) 32 6 (a) 56 (b) 1 (c) 45 (d) 10
7
(e) 25 (f) 25
End of block exercises
1 Classify each of the following fractions as 3 Express each fraction in its simplest form:
proper or improper: 20
(a) 100 16
(b) 60 9
(c) 45 22
(d) 24 (e) 56
16
(a) 76 (b) 67 (c) 66 (d) 22
21
(e) 31
2 Express the fraction 27 in three different
equivalent forms.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) proper (b) improper (c) improper 3 (a) 51 (b) 15
4
(c) 15 (d) 12
11
(e) 72
(d) proper (e) improper
4 8 20
2 Several possible solutions, for example 14 , 28, 70
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 25
Operations on fractions
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
This block explains and illustrates how to perform the four arithmetic operations on
fractions. Writing fractions in equivalent forms so that they all have the same
denominator is a crucial first step when adding and subtracting fractions. Mixed
fractions comprise a whole number component as well as a fractional component.
They can be written as improper fractions and vice versa. The block concludes with
multiplication and division of fractions.
2.2 Addition and subtraction of fractions
To add and subtract fractions we must rewrite each fraction so that they have the
same denominator. This denominator is called the common denominator as it is
common to each fraction.
The common denominator is the l.c.m. of the original denominators. Once each
fraction has been written in equivalent form with the common denominator, the
numerators are then added or subtracted as required. In summary:
1 Calculate the l.c.m. of the original denominators to find the common denominator.
2 Express each fraction in equivalent form with the common denominator.
3 Add/subtract numerators and divide the result by the l.c.m.
Example 2.1
Find 38 + 56 .
Solution
The original denominators are 6 and 8. Their l.c.m. is 24. Each fraction is written in
equivalent form with 24 as the denominator:
3 9 5 20
is equivalent to ; is equivalent to
8 24 6 24
So
3 5 9 20
+ = +
8 6 24 24
9 + 20
=
24
29
=
24
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 26
2 26 Block 2 0perations on fractions
Example 2.2
Find 13 - 14 + 16 .
Solution
The original denominators are 3, 4 and 6.
Their l.c.m. is 12
Each fraction is written in equivalent form with the l.c.m. as denominator:
1 4
is equivalent to 12
3
1 3
is equivalent to 12
4
1 2
is equivalent to 12
6
So
1 1 1 4 3 2
- + = - +
3 4 6 12 12 12
3
= 12
1
=
4
Exercises
1 Find
(a) 32 + 1
6
9
(b) 10 - 3
5 (c) 12 - 2
5 (d) 56 - 1
12 + 1
3
(h) 83 + 2
5 + 3
10 (i) 67 - 2
3 + 5
9
1 1 1 1
(e) 79 - 2
3 + 5
6 (f) 2 - 3
4 (g) 14 - 9
10
(j) 12 + 6 - 3 - 4
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 65 (b) 10
3 1
(c) 10 13
(d) 12 (e) 17 5 13
18 (f) 4 (g) - 20
(h) 43 19 1
40 (i) 18 (j) - 3
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 27
2.3 Mixed fractions 27 2
2.3 Mixed fractions
We have already met proper and improper fractions. We now examine mixed fractions.
The number 423 is an example of a mixed fraction. We note that there is a whole
number part, 4, and a proper fraction part, 23 . The mixed fraction may be written in an
equivalent form as an improper fraction:
2 2
4 = 4 +
3 3
12 2
= +
3 3
14
=
3
Hence 423 is equivalent to 14
3.
Example 2.3
(a) Express 234 as an improper fraction.
(b) Find 234 + 116 .
Solution
3 3
(a) 2 = 2 +
4 4
8 3
= +
4 4
11
=
4
3 1 11 7
(b) 2 + 1 = +
4 6 4 6
33 14
= +
12 12
47
=
12
Example 2.4
Express 47
12 as a mixed fraction.
Solution
Dividing 47 by 12 results in 3, with a remainder of 11. So
47 11
= 3 +
12 12
11
= 3
12
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 28
2 28 Block 2 0perations on fractions
Exercises
1 Express the following mixed fractions as 3 Calculate the following, expressing your
improper fractions: answer as an improper fraction:
(a) 112 (b) 213 (c) 314 (d) 325 (e) -1025 (a) 125 + 234 (b) 413 + 637 (c) 245 - 123
2 Express the following improper fractions as (d) 612 - 334 + 215 (e) 313 - 449
mixed fractions:
(a) 45 (b) 56 (c) 12 47 62 4 Express the solutions to question 3 as mixed
5 (d) 3 (e) - 7
fractions.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 23 (b) 37 (c) 13 17 52
4 (d) 5 (e) - 5 3 83
(a) 20 (b) 226 17 99 10
21 (c) 15 (d) 20 (e) - 9
2 (a) 114 (b) 115 (c) 225 (d) 1523 (e) -867 4 3
(a) 420 (b) 1016 2 19 1
21 (c) 115 (d) 420 (e) -19
2.4 Multiplication of fractions
To multiply two fractions we multiply their denominators to form the denominator
of the answer, and multiply their numerators to form the numerator of the answer.
Example 2.5
Find 23 * 47 .
Solution
2 4 2 * 4 8
* = =
3 7 3 * 7 21
Note that the new numerator of 8 is formed by multiplying the two original numer-
ators. Similarly the new denominator is the product of the two original denominators.
Sometimes it is possible to simplify the result.
Example 2.6
Calculate 38 * 14
27 .
Solution
3 14 3 * 14 42
* = =
8 27 8 * 27 216
42 7
Writing 216 in its simplest form is 36 .
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 29
2.4 Multiplication of fractions 29 2
The cancelling of common factors can take place at an earlier stage in the calculation.
For example, we could have written
3 * 14 14
= by cancelling a factor of 3
8 * 27 8 * 9
7
= by cancelling a factor of 2
4 * 9
7
=
36
Example 2.7
9 1 20
Calculate 12 * 5 * 36 .
Solution
9
The fraction 12 can be simplified to 34 . Similarly 36
20
can be simplified to 59 . Hence
9 1 20 3 1 5
* * = * *
12 5 36 4 5 9
3 1 1
= * * cancelling a factor of 5
4 1 9
1 1 1
= * * cancelling a factor of 3
4 1 3
1
=
12
Example 2.8
Calculate (a) 38 * 9
10 , (b) 38 * 10
81 .
Solution
3 9 27
(a) * =
8 10 80
3 10 5
(b) * =
8 81 108
We are sometimes asked to calculate quantities such as ‘13 of 96’ or ‘52 of 60’. Note
the use of the word ‘of’ in these expressions. When we are given such an expression
we treat the ‘of’ as we would a multiplication sign. So when calculating, for exam-
ple, 13 of 96 we calculate
1
* 96
3
which results in 32.
Example 2.9
Calculate 25 of 60.
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 30
2 30 Block 2 0perations on fractions
Solution
2
* 60 = 2 * 12 (cancelling a factor of 5)
5
= 24
So 52 of 60 is 24.
Example 2.10
3
(a) Find 25 of 100.
3
(b) Given 1 m is 100 cm, express 25 m in cm.
Solution
(a)
3
* 100 = 12 (cancelling a factor of 25)
25
3 3
(b) 25 of 1 m is the same as 25 of 100 cm which, using the result from (a), is 12 cm.
Example 2.11 Mechanical Engineering – Extension of a metal wire
3
A metal wire stretches by 100 of its original length when heavy weights are applied.
If the original length of the wire is 4 m calculate (a) the length by which the wire
stretches, (b) the resulting length of the stretched wire.
Solution
3
(a) The wire stretches by 100 of 4 m.
3 3
* 4 = (cancelling a factor of 25)
100 25
3
The wire stretches by 25 m.
(b) The resulting length of the wire is
3 3
4 + = 4
25 25
Using Example 2.10 this may be expressed as 4 m 12 cm.
Example 2.12
Calculate 112 * 314 .
Solution
Mixed fractions are converted into their equivalent improper form. The multipli-
cation is then performed.
1 1 3 13
1 * 3 = *
2 4 2 4
39
=
8
7
= 4
8
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 31
2.5 Division of fractions 31 2
Exercises
1 Calculate 4 Calculate the following, expressing your
(a) 21 * 13 (b) 12 * 2
(c) 43 * 1 answer as a mixed fraction:
3 3
(d) 34 * 14 (e) 34 * 2 (a) 112 * 312 (b) 413 * 212 (c) 523 * 117
1
3
(d) 434 * 623 (e) 325 * 123
2 Calculate
(a) 73 * 14 4
15 (b) 5 *
10
21 (c) 65 * 9
10
(d) 79 * 12
35 (e) 58 * 12
25
3 Calculate
(a) 21 * 23 * 3 2 9
4 (b) 5 * 20 * 10 3
13 (c) 4 * 5
6 * 10
11
(d) 67 * 8
9 * 21 2
32 (e) 3 * 6
5
* 7
9 * 4
1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 61 (b) 31 (c) 14 (d) 16
3
(e) 12 3 (a) 41 (b) 65
9
(c) 25 1 35
44 (d) 2 (e) 324
2 (a) 52 (b) 21
8
(c) 34 (d) 15
4 3
(e) 10 4 (a) 514 (b) 1056 (c) 6 (d) 3123 (e) 523
2.5 Division of fractions
Division of one fraction by another is a similar process to multiplication of fractions.
When dividing one fraction by another there is one additional step involved: the
second fraction is inverted and then the calculation continues as a multiplication. To
invert a fraction we interchange numerator and denominator.
Example 2.13
Calculate 83 , 56 .
Solution
The second fraction, 56 , is inverted to 65 . The calculation is now carried out as a
multiplication.
3 5 3 6
, = *
8 6 8 5
9
=
20
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 32
2 32 Block 2 0perations on fractions
Example 2.14
Calculate 223 , 116 .
Solution
2 1 8 7
2 , 1 = ,
3 6 3 6
8 6
= *
3 7
16
=
7
2
= 2
7
Example 2.15
Calculate (a) 67 , 2
21 , (b) 5 , 214 .
Solution
6 2 6 21
(a) , = *
7 21 7 2
= 9
1 9
(b) 5 , 2 = 5 ,
4 4
4
= 5 *
9
20
=
9
= 229
Exercises
1 Calculate 2 Calculate the following, expressing your
(a) 98 , 56 (b) 16 8 7
(c) 10 14 answer as a mixed fraction:
17 , 9 , 15
(a) 512 , 312 (b) 623 , 114 (c) 915 , 1112
(d) 10
13 ,
5
39
7
(e) 12 , 49
50
(d) 825 , 514 (e) 1423 , 627
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 33
End of chapter exercises 33 2
Solutions to exercises
16 18
1 (a) 15 (b) 17 (c) 34 (d) 6 (e) 25
42 2 (a) 147 (b) 513 (c) 54 (d) 135 (e) 213
End of block exercises
1 Evaluate 3 Evaluate
3
(a) 54 + 10 (b) 78 - 1
3 (c) 56 * 8
15 (d) 34 , 9
8 112 + 313
2 Evaluate, expressing your answer as a mixed 425 - 113
fraction:
(a) 134 + 212 (b) 423 - 112 (c) 234 * 313
(d) 516 , 214
Solutions to exercises
11 13
1 (a) 10 (b) 24 (c) 49 (d) 23 3 153
92
2 (a) 414 (b) 316 (c) 916 (d) 227
8
End of chapter exercises
1 Express each of the following fractions in their 5 Calculate the following, expressing your
simplest form: answer as a mixed fraction:
12
(a) 60 9
(b) 36 (c) 27 6 377
81 (d) 92 (e) 390
(a) 214 + 313 (b) 245 - 123 (c) 523 - 112 + 215
(d) 5 - 427 + 1
3
9
(e) 10 + 6
7 - 125
2 Express each of the following mixed fractions
as an improper fraction:
6 Calculate
(a) 323 (b) 525 (c) 712 (d) -934 (e) 1047
(a) 67 * 14 7
27 (b) 10 *
4
5 * 30
49 (c) 89 * 18
25
3 Express each of the following improper (d) 1- 452 * 1- 342 (e) 16
21 * 1- 4 2
3
fractions as mixed fractions:
(a) 20 32 60 102 120
3 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) 50 (e) 11
7 Calculate the following, expressing your
answer as a mixed fraction:
4 Calculate (a) 234 * 212 (b) 613 * 125 (c) 1-3142 * 256
(a) 43 + 13 (b) 12 + (d) 313 * 313 (e) 434 * 1-2452
3
5 (c) 65 - 1
3
10 1 4 1 2
(d) 11 - 2 (e) 7 + 2 - 3
M02_CROF5939_04_SE_C02.QXD 9/20/18 2:02 PM Page 34
2 34 Block 2 0perations on fractions
8 Calculate 12 Thermodynamics – Cooling of a liquid.
(a) 97 , 23 (b) 15
8
, 4 9
(c) 10 , 9 The temperature of a liquid is measured every
5 20
6 7
20 minutes and the results recorded in the table
(d) 11 , 12 (e) 12
13 ,
6
7 below.
9 Calculate the following, expressing your
answer as a mixed fraction: Time (min) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(a) 323 , 112 (b) 614 , 223 (c) 1034 , 215 Temp (°C) 96 88 81 76 72 70 68
(d) -1225 , 314 (e) 1056 , 1-4122
Calculate the rate of decrease of temperature
10 Calculate in units of °C per minute:
15
(a) 14 of 60 (b) 23 of 75 (c) 38 of 64 (d) 25 of 16 (a) in the first 20 minutes
(b) in the first 40 minutes
(e) 34 of 20
21 (c) in the first 60 minutes
(d) in the last 60 minutes
expressing each answer as a fraction in its (e) in the last 20 minutes
simplest form.
In each case express your answer as a fraction
11 Evaluate in its simplest form.
(a) 623 , 4 (b) 10 , 213
(c) 112 + 132 , 123 + 152
13 Dynamics – Pressure in a vessel.
The pressure in a vessel is 30 N cm⫺2. If the
7
212 + 113 pressure is reduced by 100 of its original value,
(d) 16 - 2132 * 1412 - 1342 (e) calculate (a) the decrease in pressure, (b) the
623 - 214 resulting pressure in the vessel.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 51 (b) 41 (c) 13 (d) 46
3
(e) 29
30 8 (a) 67 (b) 23 (c) 2 (d) 77
72
(e) 14
13
2 (a) 11 27 15 39 74
3 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) - 4 (e) 7 9 (a) 249 (b) 211 39 53 11
32 (c) 444 (d) -365 (e) -227
3 (a) 623 (b) 447 (c) 623 (d) 225
1
(e) 1010
11 10 (a) 15 (b) 50 (c) 24 (d) 83 (e) 57
13 11
4 (a) 12 (b) 10 (c) 12 (d) 22
9
(e) 17
42 11 (a) 35 (b) 30 25 121 46
7 (c) 26 (d) 12 (e) 53
7 2
5 (a) 512 (b) 115 (c) 611 1 5
30 (d) 121 (e) 14 12 (a) 52 (b) 83 (c) 13 (d) 15
2 1
(e) 10
6 (a) 94 (b) 35
12
(c) 16 3 4
25 (d) 5 (e) - 7 13 1
(a) 210 9
N cm-2 (b) 2710 N cm-2
7 (a) 678 (b) 813 5 1 3
15 (c) -924 (d) 119 (e) -1310
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/22/18 6:59 AM Page 35
Chapter 3
Decimal numbers
In Chapter 2 we saw how to write both proper and improper fractions.
This chapter introduces an alternative way of writing fractions using
decimal notation.
It is often necessary to write a number to a given accuracy. This is
usually denoted by stating the number of decimal places to be used
or the number of significant figures to be used. Both of these are
explained in this chapter.
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 36
Chapter 3 contents
Block 1 Introduction to decimal numbers
Block 2 Significant figures
End of chapter exercises
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 37
Introduction to decimal numbers
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
This section gives a quick overview of the decimal system by way of revision. Recall
that our number system is based on 10. The number 5276 means
5000 + 200 + 70 + 6
or, to write it another way,
(5 * 1000) + (2 * 100) + (7 * 10) + (6 * 1)
This reminds us of the ‘thousands’, ‘hundreds’, ‘tens’ and ‘units’ from early school
days.
To deal with fractions we extend this system to include ‘tenths’, ‘hundredths’,
‘thousandths’, and so on. We separate the whole number part and fractional part by
using a decimal point ‘.’.
Consider 37.92. There is a whole number part, 37, and a fractional part, .92. This
number represents
(3 * 10) + (7 * 1) + a9 * b + a2 * b
1 1
10 100
The 9 is referred to as being in the first decimal place; the 2 is in the second
decimal place. Similarly 2.1006 represents
(2 * 1) + a1 * b + a0 * b + a0 * b + a6 * b
1 1 1 1
10 100 1000 10000
Note that the 6 is in the fourth decimal place.
Example 1.1
Express (a) 0.2, (b) 0.25, (c) 0.624 as fractions in their simplest form.
Solution
1
(a) 0.2 is equivalent to 2 * 10 . So
0.2 = 2 * a b =
1 2 1
=
10 10 5
(b)
0.25 = 2 * a b + 5 * a b
1 1
10 100
2 5
= +
10 100
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 38
3 38 Block 1 Introduction to decimal numbers
25
=
100
1
=
4
(c)
6 2 4
0.624 = + +
10 100 1000
624 78
= =
1000 125
From the above example we note that
2 25 624
0.2 = , 0.25 = , 0.624 =
10 100 1000
We can similarly deduce, for example, that
3049 12348
0.3049 = , 0.12348 =
10000 100000
Example 1.2
Express (a) 5.156, (b) 3.045 as mixed fractions in their simplest form.
Solution
(a)
156
5.156 = 5 +
1000
39 39
= 5 + = 5
250 250
45
(b) 3.045 = 3 +
1000
9
= 3 +
200
9
= 3 200
Example 1.3
Write the following as decimal numbers: (a) 43 , (b) 38 , (c) 94 , (d) 6 52 .
Solution
The easiest way to convert a fraction to a decimal number is to use a calculator.
Check that you can obtain the following using a calculator.
(a) 0.75 (b) 0.375 (c) 0.444 . . . (d) 6.4
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 39
1.1 Introduction 39 3
Example 1.4 Materials Engineering – Strain experienced by a stressed
material
In materials engineering, testing techniques include subjecting a specimen to a force
which causes an extension. An important quantity is strain, P, defined as
/ - /0
P =
/0
where /0 is the original length of the specimen, and / is the length once the force is
applied.
It is important to be able to test materials for their tensile strength – this is the
amount of stress the material is able to stand before it breaks. In carrying out such a
test an engineer will need to calculate the strain.
Engineers also use the strain when mathematically modelling the extension or
compression of an elastic material that is subjected to tensile or compressive forces.
Suppose a block of material of length 0.5 m is subject to a force which causes the
material to extend to a length of 0.51 m. Calculate the strain in the material and
express it as both a proper fraction and a decimal fraction.
Solution
Here /0 is the original length and so /0 = 0.5. Once the force is applied, the length
becomes / = 0.51. Then
/ - /0 = 0.51 - 0.5 = 0.01
The strain is then
/ - /0 0.01
P = = = 0.02
/0 0.5
2 1
As a proper fraction this is 100 = 50 .
Exercises
1 Express the following decimal numbers as 3 Express the following decimal numbers as
proper fractions in their simplest form: proper fractions in their simplest form:
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.80 (c) 0.08 (d) 0.080 (a) 0.16 (b) 0.88 (c) 0.108 (d) 0.555
(e) 0.800 (e) 0.965
2 Express the following decimal numbers as 4 Write each of the following as a decimal
proper fractions in their simplest form: number:
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.225 (d) 0.025 (a) 51 (b) 20
3 7
(c) 40 (d) 21 110
84 (e) 20
(e) 0.2025
Solutions to exercises
4
1 (a) 5 (b) 45 (c) 25
2 2
(d) 25 (e) 45 3 (a) 4
25 (b) 22 27 111 193
25 (c) 250 (d) 200 (e) 200
1
2 (a) 5 (b) 14 (c) 40
9 1
(d) 40 81
(e) 400 4 (a) 0.2 (b) 0.15 (c) 0.175 (d) 0.25 (e) 5.5
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 40
3 40 Block 1 Introduction to decimal numbers
1.2 Writing to a given number of decimal places
We are often required to write a number to a given number of decimal places (d.p.),
usually 2, 3 or 4.
When asked to write to 1 d.p. we need to consider the first two decimal places,
when writing to 2 d.p. we need to consider the first three decimal places, and so on.
If the final digit is less than 5, we simply ignore it. This is called rounding down. If the
final digit is 5 or more we increase the previous digit by 1. This is called rounding up.
Example 1.5
Write 6.38623 to (a) 4 d.p., (b) 3 d.p., (c) 2 d.p., (d) 1 d.p.
Solution
(a) When writing to 4 d.p. we need to consider the first five decimal places: in this
case that is 6.38623. The final digit is 3. Since this is less than 5 we simply ignore
it and are left with 6.3862. Thus to 4 d.p. the number 6.38623 is 6.3862. Note that
6.3862 is less than 6.38623 and so we have rounded down. The number 6.3862 is
closer to 6.38623 than any other number with four decimal places.
(b) To write to 3 d.p. we consider the first four d.p.: that is, we consider 6.3862.
The final digit is a 2. This is less than 5 and so is simply ignored, leaving 6.386.
So, to 3 d.p., the number 6.38623 is 6.386.
Since 6.386 is less than 6.38623 we have rounded down. The number 6.386
is closer to 6.38623 than any other number with 3 d.p.
(c) To write to 2 d.p. we consider the first 3 d.p.: that is, 6.386. The final digit is 6.
Since this is greater than or equal to 5 the previous digit, 8, is increased by 1 to
9. So to 2 d.p. we have 6.39.
Since 6.39 is greater than 6.38623 we have rounded up. The number 6.39 is
closer to 6.38623 than any other number with 2 d.p.
(d) Writing to 1 d.p. we consider the first 2 d.p.: that is, 6.38. The final digit is 8
and so the previous digit, 3, is rounded up to 4. Thus to 1 d.p. we have 6.4.
Example 1.6
Write 1.9751 to (a) 2 d.p., (b) 1 d.p.
Solution
(a) We consider the first 3 d.p.: that is, 1.975. The final digit is 5 and so the
previous digit, 7, is rounded up to 8. This results in 1.98.
(b) To write to 1 d.p. we consider the first 2 d.p.: that is, 1.97. The final digit is 7
and so the 9 must be increased. Clearly the 9 cannot be increased to 10 and so
we increase the 1.9 to 2.0. Thus to 1 d.p. we have 2.0. Note that it is important to
write 2.0 and not simply 2. The 2.0 signifies that the number is written to 1 d.p.
Exercises
1 Write 2.152637 to (a) 5 d.p., (b) 4 d.p., 3 Write 9.999 to (a) 2 d.p., (b) 1 d.p.
(c) 3 d.p., (d) 2 d.p., (e) 1 d.p.
2 Write 9.989 to (a) 2 d.p., (b) 1 d.p.
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 41
1.2 Writing to a given number of decimal places 41 3
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2.15264 (b) 2.1526 (c) 2.153 3 (a) 10.00 (b) 10.0
(d) 2.15 (e) 2.2
2 (a) 9.99 (b) 10.0
End of block exercises
1 Write the following numbers to 3 d.p.: 3 Convert the following decimal numbers to
(a) 7.6931 (b) ⫺2.0456 (c) 0.0004 fractions in their simplest form:
(d) 3.9999 (a) 0.80 (b) 0.55 (c) 0.12 (d) 0.125 (e) 0.625
2 To 1 d.p. a number, X, is 4.3. State (a) the 4 Express the following fractions as decimal
smallest, (b) the largest possible value of X. numbers to 3 d.p.:
(a) 74 (b) 11
2
(c) 35 (d) - 29
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 7.693 (b) ⫺2.046 (c) 0.000 (d) 4.000 3 (a) 54 (b) 20
11 3
(c) 25 (d) 81 (e) 58
2 (a) 4.25 (b) 4.34999 . . . 4 (a) 0.571 (b) 0.182 (c) 0.600 (d) ⫺0.222
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 42
Significant figures
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
We have seen how a number can be written to so many decimal places. Similar to,
but nevertheless distinct from, writing to so many decimal places is writing to so
many significant figures (s.f.).
2.2 Writing to a given number of significant figures
When writing to so many significant figures we consider digits both before and after
the decimal point. When writing to 2 s.f. we consider the first three digits, when writ-
ing to 3 s.f. we consider the first four digits, and so on. We always consider one more
digit than the number of significant figures required.
To write a number to 2 s.f. we can use at most two non-zero digits, to write to 3 s.f.
we use at most three non-zero digits, and so on. Rounding up and rounding down fol-
low the same rules as detailed in the previous block.
Example 2.1
Write 86.97529 to (a) 5 s.f., (b) 4 s.f., (c) 3 s.f., (d) 2 s.f., (e) 1 s.f.
Solution
(a) Writing to 5 s.f. we consider the first six digits: that is, 86.9752. The final digit
is 2 and so this is ignored: that is, we round down. Hence to 5 s.f. the number is
86.975. Note that there are no more than five non-zero digits in the final answer.
The number 86.975 is closer to 86.97529 than any other five-digit number.
(b) We consider the first five digits: that is, 86.975. The final digit is 5 and so the
previous digit, 7, is rounded up to 8. Thus to 4 s.f. we have 86.98.
(c) The first four digits are 86.97. The final digit is 7 and so the previous digit is
rounded up. We cannot round up a 9 to a 10 and so 86.9 is rounded up to 87.0.
(d) Writing to 2 s.f. we consider the first three digits, namely 86.9. The final digit,
9, means that the 6 is rounded up to 7, producing 87.
(e) Writing to 1 s.f. we consider the first two digits: 86. The final digit, 6, means the
8 is rounded to 9, producing 90. Note that although the number has been written
to 1 s.f. there are two digits in the final answer. However, there is only one non-
zero digit.
Example 2.2
Write 99.99 to (a) 3 s.f., (b) 2 s.f., (c) 1 s.f.
Solution
(a) The first four digits are considered: that is, 99.99. The final digit is 9 and so
there must be rounding up. Here 99.99 is rounded up to 100.0.
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 9/20/18 2:39 PM Page 43
End of chapter exercises 43 3
(b) The first three digits are considered: that is, 99.9. The final digit is a 9 and so
rounding up takes place to produce 100.
(c) The first two digits are considered: that is, 99. When rounded up this becomes
100. Note that, although we are writing to 1 s.f., there are three digits in the
final answer. However, there is only one non-zero digit.
Zeros at the beginning of a number are ignored when counting digits. For example,
to write 0.000164 to 1 s.f. we consider the number 0.00016. The leading 0s have not
been counted. The 1 is rounded up to 2 producing 0.0002 to 1 s.f. Note that there is
only one non-zero digit.
End of block exercises
1 Write 28.403951 to (a) 6 s.f., (b) 5 s.f., 4 Write 0.550 to (a) 2 s.f., (b) 1 s.f.
(c) 4 s.f., (d) 3 s.f., (e) 2 s.f., (f) 1 s.f.
5 Write 5.5550 to (a) 2 s.f., (b) 1 s.f.
2 Write 9.0046 to (a) 3 s.f., (b) 2 s.f., (c) 1 s.f.
3 Written to 2 s.f. a number is 86. Calculate
(a) the maximum value, (b) the minimum value
of the original number.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 28.4040 (b) 28.404 (c) 28.40 (d) 28.4 4 (a) 0.55 (b) 0.6
(e) 28 (f) 30
5 (a) 5.6 (b) 6
2 (a) 9.00 (b) 9.0 (c) 9
3 (a) 86.4999 . . . (b) 85.5
End of chapter exercises
1 Write each of the following as a proper 3 Write the following fractions as decimals,
fraction in its simplest form: giving your answer to 3 d.p.:
(a) 0.12 (b) 0.125 (c) 0.1250 (d) 0.85 (a) 31 (b) 32 (c) 19 (d) 11
4
(e) 67
(e) 0.76
4 Write 19.919 to (a) 2 d.p., (b) 1 d.p.
2 Write the following fractions as decimals:
(a) 53 (b) 10
3 3
(c) 20 3
(d) 40 3
(e) 100 5 Write 19.99 to (a) 3 s.f., (b) 2 s.f., (c) 1 s.f.
M03_CROF5939_04_SE_C03.QXD 11/28/18 5:38 PM Page 44
3 44 Block 2 Significant figures
6 Write 0.0982 to (a) 3 d.p., (b) 2 d.p., 9 To four significant figures a number is 0.3452.
(c) 1 d.p., (d) 2 s.f., (e) 1 s.f. State the maximum and minimum possible
values of the number.
7 To 4 d.p. a number is 9.9190. State
(a) the maximum possible value, 10 A block of material of length 0.9 m is subject
(b) the minimum possible value of the original to a force which causes the material to extend
number. to a length of 0.93 m. Calculate the strain in
the material and express it as both a proper
8 To three significant figures a number is 3.60. fraction and a decimal fraction stating your
State the maximum and minimum possible answer to four decimal places.
values of the number.
Solutions to exercises
3
1 (a) 25 (b) 18 (c) 81 (d) 17 19
20 (e) 25 6 (a) 0.098 (b) 0.10 (c) 0.1 (d) 0.098
(e) 0.1
2 (a) 0.6 (b) 0.3 (c) 0.15 (d) 0.075 (e) 0.03
7 (a) 9.91904999 . . . (b) 9.91895
3 (a) 0.333 (b) 0.667 (c) 0.111 (d) 0.364
(e) 0.857 8 3.604999 . . . , 3.595
4 (a) 19.92 (b) 19.9 9 0.34524999 . . . , 0.34515
1
5 (a) 20.0 (b) 20 (c) 20 10 , 0.0333
30
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Chapter 4
Percentage and ratio
This chapter examines percentages and ratio.
Percentages, explained in Block 1, are simply fractions with a
denominator of 100. Writing fractions as percentages is a useful way
of making comparisons. For example, if a student receives 19 out of
a possible 30 marks in a first test, and 27 out of a possible 40 marks
in a second test, is the student improving or getting worse? Once the
scores are written in their equivalent percentage form, the question is
easy to answer.
In Block 2, we look at ratio. Ratio provides a concise method of
describing the relative sizes of each component when some entity is
divided into various parts.
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 9/20/18 2:47 PM Page 46
Chapter 4 contents
Block 1 Percentage
Block 2 Ratio
End of chapter exercises
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 9/20/18 2:47 PM Page 47
Percentage
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Percentages are simply fractions with a denominator of 100. Writing fractions as
percentages is a useful way of making comparisons. In this block we remind you of
how to convert a fraction with an arbitrary denominator into a percentage, and how
to calculate the percentage of a given quantity. These are basic numerical skills with
which all engineers and technologists should be familiar.
1.2 Calculating percentages
A percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100. The symbol % is used to
23
denote a percentage. For example, we may write 100 as 23%.
We often need to convert a fraction into a percentage: that is, write it as an equiv-
alent fraction with a denominator of 100.
Example 1.1
7
Write 25 as a percentage.
Solution
7
We express 25 as an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 100.
7 7 * 4 28
= = = 28%
25 25 * 4 100
An alternative method is to multiply the given fraction by 100 and then label the
result as a percentage. For example,
7
* 100 = 28
25
7
and so 25 is 28%.
We may be asked to calculate a percentage of a number – for example, calculate 23%
of 160. The following examples illustrate how to do this.
Example 1.2
Calculate (a) 23% of 160, (b) 117% of 240, (c) 100% of 20.
Solution
(a)
23
23% of 160 = * 160 = 36.8
100
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4 48 Block 1 Percentage
(b)
117
117% of 240 = 100 * 240 = 280.8
(c)
100
100% of 20 = * 20 = 20
100
We note from (c) that 100% of a number is simply the number itself.
Example 1.3 Electrical Engineering – Voltage across a resistor
The voltage across a resistor is 240 volts to within ;5%. Calculate the maximum
and minimum possible voltages.
Solution
The maximum voltage is 240 plus 5% of 240: that is, 105% of 240.
105
105% of 240 = * 240 = 252 volts
100
The minimum voltage is 240 less 5% of 240: that is, 95% of 240.
95
95% of 240 = * 240 = 228 volts
100
Example 1.4 Electrical Engineering – Resistor tolerance bands
A resistor often has its resistance value defined by a tolerance band. This is an inter-
val in which the actual value of the resistance is known to lie. For example, a resistor
might be described as having a resistance 80 Æ ; 5%. Find the maximum and min-
imum values of such a resistance.
Solution
The maximum value is 80 plus 5% of 80, that is
80 + a
5
* 80b = 80 + 4
100
= 84 Æ
The minimum value is
80 - a
5
* 80b = 80 - 4
100
= 76 Æ
Example 1.5 Reliability Engineering
Manufactured components are checked by a quality assurance system to ensure their
compliance with a manufacturing specification. Out of 450 components tested, 438
were acceptable.
(a) Calculate the percentage of components that were acceptable.
(b) If 6000 components are manufactured, estimate the number that will be
rejected (i.e. are not acceptable).
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 9/20/18 2:47 PM Page 49
1.2 Calculating percentages 49 4
Solution
(a) 438 components out of 450 are acceptable. As a percentage this is
438
* 100 = 97.33%
450
Hence 97.33% of the components tested are acceptable.
(b) From (a), 97.33% of the sample tested are acceptable. So the percentage not
acceptable is 100 - 97.33 which is 2.67%. So 2.67% of the sample are
rejected.
We assume that 2.67% of the entire production of 6000 components is also
rejected.
2.67
2.67% of 6000 = * 6000 = 160
100
We estimate that 160 components out of the 6000 manufactured will be rejected.
Often a physical characteristic of an item will change. For example, the volume of
gas in a cylinder can change as pressure is applied; the length of a metal bar can
increase (decrease) when the bar is heated (cooled). Sometimes we are asked to
calculate the percentage change of such a physical characteristic.
Percentage change is calculated using the formula
new value - original value
percentage change = * 100
original value
If the change is positive then there has been an increase in the measured quantity; if
the change is negative then there has been a decrease in the quantity.
Key point Percentage change =
new value - original value
* 100
original value
Example 1.6 Mechanical Engineering – Extension of a spring
A spring is stretched from 25 cm to 27 cm. Calculate the percentage change in the
length of the spring.
Solution
The original length of the spring is 25 cm. The new length of the spring is 27 cm. So
new value - original value
percentage change in the length of the spring = * 100
original value
27 - 25
= * 100
25
= 8
The length of the spring has been increased by 8%.
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4 50 Block 1 Percentage
End of block exercises
1 Express the following fractions as percentages: 25.01 m. Calculate the percentage change in
3 7
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 21 27
80 (d) 25 (e) 3 the length of the track as its temperature
changes from 20 °C to 70 °C.
2 Calculate the following:
(a) 80% of 75 (b) 37% of 250 (c) 125% of 550 6 Mechanical Engineering – Compression
of a gas. The volume of gas in a cylinder is
3 The pressure inside a vessel is 17.5 ; 10% 1098 cm3. Pressure is increased and the
atmospheres. Calculate the maximum and volume changes to 936 cm3. Calculate the
minimum pressures inside the vessel. percentage change in the volume of gas.
4 Electrical Engineering – Maximum and 7 Electrical Engineering – Power loss during
minimum values of a resistor. Resistors are transmission. Transmission lines have a
manufactured so that their resistance lies nominal power rating of 30000 watts. If there
within a tolerance band. Calculate the are transmission losses of 9% calculate the
maximum and minimum values of the actual power transmitted.
resistances given by:
(a) 10 Æ ; 3% 8 Production Engineering – Quality control.
(b) 29 kÆ ; 5% Quality control systems on a production line
(c) 3 MÆ ; 0.1% ensure that 98.5% of components
manufactured are of an acceptable standard.
5 Mechanical Engineering – Expansion of During a day’s production, 12000 components
metal with rise in temperature. A steel track are made. Calculate the number that are not of
measures 25 m at 20 °C. At 70 °C it measures an acceptable standard.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 30% (b) 35% (c) 26.25% (d) 108% 5 Increase of 0.04%
(e) 300%
6 Decrease of 14.75%
2 (a) 60 (b) 92.5 (c) 687.5
7 27300 W
3 Maximum = 19.25 atmospheres, minimum =
15.75 atmospheres 8 180
4 (a) 9.7 Æ, 10.3 Æ (b) 27.55 kÆ, 30.45 kÆ
(c) 2.997 MÆ, 3.003 MÆ
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 9/20/18 2:47 PM Page 51
Ratio
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Ratios are often used to describe the relative sizes of parts that result when some quan-
tity is divided up. For example, we might be interested in a current that branches into
3 7
two parts with one part taking 10 of the initial current and the other part taking 10 . This
division can be expressed as a ratio, as we shall explain in this block, and we write
the ratio using a colon as 3:7. Essentially ratios are a way of describing two (or
more) fractions whose sum is 1.
2.2 Calculating ratios
Suppose a number is divided in the ratio 3:2. We note that 3 + 2 = 5. We can think
of the number being divided into two parts. The first part is 53 of the original; the
second part is 25 of the original.
As another example, suppose a quantity is divided in the ratio 4:5:3. We note that
4 + 5 + 3 = 12. We can think of the quantity being divided into three parts. The
4 5
first part is 12 of the original, the second part is 12 of the original, and the third part is
3
12 of the original.
The following examples illustrate how calculations with ratio are performed.
Example 2.1 Electrical Engineering – Branch currents
A branch in a circuit divides the current of 30 amps in the ratio of 3:7. Calculate the
current in each branch.
Solution
A ratio of 3:7 means that for every 3 amps in one branch there are 7 amps in the other
branch. So we can think of every 10 amps as being split into 3 amps in one branch
3
and 7 amps in the other branch. In other words, one branch receives 10 of the current;
7
the other branch receives the remaining 10 of the current. Now
3 3 7 7
of 30 = * 30 = 9; of 30 = * 30 = 21
10 10 10 10
So the current is split into 9 amps in one branch and 21 amps in the other branch.
Note from the above example that a ratio of 3:7 is equivalent to splitting a number
3 7
into two parts: 10 of the number in one part and 10 of the number in the other part.
In general, we can split a number, x, in the ratio m:n. The first part will be
m n
* x; the second part will be * x.
m + n m + n
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4 52 Block 2 Ratio
Example 2.2
Divide 108 in the ratio (a) 5:7, (b) 2:3.
Solution
(a) The first number is
5 5
* 108 = * 108 = 45
5 + 7 12
The second number is
7 7
* 108 = * 108 = 63
5 + 7 12
(b) The first number is
2 2
2 + 3 * 108 = 5 * 108 = 43.2
The second number is
3 3
2 + 3 * 108 = 5 * 108 = 64.8
Just as a fraction can be written in many equivalent ways, so can a ratio. The next
example illustrates this.
Example 2.3
Divide 90 in the ratio (a) 4:5, (b) 8:10.
Solution
(a) The first part is
4 4
* 90 = * 90 = 40
4 + 5 9
The second part is
5 5
* 90 = * 90 = 50
4 + 5 9
(b) The first part is
8 8
* 90 = * 90 = 40
8 + 10 18
The second part is
10 10
* 90 = * 90 = 50
8 + 10 18
We see that dividing 90 in the ratios 4:5 and 8:10 produces the same result. The
ratios 4:5 and 8:10 are equivalent.
Key point The ratios m:n and km:kn are equivalent. Note that the constant k may be integer or
fractional.
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2.2 Calculating ratios 53 4
From the key point we immediately see that the ratios 4:5 and 8:10 (Example 2.3)
are equivalent.
Example 2.4
Divide 132 in the ratio 23 : 14 .
Solution
When presented with a ratio involving fractions, it is usually best to write an equiva-
lent ratio which involves only integers. From the key point above we see that 32 : 14
is equivalent to k23 : k14 . Choosing k to be 12 we see that 32 : 14 is equivalent to 8:3.
Hence the question is equivalent to dividing 132 in the ratio 8:3.
The first number is 8 +8 3 of 132: that is, 11 8
of 132, which is 96. The second
3
number is 11 of 132: that is, 36.
The idea of a ratio can be extended to three or more parts.
Example 2.5
Divide 160 in the ratio 1:2:5.
Solution
The first number is 1 + 12 + 5 of 160: that is, 81 of 160, which is 20.
The second number is 1 + 22 + 5 of 160. This is 82 of 160, which is 40.
The third number is 58 of 160, which is 100.
Example 2.6 Materials Engineering – Composition of an alloy
A metal alloy is made of copper, zinc and nickel in the ratio 3:5:7. Calculate the
weight of copper in 100 kg of the alloy.
Solution
The alloy can be considered as comprising 3 + 5 + 7 = 15 parts. Three of the
3
15 parts are copper, that is 15 of the alloy is copper.
3 1
of 100 = * 100
15 5
= 20
So 100 kg of the alloy contains 20 kg of copper.
Example 2.7 Chemical Engineering – Composition of a gas
Gas X comprises oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio 1:2:1. Gas Y comprises
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio 2:1:3.
(a) If equal volumes of gases X and Y are mixed, calculate the ratio of oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen in the resulting gas.
(b) If gas X and gas Y are mixed in the ratio 3:4 find the ratio of oxygen, nitrogen
and hydrogen in the resulting gas.
Solution
(a) In 4 units of gas X, there is 1 unit of oxygen, 2 units of nitrogen and 1 unit of
hydrogen.
In 6 units of gas Y, there are 2 units of oxygen, 1 unit of nitrogen and 3 units
of hydrogen.
Equal volumes of gases X and Y are mixed together. Noting that the l.c.m.
of 4 and 6 is 12, we consider adding 12 units of gas X and 12 units of gas Y:
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4 54 Block 2 Ratio
12 units of gas X comprise 3 units of oxygen, 6 units of nitrogen and 3 units of
hydrogen; 12 units of gas Y comprise 4 units of oxygen, 2 units of nitrogen and
6 units of hydrogen.
So adding 12 units of gas X to 12 units of gas Y results in 24 units of the
mixture. This mixture comprises
3 + 4 = 7 units of oxygen
6 + 2 = 8 units of nitrogen
3 + 6 = 9 units of hydrogen
The mixture contains oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio 7:8:9.
(b) Gas X and gas Y are mixed in the ratio of 3:4. We will consider mixing
3 * 12 = 36 units of gas X with 4 * 12 = 48 units of gas Y: 36 units of gas
X contains 9 units of oxygen, 18 units of nitrogen and 9 units of hydrogen; 48
units of gas Y contain 16 units of oxygen, 8 units of nitrogen and 24 units of
hydrogen.
So the resulting mixture has 9 + 16 = 25 units of oxygen, 18 + 8 = 26
units of nitrogen and 9 + 24 = 33 units of hydrogen.
The resulting mix contains oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio
25:26:33.
Example 2.8 Materials Engineering – Poisson ratio
In Chapter 3, Example 1.4, we introduced the concept of strain P caused when a
/ - /0
material is stretched. Strain is defined by P = where /0 is the original length
/0
of the specimen, and / is the length after a tensile or stretching force is applied. The
same formula is used when a material is compressed, but this time the final length
will be smaller than the original, leading to a negative strain.
Suppose a material such as a metal bar is stretched along its length, the so-called
axial direction. It will then tend to contract in the sideways or transverse direc-
tions. The contraction in the transverse directions gives rise to transverse strains.
Figure 2.1 shows a plan view of a metal bar before and after stretching it.
Suppose the strain in the axial direction is labelled Paxial and that in the transverse
direction is labelled Ptrans. (Here we have assumed that the strain in both transverse
directions is the same.) Then an important quantity used in materials engineering is
called the Poisson ratio, v, defined by
Ptrans
v = -
Paxial
Note the minus sign in this definition, which ensures that the Poisson ratio is positive
because Ptrans is negative when Paxial is positive since the bar is stretched.
A metal bar of length 1 m is stretched in the axial direction so that it extends by
6 cm. At the same time, its width contracts from 20 mm to 19.5 mm. Calculate Paxial,
Ptrans and hence find the Poisson ratio for this metal. Convert any quantities to
SI units before performing the calculations.
Solution
1.06 - 1 0.0195 - 0.020
Paxial = = 0.06, Ptrans = = -0.025
1 0.020
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 9/20/18 2:47 PM Page 55
2.2 Calculating ratios 55 4
Figure 2.1 Contraction in the
A plan view of a transverse direction
metal bar before
and after
stretching.
Stretching in the
axial direction
After stretching
Then
-0.025
Poisson ratio = v = - = 0.42 (to 2 d.p.)
0.06
Usually the Poisson ratio of a material lies between 0 and 0.5. Some materials,
though, have a negative Poisson ratio. This happens when stretching in the axial
direction causes an expansion in the transverse directions too because then both
strains are positive. Materials with this property can be naturally occurring or syn-
thetic and are described as auxetic. Auxetic materials have many important applica-
tions, for example in shock absorbers.
End of block exercises
the ratio 8:3. Calculate the weight of zinc in
1 Divide 250 in the ratio 1:9.
20 kg of brass.
2 Divide 1 in the ratio 6:3.
6 Materials Engineering – Composition of an
1 1 3 alloy. A metal alloy is made from copper, zinc
3 Divide 108 in the ratio 2:4 : 5. and steel in the ratio 3:4:1.
(a) Calculate the amount of copper in a 30 kg
4 Express the following ratios in their simplest
block of the alloy.
form: (a) 6:3 (b) 5:15 (c) 8:6:10 (d) 12 : 14
(b) 10 kg of copper is added to an existing
(e) 12 : 13 :1
40 kg block of the alloy to form a new
alloy. Calculate the ratio of copper, zinc
5 Materials Engineering – Composition of an
and steel in the new alloy.
alloy. Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc in
Solutions to exercises
1 25, 225 4 (a) 2:1 (b) 1:3 (c) 4:3:5 (d) 2:1 (e) 3:2:6
2 1
2 3, 3 5 5.45 kg
3 40, 20, 48 6 (a) 11.25 kg (b) 5:4:1
M04_CROF5939_04_SE_C04.QXD 11/28/18 5:58 PM Page 56
4 56 Block 2 Ratio
End of chapter exercises
1 Calculate 84% of 560. The voltage in a circuit is increased from
220 volts to 270 volts. Calculate the
2 Express 79 as a percentage, giving your answer percentage change.
to 2 d.p.
10 When a number X is increased by 10% its
3 Calculate 220% of - 75. value becomes Y. When a number Z is
decreased by 10% its value becomes Y. By
4 The pressure in a vessel is increased by 12% to what percentage must X be increased so its
130 N m-2. Calculate the original pressure. value equals Z?
5 Divide 315 in the ratio 6:7:8. 11 Chemical Engineering – Composition of a
fluid. Liquid A is made of water, alcohol and
6 A mass of 176 kg is divided in the ratio 4:5:7. bleach in the ratio of 3:1:2. Liquid B is made
Calculate the mass of each portion. of water, alcohol and bleach in the ratio 4:2:1.
(a) If equal volumes of liquids A and B are
7 Express the ratio 112 : 314 using only integers. mixed, calculate the ratio of water, alcohol
and bleach in the new liquid.
8 The temperature of a chemical is reduced (b) If liquid A and liquid B are mixed in the
by 6% to 130 °C. Calculate the original ratio 2:1, calculate the ratio of water,
temperature to 2 d.p. alcohol and bleach in the resulting mix.
9 The percentage change is defined as
percentage change
= a b * 100
new value - original value
original value
Solutions to exercises
1 470.4 7 6:13
2 77.78% 8 138.30 °C
3 - 165 9 22.73%
4 116.07 N m-2 10 22.22%
5 90, 105, 120 11 (a) 45:19:20 (b) 33:13:17
6 44, 55, 77
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/22/18 7:07 AM Page 57
Chapter 5
Basic algebra
In order to be able to apply mathematics to solve engineering
problems it is necessary to introduce symbols to represent physical
quantities. Algebra is used to manipulate these symbols. This chapter
explains how symbols are used and how they can be combined
in various ways. A firm understanding of algebraic techniques is
essential for all further mathematical development. This chapter
provides the necessary foundation and gives you the opportunity
to revise and practise these techniques.
Computer software packages such as Maple and Matlab, which are
commonly available for use in academic and industrial settings, can
compute not just with numbers but also with algebraic symbols.
Moreover, they have very powerful built-in capability for simplifying
algebraic expressions, evaluating and graphing functions, solving
equations and much more. These mathematical topics are discussed in
Chapters 5–7. As you work through these chapters, you are advised to
explore and experiment with the software to which you have access.
Doing so will cement your knowledge of the mathematical techniques
and enable you to tackle more diverse problems than would otherwise
be possible.
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 58
Chapter 5 contents
Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
Block 2 Indices
Block 3 Simplification by collecting like terms
Block 4 Removing brackets
Block 5 Factorisation
Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
Block 7 Formulae and transposition
End of chapter exercises
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 59
Mathematical notation and symbols
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
This introductory block reminds you of important notations and conventions used
throughout engineering mathematics. We discuss the arithmetic of numbers, the
plus or minus sign, ; , the modulus notation ƒ ƒ , and the factorial notation !. Sym-
bols are introduced to represent physical quantities in formulae and equations. The
topic of algebra deals with the manipulation of these symbols. The block closes
with an introduction to algebraic conventions. In what follows, a working knowl-
edge of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numerical fractions
is essential.
1.2 Numbers and common notations
A knowledge of the properties of numbers is fundamental to the study of engineering
mathematics. These properties are an essential foundation. Students who master
them will be well prepared for the study of algebra. Much of the terminology used
throughout the rest of the book can be most easily illustrated by applying it to num-
bers. It is for this reason that we strongly recommend that you work through this
block even if you think that the material is familiar.
The number line
A useful way of picturing numbers is to use a number line. Figure 1.1 shows part
of this line. Positive numbers are on the right-hand side of this line; negative num-
bers are on the left-hand side. Any whole or fractional number can be represented by
a point on this line. It is also called the real number line, or simply the real line.
Study Figure 1.1 and note that a minus sign is always used to indicate that a number
is negative, whereas the use of a plus sign is optional when describing positive
numbers.
Figure 1.1
Numbers can be – 32 2.5 π
represented on a
number line. –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 60
5 60 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
The line extends indefinitely both to the left and to the right. Mathematically we
say that the line extends from minus infinity to plus infinity. The symbol for infinity
is q .
The symbol 7 means ‘greater than’: for example, 6 7 4. Given any number, all
numbers to the right of it on the number line are greater than the given number. The
symbol 6 means ‘less than’: for example, -3 6 19. We also use the symbols Ú
meaning ‘greater than or equal to’ and … meaning ‘less than or equal to’. For ex-
ample, 7 … 10 and 7 … 7 are both true statements.
Sometimes we are interested in only a small section, or interval, of the real line.
We write [1, 3] to denote all the real numbers between 1 and 3 inclusive: that is, 1 and
3 are included in the interval. Thus the interval [1, 3] consists of all real numbers x,
such that 1 … x … 3. The square brackets [,] mean that the end-points are included
in the interval, and such an interval is said to be closed. We write (1, 3) to represent
all real numbers between 1 and 3, but not including the end-points. Thus (1, 3) means
all real numbers x such that 1 6 x 6 3, and such an interval is said to be open. An
interval may be closed at one end and open at the other. For example, (1, 3] consists
of all numbers x such that 1 6 x … 3. Intervals can be represented on a number line.
A closed end-point is denoted by 䊉; an open end-point is denoted by ~. The inter-
vals (-6, -4), [-1, 2] and (3, 4] are illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2
The intervals –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(-6, -4), [-1, 2]
and (3, 4] are
depicted on the
real line.
The plus or minus sign ;
In engineering calculations we often use the notation plus or minus, ; . For example,
we write 12 ; 8 to mean the two numbers 12 + 8 and 12 - 8: that is, 20 and 4.
If we say a number lies in the range 12 ; 8 we mean that the number can lie
between 4 and 20 inclusive.
The reciprocal of a number
If the number 32 is inverted we get 23 . The reciprocal of a number is found by invert-
ing it. So, for example, the reciprocal of 27 is 72 . Note that the old denominator has
become the new numerator, and the old numerator has become the new denominator.
Because we can write 4 as 14 , the reciprocal of 4 is 14 .
Example 1.1 6 1
State the reciprocal of (a) , (b) , (c) 7.
11 5
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1.2 Numbers and common notations 61 5
Solution 6
(a) The reciprocal of a number is found by inverting it. Thus the reciprocal of is
11
11
6
1 5
(b) The reciprocal of is or simply 5
5 1
1
(c) The reciprocal of 7 is
7
The modulus notation ƒ ƒ
We shall make frequent use of the modulus notation ƒ ƒ . The modulus of a number is
the size of the number regardless of its sign. It is denoted by vertical lines around the
number. For example, ƒ 4 ƒ is equal to 4, and ƒ -3 ƒ is equal to 3. The modulus of a
number is never negative.
Example 1.2
1 1
State the modulus of (a) -17, (b) , (c) - .
5 7
Solution
(a) The modulus of a number is found by ignoring its sign. Thus the modulus of
-17 is 17
1 1
(b) The modulus of is
5 5
1 1
(c) The modulus of - is
7 7
Factorials !
Another commonly used notation is the factorial, !. The number 5!, read ‘five factor-
ial’, or ‘factorial five’, means 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1, and the number 7! means
7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1. Note that 1! equals 1, and by convention 0! is defined
to equal 1 as well. Your scientific calculator is probably able to evaluate factorials.
Key point Factorial notation
If n is a positive whole number then
n! = n * (n - 1) * (n - 2) * ### * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
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5 62 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
For example,
6! = 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
= 720
Example 1.3
(a) Evaluate without using a calculator 4! and 5!.
(b) Use your calculator to find 10!.
Solution
(a) 4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24. Similarly, 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120.
Note that 5! = 5 * 4!.
(b) From your calculator check that 10! = 3628800.
Example 1.4
Find the factorial button on your calculator and hence state the value of 11!.
Solution
The button may be marked !. Refer to the manual if necessary. Check that
11! = 39916800
Example 1.5 Coding Theory – Arrangements
In coding theory the letters of a word can be arranged in different ways in order to
disguise their meaning. The number of different arrangements of n different letters is
n!. This is because there are n choices available for the first position, n - 1 for the
second position, and so on.
For example, the four-letter word NATO has 4! 24 different rearrangements:
NATO, NTOA, NOAT, NAOT, NOTA, NTAO;
ANTO, TNOA, ONAT, ANOT, ONTA, TNAO;
ATNO, TONA, OANT, AONT, OTNA, TANO;
ATON, TOAN, OATN, AOTN, OTAN, TAON.
If some of the letters in the word are the same we divide the letters into groups of
identical letters and count the number of letters in each group. For example, suppose
there are k distinct groups of letters with n1 identical letters in the first group, n2 in
the second, n3 in the third, and so on, with nk in the kth group. The total number of
letters is still n so that n1 + n2 + n3 + # # # + nk = n. The number of different
arrangements of the n letters is
n!
n1! * n2! * n3! * ### * nk!
For example, the four-letter word NASA can be divided into three groups of identi-
cal letters, N, A and S, and the number of letters in these groups is 1, 2, 1 respec-
tively. The number of arrangements of the word NASA is
4!
= 12
1!2!1!
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 63
1.2 Numbers and common notations 63 5
These are
NASA, NSAA, NAAS;
ANSA, SNAA, ANAS;
ASNA, SANA, AASN;
ASAN, SAAN, AASN.
In this context the word permutation is often used as an alternative to the word
‘arrangement’.
Exercises
1 Draw a number line and on it label points to 5 Which of the following statements are true?
represent -5, -3.8, -p, - 56, - 12, 0,22, p (a) -8 … 8 (b) -8 … -8 (c) -8 … ƒ 8 ƒ
and 5. (d) | -8| 6 8 (e) ƒ -8 ƒ … -8
2 Evaluate (a) |-18|, (b) |4|, (c) | -0.001|, (f) 9! … 8! (g) 8! … 10!
(d) |0.25|, (e) |0.01 - 0.001|, (f) 2!,
6 Calculate the number of permutations of the
9! letters in the words:
(g) 8! - 3!, (h) .
8! (a) submarine (b) satellite
9
3 State the reciprocal of (a) 8, (b) .
13
4 Evaluate (a) 7 ; 3, (b) 16 ; 7,
(c) -15 ; 12 , (d) -16 ; 0.05,
(e) |-8| ; 13, (f) |-2| ; 8.
Solutions to exercises
1 –3.8 –p – 56 2 p
– 12
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 (a) 18 (b) 4 (c) 0.001 (d) 0.25 (e) 0.009 5 (a), (b), (c), (g) are true.
(f) 2 (g) 40314 (h) 9 9!
1 13 6 (a) 9! = 362880 (b) = 45360
3 (a) (b) 2!2!2!
8 9
4 (a) 4, 10 (b) 9, 23 (c) -1512, -1412
(d) -16.05, -15.95 (e) -5, 21
(f) -6, 10
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 64
5 64 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
1.3 Using symbols
Mathematics provides a very rich language for the communication of engineering
concepts and ideas, and a set of powerful tools for the solution of engineering prob-
lems. In order to use this language it is essential to appreciate how symbols are used
to represent physical quantities, and to understand the rules and conventions that
have been developed to manipulate them.
The choice of which letters or other symbols to use is largely up to the user,
although it is helpful to choose letters that have some meaning in any particular con-
text. For instance, if we wish to choose a symbol to represent the temperature in a
room we might choose the capital letter T. Usually the lowercase letter t is used to
represent time. Because both time and temperature can vary we refer to T and t as
variables. In a particular calculation some symbols represent fixed and unchanging
quantities and we call these constants, although constants can vary from one calcu-
lation to the next. Often we reserve the letters x, y and z to stand for variables and use
the earlier letters of the alphabet, such as a, b and c, to represent constants. The
Greek letter pi, written p, is used to represent the constant 3.14159 . . . , which
appears in the formula for the area of a circle. Other Greek letters are frequently
used, and for reference the Greek alphabet is given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
The Greek A a alpha I l iota P r rho
alphabet. B b beta K k kappa © s sigma
≠ g gamma ¶ l lambda T t tau
¢ d delta M m mu y upsilon
E e epsilon N n nu £ f phi
Z z zeta j xi X x chi
H h eta O o omicron ° c psi
™ u theta ß p pi Æ v omega
Mathematics is a very precise language and care must be taken to note the exact
position of any symbol in relation to any other. If x and y are two symbols, then the
quantities xy, xy, xy can all mean different things. In the expression xy you will note
that the symbol y is placed to the right of and slightly higher than the symbol x. In
this context y is called a superscript. In the expression xy, y is placed lower than and
to the right of x, and is called a subscript.
Example 1.6 The temperature in a room
The temperature in a room is measured at four points as shown in Figure 1.3. Rather
than use different letters to represent the four measurements we can use one symbol,
T, together with four subscripts to represent the temperature. Thus the four measure-
ments are T1, T2, T3 and T4.
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 65
1.3 Using symbols 65 5
Figure 1.3
The temperature is
measured at four T1
points.
T2 T3
T4
Addition (+)
If the letters x and y represent two numbers, then their sum is written as x y. Note
that x + y is the same as y + x just as 4 + 7 is equal to 7 + 4.
Subtraction (-)
Subtracting y from x yields x - y. This quantity is also called the difference of x and
y. Note that x - y is not the same as y - x just as 11 - 7 is not the same as 7 - 11.
Multiplication (*)
The instruction to multiply x and y together is written as x * y. Usually the multipli-
cation sign is missed out altogether and we write simply xy. An alternative and
acceptable notation is to use a dot to represent multiplication, and so we could write
x.y. The quantity xy is called the product of x and y. Note that xy is the same as yx
just as 4 * 3 is the same as 3 * 4. Because of this we say that multiplication is
commutative. Multiplication is also associative. This means that when we multiply
three quantities together, such as x * y * z, it does not matter whether we evaluate
x * y first and then multiply the result by z, or evaluate y * z first and then multiply
the result by x. Thus
(x * y) * z = x * ( y * z)
= x * y * z
When mixing numbers and symbols it is usual to write the numbers first. Thus
3 * x * y * 4 = 3 * 4 * x * y = 12xy.
Example 1.7
Simplify (a) 9(2y), (b) -3(5z), (c) 4(2a), (d) 2x * (2y).
Solution
(a) Note that 9(2y) means 9 * (2 * y). Because of the associativity of multipli-
cation 9 * (2 * y) means the same as (9 * 2) * y, that is 18y.
(b) -3(5z) means -3 * (5 * z). Because of associativity this is the same as
(-3 * 5) * z, that is -15z.
(c) 4(2a) means 4 * (2 * a). We can write this as (4 * 2) * a, that is 8a.
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5 66 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
(d) Because of the associativity of multiplication, the brackets are not needed and
we can write 2x * (2y) = 2x * 2y, which equals
2 * x * 2 * y = 2 * 2 * x * y
= 4xy
Example 1.8
What is the distinction between 9(-2y) and 9 - 2y?
Solution
The expression 9(-2y) means 9 * (-2y). Because of associativity of multiplication
we can write this as 9 * (-2) * y which equals -18y. On the other hand 9 - 2y
means subtract 2y from 9. This cannot be simplified.
Division (,)
x
The quantity x , y means x divided by y. This is also written as x>y or and is
y
x
known as the quotient of x and y. In the expression the top line is called the
y
numerator and the bottom line is called the denominator. Note that x>y is not the
x
same as y>x. Division by 1 leaves a quantity unchanged so that is simply x. Div-
1
ision by 0 is never allowed.
Algebraic expressions
A quantity made up of symbols and the operations + , - , * and > is called an
algebraic expression. One algebraic expression divided by another is called an
algebraic fraction. Thus
x + 7 3x - y
and
x - 3 2x + z
are algebraic fractions. The reciprocal of an algebraic fraction is found by inverting
it so that the old numerator becomes the new denominator, and the old denominator
2 x x + 7
becomes the new numerator. Thus the reciprocal of is . The reciprocal of
x - 3 x 2 x - 3
is .
x + 7
Example 1.9
State the reciprocal of each of the following expressions:
y x + z 1 1
(a) (b) (c) 3y (d) (e)
z a - b a + 2b y
Solution y z
(a) The reciprocal of is .
z y
x + z a - b
(b) The reciprocal of is .
a - b x + z
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1.3 Using symbols 67 5
3y 1
(c) 3y is the same as . The reciprocal of 3y is .
1 3y
1 a + 2b
(d) The reciprocal of is or simply a + 2b.
a + 2b 1
1 y
(e) The reciprocal of is or simply y.
y 1
Finding the reciprocal of a complicated expression can cause confusion. Study the
following example carefully.
Example 1.10
State the reciprocal of:
1 1
(a) p + q (b) +
R1 R2
Solution
p + q
(a) Because p + q can be thought of as its reciprocal is
1
1
p + q
1 1
Note in particular that the reciprocal of p + q is not+ . This distinction is
p q
important and a common cause of error. To avoid an error, carefully identify the
numerator and denominator in the original expression before inverting.
1 1
(b) The reciprocal of + is
R1 R2
1
1 1
+
R1 R2
To simplify this further requires knowledge of the addition of algebraic
fractions, which is dealt with in Block 6. It is important to note that the
1 1
reciprocal of + is not R1 + R2.
R1 R2
Example 1.11 Electrical Engineering – Conductance and reactance
Reciprocals of physical quantities occur in several engineering contexts. For exam-
1
ple, if R is the resistance value of a resistor, then its reciprocal, , is known as the
R
conductance, G, so that
1
G =
R
Clearly, when the resistance of a component is large, its conductance will be small,
and vice versa.
In a.c. circuit theory, if C is the capacitance of a capacitor, the reciprocal
of C appears in the definition of capacitive reactance, XC. This is defined as
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5 68 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
1 1 1
XC = * = where v is the angular frequency of the applied alternating
v C vC
voltage (see Chapter 9, Block 7, Section 7.4).
Example 1.12 Electrical Engineering – Transfer function
A control engineer often makes use of a mathematical expression called a transfer
function, which tells the engineer how the output of a complicated system is related to
the input or driving force. The transfer function often takes the form of an algebraic
fraction, where the variable used is the letter s. Typical transfer functions may look like
1 1
2
or 2
s + 3s + 4 s - 1
The equals sign, =
The equals sign, = , is used in several different ways. Firstly, an equals sign is used in
equations. The left-hand side and right-hand side of an equation are equal only
when the variable involved takes specific values known as solutions of the equation.
For example, in the equation x - 8 = 0, the variable is x. The left-hand side and
right-hand side are equal only when x has the value 8. If x has any other value the two
sides are not equal.
Secondly, the equals sign is used in formulae. Physical quantities are often related
through a formula. For example, the formula for the length, C, of the circumference of a
circle expresses the relationship between the circumference of the circle and its radius, r.
This formula states C = 2pr. When used in this way the equals sign expresses the fact
that the quantity on the left is found by evaluating the expression on the right.
Finally, an equals sign is used in identities. At first sight an identity looks rather
like an equation, except that it is true for all values of the variable. We shall see
shortly that (x - 1)(x + 1) = x2 - 1 for any value of x whatsoever. This means
that the quantity on the left means exactly the same as that on the right whatever the
value of x. To distinguish this usage from other uses of the equals symbol it is more
correct to write (x - 1)(x + 1) K x2 - 1, where K means ‘is identically equal to’,
although in practice the equals sign is often used.
The ‘not equals’ sign, Z
The sign Z means ‘is not equal to’. For example, it is correct to write 5 Z 6,
7 Z -7.
The d notation for the change in a variable
The change in the value of a quantity is found by subtracting its initial value from its
final value. For example, if the temperature of a mixture is initially 13°C and after
some time is found to be 17°C, the change in temperature is 17 - 13 = 4 °C. The
Greek letter d is often used to indicate such a change. If x is a variable we write dx
to stand for a change in the value of x. We sometimes refer to dx as an increment
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 69
1.3 Using symbols 69 5
in x. For example, if the value of x changes from 3 to 3.01 we could write
dx = 3.01 - 3 = 0.01. It is important to note that this is not the product of d and x,
rather the whole quantity dx means the increment in x.
Sigma notation, ©
Sigma notation provides a concise and convenient way of writing long sums. The sum
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + ### + x11 + x12
is written using the capital Greek letter sigma, © , as
k = 12
k = 12
a xk or a k = 1 xk
k=1
The © stands for the sum of all the values of xk as k ranges from 1 to 12. Note that
the lowermost and uppermost values of k are written at the bottom and top of the
sigma sign respectively.
Example 1.13
Write out explicitly what is meant by
k=5
3
ak
k=1
Solution
We must let k range from 1 to 5:
k=5
3 3 3 3 3 3
ak = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
k=1
Example 1.14
1 1 1 1
Express + + + concisely using sigma notation.
1 2 3 4
Solution
1
Each term takes the form where k varies from 1 to 4. Write down the sigma notation:
k
k=4
1
ak
k=1
Example 1.15
k=3
Write out explicitly a k = 1 1.
Solution
Here k does not appear explicitly in the terms to be added. This means add the num-
ber 1, three times:
k=3
a1 = 1 + 1 + 1
k=1
= 3
k=n
In general ak=1 1 = n.
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5 70 Block 1 Mathematical notation and symbols
Exercises
1
1 State the reciprocal of (a) x, (b) , (c) xy, 6 The value of x is 100 ; 3. The value of y is
1 2 z 120 ; 5. Find the maximum and minimum
(d) , (e) a + b, (f) . values of
xy a + b x y
(a) x + y (b) xy (c) (d)
y x
2 The pressure p in a reaction vessel changes N
from 35 pascals to 38 pascals. Write down the 7 Write out explicitly (a) a i = 1 fi,
N
value of dp. (b) a i = 1 fi xi.
3 Express as simply as possible: 8 By writing out the terms explicitly show that
(a) (-3) * x * (-2) * y k=5 k=5
(b) 9 * x * z * (-5)
a 3k = 3 a k
k=1 k=1
4 Simplify (a) 8(2y), (b) 17x(-2y), 3
(c) 5x(8y), (d) 5x(-8y). 9 Write out explicitly ak=1 y(xk)dx.
5 What is the distinction between 5x(2y) and
5x - 2y?
Solutions to exercises
1 1 1 a + b
1 (a) (b) z (c) (d) xy (e) (f) 6 (a) max 228, min 212 (b) 12875, 11155
x xy a + b 2 (c) 0.8957, 0.7760 (d) 1.2887, 1.1165
2 dp = 3 pascals N
7 (a) a i = 1 fi = f1 + f2 + ### + fN-1 + fN
3 (a) 6xy (b) -45xz N
(b) a i = 1 fi xi = f1x1 + f2 x2 + # # #
4 (a) 16y (b) -34xy (c) 40xy (d) -40xy + fN-1xN-1 + fN xN
5 5x(2y) = 10xy, 5x - 2y cannot be simplified. 9 y(x1)dx + y(x2)dx + y(x3)dx
1.4 Computer algebra packages
Computer algebra packages are specially designed computer programs with the abil-
ity to manipulate symbols, solve equations, etc. There are several different packages
available but the common ones are Maple and Matlab. You should enquire about the
availability of this software in your college or university.
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1.4 Computer algebra packages 71 5
End of block exercises
1 On a number line indicate all numbers greater 7 Express as simply as possible:
than or equal to - 12 but less than 34 . (a) 7 * x * 4 * 2 * y
(b) -8 * 2 * a * b
2 Evaluate (a) 3 - 2 + ƒ 5 - 7 ƒ , (c) 2 * x * 3 * y * 4z
(b) 3 - ƒ 2 + 5 ƒ - 7, (c) ƒ 3 - 2 ƒ + 5 - 7,
8 Simplify (a) 5(3x), (b) 4(2x), (c) 8(-7x).
(d) ƒ 3 - 2 ƒ + ƒ 5 - 7 ƒ .
9 What is the distinction between x(-y) and
3 Evaluate (a) 3! - 2!, (b) 3! - 2,
x - y?
(c) 2! - 3!, (d) 4 * 3!.
n!
4 4x 10 Show that (a) = n,
4 State the reciprocal of (a) 9, (b) , (c) . (n - 1)!
3 3y
(n + 1)!
5 Calculate the maximum and minimum values (b) = n(n + 1),
of the following resistances defined by their (n - 1)!
tolerance bands: n! 1
(c) = .
(a) 35 Æ ; 5% (b) 470 Æ ; 10% (n + 1)! n + 1
3
6 The speed, v, of a vehicle changes from 11 Write out explicitly a i = 1 fi(xi - x )2.
40 metres per second to 38 metres per second.
Write down the value of dv.
Solutions to exercises
1
–1 – 12 0
1
2 1
2 (a) 3 (b) -11 (c) -1 (d) 3 8 (a) 15x (b) 8x (c) -56x
3 (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) -4 (d) 24 9 x(-y) is the product of x and y. The
1 3 3y expression x - y means subtract y from x.
4 (a) (b) (c)
9 4 4x 3 2 2
11 a i = 1 fi (xi - x) = f1(x1 - x)
5 (a) 33.25, 36.75 (b) 423, 517 + f2(x2 - x )2 + f3(x3 - x )2
6 2 metres per second
7 (a) 56xy (b) -16ab (c) 24xyz
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Indices
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Indices, or powers, provide a convenient notation when we need to multiply a num-
ber by itself several times. In this block we explain how indices are written, and state
the rules or laws that are used for manipulating them.
Expressions built up using non-negative whole number powers of a variable and
known as polynomials occur frequently in engineering mathematics. We introduce
some common polynomials in this block.
Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers concisely.
This requires the use of indices. We explain how to use scientific notation towards
the end of the block.
2.2 Index notation
When we wish to multiply a number by itself several times we make use of index or
power notation. The number 4 * 4 * 4 is written as 43 and read ‘4 raised to the
power 3’ or ‘4 cubed’. Note that the number of times ‘4’ occurs in the product is
written as a superscript. In this context we call the superscript 3 an index. Similarly
we could write
5 * 5 = 52, read ‘5 to the power 2’ or ‘5 squared’
and
7 * 7 * 7 * 7 * 7 = 75, a * a * a = a3, m * m * m * m = m4
More generally, in the expression xy, x is called the base and y is called the index or
power. The plural of index is indices. The process of raising to a power is also
known as exponentiation because yet another name for a power is an exponent.
When dealing with numbers your calculator is able to evaluate expressions involving
powers, probably using the xy button.
Example 2.1
Use a calculator to evaluate 312.
Solution
Using the xy button on the calculator check that you obtain 312 = 531441.
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2.2 Index notation 73 5
Example 2.2
Identify the index and base in the following expressions:
(a) 811 (b) (-2)5 (c) zm (d) p-q
Solution
(a) In the expression 811, 8 is the base and 11 is the index.
(b) In the expression (-2)5, -2 is the base and 5 is the index.
(c) In the expression zm, z is the base and m is the index.
(d) In the expression p-q, p is the base and -q is the index. The interpretation of a
negative index will be given in Section 2.5.
Recall from Chapter 1 that when several operations are involved we can make use of
the BODMAS rule for deciding the order in which operations must be carried out.
The BODMAS rule makes no mention of exponentiation. Exponentiation should
be carried out once any brackets have been dealt with. Consider the following
examples.
Example 2.3
Evaluate 7 * 32.
Solution
There are two operations involved here, exponentiation and multiplication. The expo-
nentiation should be carried out before the multiplication, so 7 * 32 = 7 * 9 = 63.
Example 2.4
Write out fully (a) 3m4, (b) (3m)4.
Solution
(a) In the expression 3m4 the exponentiation is carried out before the multiplication
by 3, so
3m4 means 3 * (m * m * m * m)
that is
3 * m * m * m * m
(b) Here the bracketed expression is raised to the power 4 and so should be
multiplied by itself four times:
(3m)4 = (3m) * (3m) * (3m) * (3m)
Because of the associativity and commutativity of multiplication we can write
this as
3 * 3 * 3 * 3 * m * m * m * m
or simply 81m4.
Note the important distinction between (3m)4 and 3m4 and in particular the way that
the power is applied.
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5 74 Block 2 Indices
Care must be taken when using your calculator to find powers of negative numbers.
For example, (-2)2 means (-2) * (-2) = +4. Check that your calculator gives the
correct answer. It may be necessary to enclose the 2 in brackets.
Exercises
1 1 1 1 1
1 Evaluate, without using a calculator: (c) * * * *
(a) 33 (b) 34 (c) 25 2 2 7 7 7
5 Evaluate without using a calculator:
2 2 2 3 1 2 1 3
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b (d) a b
2 Evaluate, without using a calculator:
(a) 0.22 (b) 152 3 5 2 2
(e) 0.13
3 Evaluate using a calculator:
(a) 73 (b) (14)3.2
6 Explain what is meant by 5 * 34. How would
you write the expression if you wanted the
4 Write each of the following using index
multiplication by 5 carried out first?
notation:
(a) 7 * 7 * 7 * 7 * 7 (b) t * t * t * t
Solutions to exercises
4 8 1 1
1 (a) 27 (b) 81 (c) 32 5 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 0.001
9 125 4 8
2 (a) 0.04 (b) 225 6 5 * 34 means 5 * 81 = 405. If the intention
is to carry out the multiplication first we would
3 (a) 343 (b) 4651.7 write (5 * 3)4.
1 2 1 3
4 (a) 75 (b) t4 (c) a b a b
2 7
2.3 Laws of indices
There are a number of rules that enable us to manipulate expressions involving
indices. These rules are known as the laws of indices, and they occur so commonly
that it will be worthwhile to memorise them.
Key point The laws of indices state:
first law: am * an = am + n
am
second law: n = am-n
a
third law: (am)n = amn
In each case note that the base must be the same throughout.
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2.3 Laws of indices 75 5
In words, these state that to multiply two numbers having the same base and possibly
different indices, the indices are added. To divide, the indices are subtracted. If a
number is raised to a power and the result itself is raised to a power, the two powers
are multiplied together. Consider the following examples.
Example 2.5
Simplify (a) a5 * a4, (b) 2x5(x3).
Solution
In each case we are required to multiply expressions involving indices. The bases are
the same and we can use the first of the given laws.
(a) The indices must be added: thus a5 * a4 = a5 + 4 = a9.
(b) Because of the associativity of multiplication we can write
2x 5(x 3) = 2(x 5x 3)
= 2x 5 + 3
= 2x 8
The first law extends in an obvious way when more terms are involved.
Example 2.6
Simplify b5 * b4 * b7.
Solution
The indices are added. Thus b5 * b4 * b7 = b5 + 4 + 7 = b16.
Example 2.7
Simplify y4y2y3.
Solution
All quantities have the same base. To multiply the quantities together, the indices are
added:
y 4y 2y 3 = y9
Example 2.8
84
Simplify (a) 2 , (b) x18 , x7.
8
Solution
In each case we are required to divide expressions involving indices. The bases are
the same and we can use the second of the given laws.
84
(a) The indices must be subtracted: thus = 84 - 2 = 82.
8 2
(b) Again the indices are subtracted, and so x18 , x7 = x18-7 = x11.
Example 2.9
59 y5
Simplify (a) 7 , (b) 2 .
5 y
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5 76 Block 2 Indices
Solution
(a) The bases are the same, and the division is carried out by subtracting the
indices:
59
= 5 9-7 = 52
57
y5
(b) 2 = y 5-2 = y3
y
Example 2.10
Simplify (a) (82)3, (b) (z3)4.
Solution
We use the third of the given laws.
(a) (82)3 = 82 * 3 = 86
(b) (z3)4 = z3 * 4 = z12
Example 2.11
Simplify (x2)5.
Solution
Apply the third law.
(x2)5 = x 2 * 5 = x10
Example 2.12
Simplify (ex)y.
Solution
Again, using the third law, the two powers are multiplied:
(ex)y = e x * y = e xy
Two important results that can be derived from the laws state:
Key point Any number raised to the power 0 is 1, that is a0 = 1.
Any number raised to the power 1 is itself, that is a1 = a.
A generalisation of the third law states:
Key point (a mb n )k = a mkb nk
Example 2.13
Remove the brackets from (a) (3x)2, (b) (x3y7)4.
Solution
(a) Noting that 3 = 31 and x = x1 then
(3x)2 = (31x1)2
= 31 * 2x1 * 2
= 32x2
= 9x2
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2.4 Polynomial expressions 77 5
Alternatively
(3x)2 = (3x) * (3x)
= 9x2
(b) (x3y7)4 = x3 * 4y7 * 4
= x12y28
Exercises
1 Show that (-xy)2 is equivalent to x2y2. 4 Remove the brackets from (a) (8a)2,
(b) (7ab)3, (c) 7(ab)3, (d) (6xy)4, (e) (6x)4y.
2 Show that (-xy)3 is equivalent to -x3y3.
5 Simplify (a) 15x2(x3), (b) 3x2(5x),
3 Write each of the following expressions with a
(c) 18x-1(3x4).
single index:
67 6 Simplify (a) 5x(x3), (b) 4x2(x3), (c) 3x7(x4),
(a) 67 69 (b) 19 (c) (x4)3
6 (d) 2x8(x11), (e) 5x2(3x9).
Solutions to exercises
3 (a) 616 (b) 6-12 (c) x12 5 (a) 15x5 (b) 15x3 (c) 54x3
4 (a) 64a2 (b) 343a3b3 (c) 7a3b3 6 (a) 5x4 (b) 4x5 (c) 3x11 (d) 2x19 (e) 15x11
(d) 1296x4y4 (e) 1296x4y
2.4 Polynomial expressions
An important group of mathematical expressions that use indices are known as
polynomials. Examples of polynomials are
4x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x - 7, x 2 + x, 17 - 2t + 7t 4, z - z3
Notice that they are all constructed using non-negative whole number powers of the
variable. Recall that x0 = 1 and so the number -7 appearing in the first example can be
thought of as -7x0. Similarly the 17 appearing in the third example can be read 17t0.
Key point A polynomial expression takes the form
a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + . . .
where a0, a1, a2, a3, . . . are all constants called the coefficients of the polynomial.
The number a0 is also called the constant term. The highest power in a polynomial
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5 78 Block 2 Indices
is called the degree of the polynomial. Polynomials with low degrees have special
names:
Polynomial Degree Name
3 2
ax + bx + cx + d 3 cubic
ax2 + bx + c 2 quadratic
ax + b 1 linear
a 0 constant
Example 2.14
Which of the following expressions are polynomials? Give the degree of those that are.
1
(a) 3x2 + 4x + 2 (b) (c) 2x (d) 2t + 4
x + 1
Solution
Recall that a polynomial expression must contain only terms involving whole
number powers of the variable.
Give your answers:
(a) 3x2 + 4x + 2, polynomial of degree 2
1
(b) , not a polynomial
x + 1
(c) 2x, not a polynomial
(d) 2t + 4, polynomial of degree 1
Exercises
1 State which of the following are linear polyno- 3 Which of the following are polynomials?
mials, which are quadratic polynomials, and (a) 4t + 17 (b) 12 - 12 t (c) 15
which are constants:
(a) x (b) x2 + x + 3 (c) x2 - 1 (d) 3 - x 1 1
(d) t2 - 3t + 7 (e) + + 7
(e) 7x - 2 (f) 12 (g) 12x + 34 (h) 3 - 12x2 t2 t
4 State the degree of each of the following
2 State which of the following are polynomials: polynomials. For those of low degree, give
1 their name.
(a) -a2 - a - 1 (b) x1>2 - 7x2 (c) (d) 19 (a) 2t3 + 7t2 (b) 7t7 + 14t3 - 2t2 (c) 7x + 2
x
(d) x2 + 3x + 2 (e) 2 - 3x - x2 (f) 42
Solutions to exercises
1 (a), (d), (e) and (g) are linear; (b), (c) and (h) 3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) are polynomials.
are quadratic; (f) is a constant.
4 (a) 3, cubic, (b) 7, (c) 1, linear, (d) 2,
2 (a) is a polynomial, (d) is a polynomial of quadratic, (e) 2, quadratic, (f) 0, constant.
degree 0, (b) and (c) are not polynomials.
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2.5 Negative indices 79 5
2.5 Negative indices
Sometimes a number is raised to a negative power. This is interpreted as follows:
Key point negative powers: a-m =
1 m 1
m , a = -m
a a
Thus a negative index can be used to indicate a reciprocal.
Example 2.15
Write each of the following expressions using a positive index and simplify if possible.
1
(a) 2-3 (b) -3 (c) x-1 (d) x-2 (e) 10-1
4
Solution
1 1
(a) 2-3 = 3
=
2 8
1
(b) = 43 = 64
4-3
1 1
(c) x-1 = 1 =
x x
1
(d) x-2 = 2
x
1 1
(e) 10-1 = 1 = or 0.1
10 10
Example 2.16
Write each of the following using a positive index:
1
(a) -4 (b) 17-3 (c) y-1 (d) 10-2
t
Solution
Use the previous key point.
1
(a) -4 = t4
t
1
(b) 17-3 =
173
1
(c) y-1 =
y
1 1
(d) 10-2 = 2
which equals or 0.01
10 100
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5 80 Block 2 Indices
Example 2.17
a8 * a7 m9 * m-2
Simplify (a) 4
, (b) .
a m-3
Solution
(a) Use the first law of indices to simplify the numerator:
a8 * a7 a15
=
a4 a4
Then use the second law to simplify the result:
a11
(b) First simplify the numerator using the first law of indices:
m9 * m-2 m7
=
m-3 m-3
Then use the second law to simplify the result:
m7-(-3) = m10
Exercises
1 Write the following numbers using a positive 2 Simplify as much as possible:
index and also express your answers as t4 y-2
decimal fractions: (a) x3x-2 (b) -3 (c) -6
t y
(a) 10-1 (b) 10-3 (c) 10-4
Solutions to exercises
1 1
1 (a) = 0.1 (b) 3 = 0.001 2 (a) x1 = x (b) t4 + 3 = t7 (c) y-2 + 6 = y4
10 10
1
(c) 4 = 0.0001
10
2.6 Fractional indices
So far we have used indices that are whole numbers. We now consider those that
are fractions. Consider the expression 1161>222. Using the third law of indices,
(am)n = amn, we can write
(161>2)2 = 161>2 * 2
= 161
= 16
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2.6 Fractional indices 81 5
So 161兾2 is a number that when squared equals 16, that is 4 or -4. In other words
161兾2 is a square root of 16, that is 216. There are always two square roots of a non-
zero number, and we write
161>2 = ;4
In general
Key point a1>2 is a square root of a
Similarly
(81>3)3 = 81>3 * 3
= 81
= 8
so that 81>3 is a number that when cubed equals 8. Thus 81>3 is the cube root of 8, that
is 23 8, namely 2. Each number has only one cube root, and so
81>3 = 2
Key point a1>3 is the cube root of a
In general we have
Key point n
x1/n is the nth root of x, that is 2x
Your calculator will be able to evaluate fractional powers, and roots of numbers.
Check that you can obtain the results of the following examples.
Example 2.18
Evaluate (a) 1441>2, (b) 1251>3.
Solution
(a) 1441>2 is a square root of 144, that is ;12.
(b) Noting that 53 = 125, we see that 1251>3 = 2 3 125 = 5.
Example 2.19
Evaluate (a) 321>5, (b) 322>5, (c) 82>3.
Solution
5 32 . Now 25 = 32 and so 2
(a) 321>5 is the fifth root of 32, that is 2 5 32 = 2.
(b) Using the third law of indices we can write 322>5 = 322 * 1>5 = (321>5)2. Thus
322>5 = (321>5)2
= 22
= 4
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5 82 Block 2 Indices
(c) Note that 81>3 = 2. Then
82>3 = 82 * 1>3
= (81>3)2
= 22
= 4
Note the following alternatives:
82>3 = (81>3)2
= (82)1>3
Example 2.20
Write the following with a single index:
(a) 2x 5 (b) 2 4 x3
Solution
(a) 2x 5 = (x 5)1>2. Then using the third law of indices we can write this as
x 5 * 1>2 = x 5>2.
4 x3 = (x3)1>4. Using the third law we can write this as x 3 * 1>4 = x 3>4.
(b) 2
Example 2.21
1
Show that z-1>2 = .
2z
Solution
1
z-1>2 = 1>2
z
1
=
2z
Example 2.22
2z
Simplify 3 -1>2 .
zz
Solution
Rewrite 2z using an index and simplify the denominator using the first law of
indices:
2z z1>2
3 -1>2
=
zz z2.5
Finally, use the second law to simplify the result:
1
z 0.5-2.5 = z-2 or
z2
Example 2.23
The generalisation of the third law of indices states that (ambn)k = amkbnk. By taking
m = 1, n = 1 and k = 12 show that 2ab = 2a 2b.
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2.7 Scientific notation 83 5
Solution
1
Taking m 1, n 1 and k = 2 gives (ab)1兾2 a1兾2b1兾2, and the required result fol-
lows immediately.
Key point 2ab = 1a 1b
This result often allows answers to be written in alternative forms. For example, we
may write 248 as 23 * 16 = 23 216 = 423.
Exercises
1 Evaluate using a calculator (a) 31>2, (b) 15 - 1>3, 5 From the third law of indices show that
(c) 853, (d) 811>4. (ab)1>2 = a1>2 b1>2. Deduce that the square root
of a product is equal to the product of the
2 Evaluate using a calculator (a) 15 - 5, (b) 15 - 2>7. individual square roots.
a11 a3>4 2z 6 Write each of the following expressions with a
3 Simplify (a) , (b) . single index:
a-1>2 z3>2
x1>2
(a) (x-4)3 (b) x1>2x1>4 (c) 1>4
z-5>2 3a
2 5z
2 x
4 Simplify (a) , (b) , (c) .
2z 2a
2 z1>2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 1.7321 (b) 0.4055 (c) 614125 (d) 3 4 (a) z-3 (b) a-1>6 (c) z-3>10
2 (a) 1.317 * 10-6 (4 s.f.) (b) 0.4613 (4 s.f.) 6 (a) x12 (b) x3兾4 (c) x1兾4
3 (a) a12.25 (b) z-1
2.7 Scientific notation
It is often necessary to use very large or very small numbers such as 78000000 or
0.00000034. Scientific notation can be used to express such numbers in a more con-
cise form. Each number is written in the form
a * 10 n
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5 84 Block 2 Indices
where a is usually a number between 1 and 10. We can make use of the following facts:
10 = 101, 100 = 102, 1000 = 103, and so on
and
0.1 = 10-1, 0.01 = 10-2, 0.001 = 10-3, and so on
Furthermore, to multiply a number by 10n the decimal point is moved n places to the
right if n is a positive integer, and n places to the left if n is a negative integer. If nec-
essary, additional zeros are inserted to make up the required number of decimal
places. Then, for example,
the number 5000 can be written 5 * 1000 = 5 * 103
the number 403 can be written 4.03 * 100 = 4.03 * 102
the number 0.009 can be written 9 * 0.001 = 9 * 10-3
Example 2.24
Write the number 0.00678 in scientific notation.
Solution
0.00678 = 6.78 * 10-3
Example 2.25 Engineering constants
Many constants appearing in engineering calculations are expressed in scientific
notation. For example, the charge on an electron equals 1.6 * 10 - 19 coulombs.
Avogadro’s constant is equal to 6.022 * 1026 and is the number of atoms in 1 kilo-
mole of an element. Clearly the use of scientific notation avoids writing lengthy
strings of zeros.
Your scientific calculator will be able to accept numbers in scientific notation. Often
the E button is used, and a number such as 4 .2 * 107 will be entered as 4.2E7. Note
that 10E4 means 10 * 104, that is 105. To enter the number 103, say, you would key
in 1E3. Entering powers of 10 incorrectly is a common cause of error. You must
check how your particular calculator accepts numbers in scientific notation.
Example 2.26
Use your calculator to find 4.2 * 10-3 * 3.6 * 10-4.
Solution
This exercise is designed to check that you can enter numbers given in scientific
notation into your calculator. Check that
4.2 * 10-3 * 3.6 * 10-4 = 1.512 * 10-6
Exercises
1 Express each of the following numbers in 2 Simplify 6 * 1024 * 1.3 * 10-16.
scientific notation:
(a) 45 (b) 456 (c) 2079 (d) 7000000 (e) 0.1
(f) 0.034 (g) 0.09856
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2.8 Powers and number bases 85 5
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 4.5 * 101 (b) 4.56 * 102 2 7.8 * 108
(c) 2.079 * 103 (d) 7.0 * 106
(e) 1.0 * 10-1 (f) 3.4 * 10-2
(g) 9.856 * 10-2
2.8 Powers and number bases
We are used to counting in the base 10 or decimal system in which we use the 10
digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9. In Chapter 3, Block 1 we reminded you that the num-
ber 5276 means
5000 + 200 + 70 + 6
or, to write it another way,
(5 * 1000) + (2 * 100) + (7 * 10) + (6 * 1)
This reminds us of the ‘thousands’, ‘hundreds’, ‘tens’ and ‘units’ from early school
days. It is helpful in what follows to note that we can also think of this representation as
103 102 101 100
5 2 7 6
Note that the ‘thousands’, ‘hundreds’, ‘tens’ and ‘units’ are simply powers of the
number base 10. In the remainder of this section we shall indicate the number base
being used by a subscript, as in 527610.
In several applications, particularly in digital computing, it is essential to use
bases other than 10. In base 2 we use only the two digits 0 and 1. Numbers in the
base 2 system are called binary numbers, and we call 0 and 1 binary digits or
simply bits.
To evaluate the decimal equivalent of a binary number such as 11012 we note that
powers of 2 are now used to determine the place value:
23 22 21 20
1 1 0 1
So
11012 = (1 * 23) + (1 * 22) + (0 * 21) + (1 * 20)
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 1310
Note that using two binary digits we can represent the four (i.e. 22) decimal numbers,
0, 1, 2, 3:
00 2 = 010 012 = 110 10 2 = 210 112 = 310
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5 86 Block 2 Indices
With three binary digits we can represent eight (i.e. 23) decimal numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7:
000 2 = 0 10 0012 = 110 010 2 = 210 0112 = 310
100 2 = 410 1012 = 510 110 2 = 610 1112 = 710
In general, with n binary digits we can represent the 2n decimal numbers 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
2n - 1.
Example 2.27
Find which decimal numbers can be represented using (a) 8 binary digits, (b) 16
binary digits.
Solution
(a) With 8 binary digits we can represent the 256 (=28) decimal numbers 0, 1, 2, . . .
255. Note that a base 2 number having 8 binary digits is often referred to as a
byte.
(b) With 16 binary digits we can represent the 65536 (=216) decimal numbers 0, 1,
2, . . . , 65535.
Example 2.28 Music Technology – Powers of 2 and compact disc
technology
In digital audio technology an analogue signal (e.g. a voltage from a microphone) is
sampled at 44100 times each second. The value of each of these samples must be
recorded. To do this digitally it is necessary to quantise the sample. This means to
approximate its value by one of a set of predetermined values. Compact discs usually
use 16-bit technology, which means that each sample value is recorded using a 16-bit
number. In turn, this means that we can store whole numbers in the range 0 to 65535
to represent the sample values. So, we need 2 bytes of storage for each sample, and
44100 samples each second. A stereo signal will require twice as much storage. This
means we need 176400 bytes for each second of music stored on a CD. In fact, ad-
ditional storage is required because other quantities are built in to reduce errors, and
additional data are stored (track length, title, etc.). A simple calculation will show that
a 4-minute audio track will require in excess of 42336000 bytes of storage – that is, a
massive 42 megabytes. You will see why a standard CD-R (recordable CD) that has
700 megabytes of storage capacity will hold well under 16 tracks. To try to download
a 42 MB file over the Internet using a domestic modem (56 kilobytes per second)
would take over 12 minutes. Whilst a broadband connection would do this much
more quickly, this is not a practical way of obtaining music files. Mathematicians
have developed compression techniques (e.g. MP3) which can vastly reduce the size
of the audio file and thus make Internet transmission a realistic possibility.
Exercises
1 Find the decimal equivalent of the binary 2 Find which decimal numbers can be
number 110011001. represented using a 6-bit binary number.
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2.8 Powers and number bases 87 5
3 Base 8, or octal, is used by computer 4 Estimate the capacity needed to store a
scientists. Here the place values are powers of 20-minute stereo CD recording of a piece of
8, and we can use the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, classical music.
7. Find the decimal equivalent of the octal
number 7568.
Solutions to exercises
1 409 3 494
2 0, 1, 2, . . . , 63. 4 Well in excess of 200 MB.
End of block exercises
1 Write down the three laws of indices and give 7 Rewrite 2a5 using a single index.
a numerical example illustrating each.
8 Express the numbers 4320 and 0.0065 in
2 In the expression 54 state which number is the scientific notation.
index and which is the base.
9 Remove the brackets from (7x2)-3.
3 Simplify each of the following:
a11 10 Simplify
(a) 4 (b) (ab)4
a y6y-3y0.5
4 Remove the brackets from the expression y-2y7
(4x3)5.
11 Simplify
1
5 Write using a positive index. (a) (3a2b) (2a3b2) (b) (a4b3) (7a-2b-1)
x-1>2
(c) xx2x3 (d) (-2y) (-3y2) (-4y-2)
6 Simplify (e) (e2x )y
a7 * a-13
a-5
Solutions to exercises
36 6 a-1
1 For example, 23 * 27 = 210, 2 = 34,
(57)2 = 514. 3
7 a5>2
2 index 4, base 5
8 4.320 * 103, 6.5 * 10-3
7 4b
3 (a) a (b) a
9 7-3x-6
4 45x15
10 y-1.5
1>2
5 x
11 (a) 6a5b3 (b) 7a2b2 (c) x6 (d) -24y (e) e2xy
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Simplification by collecting like terms
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
In this block we explain what is meant by the phrase ‘like terms’ and show how like
terms are collected together and simplified.
3.2 Addition and subtraction of like terms
Like terms are multiples of the same quantity. For example, 5y, 17y and 12y are all
multiples of y and so are like terms. Similarly, 3x2, -5x2 and 14x2 are all multiples of
x2 and so are like terms.
Further examples of like terms are:
• kx and lx, which are both multiples of x;
• x2y, 6x2y, -13x2y, -2yx2, which are all multiples of x2y;
• abc2, -7abc2, kabc2, which are all multiples of abc2.
Like terms can be collected together and added or subtracted in order to simplify
them.
Example 3.1
Simplify 5x - 13x + 22x.
Solution
All three terms are multiples of x and so are like terms. The expression can be
simplified to 14x.
Example 3.2
Simplify 5z + 2x.
Solution
5z and 2x are not like terms. They are not multiples of the same quantity. This
expression cannot be simplified.
Example 3.3
Simplify 5a + 2b - 7a - 9b.
Solution
5a + 2b - 7a - 9b = -2a - 7b
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3.2 Addition and subtraction of like terms 89 5
Example 3.4
Simplify 2x2 - 7x + 11x2 + x.
Solution
2x2 and 11x2, both being multiples of x2, can be collected together and added to give
13x2. Similarly, -7x and x are like terms and these can be added to give -6x. We find
2x2 - 7x + 11x2 + x = 13x2 - 6x
which cannot be simplified further.
Example 3.5
Simplify 12x + 34x - 2y.
Solution
1
2x + 34x - 2y = 5
4x - 2y
Example 3.6
Simplify 3a2b - 7a2b - 2b2 + a2.
Solution
Note that 3a2b and 7a2b are both multiples of a2b and so are like terms. There are no
other like terms. Therefore
3a2b - 7a2b - 2b2 + a2 = -4a2b - 2b2 + a2
Exercises
1 Simplify, if possible: 4 Explain the distinction, if any, between each of
(a) 5x + 2x + 3x (b) 3q - 2q + 11q the following expressions, and simplify if
(c) 7x2 + 11x2 (d) -11v2 + 2v2 possible:
(e) 5p + 3q (a) 18x - 9x (b) 18x(9x) (c) 18x(-9x)
(d) -18x - 9x (e) -18x(9x)
2 Simplify, if possible:
(a) 5w + 3r - 2w + r (b) 5w2 + w + 1 5 Explain the distinction, if any, between each of
(c) 6w2 + w2 - 3w2 the following expressions, and simplify if
possible:
3 Simplify, if possible: (a) 4x - 2x (b) 4x(-2x) (c) 4x(2x)
(a) 7x + 2 + 3x + 8x - 11 (d) -4x(2x) (e) -4x - 2x (f) (4x)(2x)
(b) 2x2 - 3x + 6x - 2
(c) -5x2 - 3x2 + 11x + 11 6 Simplify, if possible:
(d) 4q2 - 4r2 + 11r + 6q
(e) a2 + ba + ab + b2 (a) 23x2 + 13x2 (b) 0.5x2 + 34x2 - 11
2x
(f) 3x2 + 4x + 6x + 8 (c) 3x3 - 11x + 3yx + 11 (d) -4ax2 + bx2
(g) s3 + 3s2 + 2s2 + 6s + 4s + 12
where a and b are constants
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5 90 Block 3 Simplification by collecting like terms
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 10x (b) 12q (c) 18x2 (d) -9v2 4 (a) 9x (b) 162x2 (c) -162x2 (d) -27x
(e) cannot be simplified (e) -162x2
2 (a) 3w + 4r (b) cannot be simplified 5 (a) 4x - 2x = 2x (b) 4x(-2x) = -8x2
(c) 4w2 (c) 4x(2x) = 8x2 (d) -4x(2x) = -8x2
(e) -4x - 2x = -6x (f) (4x)(2x) = 8x2
3 (a) 18x - 9 (b) 2x2 + 3x - 2
(c) -8x2 + 11x + 11 (d) cannot be simplified 6 (a) x2 (b) 1.25x2 - 11
2 x
(e) a2 + 2ab + b2 (f) 3x2 + 10x + 8 (c) cannot be simplified (d) (b - 4a)x2
(g) s3 + 5s2 + 10s + 12
End of block exercises
In each case, simplify the given expression, if possible.
1 3x - 2y + 7x - 11y 6 8pq + 11pq - 9pq
2 5x2 + 3x + 1 7 ab + abc
1 1
3 x + x 8 0.01x + 0.35x
3 2
4 ab + ba 9 4y + 2x - 3xy
5 ab - ba 10 7a - 3b + 2g - 7a + 11b
Solutions to exercises
1 10x - 13y 6 10pq
2 cannot be simplified 7 cannot be simplified
5x
3 8 0.36x
6
4 2ab 9 cannot be simplified
5 0 10 8b + 2g
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Removing brackets
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
In order to simplify an expression that contains brackets it is often necessary to
rewrite the expression in an equivalent form but without any brackets. This process
of removing brackets must be carried out according to particular rules, which are
described in this block.
4.2 Removing brackets from expressions of the form a(b c) and a(b c)
In an expression such as 5(x + y) it is intended that the 5 multiplies both x and y to
produce 5x + 5y. Thus the expressions 5(x + y) and 5x + 5y are equivalent. In
general we have the following rules known as distributive laws:
Key point a (b + c) = ab + ac
a (b - c) = ab - ac
Note that when the brackets are removed both terms in the brackets are multiplied by
a. If you insert numbers instead of letters into these expressions you will see that
both left- and right-hand sides are equivalent. For example,
4(3 + 5) has the same value as 4(3) + 4(5), that is 32
and
7(8 - 3) has the same value as 7(8) - 7(3), that is 35
Example 4.1
Remove the brackets from: (a) 9(2 + y), (b) 9(2y).
Solution
(a) In the expression 9(2 + y) the 9 must multiply both terms in the brackets:
9(2 + y) = 9(2) + 9(y)
= 18 + 9y
(b) Recall that 9(2y) means 9 * (2 * y) and that when multiplying numbers
together the presence of brackets is irrelevant. Thus 9(2y) = 9 * 2 * y = 18y.
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5 92 Block 4 Removing brackets
The crucial distinction between the role of the factor 9 in the two expressions
9(2 + y) and 9(2y) should be noted.
Example 4.2
Remove the brackets from 9(x + 2y).
Solution
In the expression 9(x + 2y) the 9 must multiply both the x and the 2y in the brackets.
Thus
9(x + 2y) = 9x + 9(2y)
= 9x + 18y
Example 4.3
Remove the brackets from -3(5x - z).
Solution
The number -3 must multiply both the 5x and the z. Thus
-3(5x - z) = (-3)(5x) - (-3)(z)
= -15x + 3z
Example 4.4
Remove the brackets from 6x(3x - 2y).
Solution
6x(3x - 2y) = 6x(3x) - (6x)(2y)
= 18x 2 - 12xy
Example 4.5
Remove the brackets from -(3x + 1).
Solution
Although unwritten, the minus sign outside the brackets stands for -1. We must
consider the expression -1(3x + 1).
-1(3x + 1) = (-1)(3x) + (-1)(1)
= -3x + (-1)
= -3x - 1
Example 4.6
Remove the brackets from -(5x - 3y).
Solution
-(5x - 3y) means -1(5x - 3y). Thus
-1(5x - 3y) = (-1)(5x) - (-1)(3y)
= -5x + 3y
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4.2 Removing brackets from expressions of the form a (b c ) and a (b c ) 93 5
Example 4.7
Remove the brackets from
(a) 9(2x + 3y) (b) m(m + n)
Solution
(a) The 9 must multiply both the term 2x and the term 3y. Thus
9(2x + 3y) = 18x + 27y
(b) In the expression m(m + n) the first m must multiply both terms in the brackets.
Thus
m(m + n) = m2 + mn
Example 4.8
Remove the brackets from the expression 5x - (3x + 1) and simplify the result by
collecting like terms.
Solution
The brackets in -(3x + 1) were removed in Example 4.5. Thus
5x - (3x + 1) = 5x - 1(3x + 1)
= 5x - 3x - 1
= 2x - 1
Example 4.9
-x - 1 -(x + 1) x + 1
Show that , and - are all equivalent.
4 4 4
Solution
-x - 1
Consider -(x + 1). Removing the brackets we obtain - x - 1 and so is
-(x + 1) 4
equivalent to .
4
-(x + 1)
A negative quantity divided by a positive quantity will be negative. Hence
4
x + 1
is equivalent to - .
4
Study all three expressions carefully to recognise the variety of equivalent ways in
which we can write an algebraic expression.
Sometimes the bracketed expression can appear on the left, as in (a + b)c. To
remove the brackets here we use the following rules:
Key point (a + b)c = ac + bc
(a - b)c = ac - bc
Note that when the brackets are removed both the terms in the brackets multiply c.
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5 94 Block 4 Removing brackets
Example 4.10
Remove the brackets from (2x + 3y)x.
Solution
Both terms in the brackets multiply the x outside. Thus
(2x + 3y)x = 2x(x) + 3y(x)
= 2x2 + 3xy
Example 4.11
Remove the brackets from
(a) (x + 3) (-2) (b) (x - 3) (-2)
Solution
(a) Both terms in the brackets must multiply the -2.
(x + 3) (-2) = -2x - 6
(b) (x - 3) (-2) = -2x + 6
Exercises
(p) 8(2pq) (q) 8(2p - q) (r) 5(p - 3q)
1 Remove the brackets from each of the
(s) 5(p + 3q) (t) 5(3pq)
following expressions:
(a) 2(mn) (b) 2(m + n) (c) a(mn)
2 Remove the brackets from each of the
(d) a(m + n) (e) a(m - n) (f) (am)n
following expressions:
(g) (a + m)n (h) (a - m)n (i) 5(pq)
(a) 4(a + b) (b) 2(m - n) (c) 9(x - y)
(j) 5(p + q) (k) 5(p - q) (l) 7(xy)
(m) 7(x + y) (n) 7(x - y) (o) 8(2p + q)
Solutions to exercises
(p) 16pq (q) 16p - 8q (r) 5p - 15q
1 (a) 2mn (b) 2m + 2n (c) amn
(s) 5p + 15q (t) 15pq
(d) am + an (e) am - an (f) amn
(g) an + mn (h) an - mn (i) 5pq
2 (a) 4a + 4b (b) 2m - 2n (c) 9x - 9y
(j) 5p + 5q (k) 5p - 5q (l) 7xy
(m) 7x + 7y (n) 7x - 7y (o) 16p + 8q
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4.3 Removing brackets from expressions of the form (a b) (c d ) 95 5
4.3 Removing brackets from expressions of the form (a b) (c d )
Sometimes it is necessary to consider two bracketed terms multiplied together. In an
expression such as (a + b)(c + d), by regarding the first bracket as a single term we
can use the result in Section 4.2 to write (a + b)c + (a + b)d. Removing the brack-
ets from each of these terms produces
Key point (a + b)(c + d ) = (a + b)c + (a + b)d
= ac + bc + ad + bd
Alternatively, we see that each term in the first bracket multiplies each term in the
second. To remind us of this we can use the picture in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
(a + b) (c + d ) = ac + bc + ad + bd
Example 4.12
Remove the brackets from (3 + x)(2 + y).
Solution
We find
(3 + x)(2 + y) = (3 + x)(2) + (3 + x)(y)
= (3)(2) + (x)(2) + (3)(y) + (x)(y)
= 6 + 2x + 3y + xy
Example 4.13
Remove the brackets from (3x + 4)(x + 2) and simplify your result.
Solution
(3x + 4)(x + 2) = (3x + 4)(x) + (3x + 4)(2)
= 3x2 + 4x + 6x + 8
= 3x2 + 10x + 8
Example 4.14
Remove the brackets from (a + b)2 and simplify your result.
Solution
When a quantity is squared it must be multiplied by itself. Thus
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)
= (a + b)a + (a + b)b
= a2 + ba + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
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5 96 Block 4 Removing brackets
Example 4.15
Remove the brackets from the following expressions and simplify the results:
(a) (x + 7)(x + 3) (b) (x + 3)(x - 2) (c) (3 - x)(x + 2)
Solution
(a) Remove the brackets to obtain
(x + 7)(x + 3) = x2 + 7x + 3x + 21
Simplify the result to obtain
(x + 7)(x + 3) = x2 + 10x + 21
(b) Remove the brackets to obtain
(x + 3)(x - 2) = (x + 3)(x) + (x + 3)(-2)
= x2 + 3x - 2x - 6
Simplify the result to obtain
(x + 3)(x - 2) = x2 + x - 6
(c) Remove the brackets and simplify to find
(3 - x)(x + 2) = (3 - x)x + (3 - x)2
= 6 + x - x2
Example 4.16
Explain the distinction between (x + 3)(x + 2) and x + 3(x + 2).
Solution
In the first case, on removing the brackets we find
(x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
In the second case we have
x + 3(x + 2) = x + 3x + 6 = 4x + 6
Note that in the second case the term (x + 2) is only multiplied by 3 and not by x.
Example 4.17
Remove the brackets from (s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3).
Solution
Each term in the first set of brackets must multiply each term in the second. Working
through all combinations systematically we have
(s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3) = (s2 + 2s + 4)(s) + (s2 + 2s + 4)(3)
= s3 + 2s2 + 4s + 3s2 + 6s + 12
= s3 + 5s2 + 10s + 12
Example 4.18 Reliability Engineering – Reliability in communication
networks
Some communication networks are designed with built-in redundancy, so that in the
event of certain components failing, the network can still function. For example,
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4.3 Removing brackets from expressions of the form (a b) (c d ) 97 5
consider the parallel network shown in Figure 4.2. Communication traffic can pass
along either route from left to right, so that in the event that one of the components
fails the network can still function. Clearly the network will fail to function if both
components fail. The reliability of a component, or collection of components, is the
probability or likelihood that it will function normally during a given period of time.
It is a number between 0 and 1 where 0 represents sure failure, and 1 represents guar-
anteed success.
Figure 4.2
The network will Component 1
fail only if both has reliability R1
components fail.
Component 2
has reliability R2
If the two components in Figure 4.2 have reliability R1 and R2, respectively, it can
be shown that the reliability, R, of the combined system is
R = 1 - (1 - R1)(1 - R2)
Remove the brackets from the right-hand side of this expression and simplify the
result.
Solution
Consider first the bracketed terms on the right:
(1 - R1)(1 - R2) = (1 - R1) * 1 - (1 - R1) * R2
= 1 - R1 - R2 + R1R2
This expression must be subtracted from 1 to give R:
R = 1 - (1 - R1 - R2 + R1R2)
= R1 + R2 - R1R2
We shall see the significance of this result in Block 7 – Formulae and transposition.
Exercises
1 Remove the brackets from each of the 2 Remove the brackets from each of the
following expressions and simplify where following expressions:
possible: (a) (7 + x)(2 + x) (b) (9 + x)(2 + x)
(a) (2 + a)(3 + b) (b) (x + 1)(x + 2) (c) (x + 9)(x - 2) (d) (x + 11)(x - 7)
(c) (x + 3)(x + 3) (d) (x + 5)(x - 3) (e) (x + 2)x (f) (3x + 1)x
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5 98 Block 4 Removing brackets
(g) (3x + 1)(x + 1) (h) (3x + 1)(2x + 1) 3 Remove the brackets from
(i) (3x + 5)(2x + 7) (j) (3x + 5)(2x - 1) (s + 1)(s + 5)(s - 3).
(k) (5 - 3x)(x + 1) (l) (2 - x)(1 - x)
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 6 + 3a + 2b + ab (b) x2 + 3x + 2 (e) x2 + 2x (f) 3x2 + x
(c) x2 + 6x + 9 (d) x2 + 2x - 15 (g) 3x2 + 4x + 1 (h) 6x2 + 5x + 1
(i) 6x2 + 31x + 35 (j) 6x2 + 7x - 5
2 (a) 14 + 9x + x2 (b) 18 + 11x + x2 (k) -3x2 + 2x + 5 (l) x2 - 3x + 2
(c) x2 + 7x - 18 (d) x2 + 4x - 77
3 s3 + 3s2 - 13s - 15
End of block exercises
In questions 1–12 remove the brackets from the
given expression:
1 15(x + y) 7 (x2 + 2)(3x)
2 7(2x + y) 8 (x + 1)(x - 3)
3 (-2)(a + b) 9 (x + 1)(x - 3)x
4 (2 + x)(4 + x) 10 (x + 1)(x - 3)(x - 1)
5 (x - 1)(x + 2) 11 3
4 112x + 72
6 (x + 2)(x - 2) 12 15(x + 3)xy
Solutions to exercises
1 15x + 15y 7 3x3 + 6x
2 14x + 7y 8 x2 - 2x - 3
3 -2a - 2b 9 x3 - 2x2 - 3x
4 8 + 6x + x2 10 x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
3 21
5 x2 + x - 2 11 8x + 4
6 x2 - 4 12 15x2y + 45xy
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 99
Factorisation
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
In Block 4 we showed the way in which brackets were removed from algebraic
expressions. Factorisation, which can be considered as the reverse of this process, is
dealt with in this block. It is essential that you have had a lot of practice removing
brackets before you attempt this block.
5.2 Factorisation
A number is said to be factorised when it is written as a product. For example, 21
can be factorised into 7 * 3. We say that 7 and 3 are factors of 21. Always remem-
ber that the factors of a number are multiplied together.
Algebraic expressions can also be factorised. Consider the expression 7(2x + 1) .
Removing the brackets we can rewrite this as
7(2x + 1) = 7(2x) + (7)(1)
= 14x + 7
Thus 14x + 7 is equivalent to 7(2x + 1) . We see that 14x + 7 has factors 7 and
(2x + 1) . The factors 7 and (2x + 1) multiply together to give 14x + 7 . The
process of writing an expression as a product of its factors is called factorisation.
When asked to factorise 14x + 7 we write
14x + 7 = 7(2x + 1)
and so we see that factorisation can be regarded as reversing the process of removing
brackets in that we are now inserting them.
Always remember that the factors of an algebraic expression are multiplied
together.
Example 5.1
Factorise the expression 4x + 20 .
Solution
Both terms in the expression 4x + 20 are examined to see if they have any factors in
common. Clearly 20 can be factorised as (4)(5) and so we can write
4x + 20 = 4x + (4)(5)
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5 100 Block 5 Factorisation
The factor 4 is common to both terms on the right; it is called a common factor. The
common factor is placed at the front and outside the brackets to give
4x + 20 = 4(x + 5)
Note that the solution can and should be checked by removing the brackets again.
Example 5.2
Factorise z2 - 5z.
Solution
Note that since z2 = z * z we can write
z2 - 5z = z(z) - 5z
so that there is a common factor of z . Hence
z2 - 5z = z(z) - 5z
= z(z - 5)
Example 5.3
Factorise 6x - 9y.
Solution
By observation we note that there is a common factor of 3. Thus
6x - 9y = 3(2x) - 3(3y)
= 3(2x - 3y)
Example 5.4
Identify the factor common to both 14z and 21w. Hence factorise 14z + 21w .
Solution
The factor common to both 14z and 21w is
7
We can then write
14z + 21w = 7(2z + 3w)
Example 5.5
Factorise 6x - 12xy.
Solution
First identify any common factors. In this case there are two,
and 6 and x
Then we can write
6x - 12xy = 6x (1 - 2y)
If there is any doubt, check your answer by removing the brackets again.
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5.3 Factorising quadratic expressions 101 5
Exercises
1 Factorise (a) 5x + 15y , (b) 3x - 9y, 3 Explain why a is a factor of a + ab but b is
(c) 2x + 12y , (d) 4x + 32z + 16y, not. Factorise a + ab .
(e) 12 x + 14 y.
In each case check your answer by removing 4 Explain why x2 is a factor of 4x2 + 3yx3 + 5yx4
the brackets again. but y is not. Factorise 4x2 + 3yx3 + 5yx4.
2 Factorise (a) a2 + 3ab , (b) xy + xyz,
(c) 9x2 - 12x.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 5(x + 3y) (b) 3(x - 3y) (c) 2(x + 6y) 3 a(1 + b)
2 1x
1 1
(d) 4(x + 8z + 4y) (e) + 2 y2
4 x2(4 + 3yx + 5yx2)
2 (a) a(a + 3b) (b) xy(1 + z) (c) 3x(3x - 4)
5.3 Factorising quadratic expressions
Key point An expression of the form ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are numbers is called a
quadratic expression.
The numbers b or c may be zero but a must not be zero. The number a is called the
coefficient of x2 , b is the coefficient of x and c is called the constant term.
Consider the product (x + 1) (x + 2) . Removing brackets yields x2 + 3x + 2.
We see that the factors of x2 + 3x + 2 are (x + 1) and (x + 2) . However, if we
were given the quadratic expression first, how would we factorise it? The following
examples show how to do this but note that not all quadratic expressions can be
factorised.
To enable us to factorise a quadratic expression in which the coefficient of x2
equals 1, note the following expansion:
(x + m)(x + n) = x2 + mx + nx + mn
= x2 + (m + n)x + mn
So, given a quadratic expression we can think of the coefficient of x as m + n and
the constant term as mn. Once the values of m and n have been found the factors can
be easily stated.
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5 102 Block 5 Factorisation
Example 5.6
Factorise x2 + 4x - 5.
Solution
Writing x2 + 4x - 5 = (x + m)(x + n) = x2 + (m + n)x + mn we seek num-
bers m and n so that m + n = 4 and mn = -5. By trial and error it is not difficult
to find that m = 5 and n = -1. So we can write
x2 + 4x - 5 = (x + 5)(x - 1)
The answer can be checked easily by removing brackets.
Example 5.7
Factorise x2 + 6x + 8.
Solution
The coefficient of x2 is 1. We can write
x2 + 6x + 8 = (x + m)(x + n)
= x2 + (m + n)x + mn
so that m + n = 6 and mn = 8. Try various possibilities for m and n until you find
values that satisfy both of these equations.
m = n = 4 and 2, or 2 and 4
Finally factorise the quadratic:
x2 + 6x + 8 = (x + 4)(x + 2)
When the coefficient of x2 is not equal to 1 it may be possible to extract a numerical
factor. For example, note that 3x2 + 18x + 24 can be written as 3(x2 + 6x + 8)
and then factorised as in Example 5.7. Sometimes no numerical factor can be found
and a slightly different approach may be taken. We shall demonstrate a technique
that can always be used to transform the given expression into one in which the coef-
ficient of the squared variable equals 1.
Example 5.8
Factorise 2x2 + 5x + 3.
Solution
First note the coefficient of x2 , in this case 2. Multiply the whole expression by this
number and rearrange as follows:
2(2x2 + 5x + 3) = 2(2x2) + 2(5x) + 2(3)
= (2x)2 + 5(2x) + 6
If we now introduce a new variable such that z = 2x we find that the coefficient of
the squared term equals 1. Thus we can write
(2x)2 + 5(2x) + 6 as z2 + 5z + 6
This can be factorised to give (z + 3)(z + 2). Returning to the original variable by
writing z = 2x we find
2(2x2 + 5x + 3) = (2x + 3)(2x + 2)
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5.3 Factorising quadratic expressions 103 5
A factor of 2 can be extracted from the second bracket on the right so that
2(2x2 + 5x + 3) = 2(2x + 3)(x + 1)
so that
2x2 + 5x + 3 = (2x + 3)(x + 1)
As an alternative to the technique of Example 5.8, experience and practice can often
help us to identify factors. For example, suppose we wish to factorise 3x2 + 7x + 2.
We write
3x2 + 7x + 2 = ( )( )
In order to obtain the term 3x2 we can place terms 3x and x in the brackets to give
3x2 + 7x + 2 = (3x + ?)(x + ?)
In order to obtain the constant 2, we consider the factors of 2. These are 1, 2 or -1,
-2. By placing these factors in the brackets we can factorise the quadratic expression.
Various possibilities exist: we could write (3x + 2)(x + 1), (3x + 1)(x + 2) ,
(3x - 2)(x - 1) or (3x - 1)(x - 2), only one of which is correct. By removing
brackets from each in turn we look for the factorisation that produces the correct
middle term, 7x. The correct factorisation is found to be
3x 2 + 7x + 2 = (3x + 1)(x + 2)
With practice you will be able to carry out this process quite easily.
Example 5.9
Factorise the quadratic expression 5x2 - 7x - 6.
Solution
Write
5x2 - 7x - 6 = ( )( )
To obtain the quadratic term 5x2 , insert 5x and x in the brackets:
5x2 - 7x - 6 = (5x + ?)(x + ?)
Now examine the factors of -6. These are
3, -2; -3, 2; -6, 1; 6, -1
Use these factors to find which pair, if any, gives rise to the middle term, -7x, and
complete the factorisation.
5x2 - 7x - 6 = (5x + 3)(x - 2)
Example 5.10
On occasions you will meet expressions of the form x2 - y2. Such an expression is
known as the difference of two squares. Note that here we are finding the difference
between two squared terms. It is easy to verify by removing brackets that this
factorises as
x2 - y2 = (x + y)(x - y)
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 104
5 104 Block 5 Factorisation
So, if you can learn to recognise such expressions it is an easy matter to factorise
them. Factorise
(a) x2 - 36z2 (b) 25x2 - 9z2 (c) a2 - 1
Solution
In each case we are required to find the difference of two squared terms.
(a) Note that x2 - 36z2 = x2 - (6z)2. This factorises as (x + 6z)(x - 6z).
(b) Here 25x2 - 9z2 = (5x)2 - (3z)2. This factorises as (5x + 3z)(5x - 3z).
(c) a2 - 1 = (a + 1)(a - 1).
Exercises
1 Factorise 3 Factorise
(a) x2 + 8x + 7 (b) x2 + 6x - 7 (a) x2 + 9x + 14 (b) x2 + 11x + 18
(c) x2 + 7x + 10 (d) x2 - 6x + 9 (c) x2 + 7x - 18 (d) x2 + 4x - 77
(e) x2 + 5x + 6 (e) x2 + 2x (f) 3x2 + x
(g) 3x2 + 4x + 1 (h) 6x2 + 5x + 1
2 Factorise (i) 6x2 + 31x + 35 (j) 6x2 + 7x - 5
(a) 2x2 + 3x + 1 (b) 2x2 + 4x + 2 (k) -3x2 + 2x + 5 (l) x2 - 3x + 2
(c) 3x2 - 3x - 6 (d) 5x2 - 4x - 1
(e) 16x2 - 1 (f) -x2 + 1 (g) -2x2 + x + 3 4 Factorise
1 1
(a) z2 - 144 (b) z2 - 4 (c) s2 - 9
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) (x + 7)(x + 1) (b) (x + 7)(x - 1) 3 (a) (7 + x)(2 + x) (b) (9 + x)(2 + x)
(c) (x + 2)(x + 5) (d) (x - 3)(x - 3) (c) (x + 9)(x - 2) (d) (x + 11)(x - 7)
(e) (x + 3)(x + 2) (e) (x + 2)x (f) (3x + 1)x
(g) (3x + 1)(x + 1) (h) (3x + 1)(2x + 1)
2 (a) (2x + 1)(x + 1) (b) 2(x + 1)2 (i) (3x + 5)(2x + 7) (j) (3x + 5)(2x - 1)
(c) 3(x + 1)(x - 2) (d) (5x + 1)(x - 1) (k) (5 - 3x)(x + 1) (l) (2 - x)(1 - x)
(e) (4x + 1)(4x - 1) (f) (x + 1)(1 - x)
(g) (x + 1)(3 - 2x) 4 (a) (z + 12)(z - 12) (b) 1z + 1221z - 122
(c) 1s + 1321s - 132
End of block exercises
1 Factorise (a) 3z - 12, (b) -18 + 3t, 3 Factorise (a) x2 + x, (b) 3x2 + 6x,
(c) 12 x + 14 . (c) 9x2 - 12x.
2 Factorise (a) mn + 11m, (b) 3pq - 2p, 4 Factorise (a) x2 + 8x - 9, (b) x2 + 9x - 22,
(c) 11pq - 3qr, (d) 4zx + 20yz. (c) x2 + 10x + 9, (d) x2 + 7x + 12,
(e) x2 - 7x + 12.
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5.3 Factorising quadratic expressions 105 5
5 Factorise (a) 14x2 - 127x - 57, 7 Factorise a2 - b 2.
(b) 45x2 + 44x + 7, (c) 6x2 + 19x - 11.
8 Factorise 144a2 - 49b 2.
3 2
6 Factorise 3x + 17x + 11x.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 3(z - 4) (b) 3(-6 + t) (c) 121x + 122 5 (a) (2x - 19)(7x + 3)
(b) (5x + 1)(9x + 7) (c) (3x + 11)(2x - 1)
2 (a) m(n + 11) (b) p(3q - 2)
(c) q(11p - 3r) (d) 4z(x + 5y) 6 x(3x2 + 17x + 11)
3 (a) x(x + 1) (b) 3x(x + 2) (c) 3x(3x - 4) 7 (a + b)(a - b)
4 (a) (x + 9)(x - 1) (b) (x + 11)(x - 2) 8 (12a - 7b)(12a + 7b)
(c) (x + 9)(x + 1) (d) (x + 4)(x + 3)
(e) (x - 4)(x - 3)
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:25 AM Page 106
Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
Just as one whole number divided by another is a numerical fraction, one algebraic
expression divided by another is called an algebraic fraction. Examples are
x 3x + 2y x2 + 3x + 1
, and
y x - y x - 4
The top line is called the numerator of the fraction and the bottom line is called the
denominator:
Key point algebraic fraction =
numerator
denominator
In this block we explain how algebraic fractions can be simplified, added, sub-
tracted, multiplied and divided.
6.2 Cancelling common factors
Consider the fraction 1035 . To simplify this we can factorise the numerator and the
denominator and then cancel any common factors. Common factors are those factors
that occur in both the numerator and the denominator. For instance,
10 5 * 2
=
35 7 * 5
2
=
7
Note that the common factor of 5 has been cancelled. It is important to remember
that only common factors can be cancelled. The fractions 10 2
35 and 7 have identical
values – they are equivalent fractions – but 7 is in a simpler form than 10
2
35 . We apply
the same process when simplifying algebraic fractions.
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6.2 Cancelling common factors 107 5
Example 6.1
yx x x
Simplify, if possible, (a) , (b) , (c) .
2x xy x + y
Solution
yx
(a) In the expression , x is a factor common to both numerator and denominator.
2x
This common factor can be cancelled to give
yx y
=
2x 2
x 1x
(b) Note that can be written . The common factor of x can be cancelled to give
xy xy
1.x 1
=
xy y
x
(c) In the expression notice that an x appears in both numerator and
x + y
denominator. However, x is not a common factor. Recall that factors of an
expression are multiplied together whereas in the denominator x is added to y.
This expression cannot be simplified.
Example 6.2
abc 3ab
Simplify, if possible, (a) , (b) .
3ac b + a
Solution
When simplifying remember that only common factors can be cancelled.
abc b
(a) =
3ac 3
3ab
(b) = This cannot be simplified.
b + a
Example 6.3
21x3 36x
Simplify (a) , (b) .
14x 12x3
Solution
Factorising and cancelling common factors gives:
21x3 7 * 3 * x * x2
(a) =
14x 7 * 2 * x
3x2
=
2
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5 108 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
36x 12 * 3 * x
(b) 3
=
12x 12 * x * x2
3
= 2
x
Example 6.4
3x + 6
Simplify .
6x + 12
Solution
First we factorise the numerator and the denominator to see if there are any common
factors.
3x + 6 3(x + 2)
=
6x + 12 6(x + 2)
The factor x + 2 is common and can be cancelled. There is also a common factor of
3. Thus
3x + 6 3(x + 2)
=
6x + 12 6(x + 2)
1
=
2
Example 6.5
12
Simplify .
2x + 8
Solution
Factorise the numerator and denominator, and cancel any common factors.
12 6 * 2 6
= =
2x + 8 2(x + 4) x + 4
Example 6.6
3 3(x + 4)
Show that and 2 are equivalent.
x + 1 x + 5x + 4
Solution
The denominator, x2 + 5x + 4, can be factorised as (x + 1)(x + 4) so that we can
consider
3(x + 4)
(x + 1)(x + 4)
Note that (x + 4) is a factor common to both the numerator and the denominator. In
this form we see that (x + 4) is a common factor which can be cancelled to leave
3 3 3(x + 4)
. Thus and 2 are equivalent fractions.
x + 1 x + 1 x + 5x + 4
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6.2 Cancelling common factors 109 5
Example 6.7
1 x - 1
Show that and 2 are equivalent.
x - 1 x - 2x + 1
Solution
First factorise the denominator x2 - 2x + 1:
(x - 1)(x - 1)
Identify the factor that is common to both numerator and denominator, and cancel
this common factor.
x - 1 1
=
(x - 1)(x - 1) x - 1
Hence the two given fractions are equivalent.
Example 6.8
6(4 - 8x)(x - 2)
Simplify .
1 - 2x
Solution
The factor 4 - 8x can be factorised to 4(1 - 2x). Thus
6(4 - 8x)(x - 2) (6)(4)(1 - 2x)(x - 2)
= = 24(x - 2)
1 - 2x (1 - 2x)
Example 6.9
x2 + 2x - 15
Simplify 2 .
2x - 5x - 3
Solution
First factorise the numerator and the denominator:
x2 + 2x - 15 (x + 5)(x - 3)
=
2x2 - 5x - 3 (2x + 1)(x - 3)
Finally cancel any common factors to leave
x + 5
2x + 1
Exercises
1 Simplify, if possible, (a) 19 14 35 5z 25z 5 5z
38 , (b) 28 , (c) 40 , 3 Simplify (a) , (b) , (c) , (d) .
7
(d) 11 , (e) 14
z 5z 25z2 25z2
56 .
4x 15x 4s 21x4
2 Simplify, if possible, (a) 14 36 13 4 Simplify (a) , (b) 2 , (c) 3 , (d) .
21 , (b) 96 , (c) 52 , 3x x s 7x3
(d) 52
13 .
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5 110 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
5 Simplify, if possible, 2x2 - x - 1 3x2 - 4x + 1
x + 1 x + 1 (c) 2
(d)
(a) (b) 2x + 5x + 2 x2 - x
2(x + 1) 2x + 2 5z2 - 20z
2(x + 1) 3x + 3 (e)
(c) (d) 2z - 8
x + 1 x + 1
5x - 15 5x - 15 8 Simplify
(e) (f) 6 2x 3x2
5 x - 3 (a) (b) 2 (c)
6 Simplify, if possible,
3x + 9 4x + 2x 15x3 + 10x2
5x + 15 5x + 15
(a) (b) 9 Simplify
25x + 5 25x
x2 - 1 x2 + 5x + 6
5x + 15 5x + 15 (a) 2 (b) 2
(c) (d) x + 5x + 4 x + x - 6
25 25x + 1
7 Simplify
x2 + 10x + 9 x2 - 9
(a) 2 (b) 2
x + 8x - 9 x + 4x - 21
Solutions to exercises
x + 1 x + 3 x - 1 3x - 1
1 (a) 21 (b) 21 (c) 78 (d) 11
7
(e) 14 7 (a) (b) (c) (d)
x - 1 x + 7 x + 2 x
2 (a) 32 (b) 83 (c) 14 (d) 4 5z
(e)
2
1 1
3 (a) 5 (b) 5 (c) 2
(d) 2 1 3
5z 5z 8 (a) (b) (c)
x + 3 2x + 1 5(3x + 2)
4 4 15 4
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 3x x - 1 x + 2
3 x s 9 (a) (b)
x + 4 x - 2
1 1
5 (a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 3 (e) x - 3 (f) 5
2 2
x + 3 x + 3 x + 3 5x + 15
6 (a) (b) (c) (d)
5x + 1 5x 5 25x + 1
6.3 Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions
To multiply two fractions we multiply their numerators together and then multiply
their denominators together. That is:
Key point Multiplication
a c ac
* =
b d bd
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6.3 Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions 111 5
Any factors common to both numerator and denominator can be cancelled. This can-
cellation can be performed before or after the multiplication.
Division is performed by inverting the second fraction and then multiplying.
Key point Division
a c a d ad
, = * =
b d b c bc
Example 6.10
2a 4 2a c 2a 4
Simplify (a) * , (b) * , (c) , .
c c c 4 c c
Solution
2a 4 8a
(a) * = 2
c c c
2a c 2ac
(b) * =
c 4 4c
2a a
= =
4 2
(c) Division is performed by inverting the second fraction and then multiplying.
2a 4 2a c
, = *
c c c 4
a
= from the result in (b)
2
Example 6.11
1 1 1 1 y
Simplify (a) * 3x, (b) * x, (c) * x, (d) y * , (e) * x.
5x x y x x
Solution
3x
(a) Note that 3x = . Then
1
1 1 3x
* 3x = *
5x 5x 1
3x
=
5x
3
=
x 5
(b) x can be written as . Then
1
1 1 x
* x = *
x x 1
x
=
x
= 1
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5 112 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
1 1 x
(c) * x = *
y y 1
x
=
y
1 y 1
(d) y * = *
x 1 x
y
=
x
y y x
(e) * x = *
x x 1
yx
=
x
= y
Example 6.12
Simplify
2x
y
3x
2y
Solution
2x 3x
We can write the fraction as , . Inverting the second fraction and multiplying
y 2y
we find
2x 2y 4xy
* =
y 3x 3xy
4
=
3
Example 6.13
4x + 2 x + 3
Simplify 2 * .
x + 4x + 3 7x + 5
Solution
Factorising the numerator and denominator we find
4x + 2 x + 3 2(2x + 1) x + 3
2
* = *
x + 4x + 3 7x + 5 (x + 1)(x + 3) 7x + 5
2(2x + 1)(x + 3)
=
(x + 1)(x + 3)(7x + 5)
2(2x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(7x + 5)
It is usually better to factorise first and cancel any common factors before multiply-
ing. Do not remove any brackets unnecessarily otherwise common factors will be
difficult to spot.
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6.3 Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions 113 5
Example 6.14
15 3
Simplify , .
3x - 1 2x + 1
Solution
To divide we invert the second fraction and multiply:
15 3 15 2x + 1
, = *
3x - 1 2x + 1 3x - 1 3
(5)(3)(2x + 1)
=
3(3x - 1)
5(2x + 1)
=
3x - 1
Example 6.15 Control Engineering—Multiplying algebraic fractions
When control engineers analyse engineering systems they often represent different
parts of the system using algebraic fractions in which the variable used is s. This will
become apparent particularly once you have a knowledge of Laplace transforms
(Chapter 22). It is often necessary to multiply such fractions together. So fluency
with manipulation of algebraic fractions becomes important.
3 v
Find the product of the fractions and 2 .
s + 2 s + v2
Solution
3 v 3v
* 2 2
=
s + 2 s + v (s + 2)(s2 + v2)
Exercises
x x + 1
1 Simplify (a) 95 * 32 , (b) 14 3 6 3
3 * 9 , (c) 11 * 4 , (c) 37 * (x + 4) (d)*
y y + 1
(d) 47 * 28
3.
1 x2 + x pd2 Q Q
pd2>4
(e) * (f) * (g)
2 Simplify (a) 95 , 32 , (b) 14 3 6 3
3 , 9 , (c) 11 , 4 , y y + 1 4 pd 2
(d) 47 , 28
3. 6>7 3>4
5 Find (a) , (b) .
3 Simplify s + 3 x - 1
x + y 3 x
(a) 2 * (b) 13 * 2(x + y) 6 Find , .
3 x + 2 2x + 4
(c) 23 * (x + y)
5 x
7 Find , .
4 Simplify 2x + 1 3x - 1
x + 4
(a) 3 * (b) 17 * 3(x + 4)
7
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5 114 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
Solutions to exercises
6 3
1 (a) 65 (b) 14 9 16
9 (c) 22 (d) 3 5 (a) (b)
7(s + 3) 4(x - 1)
10 8 3
2 (a) 27 (b) 14 (c) 11 (d) 49 6
6
2(x + y) 2(x + y) 2(x + y) x
3 (a) (b) (c) 5(3x - 1)
3 3 3
7
3(x + 4) 3(x + 4) 3(x + 4) x(2x + 1)
4 (a) (b) (c)
7 7 7
x(x + 1) x(x + 1) Q 4Q
(d) (e) (f) (g)
y(y + 1) y(y + 1) 4 pd2
6.4 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions
To add two algebraic fractions the lowest common denominator must be found
first. This is the simplest algebraic expression that has the given denominators as its
factors. All fractions must be written with this lowest common denominator. Their
sum is found by adding the numerators and dividing the result by the lowest common
denominator.
Key point Addition
To add two fractions:
1 Find the lowest common denominator.
2 Express each fraction with this denominator.
3 Add the numerators and divide the result by the lowest common denominator.
To subtract two fractions the process is similar. The fractions are written with the
lowest common denominator. The difference is found by subtracting the numerators
and dividing the result by the lowest common denominator.
Example 6.16
State the simplest expression that has x + 1 and x + 4 as its factors.
Solution
The simplest expression is (x + 1)(x + 4). Note that both x + 1 and x + 4 are
factors.
Example 6.17
State the simplest expression that has x - 1 and (x - 1)2 as its factors.
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6.4 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions 115 5
Solution
The simplest expression is (x - 1)2. Clearly (x - 1)2 must be a factor of this
expression. Because we can write (x - 1)2 = (x - 1)(x - 1) it follows that x - 1
is a factor too.
Example 6.18
Express as a single fraction
3 2
+
x + 1 x + 4
Solution
The simplest expression that has both denominators as its factors is (x + 1)(x + 4).
This is the lowest common denominator. Both fractions must be written using this
denominator.
3 3(x + 4) 2
Note that is equivalent to and also is equivalent to
x + 1 (x + 1)(x + 4) x + 4
2(x + 1)
. Thus writing both fractions with the same denominator we have
(x + 1)(x + 4)
3 2 3(x + 4) 2(x + 1)
+ = +
x + 1 x + 4 (x + 1)(x + 4) (x + 1)(x + 4)
The sum is found by adding the numerators and dividing the result by the lowest
common denominator.
3(x + 4) 2(x + 1) 3(x + 4) + 2(x + 1)
+ =
(x + 1)(x + 4) (x + 1)(x + 4) (x + 1)(x + 4)
5x + 14
=
(x + 1)(x + 4)
Example 6.19
1 5
Express + as a single fraction.
x - 1 (x - 1)2
Solution
The simplest expression having both denominators as its factors is (x - 1)2. We
1
write both fractions with this denominator. Note that is equivalent to
x - 1
x - 1
.
(x - 1) 2
1 5 x - 1 5
+ 2
= 2
+
x - 1 (x - 1) (x - 1) (x - 1)2
x - 1 + 5 x + 4
= 2
=
(x - 1) (x - 1)2
Example 6.20
3 5
Find + .
x + 7 x + 2
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5 116 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
Solution
First find the lowest common denominator:
(x + 7)(x + 2)
Both fractions are rewritten using this lowest common denominator:
3 5
+ =
x + 7 x + 2
3(x + 2) 5(x + 7)
+
(x + 7)(x + 2) (x + 7)(x + 2)
Add the numerators and simplify the result to find the sum of the given fractions:
3 5 8x + 41
+ =
x + 7 x + 2 (x + 7)(x + 2)
Example 6.21
5x 3x - 4
Find - .
7 2
Solution
In this example both denominators are simply numbers. The lowest common denomi-
nator is 14, and both fractions are rewritten with this denominator. Thus
10x 7(3x - 4) 10x - 7(3x - 4)
- =
14 14 14
28 - 11x
=
14
Example 6.22
1 1
Find + .
x y
Solution
The simplest expression that has x and y as its factors is xy. This is the lowest com-
mon denominator. Both fractions are written using this denominator. Noting that
1 y 1 x
= and that = we find
x xy y xy
1 1 y x
+ = +
x y xy xy
y + x
=
xy
No cancellation is possible because neither x nor y is a factor of the numerator.
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6.4 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions 117 5
Exercises
x x 2x x A B C
1 Find (a) + , (b) + , 6 Express + + as a
4 7 5 9 2x + 5 (x - 1) (x - 1)2
2x 3x x 2 single fraction.
(c) - , (d) - ,
3 4 x + 1 x + 2 A B
x + 1 3 2x + 1 x 7 Express + as a single
(e) + , (f) - , x + 1 (x + 1)2
x x + 2 3 2 fraction.
x + 3 x x x
(g) - , (h) - . Ax + B C
2x + 1 3 4 5 8 Express + as a single
1 2 x2 + x + 10 x - 1
2 Find (a) + , fraction.
x + 2 x + 3
2 5 2 3 C
(b) + , (c) - , 9 Express Ax + B + as a single fraction.
x + 3 x + 1 2x + 1 3x + 2 x + 1
x + 1 x + 4 x - 1 x - 1 10 Show that
(d) + , (e) + .
x + 3 x + 2 x - 3 (x - 3)2 x1
5 4 1 1
3 Find + .
2x + 3 (2x + 3)2 x3
-
x2
1 11 x1 x2 x3
4 Find s + . is equal to .
7 21 x2 - x3
- a + b.
A B 3x x x 3x x x
5 Express + as a single fraction. 11 Find (a) - + , (b)
2x + 3 x + 1 4 5 3 4 5 3
Solutions to exercises
11x 23x x A(x + 1) + B(2x + 3)
1 (a) (b) (c) - 5
28 45 12 (2x + 3)(x + 1)
x2 - 2 x2 + 6x + 2
(d) (e) 6
(x + 1)(x + 2) x(x + 2)
x + 2 9 + 2x - 2x2 x
(f) (g) (h) A(x - 1)2 + B(x - 1)(2x + 5) + C(2x + 5)
6 3(2x + 1) 20
(2x + 5)(x - 1)2
3x + 7 7x + 17
2 (a) (b) A(x + 1) + B
(x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 1) 7
1 2x2 + 10x + 14 (x + 1)2
(c) (d)
(2x + 1)(3x + 2) (x + 3)(x + 2) (Ax + B)(x - 1) + C(x2 + x + 10)
x2 - 3x + 2 8
(e) (x - 1)(x2 + x + 10)
(x - 3)2
(Ax + B)(x + 1) + C
10x + 19 9
3 x + 1
(2x + 3)2
53x 13x
3s + 11 11 (a) (b)
4 60 60
21
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5 118 Block 6 Arithmetic of algebraic fractions
End of block exercises
5x 5 2x
1 Simplify . 8 Find + .
25x + 10y 7y 3
8r3 9 Express as a single fraction
2 Simplify 2
. 3 2
4pr - .
x - 4 (x - 4)2
x + 2
3 Simplify 2
. 10 Express as a single fraction
x + 3x + 2
4 3
2x - 1 + + .
x 2x + 1
4 Explain why no cancellation is possible in the
a + 2b 1 1
expression . 11 (a) Express + as a single fraction.
a - 2b u v
1 1
(b) Hence find the reciprocal of + .
3 x u v
5 Find * .
11 y 1 1
12 Express + 2 as a single fraction.
s s
x
6 Find 3 * .
11(x + y) 6 4 3
13 Express - - + + 2 as
s + 3 s + 2 s + 1
x + 2 x + 5
7 Simplify * . a single fraction.
2 x + 2
x + 9x + 20
Solutions to exercises
x 15 + 14xy
1 8
5x + 2y 21y
2r 3x - 14
2 9
p (x - 4)2
1 4x3 + 10x + 4
3 10
x + 1 2x2 + x
3x v + u uv
5 11 (a) (b)
11y uv v + u
3x s + 1
6 12
11(x + y) s2
1 2s3 + 5s2 + 3s + 6
7 13
x + 4 s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 119
Formulae and transposition
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
Formulae are used frequently in almost all aspects of engineering in order to relate a
physical quantity to one or more others. Many well-known physical laws are
described using formulae. For example, you may have already seen Ohm’s law,
v = iR, or Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma. In this block we describe the
process of evaluating a formula, explain what is meant by the subject of a formula,
and show how a formula is rearranged or transposed. These are basic skills required
in all aspects of engineering.
7.2 Using formulae and substitution
In the study of engineering, physical quantities can be related to each other using a for-
mula. The formula will contain variables and constants that represent the physical
quantities. To evaluate a formula we must substitute numbers in place of the variables.
Example 7.1 Electrical Engineering – Ohm’s law
Figure 7.1 v
v is given by the
formula v = iR. i
Ohm’s law provides a formula for relating the voltage, v, across a resistor to the cur-
rent through it, i, and the resistance value, R (Figure 7.1). It states
v = iR
We can use this formula to calculate v if we know values for i and R. For example, if
i = 13 A, and R = 5 Æ , then
v = iR
= (13)(5)
= 65
The voltage is 65 V.
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5 120 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Note from this example that it is important to pay attention to the units of any physi-
cal quantities involved. Unless a consistent set of units is used a formula is not valid.
The most common set of units is the SI system given in Appendix 1 at the end of the
book. A knowledge of prefix conventions is also useful, and details are also given in
Appendix 1.
Example 7.2 Mechanical Engineering – The kinetic energy of an object
In Figure 7.2 the kinetic energy, E, of an object of mass M moving with speed v can
be calculated from the formula E = 12Mv2.
Figure 7.2 Mass M
Kinetic energy,
E = 12Mv2.
Speed v
Calculate the kinetic energy of an object of mass 5000 kg moving with a speed of
20 m s-1.
Solution
In this example M = 5000 and v = 20. Substituting these into the formula we find
E = 12 Mv2
= 12(5000)(202)
= 1000000
In the SI system the unit of energy is the joule. Hence the kinetic energy of the object
is 1000000 joules.
Example 7.3 The area of a circle
The area, A, of the circle of radius r shown in Figure 7.3 can be calculated from the
formula A = pr2. Equivalently, if we know the diameter of the circle, d, we can use
the formula A = 14pd2. Your calculator will be preprogrammed with the value of p.
Find the area of a circle having diameter 0.1 m.
Figure 7.3
The area, A, is
given by A = pr2
or A = 14pd2. r
d
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7.2 Using formulae and substitution 121 5
Solution
The area of the circle is
p(0.1)2
A = = 0.0079 m2
4
Example 7.4 The volume of a cylinder
The volume, V, of the cylinder in Figure 7.4 is equal to its cross-sectional area, A,
times its length, h.
Figure 7.4
The volume, V, is
given by V = Ah.
Find the volume of a cylinder having diameter 0.1 m and length 0.3 m.
Solution
We can use the result of Example 7.3 to obtain the cross-sectional area. Then
V = Ah
p(0.1)2
= * 0.3
4
= 0.0024
The volume is 0.0024 m3.
Example 7.5 Mechanical Engineering – Positive displacement pump
The pump outlined in Figure 7.5 is known as a positive displacement pump. As the
piston is being withdrawn, fluid is sucked into the pump chamber. As the piston
moves forwards, fluid is ejected through the delivery duct. Valves are used to ensure
the correct directions of these flows. The cross-section of the pump chamber is circu-
lar with diameter d. As the piston moves through a distance L, known as its stroke,
the volume of fluid that is pumped through the delivery duct is
pd2
cross-sectional area of chamber * stroke = * L
4
This is the volume of fluid ejected in one revolution of the pump. If the pump rotates
at n revolutions per second, the volume of fluid ejected per second, known as the
theoretical pump delivery, QT, can be found from the formula
pd2Ln
QT =
4
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5 122 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Figure 7.5
A positive
displacement
pump. Pump chamber
Fluid
n rev s⫺1 L inlet
Fluid outlet/delivery
Piston
The actual delivery will be less than this owing to internal leakage. Calculate the theo-
retical pump delivery of such a pump when n = 0.5 revolutions per second,
L = 0.3 m, d = 0.1 m.
Solution
Substituting the given values we find
p(0.1)2(0.3)(0.5)
QT =
4
= 0.0012
The theoretical pump delivery is therefore 0.0012 m3 s-1.
Example 7.6 Reliability Engineering – Reliability in communication
networks
In Example 4.18 of this chapter we met the formula
R = R1 + R2 - R1R2
for calculating the reliability of two components in parallel when the individual
components have reliabilities R1 and R2. Suppose each component has the same
reliability, R1 = R2 = 0.8. Find the reliability of the whole system.
Solution
Substituting R1 = R2 = 0.8 in the given formula:
R = 0.8 + 0.8 - (0 .8)(0 .8) = 0.96
So the system as a whole has a 96% chance of functioning normally, whereas the indi-
vidual components had only an 80% chance of functioning normally. We see the great
improvement in reliability achieved by including a second component in parallel.
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7.2 Using formulae and substitution 123 5
Example 7.7 Materials Engineering – Measuring the hardness of
a material
One of the ways that materials engineers measure the hardness of a material is by an
indentation test. Typically a tungsten carbide ball of diameter D is pressed for sev-
eral seconds onto the material through the action of a known force F.
Figure 7.6
Diameter of
indentation is used
to measure
hardness. d
The diameter of the resulting indentation is measured after the force is removed
(see Figure 7.6). There are several test standards but one of the most commonly used
is called a Brinell test and the material’s hardness (written HBW) is calculated from
the formula
2F
Brinell hardness = HBW = 0.102
pD(D - 2D2 - d2)
where D is the diameter of the tungsten carbide ball (in mm), d is the diameter of the
indentation (in mm) at the surface of the material, and F is the applied force (in new-
tons). This formula can be expressed in the equivalent form
F
Brinell hardness = HBW = 0.102
pD(D - 2D2 - d2)
2
pD(D - 2D2 - d2)
It can be shown that the quantity is the curved surface area of
2
the spherical indentation. Consequently, the Brinell number is proportional to the
ratio of the applied force to the curved surface area produced by the indenter. For a
given force, a small Brinell number corresponds to a large surface area and hence a
relatively soft material. Conversely, a large Brinell number corresponds to a small
surface area and hence a material which is relatively hard.
In an indentation test a tungsten carbide ball of diameter 10 mm is impressed upon
a sheet of steel with a force of 3000g newtons. (Here g is the constant acceleration
due to gravity, 9.81 m s2.) When the force is removed the diameter of the indenta-
tion is measured as 4 mm. Calculate the Brinell hardness.
Solution
We substitute the given values into the formula:
2F
HBW = 0.102
pD(D - 2D2 - d2)
2 * 3000 * 9.81
= 0.102
p * 10(10 - 2102 - 42)
= 229 (3 s.f.)
Compare this value with a typical hardness value of a much softer metal such as
brass that has a Brinell number of around 60.
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5 124 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Exercises
1 The formula for the volume of a cylinder is 11 For the following formulae, find y at the given
V = pr2h. Find V when r = 5 cm and values of x:
h = 15 cm. (a) y = 2 - x, x = -3, x = -1, x = 1, x = 2
(b) y = x2, x = -2, x = -1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2
2 If R = 5p2, find R when (a) p = 10,
(b) p = 16. 12 Mechanical Engineering – Moment of
inertia. The moment of inertia of an object is a
3 For the following formulae, find y at the given measure of its resistance to rotation. It depends
values of x: upon both the mass of the object and the
(a) y = 3x + 2, x = -1, x = 0, x = 1 distribution of mass about the axis of rotation.
(b) y = -4x + 7, x = -2, x = 0, x = 1 It can be shown that the moment of inertia, J,
of a solid disc rotating about an axis through
3 its centre and perpendicular to the plane of the
4 If P = find P if Q = 15 and R = 0.3.
QR disc is given by the formula
5 If y = 2x>z find y if x = 13.2 and z = 15.6. 1 2
J = Ma
2
p where M is the mass of the disc and a is its
6 Evaluate M = when r = 23.7 and
2r + s radius. Find the moment of inertia of a disc of
s = -0.2. mass 12 kg and diameter 10 m. The SI unit of
moment of inertia is kg m2.
7 To convert a length measured in metres to one
measured in centimetres, the length in metres 13 Reliability Engineering. Refer to Example 7.6.
is multiplied by 100. Convert the following Calculate the percentage improvement
lengths to cm: (a) 5 m, (b) 0.5 m, (c) 56.2 m. achieved in the reliability of the whole system
if the individual component reliabilities can be
8 To convert an area measured in m2 to one increased to 0.9.
measured in cm2, the area in m2 is multiplied
by 104. Convert the following areas to cm2: 14 Materials Engineering – Brinell hardness. The
(a) 5 m2, (b) 0.33 m2, (c) 6.2 m2. 2F
formula H = 0.102
9 To convert a volume measured in m3 to one pD(D - 2D2 - d2)
has been discussed above in connection with
measured in cm3, the volume in m3 is
the calculation of the hardness of a material.
multiplied by 106. Convert the following
(For simplicity, we refer to the Brinell
volumes to cm3:
hardness here as H.) Transpose this formula to
(a) 15 m3, (b) 0.25 m3, (c) 8.2 m3.
make d2 the subject.
4QP
10 If h = evaluate h when QP = 0.0003,
pd2Ln
d = 0.05, L = 0.1 and n = 2.
Solutions to exercises
1 1178.1 cm3 3 (a) 1, 2, 5 (b) 15, 7, 3
2 (a) 500 (b) 1280 4 P = 0.667
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7.3 Rearranging a formula 125 5
5 y = 0.920 10 h = 0.764
6 M = 0.067 11 (a) 5, 3, 1, 0 (b) 4, 1, 0, 1, 4
7 (a) 500 cm (b) 50 cm (c) 5620 cm 12 150 kg m2
8 (a) 50000 cm2 (b) 3300 cm2 (c) 62000 cm2 13 The system reliability increases from 0.96 to
0.99. The percentage improvement is 3.125%.
9 (a) 15000000 cm3 (b) 250000 cm3
(c) 8200000 cm3 0.204F 2
- a b .
0.408F
14 d2 =
pH pDH
7.3 Rearranging a formula
In the formula for the area of a circle, A = pr2, we say that A is the subject of the
formula. A variable is the subject of the formula if it appears by itself on one side of
the formula, usually the left-hand side, and nowhere else in the formula. If we are
asked to transpose the formula for r, or solve for r, then we have to make r the sub-
ject of the formula. When transposing a formula there are five rules that must be
adhered to. You may
Key point 1 Add the same quantity to both sides of the formula.
2 Subtract the same quantity from both sides of the formula.
3 Multiply both sides of the formula by the same quantity.
4 Divide both sides of the formula by the same quantity.
5 Take ‘functions’ of both sides of the formula: for example, square both sides, square
root both sides, find the reciprocal of both sides.
In summary, and loosely speaking, we must do precisely the same to both sides.
Example 7.8
Transpose the formula p = 5t - 17 for t.
Solution
We must try to obtain t on its own on the left-hand side. We do this in stages by using
one or more of the five rules. For example, by adding 17 to both sides of p = 5t - 17
we find
p + 17 = 5t - 17 + 17
so that
p + 17 = 5t
By dividing both sides by 5 we obtain t on its own:
p + 17
= t
5
so that
p + 17
t =
5
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5 126 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Example 7.9
Find the result of squaring both sides of the formula z = a + b.
Solution
To square the right-hand side we must find (a b)2. We find
z2 = (a + b)2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Note that if z = a + b, then z2 Z a2 + b2.
Example 7.10
Transpose the formula 22q = p for q.
Solution
First of all square both sides to remove the square root around 2q. Note that
(22q )2 = 2q. This gives
2q = p2
p2 1
Dividing both sides by 2 gives q = , which may be written as q = p2.
2 2
Example 7.11
Transpose the formula v = 2t2 + w for w.
Solution
We must try to obtain w on its own on the left-hand side. We do this in several stages.
First of all square both sides to remove the square root around t2 + w. This gives
v2 = t2 + w
Then subtract t2 from both sides to obtain an expression for w:
v2 - t2 = w
Finally, we can write down the formula for w:
w = v2 - t2
Example 7.12
1
Transpose x = for y.
y
Solution
We must try to obtain an expression for y. In the given formula y appears in the form
of a fraction. Multiplying both sides by y has the effect of removing this fraction:
1
multiply both sides of x = by y to get
y
1
yx = y *
y
so that yx = 1
1
Dividing both sides by x leaves y on its own, y = .
x
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7.3 Rearranging a formula 127 5
Example 7.13
Make R the subject of the formula
2 3
=
R x + y
Solution
In the given formula R appears in a fraction. Multiplying both sides by (x + y) we
find
2(x + y)
= 3
R
Multiplying both sides by R we find
2(x + y) = 3R
Finally, dividing both sides by 3 gives
2(x + y)
R =
3
Example 7.14 Electrical Engineering – Resistors in parallel
The net resistance, R, of two resistors, R1 and R2, connected in parallel, can be
obtained from the formula
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
Make R the subject of the formula.
Solution
The two terms on the right can be added to give
1 1 R2 + R1
+ =
R1 R2 R1R2
The given formula becomes
1 R2 + R1
=
R R1R2
Multiplying both sides by R1 R2 we find
R1R2
= R2 + R1
R
and multiplying by R gives
R1R2 = R(R2 + R1)
Finally, dividing by (R2 R1) we find
R1R2
R =
R2 + R1
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5 128 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Example 7.15 Mechanical Engineering – Positive displacement pump
Recall the positive displacement pump described in Example 7.5. The actual deliv-
ery, QP, of such a pump is less than the theoretical value, QT, owing to leakage. A
relevant quantity is the volumetric efficiency, h, defined as
actual delivery
h =
theoretical delivery
QP
=
QT
If the actual and theoretical deliveries are equal the volumetric efficiency will be 1. A
designer will try to ensure that the value of h is as close to 1 as is possible in practice.
1
The theoretical delivery was given in Example 7.5 as pd2Ln. Hence
4
QP
h =
1 2
pd Ln
4
4Q P
=
pd 2Ln
Transpose this formula to make the actual delivery, QP, the subject of the formula.
Solution
From
4QP
h =
pd 2Ln
multiplying both sides of the formula by pd2Ln we find
pd 2Lnh = 4Q P
Dividing both sides by 4 we find
pd 2Lnh
QP =
4
In this form it is possible to calculate the actual delivery of the pump from know-
ledge of its volumetric efficiency, the physical dimensions of the pump and the pump
speed.
Example 7.16 Mechanical Engineering – The coefficient of restitution
Consider Figure 7.7, which shows two moving masses before and after they have col-
lided. The separation speed w2 - w1 is proportional to the approach speed v1 - v2,
and the constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of restitution, e. That is,
w2 - w1 = e(v1 - v2)
Transpose this formula to make v1 the subject.
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 129
7.3 Rearranging a formula 129 5
Figure 7.7 Before collision After collision
Two masses before v1 > v2 w2 > w1
and after collision.
v1 v2 w1 w2
Solution
We must try to obtain v1 on its own. Divide both sides by e to obtain an expression
for v1 - v2.
w2 - w1
v1 - v2 =
e
Finally, add v2 to both sides to leave v1 on the left.
w2 - w1
v1 = v2 +
e
Example 7.17 Electrical Engineering – Equivalent resistance of a
ladder of resistors
Figure 7.8(a) shows two resistors in series. Figure 7.8(b) shows two resistors in parallel.
Figure 7.8 R1 R2 R1
(a) Two resistors in
series; (a)
(b) two resistors in
parallel. R2
(b)
When two resistors, R1 and R2, are placed in series in a circuit the equivalent resis-
tance, R, is R1 + R2. When the two are placed in parallel the equivalent resistance,
R, is given by
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
So, using Example 7.14 we can write
R1R2
R =
R1 + R2
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.9. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
Figure 7.9 RB
RA
RC
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 130
5 130 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Solution
The equivalent resistance of the parallel part of the circuit is
RB RC
RC + RB
This equivalent resistance is in series with the resistor RA. Hence the equivalent
resistance of the whole circuit is
RBRC
R = RA +
RC + RB
This can be written as follows:
RB RC
R = RA +
RC + RB
RA(RC + RB) + RB RC
=
RC + RB
RA RC + RA RB + RB RC
=
RC + RB
Example 7.18 Mechanical Engineering – Heat flow in an insulated pipe
With rising energy costs and increasing awareness of global warming, much
attention is given to insulation and heat flow in domestic and industrial appliances.
Figure 7.10 depicts a situation in which heat can flow along a metal rod. The rod is
insulated along its length so that no heat can enter or leave the rod through the insu-
lated parts. The two ends of the rod are maintained at temperatures T2 and T1, respec-
tively, where T2 7 T1 so that heat flows from left to right as shown.
Figure 7.10
Heat flows along
the rod from the Insulation
warmer to the T2 T1
Heat flow
cooler end.
Insulation
Cross-section of
rod has area A
If the cross-sectional area of the rod is A and its length is / the amount of heat
energy crossing any cross-section parallel to the heated ends, per unit time, is given by
b
T2 - T1
Q = lAa
/
where l is a constant called the thermal conductivity of the metal. Observe from
this formula that if l is large, then the rate of heat flow, Q, will be relatively large.
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 131
7.3 Rearranging a formula 131 5
Similarly if the temperature gradient between the two ends a b is large,
T2 - T1
/
then so too will be the rate of heat flow. Transpose this formula to make T2 the
subject.
Solution
From
b
T2 - T1
Q = lAa
/
multiplying both sides by / and dividing both sides by lA gives
Q/
= T2 - T1
lA
Adding T1 to both sides gives
Q/
T2 = + T1
lA
This formula enables an engineer to calculate the temperature, for a given heat flow
rate, at which the left-hand end needs to be maintained in order to achieve a temper-
ature of T1 on the right-hand end.
Exercises
where v is the speed immediately after the first
1 Transpose the given formulae to make the
impact, and g is a constant called the
given variable the subject:
acceleration due to gravity. Transpose this
(a) y = 3x - 7, for x
formula to make e, the coefficient of
(b) 8y + 3x = 4, for x
restitution, the subject.
(c) 8x + 3y = 4, for y
(d) 13 - 2x - 7y = 0, for x
6 Transpose
2 Transpose the formula PV = RT for (a) V, 2gh
A (A1>A2)2 - 1
(b) P, (c) R, (d) T. q = A1
3 Transpose v = 2x + 2y, (a) for x, (b) for y. for A2.
4 Transpose 8u + 4v - 3w = 17 for (a) u, 7 Make x the subject of
(b) v and (c) w.
r + x
(a) y =
5 Mechanical Engineering – Coefficient of 1 - rx
restitution. When a ball is dropped from rest x - 1
onto a horizontal surface it will bounce before (b) y =
Ax + 1
eventually coming to rest after a time T where
a b
2v 1
T =
g 1 - e
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 132
5 132 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
Solutions to exercises
y + 7 4 - 8y 2v
1 (a) x = (b) x = 5 e = 1 -
3 3 gT
4 - 8x 13 - 7y
(c) y = (d) x = A21q2
3 2 6 A2 =
A 2A1gh +
2
q2
RT RT y - r
2 (a) V = (b) P = 7 (a) x =
P V 1 + yr
PV PV
(c) R = (d) T = 1 + y2
T R (b) x =
1 - y2
2 v2 - x
3 (a) x = v - 2y (b) y =
2
17 - 4v + 3w
4 (a) u =
8
17 - 8u + 3w
(b) v =
4
8u + 4v - 17
(c) w =
3
End of block exercises
1 Evaluate V = r21 + r22 when 6 Make the specified variable the subject of the
r1 = 0.1 and r2 = 0.05. formula:
(a) h = c + d + 2e, for e
2 If A + B + C = 180, find C when (b) S = 2pr2 + 2prh, for h
A = 30 and B = 60.
c + d
(c) Q = , for c
3 For the following formulae, find y at the given Ac - d
values of x: x + y x - y
1 1 (d) = + 2, for x
(a) y = x + , x = -2, x = 0, x = 1 3 7
2 3
(b) y = 2x2 + 3x + 1, x = -2, x = -1, 7 Make n the subject of the formula
x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 nE
(c) y = 2x3 + 3x2, x = -4, x = 0, x = 4 J =
nL + m
4 Transpose
8 Transpose the formula
c
p =
b
T2 - T1
2t Q = lAa
/
for t.
5 Transpose to make / the subject.
mN2A
L =
l
for N.
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 133
End of chapter exercises 133 5
Solutions to exercises
1 0.0125 h - c - d S - 2pr2
6 (a) e = (b) h =
2 2pr
2 90 2
d(1 + Q ) 21 - 5y
(c) c = 2
(d) x =
Q - 1 2
3 (a) - 23 , 13 , 56 (b) 3, 0, 1, 6, 15
(c) -80, 0, 176 Jm
7 n =
E - JL
c 2
4 t = a b
b 1T2 - T12
p T2 - T1 lA
8 / = lAa or / =
Q Q
Ll
5 N =
A mA
End of chapter exercises
1 Find the sum and product of 7, 11 and 91. 10 Remove the brackets from the following
expressions and simplify the result if possible:
2 Simplify (a) 9 - (-18), (b) 11 - (-11), (a) 7(x + 2y) + 8(2x - y)
(c) -3 - 14, (d) (-3)(-14). (b) 7(p + q) - 6(p + q)
(c) 2(x + y) + 3(x + 2y)
3 Find the value of 5(8 + 3) - 2(-3 - 6).
9! 11 Write down the reciprocal of
4 Find the value of . 1 3 2x
4! (a) 18 (b) (c) (d)
11 8 3y
5 Reduce each of the following fractions to its
simplest form: x9 x4
4 15 12 Simplify (a) x2x5x9, (b) , (c)
.
(a) 13 (b) 20 (c) 15 11
35 (d) 12 x4 x5
13 If V = Ah find the value of V when A = 3 and
6 Add 27 and 15 without using a calculator.
h = 26.
7 Find 38 * 5
without using a calculator.
7 14 Factorise (a) 16x2 - 4x, (b) 11y + 121,
8 8
Find of 120. (c) ax2 - bx, (d) c2 - 2cs, (e) s2 - 2cs.
5
9 Simplify, if possible, 15 Remove the brackets from the following and
(a) (9x)(-3y) (b) 9(4x + 5x) simplify the result:
(c) -2x + 11x (d) (-2x)(11x) (a) (a + 3)(a - 5) (b) (2b + 6)(b - 7)
(e) 3x - 2y + 4z - 2x - 3y + 9z (c) (3c + 4)(2c - 1) (d) (5d + 8)(-2d - 1)
(f) (8m)(-3q) (g) 8m(-3q) (h) 8m - 3q
16 Factorise (a) 2x2 - 11x + 5,
8ab2d (b) 2x2 + 13x + 15.
(i) 8(m - 3q) (j) 12x , 3 (k)
4abc
(l) x - x (m) (x)(-x) (n) x(-x) x x x x x
17 Simplify (a) + , (b) + + .
(o) -x(x) 4 5 4 5 6
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 11/28/18 6:03 PM Page 134
5 134 Block 7 Formulae and transposition
2 3 2 3
18 Simplify (a) - , (b) + , 27 Simplify
x 2x x 2x
2 3 5 2
(c) * . - 2
x 2x x x
19 Transpose each of the following formulae to x + 1
make the given variable the subject:
c A 1 A 1
(a) x = , for y 28 Simplify - .
y 2z s - v 2z s + v
c A A
(b) x = , for c 29 Factorise - .
y t0 s t0 s2
2n + 5 30 Remove the square brackets from
(c) k = , for n
n + 3
c - sd
R - L 1 sv
(d) T = 2p , for R v s2 + v2
A g
20 Simplify each of the following: 31 Express as a single fraction
m-7 a1 a2
(a) -4 (b) (3ab2c)3
m +
s + p1 s + p2
(c) y3 * y-2 * x7 * x5 * x-3
32 Express as a single fraction
21 Write down the reciprocal of the following:
1 1 x + y 2R + 1 s + 3
(a) + (b) (c) (d) 4! s + 2 +
3 2 13 R - 1 (s + 1)(s + 2)
2x - 5 3x - 2 33 Express as a single fraction
22 Simplify - .
10 15
1 s
2
-
3 4 vs v (s + v2)
2 2
23 Simplify , .
2x - 5 x - 3
34 By multiplying both numerator and denomina-
24 Without using a calculator find the value of 1
tor of by a - b1c show that
1 a + b 2c
4 -
13 3
3 + 1 a - b2c
17 3>7 =
a + b 2c a2 - b2 c
25 Express the following using single powers:
Use this approach to show that
41>3 48
(a) -1>2 (b) 2y 2 3 y24y 1
4 = 2 - 23
2 + 23
26 Express as a single fraction
u v w
+ +
(u - v)(u - w) (u - v)(u - w) u - v
M05_CROF5939_04_SE_C05.QXD 9/21/18 7:26 AM Page 135
End of chapter exercises 135 5
Solutions to exercises
1 7 3
1 109, 7007 18 (a) (b) (c) 2
2x 2x x
c
2 (a) 27 (b) 22 (c) -17 (d) 42 19 (a) y = (b) c = xy
x
T 2
(d) R = L + g a b
3 73 5 - 3k
(c) n =
k - 2 2p
4 15120
4 3 3 11 20 (a) m-3 (b) 27a3b6c3 (c) yx9
5 (a) (b) (c) (d) 6 13 R - 1 1
13 4 7 12 21 (a) (b) (c) (d)
5 x + y 2R + 1 24
17
6 11
35 22 -
30
15
7 3 (x - 3)
56 23
8 192 4(2x - 5)
1885
9 (a) -27xy (b) 81x (c) 9x (d) -22x2 24
153
(e) x - 5y + 13z (f) -24mq (g) -24mq 25 (a) 453>6 (b) y13>12
(h) cannot be simplified
2bd uw + u + v - w2
(i) cannot be simplified (j) 4x (k) (l) 0 26
c (u - v) (u - w)
(m) -x2 (n) -x2 (o) -x2
5x - 2
27
10 (a) 23x + 6y (b) p + q (c) 5x + 8y x2 (x + 1)
1 8 3y Av
11 (a) (b) 11 (c) (d) 28
18 3 2x z(s + v)(s - v)
a1 - b
12 (a) x16 (b) x5 (c) x-1 A 1
29
t0 s s
13 78
s s
30 -
14 (a) 4x(4x - 1) (b) 11(y + 11) (c) x(ax - b) s2 + v2 v
(d) c(c - 2s) (e) s(s - 2c) a1s + a2s + a1 p2 + a2 p1
31
(s + p1)(s + p2)
15 (a) a2 - 2a - 15 (b) 2b2 - 8b - 42
s3 + 5s2 + 9s + 7
(c) 6c2 + 5c - 4 (d) -10d2 - 21d - 8 32
(s + 2)(s + 1)
16 (a) (2x - 1)(x - 5) (b) (x + 5)(2x + 3) 1
33
9x 37x s(s + v 2)
2
17 (a) (b)
20 60
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 11/28/18 7:24 PM Page 136
Chapter 6
Functions and mathematical models
The study of functions is fundamental to engineering mathematics
because functions provide a way of mathematically describing
relationships between physical variables.
In this chapter we show how to represent functions and describe many
of their properties. Many functions that arise commonly in engineering
applications are introduced. Confidence and competence in the
algebra of functions are essential for further study, and you will have
the opportunity to develop these. Other functions such as
trigonometrical, exponential and logarithmic functions are introduced
in later blocks once the initial foundations have been laid.
Graphs, block diagrams and sets provide visual ways of representing
functions. You will plot and interpret some simple graphs in the
following blocks. If you have access to a graphical calculator or
computer software you will be able to experiment with more
complicated ones. Straight line graphs are particularly important, and
a block is devoted to the study of these.
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:09 AM Page 137
Chapter 6 contents
Block 1 Basic concepts of functions
Block 2 The graph of a function
Block 3 Composition of functions
Block 4 One-to-one functions and inverse functions
Block 5 Parametric representation of a function
Block 6 Describing functions
Block 7 The straight line
Block 8 Common engineering functions
Block 9 The equation of a circle
End of chapter exercises
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:09 AM Page 138
Basic concepts of functions
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In engineering there are many quantities that change their value as time changes. For
example, the temperature of a furnace may change with time as it is heated. Simi-
larly, there are many quantities that change their value as the location of a point of
interest changes. For example, the shear stress in a bridge girder will vary from point
to point across the bridge. A quantity whose value can change is known as a
variable. We use functions to describe how a variable changes as a consequence of
another changing. There are many different types of function that are used by engin-
eers. We shall be examining some of these in later blocks.
1.2 Mathematical modelling
The introduction of functions leads naturally to the concept of mathematical model-
ling. A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a real-life situation. The
mathematical description usually involves several functions and takes the form of a
set of interrelated equations, although a single equation can represent some simple
phenomena.
Consider, for example, the combustion of gas in a piston cylinder. There are sev-
eral quantities of interest. These include the volume, temperature and pressure of the
gas, the velocity of the piston, and so on. As another example, consider an electric
circuit. The relevant quantities could include voltages, currents, resistances, conduc-
tivity, cross-sectional area of the conductor, and so on. Each quantity is assigned a
symbol: R for resistance, v for velocity, p for pressure, V for volume, and so on.
Sometimes the symbols used are Greek letters.
In any particular situation or experiment, the values of some quantities remain
fixed. These are referred to as constants. The cross-sectional area of a wire may be
constant for a particular circuit, or maybe the resistance of a component is constant.
The values of other quantities may change. The volume and pressure of gas in a
cylinder vary as the piston moves up and down. As we have already mentioned,
quantities whose values change are referred to as variables.
Sometimes there are physical laws which relate the various quantities to each other.
In a simple circuit, as we have seen already in Section 7.2 of Chapter 5, if V denotes
voltage, I denotes current and R denotes resistance (a constant) then we may write
V = IR
This is known as Ohm’s law. We can say that V is a function of I. As another example,
if u denotes the initial velocity of a body, v denotes velocity at any point in time, a
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:09 AM Page 139
1.2 Mathematical modelling 139 6
denotes acceleration and t denotes the time that has elapsed, then we may establish that
v = u + at
This is a mathematical equation for modelling the velocity of a body that is changing
due to acceleration. In words we would say, ‘The velocity (v) at any particular instant
is its initial velocity (u) plus the product of its acceleration (a) and the time elapsed
(t).’ Note that velocity, v, is changing with time and so is a variable whereas initial
velocity, u, is a fixed quantity and so is a constant.
However, some caution is needed. Both of these equations apply only under very
particular circumstances which are not apparent simply by examining the equations.
These particular circumstances may rarely if ever be achieved in reality and so the
equation is then an approximation to what is really happening.
So mathematical models are usually an idealised description of the real situation.
In the above example, the equation v = u + at requires that acceleration, a, is con-
stant. If the acceleration of a body was almost constant, then we may decide that this
equation, which requires constant acceleration, is an adequate model of reality. As
another example, consider again Ohm’s law which describes the relationship
between voltage across a resistor, V, current, I and resistance, R:
V = IR
This is, however, based on some assumptions that simplify the situation. The equa-
tion assumes that there is no variation in the current density across the cross-section
of the resistor. For large voltages, the resistor breaks down and so it is assumed that
the voltage is within limits such that the resistance remains constant. So it must be
remembered that a mathematical model is an approximation to real life.
Sometimes there is no known physical law that relates particular variables. In such
cases, measurements are sometimes made and from this experimental data it may be
possible to construct an equation (or equations) that adequately captures the relation-
ship between the measured quantities. Any assumptions which are made in con-
structing such equations must be clearly stated.
Many situations require more than one equation to describe them. Consider an
electric circuit comprising several meshes (see Chapter 13, Block 6 for details). The
currents in the meshes are modelled by a system of simultaneous equations. These
simultaneous equations need to be solved to determine each individual mesh current.
We now return to the concept of a variable. It is often useful to distinguish
between independent and dependent variables. Dependent variables are dependent
upon the values of the independent variables. The purpose of a mathematical model
is to have a clear mathematical understanding, in the form of a set of equations, of
how the dependent variables change in response to changes in the independent
variables.
Even though mathematical models are approximations of reality, they have many
advantages. By modelling a situation accurately, it is possible to calculate the effects
of changing the values of the physical quantities, without actually conducting real-
life experiments. For example, by modelling the strength of a metal beam it is poss-
ible to see the effects of changing its cross-sectional area or length without having to
manufacture and test a set of actual metal beams. So, although mathematical models
are theoretical constructs of an idealised situation, their ability to predict the effects
of changing values of key characteristics of a situation is widely used.
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6 140 Block 1 Basic concepts of functions
So how do we know if a mathematical model is a ‘good enough’ description of
reality? Predictions from the model can be compared with actual measurements
made during the experiment. Modelled results are compared with real results and a
judgement is made on whether the fit is good enough. If not, then the model must be
improved. This may necessitate additional equations being added to the model, or
existing equations having terms modified, added or removed. The cycle is then
repeated and the new model tested against reality.
1.3 The function rule
A function can be thought of as a rule that operates on an input and produces an
output. This can be illustrated pictorially in two ways, as shown in Figure 1.1. The
first way is by using a block diagram, which consists of a box showing the input and
output, and the rule. We often write the rule inside the box. The second way is to use
two sets, one to represent the input and one to represent the output. An arrow shows
the relationship between them.
Figure 1.1 Input Output
A function is a rule Function
operating on an
input to produce an Input Output
Rule
output.
In order for a rule to be a function it must produce only a single output for any
given input. The function with the rule ‘treble the input’ is shown in Figure 1.2.
Note that with an input of 4 the function would produce an output of 12. With a more
general input, x say, the output will be 3x. It is usual to assign a letter to a function in
order to label it. The trebling function in Figure 1.2 has been given the symbol f.
Key point A function is a rule that operates on an input and produces a single output from that
input.
Note that the set diagram in Figure 1.2 illustrates that for any input we choose we
obtain just one output, because just one arrow leaves each input value.
Figure 1.2 f
The function with f
Input Output
rule ‘treble the 4 Treble the input 12
input’.
4 12
f
x 3x
x Treble the input 3x
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1.3 The function rule 141 6
Example 1.1
Write down the output from the function shown in Figure 1.3 when the input is
(a) 4, (b) 3, (c) x.
Figure 1.3 Function
Input Multiply the input by 7 Output
and then subtract 2
Solution
In each case the function rule instructs us to multiply the input by 7 and then subtract 2.
(a) When the input is 4 the output is 26
(b) When the input is 3 the output is -23
(c) When the input is x the output is 7x - 2
Several different notations are used by engineers to describe functions. For the
trebling function in Figure 1.2 it is common to write
f (x) = 3x
This indicates that with an input x, the function, f, produces an output of 3x. The
input to the function is placed in the brackets after the ‘f ’. Do not interpret this as
multiplication. f (x) is read as ‘f is a function of x’, or simply ‘f of x’, meaning that the
value of the output from the function depends upon the value of the input x. The
value of the output is often called the value of the function.
Sometimes f (x) = 3x is abbreviated to simply f = 3x, and it is then left to the
reader to note that f is a function of x.
Example 1.2 Thermodynamics – Converting centigrade to kelvin
Temperatures can be recorded in either centigrade (°C) or kelvin (K). Temperatures
in centigrade can be converted to their equivalent in kelvin by adding 273. So, for
example, 70 °C is equivalent to 70 + 273 = 343 K.
This may be expressed diagrammatically as shown in Figure 1.4 where the input,
T, is the temperature in °C and the output is the temperature in K or algebraically as
f (T) = T + 273
Figure 1.4 Function
Block diagram
showing the
function Input, T Add 273 Output
f (T) = T + 273.
Example 1.3
State the rule of each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = 6x (b) f (t) = 6t - 1 (c) g(z) = z2 - 7 (d) h(t) = t3 + 5
(e) p(x) = x3 + 5
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6 142 Block 1 Basic concepts of functions
Solution
(a) The rule for f is ‘multiply the input by 6’.
(b) Here the input has been labelled t. The rule for f is ‘multiply the input by 6 and
subtract 1’.
(c) Here the function has been labelled g and the input has been labelled z. The
rule for g is ‘square the input and subtract 7’.
(d) The rule for h is ‘cube the input and add 5’.
(e) The rule for p is ‘cube the input and add 5’.
Note from Example 1.3 parts (d) and (e) that it is the rule that is important when
describing a function and not the letters being used. Both h(t) and p(x) instruct us to
‘cube the input and add 5’.
Example 1.4
Write down a mathematical function that can be used to describe the following rules:
(a) ‘square the input and divide the result by 2’
(b) ‘divide the input by 3 and then add 7’
Solution
(a) Use the letter x for input and the letter f to represent the function. Then
x2
f (x) = f (x) =
2
(b) Label the function g and call the input t:
t
g(t) = g(t) = + 7
3
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by a function. (c) f (x) = 8x + 10 (d) f (t) = 7t - 27
t 2
2 State the rule of each of the following (e) f (t) = 1 - t (f) h(t) = +
functions: 3 3
1
(a) f (x) = 5x (b) f (t) = 5t (g) f (x) =
1 + x
Solutions to exercises
2 (a) multiply the input by 5, (b) same as (a), (e) subtract the input from 1, (f) divide the
(c) multiply the input by 8 and then add 10, input by 3 and then add 23 , (g) add 1 to the
(d) multiply the input by 7 and then subtract 27, input and then find the reciprocal of the result.
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:09 AM Page 143
1.4 The argument of a function 143 6
1.4 The argument of a function
The input to a function is called its argument. It is often necessary to obtain the out-
put from a function if we are given its argument. For example, given the function
g(t) = 3t + 2 we may require the value of the output when the argument is 2. We
write this as g(t = 2) or more usually and compactly as g(2). In this case the value of
g(2) is 3 * 2 + 2 = 8.
Example 1.5
Given the function f (x) = 3x + 1 find
(a) f (2)
(b) f (-1)
(c) f (6)
Solution
(a) State the function rule:
multiply input by 3 and add 1
When the argument is 2, we find
f (2) = 3 * 2 + 1
= 7
(b) Here the argument is -1.
f (-1) = 3 * (-1) + 1 = -2
(c) f (6) = 3(6) + 1 = 19
Example 1.6 Dynamics – Constant acceleration
A body has an initial velocity of u m s-1 and a constant acceleration of a m s-2.
Then, after t seconds, the velocity, v, of the body is given by
v(t) = u + at
Note that velocity, v, is a function of time t. The argument of the function v is t.
Example 1.7 Dynamics – Constant acceleration
A body has an initial velocity of 6 m s-1 and a constant acceleration of 2 m s-2.
Calculate the velocity after 14 seconds.
Solution
v(t) = u + at
= 6 + 2t
v(14) = 6 + 2(14) = 34
The velocity after 14 seconds is 34 m s-1.
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6 144 Block 1 Basic concepts of functions
It is possible to obtain the value of a function when the argument is an algebraic
expression. Consider the following example.
Example 1.8
Given the function y(x) = 3x + 2 find
(a) y(t) (b) y(2t) (c) y(z + 2) (d) y(5x) (e) ya b
t
a
Solution
State the rule for this function:
multiply the input by 3 and then add 2
We can apply this rule whatever the argument.
(a) In this case the argument is t. Multiplying this by 3 and adding 2 we find
y(t) = 3t + 2. Equivalently we can replace x by t in the expression for the
function, so y(t) = 3t + 2.
(b) In this case the argument is 2t. We need to replace x by 2t in the expression for
the function. So
y(2t) = 3(2t) + 2 = 6t + 2
(c) In this case the argument is z + 2.
y(z + 2) = 3(z + 2) + 2 = 3z + 8
(d) The argument is 5x and so there appears to be a clash of notation with the
original expression for the function. There is no problem if we remember that
the rule is to multiply the input by 3 and then add 2. The input now is 5x, so
y(5x) = 3(5x) + 2
= 15x + 2
(e) ya b =
t t
3 + 2
a a
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the ‘argument’ of a 4 Given g(x) = 3x2 - 7 find
function. (a) g(3t) (b) g(t + 5) (c) g(6t - 4)
(d) g(4x + 9)
2 Given the function g(t) = 8t + 3 find
(a) g(7) (b) g(2) (c) g(-0.5) 5 Calculate f (x + h) when
(d) g(-0.11) 1
(a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = x3 (c) f (x) =
x
3 Given the function f (t) = 2t2 + 4 find In each case write down the corresponding
(a) f (x) (b) f (2x) (c) f (-x) (d) f (4x + 2) expression for f (x + h) - f (x).
(e) f (3t + 5) (f) f (l) (g) f (t - l) (h) f a b
t
find f a b .
1 x
a 6 If f (x) = 2
(1 - x) /
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1.4 The argument of a function 145 6
Solutions to exercises
1
1 The argument is the input. (c)
x + h
2 (a) 59 (b) 19 (c) -1 (d) 2.12 The corresponding expressions are (a) 2xh + h2
(b) 3x2h + 3xh2 + h3
3 (a) 2x2 + 4 (b) 8x2 + 4 (c) 2x2 + 4
(d) 32x2 + 32x + 12 (e) 18t2 + 60t + 54 1 1 h
(c) - = -
2t2 x + h x x(x + h)
(f) 2l2 + 4 (g) 2(t - l)2 + 4 (h) + 4
a2
1
4 (a) 27t2 - 7 (b) 3t2 + 30t + 68 6
x 2
(c) 108t2 - 144t + 41 a1 - b
(d) 48x2 + 216x + 236 /
5 (a) x2 + 2xh + h2
(b) x3 + 3x2h + 3xh2 + h3
End of block exercises
1 State the rule of each of the following 5 Area of a circle. The area, A, of a circle
functions: depends upon the radius, r, according to
(a) f (v) = 9v (b) f (t) = 12t
A(r) = pr2
(c) f (x) = 208x + 36 (d) f (t) = 25t - 18
10 Calculate A(2r) and hence show that when the
(e) f (x) = 12 x + 3
4 (f) g(x) = radius of a circle is doubled, its area is
x
increased by a factor of 4.
2 Given the function g(x) = 6 - 12x find
(a) g(1) (b) g(7) (c) g(-2) (d) g1122
6 Volume of a sphere. The volume, V, of a
sphere depends upon the radius, r, according to
(e) g(0.01) (f) g(-0.5)
4pr3
V(r) =
1 3
3 Given the function f (x) = find
x (a) Calculate V(2r). Hence determine how the
(a) f (l) (b) f (t) (c) f (t - l) (d) f (v - x) volume of a sphere changes when the
(e) f a b
t radius is doubled.
a (b) By what factor does the volume of a
sphere change when the radius is halved?
1
4 If F(s) = find (a) F(s - 1),
s + 1
(b) F(s + 1), (c) F(s2 + v2).
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) multiply the input by 9 (b) multiply the 18 (e) find one-half of the input and then add 34
input by 12 (c) multiply the input by 208 and (f) divide the number 10 by the input.
add 36 (d) multiply the input by 25 and subtract
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6 146 Block 1 Basic concepts of functions
2 (a) -6 (b) -78 (c) 30 (d) 0 (e) 5.88 (f) 12 32pr 3
6 (a) V(2r) = = 8V(r). So when the
3
1 1 1 1 a radius is doubled the volume increases by
3 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
l t t - l v - x t a factor of 8.
1 1 1
4p r 3 1 4pr3
(b) Va b = a b = a b =
4 (a) (b) (c) 2 r V(r)
s s + 2 s + v2 + 1 .
2 3 2 8 3 8
5 A(2r) = 4pr2 = 4A(r) When the radius is halved the volume
decreases by a factor of 8.
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:09 AM Page 147
The graph of a function
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Engineers often find mathematical ideas easier to understand when these are por-
trayed visually as opposed to algebraically. Graphs are a convenient and widely used
way of portraying functions. By inspecting a graph it is easy to describe a number of
properties of the function being considered. For example, where is the function posi-
tive, and where is it negative? Where is it increasing and where is it decreasing? Do
function values repeat? Questions such as these can be answered once the graph of a
function has been drawn. In this block we shall describe how the graph of a function
is obtained and introduce various terminology associated with graphs.
2.2 The graph of a function
Consider the function f (x) = 2x. The output from this function is obtained by multi-
plying the input by 2. We can choose several values for the input to this function and
calculate the corresponding outputs. We have done this for integer values of x
between 2 and 2, and the results are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Input, x -2 -1 0 1 2
Output, f (x) -4 -2 0 2 4
To construct the graph of this function we first draw a pair of axes – a vertical axis
and a horizontal axis. These are drawn at right angles to each other and intersect at
the origin O as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Vertical axis
The two axes y 2x
intersect at the 4
origin. Each pair 3
Origin 2
of values, x and
f (x), gives a point 1 Horizontal axis
on the graph. 2 1 O 1 2
1
2
3
4
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6 148 Block 2 The graph of a function
Each pair of input and output values can be represented on a graph by a single
point. The input values are measured along the horizontal axis and the output values
are measured along the vertical axis. The horizontal axis is often called the x axis.
The vertical axis is commonly referred to as the y axis, so that we often write the
function as
y = f (x)
= 2x
or simply
y = 2x
Each pair of x and y values in the table is plotted as a single point shown as • in
Figure 2.1. The point is often labelled as (x, y). The values of x and y are said to
be the coordinates of the point. The points are then joined with a smooth curve to
produce the required graph as shown in Figure 2.1. Note that in this case the graph is
a straight line.
Dependent and independent variables
Since x and y can have a number of different values they are variables. Here x is called
the independent variable and y is called the dependent variable. By knowing or
choosing a value of the independent variable x, the function rule enables us to calculate
the corresponding value of the dependent variable y. To show this dependence we
often write y(x). This is read as ‘y is a function of x’ or ‘y depends upon x’, or simply ‘y
of x’. Note that it is the independent variable that is the input to the function and the
dependent variable that is the output.
The domain and range of a function
The set of values that we allow the independent variable to take is called the domain
of the function. A domain is often an interval on the x axis. For example, the function
y = g(x)
= 5x + 2 -5 … x … 20
has any value of x between 5 and 20 inclusive as its domain because it has been
stated as this. If the domain of a function is not stated then it is taken to be the largest
set possible. For example,
h(t) = t2 + 1
has domain (- q , q ) since h is defined for every value of t and the domain has not
been stated otherwise.
The set of values of the function for a given domain, that is the set of y values, is
called the range of the function. The range of g(x) is [-23, 102]. The range of h(t) is
[1, q ) although this may not be apparent to you at this stage. The range can usually
be identified quite easily once a graph has been drawn.
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2.2 The graph of a function 149 6
Later, you will meet some functions for which certain values of the independent
variable must be excluded from the domain because at these values the function
1
would be undefined. One such example is f (x) = for which we must exclude the
x
value x 0, since 10 is meaningless.
Key point In the function y = f (x), x is called the independent variable and y is called the
dependent variable because the value of y depends upon the value chosen for x.
The set of x values used as input to the function is called the domain of the function.
The set of values that y takes as x is varied is called the range of the function.
Example 2.1
Consider the function given by g(t) = 2t2 + 1, -2 … t … 2.
(a) State the domain of the function.
(b) Plot a graph of the function.
(c) Deduce the range of the function from the graph.
Solution
(a) The domain is given as the closed interval [2, 2], that is any value of t
between 2 and 2 inclusive.
(b) To construct the graph a table of input and output values must be constructed
first. Such a table is shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
t 2 1 0 1 2
y = g(t) 9 3 1 3 9
Each pair of t and y values in the table is plotted as a single point shown as •.
The points are then joined with a smooth curve to produce the required graph as
shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2
Graph of 9 g(t) 2t 2 1
g(t) = 2t2 + 1.
t
2 1 O 1 2
(c) The range is the set of values that the function takes as x is varied. By
inspecting the graph we see that the range of g is the closed interval [1, 9].
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6 150 Block 2 The graph of a function
Example 2.2
Consider the function given by f (x) = x2 + 2, -3 … x … 3.
(a) State the domain of the function.
(b) Draw up a table of input and output values for this function.
(c) Plot a graph of the function.
(d) Deduce the range of the function by inspecting the graph.
Solution
(a) Recall that the domain of a function f (x) is the set of values that x is allowed to
take. Write this set of values as an interval:
[-3, 3]
(b) The table of values has been partially calculated. Complete this now:
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x2 + 2 6 2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x2 + 2 11 6 3 2 3 6 11
(c) The graph is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3
Graph of 11
f (x) = x2 + 2. 10
f (x) x 2 2
x
3 2 1 O 1 2 3
(d) Recall that the range of the function is the set of values that the function takes
as x is varied. It is possible to deduce this from the graph. Write this set as an
interval.
[2, 11]
Example 2.3
Explain why the value x = -4 must be excluded from the domain of the function
3
f (x) =
(x + 4)2
Solution
When x = -4 the denominator
is zero, so f is undefined here.
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2.2 The graph of a function 151 6
Example 2.4 Chemical Engineering – Discharge of a liquid from a tank
Figure 2.4
A liquid storage
system.
Figure 2.4 shows a tank that is used to store a liquid. Liquid can be let into the tank
through an inlet pipe at the top, and it discharges from the tank through a spout in
the side near its base. Such a situation occurs frequently in chemical engineering
applications. Under certain conditions the flow through the spout will be laminar or
smooth, and the rate of outflow, Q, is proportional to the depth, or head, H, of liquid
in the tank. This is expressed mathematically as
Q = KH
where K is a constant of proportionality called the discharge coefficient. The depen-
dent variable Q is a function of the independent variable H. Here the input to the
function is the head H, the function rule is ‘multiply the input by K’, and the result-
ing output is the flow rate Q. A graph of Q against H is shown in Figure 2.5(a).
Figure 2.5 Q Q
(a) Laminar flow Q K H
characteristic; Q KH
(b) turbulent flow
characteristic.
(a) H (b) H
If the flow through the spout is turbulent then a different functional relationship
exists between Q and H:
Q = K2H
Here the function rule is ‘take the positive square root of the input, H, and multiply this
by the discharge coefficient, K’. The output is the flow rate Q. A graph of Q against H is
shown in Figure 2.5(b).
Exercises
1 Explain the meaning of the terms ‘dependent 2 When stating the coordinates of a point, which
variable’ and ‘independent variable’. When coordinate is given first?
plotting a graph, which variables are plotted
on which axes?
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6 152 Block 2 The graph of a function
3 Explain the meaning of an expression such as 5 Plot a graph of the following functions. In each
y(x) in the context of functions. What is the case state the domain and the range of the
interpretation of x(t)? function.
(a) f (x) = 3x + 2, -2 … x … 5
4 Explain the meaning of the terms ‘domain’ (b) g(x) = x2 + 4, -2 … x … 3
and ‘range’ when applied to functions. (c) p(t) = 2t2 + 8, -2 … t … 4
(d) f (t) = 6 - t2, 1 … t … 5
Solutions to exercises
1 The independent variable is plotted on the 3 x(t) means that the dependent variable x is a
horizontal axis. The dependent variable is function of the independent variable t.
plotted on the vertical axis.
5 (a) domain [-2, 5], range [-4, 17]
2 The independent variable is given first, as in (b) [-2, 3], [4, 13] (c) [-2, 4], [8, 40]
(x, y). (d) [1, 5], [-19, 5].
2.3 Using computer software to plot graphs of functions
Computer software packages make it very easy to plot graphs of functions. Not only
can they produce graphs accurately and quickly, but also they generally have other
useful facilities. For example, it is possible to zoom in on particular parts of the
graph, and to redraw a graph using different axes. It is straightforward to produce
multiple plots with several graphs in one figure. Furthermore, packages can be used
to plot other forms of graph such as polar plots, parametric plots (see Block 5), etc.
When you have managed to produce some simple graphs you will find on-line help
facilities that will enable you to explore this topic further.
Example 2.5
Use a computer package to plot a graph of the function f (x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 39x + 20
for values of x between -6 and 6. By inspecting the graph locate the values of x
where the graph cuts the horizontal axis.
Solution
Maple
In Maple the command to plot a graph of this function is
plot(2*x^ 3 - 3*x^ 2 - 39*x + 20,x = -6..6);
Note that Maple requires the multiplication symbol * to be inserted, and uses the
symbol ^ to denote a power. Note that the domain of interest is entered in the form
x = -6..6. Maple produces the output shown in Figure 2.6, which can be customised as
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2.3 Using computer software to plot graphs of functions 153 6
required by the user. By inspection the graph cuts the horizontal axis at x = -4, x = 5
and x = 12 .
Figure 2.6 100
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–100
–200
Matlab
In Matlab it is first necessary to specify the coordinates of all the required points on the
graph. Matlab will then plot the points and join them with a smooth curve. Clearly we
want points for which the value of x lies between 6 and 6. Suppose we want to plot
points at intervals of 0.1. The appropriate values of x are defined using the command
x = -6:0.1:6;
Then at each of these values of x, the value of y is calculated using the command
y = 2*x.^ 3 - 3*x.^ 2 - 39*x + 20;
Note the requirement to input x3 as x.^3, and so on. Finally the command to plot the
graph is
plot(x,y);
Matlab produces the graph, similar to that produced by Maple, in a new window. You
should explore the commands to add labels, title, reposition the axes, etc.
End of block exercises
1 Plot graphs of y = x2 and y = -x2 for 0 … TC … 100. What is the range of this
-4 … x … 4. In each case state the domain function?
and range of the function.
5 Plot a graph of the function
2 On the same diagram draw graphs of
y = 7x + 1 and y = 7x + 2. Comment on f (x) = (x - 2) (x + 4)
any similarities between the two graphs.
What is the range of this function?
3 On the same diagram draw graphs of y = 3x
and y = 4x. Comment on any similarities 6 Explain why the value x = 0 must be excluded
between the two graphs. from the domain of
1
4 The relationship between a temperature, TF, g(x) =
measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and a x(x - 7)
temperature TC measured in degrees Celsius
What other value must be excluded and why?
(°C) is given by the function TF = 95 TC + 32.
Plot a graph of this function for the domain
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6 154 Block 2 The graph of a function
Solutions to exercises
1 Domain [4, 4] in both cases; range of x2 is 5 [-9, q )
[0, 16], range of -x2 is [-16, 0].
6 When x = 0, g(x) is not defined. The value
2 Both graphs have the same slope. x = 7 must also be excluded because once
again this value makes the denominator zero.
3 Both pass through the origin.
4 [32, 212]
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Composition of functions
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
When the output from one function is used as the input to another function we form
what is known as a composite function. We study composite functions in this block.
3.2 Composition of functions
Consider the two functions g(x) = x2 and h(x) = 3x + 5. Block diagrams showing
the rules for these functions are shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 g
Block diagrams of
two functions g x Square the input x2
and h.
h
Treble the input
x 3x 5
and add 5
Suppose we place these block diagrams together in series as shown in Figure 3.2,
so that the output from function g is used as the input to function h.
Figure 3.2 g h
The composition x2 Treble the input
of the two x Square the input 3x 2 5
and add 5
functions to give
h(g(x)).
Study Figure 3.2 and deduce that when the input to g is x the output from the two
functions in series is 3x2 + 5. Since the output from g is used as input to h we write
h(g(x)) = h(x2)
= 3x2 + 5
The form h(g(x)) is known as the composition of the functions g and h.
Suppose we interchange the two functions so that h is applied first, as shown in
Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 h g
The composition of
Treble the input 3x 5
the two functions to x Square the input (3x 5)2
and add 5
give g(h(x)).
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6 156 Block 3 Composition of functions
Study Figure 3.3 and note that when the input to h is x the final output is (3x + 5)2.
We write
g(h(x)) = (3x + 5)2
Note that the function h(g(x)) is different from g(h(x)).
Example 3.1
Given two functions g(t) = 3t + 2 and h(t) = t + 3 obtain expressions for the
compositions
(a) g(h(t)) (b) h(g(t))
Solution
(a) We have
g(h(t)) = g(t + 3)
Now the rule for g is ‘triple the input and add 2’, and so we can write
g(t + 3) = 3(t + 3) + 2
= 3t + 11
So, g(h(t)) = 3t + 11.
(b) We have
h(g(t)) = h(3t + 2)
State the rule for h:
‘add 3 to the input’
h(g(t)) = h(3t + 2) = 3t + 5
We note that h(g(t)) Z g(h(t)).
Example 3.2
Find f (f (x)) when f (x) = 3x + 2.
Solution
Here the function rule is ‘multiply the input by 3 and then add 2’. The composite
function f(f(x)) is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
f ( f (x)) = f (3x + 2)
= 3(3x + 2) + 2
= 9x + 8
Figure 3.4 f f
The composition
Multiply the input 3x 2 Multiply the input
of f (x) with itself. x
by 3 and add 2 3(3x 2) 2
by 3 and add 2
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3.2 Composition of functions 157 6
Exercises
x - 3 1
1 Find f (g(x)) when f (x) = x - 7 and g(x) = x2. 4 If f (x) = and g(x) = find g(f (x)).
x + 1 x
2 If f (x) = 8x + 2 find f (f (x)).
3 If f (x) = x + 6 and g(x) = x2 - 5 find
(a) f (g(0)), (b) g(f (0)), (c) g(g(2)), (d) f (g(7)).
Solutions to exercises
1 x2 - 7 3 (a) 1 (b) 31 (c) -4 (d) 50
x + 1
2 8(8x + 2) + 2 = 64x + 18 4
x - 3
End of block exercises
1 If f (x) = x + 9, g(x) = 3 - x2 and 5 Express the function f (x) = 7x - 2 as the
h(x) = 1 + 2x find (a) g(f(x)), (b) h(g(f(x))), composition of two simpler functions.
(c) f(h(g(x))), (d) f(f(x)).
6 If r(t) = 2t + 3 and s(t) = 7t2 - t find
1 (a) r(s(t)), (b) s(r(t)).
2 If f (x) = find f(f(x)).
x
1 1
7 If f (x) = , and g(x) = , find
3 If y(x) = x2 + 3 and z(x) = 2x find y(z(x)) x - 3 x + 3
and z(y(x)). (a) f(g(x)), (b) g(f(x)), (c) f(f(x)).
4 Express the function f (x) = 7(x - 2) as the 2
8 (a) If f (x) = and g(x) = 7 - x find g(f(x)).
composition of two simpler functions. x
(b) What is the domain of g(f(x))?
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) -x2 - 18x - 78 (b) -2x2 - 36x - 155 5 If g(x) = 7x, and h(x) = x - 2, then
(c) 16 - 2x2 (d) x + 18 h(g(x)) = 7x - 2.
2 x 6 (a) 14t2 - 2t + 3 (b) 28t2 + 82t + 60
3 x + 3, 2x2 + 3 x + 3 x - 3 3 - x
7 (a) - (b) (c)
3x + 8 3x - 8 3x - 10
4 If g(x) = 7x, and h(x) = x - 2, then 2
g(h(x)) = 7(x - 2). 8 (a) 7 - (b) x Z 0
x
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One-to-one functions and inverse functions
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
In this block we examine more terminology associated with functions. We explain
one-to-one and many-to-one functions and show how the rule associated with certain
functions can be reversed to give so-called inverse functions. These ideas will be
needed when we deal with particular functions in later blocks.
4.2 One-to-many rules, many-to-one and one-to-one functions
One-to-many rules
Recall from Block 1 that a rule for a function must produce a single output for a
given input. Not all rules satisfy this criterion. For example, the rule ‘take the square
root of the input’ cannot be a rule for a function because for a given input, other than
zero, there are two outputs: an input of 4 produces outputs of 2 and -2. Figure 4.1
shows two ways in which we can picture this situation, the first being a block dia-
gram, and the second using two sets representing input and output values and the
relationship between them.
Figure 4.1 Input Output
This rule cannot be
a function – it is a
one-to-many rule. 2 2
Take the square root 4
4
of the input
2 2
Such a rule is described as a one-to-many rule. This means that one input pro-
duces more than one output. This is obvious from inspecting the sets in Figure 4.1.
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4.2 One-to-many rules, many-to-one and one-to-one functions 159 6
The graph of the rule ‘take ; 2x’ can be drawn by constructing a table of values:
x 0 1 2 3 4
y = ;2x 0 ;1 ;22 ;23 ;2
The graph is shown in Figure 4.2. Plotting a graph of a one-to-many rule will result
in a curve through which a vertical line can be drawn that cuts the curve more than
once as shown.
Figure 4.2
A vertical line cuts
the graph of a one- y
to-many rule more
than once.
By describing a rule more specifically it is possible to make it a valid rule for a
function. For example, the rule ‘take the positive square root of the input’ is a valid
function rule because a given input produces a single output. The graph of this func-
tion is the upper branch in Figure 4.2.
Many-to-one and one-to-one functions
Consider the function y(x) = x2. An input of x = 3 produces an output of 9. Simi-
larly, an input of -3 also produces an output of 9. In general, a function for which
different inputs can produce the same output is called a many-to-one function. This
is represented pictorially in Figure 4.3, from which it is clear why we call this a
many-to-one function.
Figure 4.3 Input Output
This represents a
many-to-one
3
function.
9
3
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6 160 Block 4 One-to-one functions and inverse functions
It is possible to decide whether a function is many-to-one by examining its graph.
Consider the graph of y = x2 shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
y y x2
The function
y = x2 is a many-
to-one function. 9
x
3 3
We see that a horizontal line drawn on the graph cuts it more than once. This
means that two different inputs have yielded the same output and so the function is
many-to-one.
If a function is not many-to-one then it is said to be one-to-one. This means that
each different input to the function yields a different output. Consider the function
y(x) = x3, which is shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 y
The function
y(x) = x3 is a one- 10 y x3
to-one function.
x
5 5
15
A horizontal line drawn on this graph will intersect the curve only once. This
means that each input value of x yields a different output value for y.
Example 4.1 Electrical Engineering – Voltage in a circuit
The function shown in Figure 4.6 is often used to model voltage, V, in electric cir-
cuits. It is known as a sine function – this function is described in detail in Chapter 9.
Figure 4.6 V
A sine function
used to model
voltage.
State whether this is a one-to-one function or a many-to-one function.
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4.3 Inverse of a function 161 6
Solution
This is a many-to-one function as there are many values of t that correspond to the
same value of voltage, V, as indicated by the dashed line in Figure 4.6.
Example 4.2
Study the graphs shown in Figure 4.7. Decide which, if any, are graphs of functions.
For those which are, state whether the function is one-to-one or many-to-one.
Solution
not a function
Figure 4.7(a)
(a)
Figure 4.7(b)
(b)
one-to-one function
Exercises
1 Explain why a one-to-many rule cannot be a 3 By sketching a graph of y = 3x - 1 show that
function. this is a one-to-one function.
2 Illustrate why y = x4 is a many-to-one function
by providing a suitable numerical example.
4.3 Inverse of a function
We have seen that a function can be regarded as taking an input, x, and processing it
in some way to produce a single output f(x) as shown in Figure 4.8.
A natural question to ask is whether we can find a function that will reverse the
process. In other words, can we find a function that will start with f(x) and process it
to produce x? This idea is also shown in Figure 4.8. If we can find such a function it
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6 162 Block 4 One-to-one functions and inverse functions
Figure 4.8 f
The second block
reverses the x Process f (x)
process in the first.
f 1
f (x) Reverse process x
is called the inverse function to f(x) and is given the symbol f - 1(x). Do not confuse
the ‘ -1’ with an index, or power. Here the superscript is used purely as the notation
for the inverse function. Note that f - 1( f (x)) = x, as shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 f f 1
f - 1, if it exists,
reverses the f (x)
x Process Reverse process x
process in f.
Key point f - 1(x) is the notation used to denote the inverse function of f (x). The inverse function,
if it exists, reverses the process in f (x).
Example 4.3
Find the inverse function for f (t) = 3t - 8.
Solution
The function f(t) takes an input, t, and produces an output, 3t - 8. The inverse
function, f - 1, must take an input 3t - 8 and give an output t. That is,
f - 1(3t - 8) = t
z + 8
If we introduce a new variable z = 3t - 8, and transpose this to give t = ,
3
then
z + 8
f - 1(z) =
3
So the rule for f - 1 is add 8 to the input and divide the result by 3. Writing f - 1 with t
as its argument instead of z gives
t + 8
f - 1(t) =
3
This is the inverse function of f (t).
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4.3 Inverse of a function 163 6
Example 4.4
Find the inverse function of g(x) = 8 - 7x.
Solution
This function takes an input x and produces an output 8 - 7x. The inverse function
g - 1 must take an input 8 - 7x and produce an output x. That is,
g - 1(8 - 7x) = x
Introduce a new variable z = 8 - 7x and transpose this for x in order to find the
inverse function.
8 - z
g - 1(z) =
7
Write the inverse function with an argument of x.
8 - x
g - 1(x) =
7
Example 4.5
3x - 2
Find the inverse function of f (x) = .
x
Solution
The inverse function must be such that f -1 a b = x . By letting z =
3x - 2 3x - 2
x x
find the inverse function.
2
f -1(z) =
3 - z
Write this with x as its argument.
2
f -1(x) =
3 - x
Not all functions possess an inverse function. In fact, only one-to-one functions do
so. If a function is many-to-one the process to reverse it would require many outputs
from one input, contradicting the definition of a function.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the inverse of a 3 Find the inverse of each of the following
function. functions:
(a) f (x) = 4x + 7 (b) f (x) = x
2 Explain why a many-to-one function does not 1
have an inverse function. Give an example. (c) f (x) = -23x (d) f (x) =
x + 1
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6 164 Block 4 One-to-one functions and inverse functions
Solutions to exercises
-1 x - 7 x 1 - x
3 (a) f (x) = (b) f - 1(x) = x (c) f -1
(x) = - (d) f -1
(x) =
4 23 x
End of block exercises
1 By sketching a suitable graph, or otherwise, 4 If f (x) = 5 - 4x find f - 1(x). Show that
determine which of the following are one-to- f (f - 1(x)) = x.
one functions:
(a) f (x) = -x (b) f (x) = -3x + 7 4t - 3 -1 5t + 3
5 If f (t) = show that f (t) = .
1 5 4
(c) f (x) = x4 (d) f (x) =
x x - 1
6 Find the inverse function of g(x) = ,
x Z -1. x + 1
2 Find the inverse of the function
f (x) = 17 (4x - 3).
3 Find the inverse of the function
f (x) = 12 x + 1.
Solutions to exercises
5 - x
1 (a), (b) and (d) are one-to-one. 4 f -1(x) =
4
-1 7x + 3
2 f (x) = x + 1
4 6 g -1(x) =
1 - x
3 2x - 2
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- Parametric representation of a function
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
We have already seen that it is possible to represent a function using the form
y = f (x). This is sometimes called the cartesian form. An alternative representation
is to write expressions for y and x in terms of a third variable known as a parameter.
Commonly the variables t or u are used to denote the parameter.
For example, when a projectile such as a ball or rocket is thrown or launched, the
x and y coordinates of its path can be described by a function in the form y = f (x).
However, it is often useful also to give its x coordinate as a function of the time after
launch, that is x(t), and its y coordinate in the same way as y(t). Here time t is the
parameter.
5.2 Parametric representation of a function
Suppose we write x and y in terms of t in the form
x = 4t y = 2t 2, for -1 … t … 1 (1)
For different values of t between -1 and 1, we can calculate pairs of values of x and
y. For example, when t = 1 we see that x = 4(1) = 4 and y = 2 * 12 = 2. That is,
t = 1 corresponds to the point with xy coordinates (4, 2).
A complete table of values is given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
t -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x -4 -2 0 2 4
y 2 0.5 0 0.5 2
If the resulting points are plotted on a graph then different values of t correspond
to different points on the graph. The graph of (1) is plotted in Figure 5.1. The arrow
on the graph shows the direction of increasing t.
It is sometimes possible to convert a parametric representation of a function into
the more usual form by combining the two expressions to eliminate the parameter.
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6 166 Block 5 Parametric representation of a function
x
Thus if x = 4t and y = 2t 2 we can write t = and so
4
y = 2t 2
x 2
= 2a b
4
2x 2
=
16
x2
=
8
x2 x2
So y = . Using y = and giving values to x we can find corresponding values
8 8
of y. Plotting (x, y) values gives exactly the same curve as in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 y
Graph of the
function defined t 1 2 t1
parametrically by
x = 4t, y = 2t 2,
-1 … t … 1.
1
t 0.5 t 0.5
t0 x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
Example 5.1
at + b, y = at - b , 1 … t … 8.
1 1 1 1
Consider the function x =
2 t 2 t
(a) Draw up a table of values of this function.
(b) Plot a graph of the function.
Solution
(a) A partially completed table of values has been prepared. Complete the table.
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x 1 1.25 1.67 4.06
y 0 0.75 3.94
(b) The graph is shown in Figure 5.2. Add your points to those already marked on
the graph. The arrow on the graph shows the direction of increasing t.
It is possible to eliminate t between the two equations so that the original parametric
form can be expressed as x2 - y2 = 1.
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5.2 Parametric representation of a function 167 6
Figure 5.2 y
Graph of
4
x = at + b,
1 1
2 t 3
y = at - b,
1 1
2
2 t
1 … t … 8. 1
x
O 1 2 3 4
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘parameter’. (b) Plot a graph of this function.
(c) Obtain an explicit equation for y in terms
2 Consider the parametric equations of x.
x = + 2t, y = t, for 0 … t … 10.
(a) Draw up a table of values of t, x and y for
values of t between 0 and 10.
Solution to exercise
2 (c) y = x2, 0 … x … 210.
End of block exercises
1 Consider the parametric equations x = 3t, 3 Obtain the cartesian equation of the function
y = 9t2. defined parametrically by x = t, y = 1 - t,
(a) Plot a graph of this function. for 0 … t … 1.
(b) Find an explicit expression for y in
terms of x. 4 Plot a graph of the function defined by
x = - 2t, y = t, for t Ú 0.
2 Given the parametric equations
x = 3t + 2 y = -3t + 5
plot a graph of y against x.
Solutions to exercises
1 y = x2 4 This is the graph of y = x2 but only for x … 0.
3 y = 1 - x, 0 … x … 1
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Describing functions
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
There are a number of different terms used to describe the ways in which functions
behave. Some graphs have gaps or jumps known as discontinuities, others possess
various symmetries. Some graphs have a pattern that repeats at regular intervals. In
this block we explain some of these terms and give examples.
6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions and limits
Figure 6.1
(a) A continuous
function;
(b) a discontinuous
function.
(a) (b)
Consider the graph shown in Figure 6.1(a). The curve can be traced out from left to
right without moving pen from paper. Such a function is called continuous. If we try
to trace out the curve in Figure 6.1(b), the presence of the jump in the graph means
that a pen must be lifted from the paper and moved in order to trace the graph. Such
a function is said to be discontinuous. A jump is known as a discontinuity.
Example 6.1
Sketch a graph of a function that has two discontinuities.
When defining a discontinuous function algebraically it is often necessary to give
different function rules for different intervals of the x axis. Consider the following
example.
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6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions and limits 169 6
Example 6.2
A function is defined as
3 x 6 0
f (x) = b
x2 x Ú 0
Notice that there is one rule for when x is less than 0 and another rule for when x is
greater than or equal to 0. Sketch a graph of this function.
Solution
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 6.2. Notice the convention that 䊉 is
used to show an included end-point, and ~ is used to show an excluded end-point.
This convention was introduced in Chapter 5, Block 1.
Figure 6.2 f (x)
A discontinuous
function.
x
3 2 1 O 1 2 3
The limit of a function
Refer back to Figure 6.2. Suppose we ask ‘to what value does f(x) approach as x
approaches 0?’ Another way of saying this is ‘what value is f(x) close to when x is
close to 0?’ Note that this is not the same as asking ‘what is the value of f(x) when x
equals 0?’ If we approach from the right-hand side, then from the graph we see that
as x gets nearer and nearer to 0 the value of f(x) gets nearer to 0. We write this as
lim f (x) = 0
x:0 +
and say ‘the limit of f(x) as x tends to 0 from above is 0’. The small superscript is
used to indicate that 0 is approached from the right-hand side.
On the other hand if x gets closer to 0 from the left-hand side, the value of f(x)
remains at 3. We write
lim f (x) = 3
x:0 -
and say ‘the limit of f(x) as x tends to 0 from below is 3’. The small superscript - is
used to indicate that 0 is approached from the left-hand side.
In this example the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit are not equal, and this
is indicative of the fact that the function is discontinuous.
Example 6.3
Consider again the function
3 x 6 0
f (x) = b
x2 x Ú 0
shown in Figure 6.2.
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6 170 Block 6 Describing functions
(a) State f(3).
(b) State limx:3 + f (x).
(c) State limx:3 - f (x).
Solution
(a) f(3) 9
(b) Ask ‘what value does y approach when x approaches 3 from the right?’
9
(c) Ask ‘what value does y approach when x approaches 3 from the left?’
9
Note that in this case the right- and left-hand limits are the same, and equal to the
value of the function at x = 3. In such a case we say the limit of the function exists
at the point x = 3 and write
lim f (x) = 9
x:3
The limit exists because the function is continuous at the point where x = 3.
In general a function is continuous at a point x a if the left-hand and right-hand
limits are the same there, and if both of these are equal to the value of the function at
that point. That is,
lim f (x) = lim- f(x) = f (a)
x:a + x:a
If the right-hand and left-hand limits are the same, we can simply describe this com-
mon limit as lim x : a f(x). If the limits are not the same we say the limit of the
function does not exist at x = a.
Key point The function f(x) is continuous at x = a if
lim f(x) = lim- f(x) = f (a)
x:a + x: a
Exercises
1 Explain the distinction between a continuous 3 Study graphs of y = 3x - 2 and
and a discontinuous function. Draw a graph y = -7x + 1. Are these continuous functions?
showing an example of each type of function.
4 Draw a graph of the function
2
2 Study graphs of the functions y = x and 2x + 1 x 6 3
2
y = -x . Are these continuous functions? f (x) = c 5 x = 3
6 x 7 3
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6.3 Periodic functions 171 6
Find (d) limx:3 + f (x)
(a) limx:0 + f (x) (e) limx:3 - f (x)
(b) limx:0 - f (x) (f) limx:3 f (x)
(c) limx:0 f (x)
Solutions to exercises
2 yes 4 (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 6 (e) 7
(f) limit does not exist
3 yes
6.3 Periodic functions
Any function that has a definite pattern repeated at regular intervals is said to be
periodic. Each complete pattern is known as a cycle. The interval over which the repe-
tition takes place is called the period of the function, and is usually given the symbol T.
Each cycle has length T. The pattern of the function is repeated every cycle. Hence
increasing or decreasing the value of t by T will not change the value of the function.
Example 6.4 illustrates this behaviour. This is stated mathematically as
f(t) = f(t + T ) for all values of t in the domain of f (t)
Key point Let f (t) be a periodic function with period T. Then for all values of t in the domain of
f (t):
f(t) = f(t + T )
Example 6.4
A periodic function is shown in Figure 6.3. The horizontal axis is labelled t, and t is
measured in milliseconds.
(a) State the period, T, of this function.
(b) How many complete cycles will take place in 1 second?
Figure 6.3 f (t)
A periodic
function. 1
t
10 5 O 5 10 15
Solution
(a) 10 milliseconds
(b) 100
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6 172 Block 6 Describing functions
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by a periodic function. 4 A periodic function has period 0.01
seconds. How many times will the pattern
2 Sketch a graph of a periodic function that has in the graph repeat over an interval of 10
no discontinuities. seconds?
3 Sketch a graph of a periodic function that has
discontinuities.
Solution to exercise
4 1000
6.4 Odd and even functions
Example 6.5
Figure 6.4 shows graphs of several functions. They share a common property. Study
the graphs and comment on any symmetry.
Figure 6.4
Solution
The graphs are symmetrical
about the vertical axis
Any function that is symmetrical about the vertical axis – that is, the graph on the
right is a mirror image of that on the left – is said to be an even function. Even func-
tions have the following property:
Key point An even function is such that f (-x) = f (x) for all x.
The graph of an even function is symmetrical about the vertical axis.
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6.4 Odd and even functions 173 6
This is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is the same as the func-
tion value at the corresponding positive value of x.
Example 6.6
Extend the graph in Figure 6.5 in order to produce a graph of an even function.
Figure 6.5
Extend this graph
to produce an even
function.
Solution
Example 6.7 Mechanical Engineering – Catenary
Figure 6.6 represents a heavy cable hanging under gravity from two points at the
same height. Such a curve, known as a catenary, is described by a mathematical
function known as a hyperbolic cosine, f (x) = cosh x. The hyperbolic functions are
discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
Figure 6.6 y
The catenary.
y cosh x
x
O
(a) Comment upon any symmetry.
(b) Is this function one-to-one or many-to-one?
(c) Is this a continuous or discontinuous function?
(d) State limx:0 cosh x.
Solution
(a) function is even
(b) many-to-one
(c) continuous
(d) 1
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6 174 Block 6 Describing functions
Example 6.8
Show algebraically that the function f (x) = 2x4 - 3 is an even function.
Solution
To show that f is even we must show that f (-x) = f (x). Now
f(-x) = 2(-x)4 - 3
= 2x4 - 3 since (-x)4 = x4
But this is the same as f(x). We have shown f (-x) = f (x) and so f is an even function.
Check for yourself that f (-2) = f (2).
Imagine pivoting a graph at the origin and rotating it through 180°. If the result is the
same as the original graph there is said to be rotational symmetry of order 2 about
the origin.
Example 6.9
Figure 6.7 shows graphs of several functions. They share a common property. Study
the graphs and comment on any symmetry.
Figure 6.7
There is rotational symmetry of
order 2 about the origin.
Any function that possesses rotational symmetry of order 2 – that is, the graph on the
right can be obtained by rotating the curve on the left through 180° about the origin –
is said to be an odd function. Odd functions have the following property:
Key point An odd function is such that f (-x) = -f (x) for all x.
The graph of an odd function possesses rotational symmetry of order 2 about the origin.
This is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is the negative of the
function value at the corresponding positive value of x.
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6.4 Odd and even functions 175 6
Example 6.10
Extend the graph in Figure 6.8 in order to produce a graph of an odd function.
Figure 6.8
Extend this graph
to produce an odd
function.
Solution
Example 6.11
Show algebraically that the function f (x) = 6x3 - 5x is an odd function.
Solution
To show that f is odd we must show that f (-x) = -f (x). Now
f (-x) = 6(-x)3 - 5(-x)
= -6x3 + 5x since (-x)3 = -x3
= -(6x3 - 5x)
But this is -f (x). We have shown f (-x) = -f (x) and so f is an odd function. Check
for yourself that f (-2) = -f (2).
Exercises
1 Classify the following functions as odd, even 2 Sketch a graph of a function that is neither odd
or neither. If necessary sketch a graph to help nor even.
you decide.
(a) f (x) = 6 (b) f (x) = x2
(c) f (x) = 2x + 1 (d) f (x) = x
(e) f (x) = 2x
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6 176 Block 6 Describing functions
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) even (b) even (c) neither (d) odd (e) odd
End of block exercises
1 Sketch a graph of the function (d) limx:2 - f (x)
x 2
x 6 0 (e) limx:2 + f (x)
f (x) = c x + 2 0 … x … 2 (f) limx:2 f (x)
4 x 7 2
2 A function is periodic with period 2 and is
Find
even. Sketch a possible form of this function.
(a) limx:0 - f (x)
(b) limx:0 + f (x) 3 A function is periodic with period 1 and is
(c) limx:0 f (x) odd. Sketch a possible form of this function.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0 (b) 2 (c) does not exist (d) 4 (e) 4 (f) 4
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The straight line
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
Probably the most important function and graph that you will use are those associated
with the straight line. A large number of relationships between engineering variables
can be described using a straight line or linear graph. Even when this is not strictly
the case it is often possible to approximate a relationship by a straight line. In this
block we study the equation of a straight line, its properties and graph.
7.2 Linear functions
Any function of the form y = f (x) = ax + b where a and b are constants is called a
linear function. The constant a is called the coefficient of x, and b is referred to as
the constant term.
Key point All linear functions can be written in the form
f (x) = ax + b
or simply
y = ax + b
For example,
1 2
f(x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = x - 7 and h(x) = -3x +
2 3
are all linear functions. The graph of a linear function is always a straight line. Such
a graph can be plotted by finding just two distinct points and joining these with a
straight line.
Example 7.1
Plot the graph of the linear function y = f (x) = 4x + 3.
Solution
We start by finding two points. Suppose we choose x = 0; then y = f (0) = 3. So
the first point has coordinates (0, 3). Secondly, suppose we choose x = 5; then
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6 178 Block 7 The straight line
y = f (5) = 23. The second point is (5, 23). These two points are then plotted and
joined with a straight line as shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 y y 4x 3
A straight line 25
graph can be (5, 23)
20
drawn by finding
two distinct points. 15
10
5
(0, 3)
x
O 1 2 3 4 5
Example 7.2
Plot graphs of the three linear functions y = 4x - 3, y = 4x and y = 4x + 5.
Solution
For each function it is necessary to find two points on the line.
For y = 4x - 3, suppose for the first point we choose x = 0, so that y = -3. For
the second point, let x = 2 so that y = 5. So, the points (0, -3) and (2, 5) can be
plotted and joined. This is shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 y
y 4x 5
These graphs show
the effect of 10 y 4x
varying the y 4x 3
constant term. 5
x
2 1 1 2
5
For y = 4x we find the points (0, 0) and (2, 8). Similarly for y = 4x + 5 we find
points (0, 5) and (2, 13). The corresponding lines are shown in Figure 7.2.
Example 7.3
Refer to Example 7.2. Comment upon the effect of varying the constant term of the
linear function.
As different constant terms are used a
series of parallel lines is generated.
The value of the constant term is also
known as the vertical intercept
because this is the value of y where
the line cuts the y axis.
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7.2 Linear functions 179 6
Example 7.4
State the vertical intercept of each of the following lines:
(a) y = 3x + 3
(b) y = 12x - 1
3
(c) y = 1 - 3x
(d) y = -5x
Solution
In each case identify the constant term.
(a) For y = 3x + 3 the constant term is
3
1 1
(b) For y = 2x - 3 the constant term is
1
-
3
(c) For y = 1 - 3x the constant term is
1
(d) For y = -5x the constant term is
0
Example 7.5
Plot graphs of the lines y = 3x + 3, y = 5x + 3 and y = -2x + 3.
Solution
Note that all three lines have the same constant term, that is 3. So all three lines pass
through (0, 3), the vertical intercept. A further point has been calculated for each of
the lines, and their graphs are shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3
y y 5x 3
All these graphs
have the same y 3x 3
10
vertical intercept
but different 5
gradients.
x
2 1 O 1
y 2x 3
Note from the graphs in Example 7.5 that as the coefficient of x is changed the gra-
dient of the graph changes. The coefficient of x gives the slope or gradient of the
line. In general, for the line y = ax + b, a positive value of a produces a graph that
slopes upwards from left to right. The larger the value of a, the steeper is the graph.
This can be seen by comparing the graphs of y = 5x + 3 and y = 3x + 3.
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6 180 Block 7 The straight line
A negative value of a produces a graph that slopes downwards from left to right. If
a is zero the line is horizontal, that is its gradient is zero. These properties are sum-
marised in Figure 7.4. Lines with the same gradient are known as parallel lines.
Figure 7.4 y y
The gradient of a
line y = ax + b is a is negative
given by the value
of a. a is positive
x x
y y
a is zero
Parallel lines have
the same gradient
x x
Key point In the linear function y = ax + b, a is the gradient of the graph and b is its vertical
intercept.
You should note that it is also common practice to write the equation of a straight
line as y = mx + c, in which case m is the gradient of the line and c is the vertical
intercept.
Example 7.6
State the gradients of the following lines:
(a) y = 7x + 2
1
(b) y = - x + 4
3
x + 2
(c) y =
3
Solution
In each case the coefficient of x must be examined.
(a) The gradient of y = 7x + 2 is
7
1
(b) The gradient of y = - x + 4 is
3
- 13
x + 2
(c) The gradient of y = is
3
1
3
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7.2 Linear functions 181 6
Example 7.7
Which of the following lines has the steepest gradient?
17x + 4 1
(a) y = (b) y = 9x - 2 (c) y = x + 4
5 3
Solution
The line with the largest gradient is
(b)
Example 7.8 Mechanical Engineering: Car crash-testing
New cars are subjected to crash-testing to assess their safety rating. One test requires
crashing a car at 64 km/h into an immovable barrier. Figure 7.5 illustrates this.
Figure 7.5
Car crashing into
immovable barrier.
The crush of a point is the distance the point has been moved from its original
position. Many such measurements are taken along the width of the car, w. The mean
(see Chapter 23, Block 2) of these crush measurements is calculated to give an over-
all crush value, C, for the car.
As the car crashes into the barrier there is a force, F, exerted by the barrier onto
the car. Of interest is the relationship between F and C. As it is impractical to crash
all new models of car at many different speeds in order to measure values of F and C,
software-based models have been developed.
A common assumption in these models is that there is a linear relationship between
the force per unit width and the crush. This is represented mathematically as
F
= a + bC
w
where a and b are positive constants. Note that in the graph of this linear relation-
ship, a is the intercept on the vertical axis and b is the gradient of the line. Figure 7.6
illustrates this in the case where a = 3 and b = 1.
Figure 7.6
Force per unit width, F / w
Graph of force per 18
unit width against 16
crush. 14
12
10
8
6
4
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Crush, C
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6 182 Block 7 The straight line
The values of a and b are known as the stiffness coefficients of the car. They give
a measure of the ability of the car to withstand an impact.
For values of F/w less than a there is no crush, that is C = 0. For collisions at low
speed, and hence for small values of F, the bumpers absorb the impact without dam-
age 1C = 02. Hence a is a measure of the shock-absorbing properties of the car
bumpers.
Example 7.9 Structural Engineering – Shear force in a beam
The calculation of forces in beams is important in the design of structures such as
bridges and buildings. Beams are classified according to how they are supported
and/or fixed at their ends. Here we consider a simply supported beam of length L
which carries a load uniformly distributed along its length as shown in Figure 7.7. A
beam is said to be simply supported if, at each end, vertical motion is restricted by
the supports but the beam is free to rotate. Placing one of the supports on a roller as
indicated ensures that discussion of horizontal reaction forces can be avoided. By
symmetry, the vertical reaction force at each support will be the same and is denoted
by R. The weight of the load being supported is usually quoted as a ‘weight per unit
length’ w, say, which means that the total weight supported is wL.
Figure 7.7 w
A simply
R R
supported beam
with a uniform
load.
Within the beam itself there are internal forces. Imagine a vertical cut in the beam
at a point x units from the left-hand end as shown in Figure 7.8. The part of the beam
on the right exerts a force known as a shear force, having magnitude V, on the part
that is on the left, as shown. An equal and opposite force is exerted by the left part on
the right. Structural engineers need to calculate the shear force in order to assess
whether the beam is capable of withstanding the load.
Figure 7.8 R
Shear force V.
x V
wx
wL
(a) By considering vertical forces for the entire beam (Figure 7.7) show that R =
where R is the reaction at each support point. 2
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7.2 Linear functions 183 6
(b) By considering vertical forces for the short section shown in Figure 7.8 show that
w
V(x) = (L - 2x).
2
(c) Show that V(x) takes the form of an equation of a straight line and state the
gradient and the vertical intercept.
(d) Sketch a graph showing the shear force at any point x.
Solution
(a) Considering forces vertically for the entire beam (Figure 7.7), the reaction R at
the support points is found from
2R = wL
wL
so that R = .
2
(b) We consider forces vertically for the short section (Figure 7.8), noting that the
weight of the section is wx:
R = wx + V
Then, using the result of part (a),
wL
= wx + V
2
so that
wL w
V = - wx = (L - 2x)
2 2
w wL
(c) Comparing the equation V = (L - 2x) = - wx with the general equa-
2 2
tion of a straight line y = ax + b, we see that the gradient, a, is -w. The
wL
vertical intercept, b, is .
2 wL
(d) It is straightforward to plot the graph by noting that when x = 0, V = .
wL 2
Similarly, when x = L, V = - . The graph is shown in Figure 7.9. The
2
magnitude of the shear force is zero half-way along the beam, and achieves a
wL
maximum value of at each end.
2
Figure 7.9 V
The shear force wL
2
varies linearly
along the length of
the beam. L
x
O
wL
2
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6 184 Block 7 The straight line
Exercises
1 State the general form of the equation of a 3 For each of the following, identify the gradient
straight line, explaining the role of each of the and vertical intercept:
terms in your answer. (a) f (x) = 2x + 1 (b) f (t) = 3
(c) g(t) = -2t (d) y(x) = -7 - 17x
2 State which of the following functions will (e) f (x) = mx + c.
have straight line graphs:
(a) y(x) = 3x - 3 (b) f (t) = t1>2
1
(c) f (x) = (d) g(x) = 13
x
(e) f (t) = -2 - t
Solutions to exercises
1 For example, y = ax + b. x is the independent 3 (a) gradient = 2, vertical intercept = 1
variable, y is the dependent variable, a is the (b) 0, 3 (c) -2, 0 (d) -17, -7 (e) m, c
gradient and b is the vertical intercept.
2 (a), (d) and (e) will have straight line graphs.
7.3 Finding the gradient of a line given two points on the line
A common requirement is to find the gradient of the line when we know two points
on the line. Suppose the two points are A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), as shown in Figure 7.10.
The vertical distance between A and B is y2 - y1. The horizontal distance
between A and B is x2 - x1. The gradient of the line is given by
vertical distance
gradient =
horizontal distance
Figure 7.10
The coordinates of y
points A and B are B(x2 , y2)
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) y2 – y1
respectively. A(x1 , y1)
x2 – x1
x
O
The gradient of the line joining A and B can then be calculated from the following
formula.
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7.3 Finding the gradient of a line given two points on the line 185 6
Key point The gradient of the line joining A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is given by
vertical distance
gradient =
horizontal distance
y2 - y1
=
x2 - x1
Example 7.10 Electrical Engineering – Sawtooth wave
A sawtooth waveform, f(t), is shown in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11 f(t)
A sawtooth
waveform.
1
t
O T 2T 3T
Note that f(t) is a periodic function with period T. State f(t) in mathematical form.
Solution
Consider 0 … t 6 T. Here, f(t) is a linear function passing through the origin and so
the vertical intercept is 0. We now calculate the gradient of the line. The horizontal
distance is T, the vertical distance is 1 and so the gradient is 1>T. Hence on
0 … t 6 T, f(t) has the form
t
f(t) =
T
Since f(t) is periodic with period T then
f(t) = f(t + T) for all t Ú 0
So f(t) can be expressed as
t
f(t) = for 0 … t 6 T
T
and f(t) = f (t + T) for all t Ú 0.
Example 7.11
Find the gradient of the line joining each of the following pairs of points:
(a) A(0, 3) and B(4, 5)
(b) A( -1, 4) and B(2, 1)
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6 186 Block 7 The straight line
Solution
(a) We calculate the gradient as follows:
y2 - y1
gradient =
x2 - x1
5 - 3
=
4 - 0
2
=
4
1
=
2
Thus the gradient of the line is 12 . Graphically, this means that if x increases by
1 unit, the value of y increases by 12 .
y2 - y1 1-4
(b) gradient = = = -1
x2 - x1 2 - (-1)
Thus the gradient of the line is -1. Graphically, this means that for every unit
increase in x, the value of y decreases by 1 unit.
Example 7.12
A straight line has equation y = 3x + 7. State, without calculation, the increase in y
obtained from a unit increase in x.
Solution
The gradient of this line is 3. This means that y increases by 3 units for every unit
increase in x.
Example 7.13 Mechanical Engineering – Tension in a spring
The tension T in a spring when it is extended by a distance e is given by T = 0.25e.
Calculate the increase in tension that follows from a unit increase in extension.
Solution
T 0.25e is a linear function with gradient 0.25. Thus a unit increase in extension
results in an increase in tension of 0.25 units.
This is an example of Hooke’s law, which states that the tension is proportional to
the extension. Hooke’s law is a mathematical model which assumes the extended
spring remains within its limits of elasticity.
Exercises
1 Calculate the gradient of the line joining (1, 0) 3 State the increase or decrease in y which
and (15, -3). follows from increasing x by 1 unit in each of
the following cases:
2 Calculate the gradient of the line joining (a) y = -17x + 2 (b) y = 13 x + 2
(10, -3) and (15, -3). (c) y = 3
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7.4 Finding the equation of a line 187 6
Solutions to exercises
3
1 - 14 3 (a) decrease of 17 (b) increase of 13 (c) y is
constant so there is no change in y
2 0
7.4 Finding the equation of a line
There are a number of ways in which the equation of a line can be found. Much
depends upon the information that is available. We may know
• the gradient of the line and the coordinates of one point through which the line
passes;
• the coordinates of two points on the line.
In what follows remember that any straight line has the form y = ax + b, where a is
the gradient of the line and b is the vertical intercept.
Finding the equation of a line given its gradient and the coordinates
of one point on the line
Consider the following example.
Example 7.14
Find the equation of the straight line that has gradient 11 and passes through the
point with coordinates (2, 3).
Solution
In this example let us suppose that the equation of the line has the form y = mx + c,
in which case m is the gradient and c is the vertical intercept. We are told the gradi-
ent is 11 and so m = 11. The equation is therefore
y = 11x + c
We are told that the line passes through the point (2, 3). Thus when x = 2, y must
equal 3. Therefore, substituting these values gives
3 = 11(2) + c
That is,
3 = 22 + c
It follows, by solving this equation, that c equals -19. A thorough treatment of
equations like this is given in Chapter 7. The equation of the line is therefore
y = 11x - 19.
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6 188 Block 7 The straight line
Example 7.15
Find the equation of the line with gradient 7 and which passes through (5, 6).
Solution
Let the equation be y = mx + c.
Use the information given about the gradient of the line.
y = 7x + c
Use the fact that the line passes through (5, 6) to find c.
y = 7x - 29
Finding the equation of a line given two points on the line
Consider the following example.
Example 7.16
Find the equation of the line passing through (2, 1) and ( -4, 2).
Solution
The equation of the line must take the form y = ax + b. We are told that (2, 1) lies
on the line, so when x = 2, y = 1. Similarly ( -4, 2) lies on the line, so when
x = -4, y = 2. Substituting these pairs of values into y = ax + b produces the two
equations
1 = 2a + b and 2 = -4a + b
These are known as simultaneous equations. Solution of simultaneous equations is
described in detail in Chapter 7. It can be shown that values of a and b which satisfy
both equations are
1 4
a = - , b =
6 3
So the equation of the line is y = - 16 x + 43 .
An alternative way of finding the equation of the line is by use of a formula.
The equation of the line passing through the points with coordinates A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2) is given by the following.
Key point The line passing through points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is given by
y - y1 x - x1
=
y2 - y1 x2 - x1
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7.5 Finding the distance between two points on a line 189 6
Example 7.17
Find the equation of the line passing through A( -7, 11) and B(1, 3).
Solution
Here x1 = -7 and x2 = 1. Write down y1 and y2.
y1 = 11, y2 = 3
Apply the formula:
y - y1 x - x1 y - 11 x + 7
= = =
y2 - y1 x2 - x1 3 - 11 1 + 7
Simplify this to obtain the required equation.
y = 4 - x
Example 7.18 Mechanical Engineering – Extension of a spring
A spring has a natural (unstretched) length of 60 cm. The length is extended by
adding a mass to the spring. Every 1 kg added extends the spring by 2 cm. If l cm is the
length of the spring when m kg is applied, determine an equation for l in terms of m.
Solution
When 1 kg is applied the extension is 2 cm. So when m kg is applied the extension is
2m cm. The length of the spring is made up of its natural length plus the extension
l = natural length + extension
= 60 + 2m
So l = 60 + 2m. This is the equation of a straight line.
Exercises
1 Find the equation of the line joining (1, 5) and 2 Find the gradient and vertical intercept of the
( -9, 2). line joining (8, 1) and ( -2, –3).
Solutions to exercises
3 47
1 y = x + 2 0.4, -2.2
10 10
7.5 Finding the distance between two points on a line
Referring again to Figure 7.10, the distance between the points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2) is given by the following formula, which follows immediately from
Pythagoras’s theorem. This theorem is described in detail in Chapter 10.
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6 190 Block 7 The straight line
Key point The distance between points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is given by
distance = 2(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2
Example 7.19
Find the distance between A(-7, 11) and B(1, 3).
Solution
Apply the formula:
distance = 2(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 = 2128
Exercises
1 Find the distance between the points (4, 5) and
( -17, 1).
Solutions to exercises
1 2457
End of block exercises
1 State the gradient and vertical intercept of 5 Find the distance between the points with
(a) y = 8x - 3 (b) y = 3t - 2 coordinates (9, 1) and (12, 1).
(c) y = 9 (d) y = -3t (e) f (x) = -3 - 4x
6 Find the distance between the points with
2 An alternative way of finding the equation of a coordinates (19, -2) and ( -12, 1).
straight line through the points (x1, f (x1)),
(x2, f (x2)) is by use of Lagrange’s formula. 7 The point A(x1, y1) lies on the line
This states that y = -2x + 3. If the value of x1 is increased
by 7, what is the resulting change in the value
x - x2 x - x1 of y1?
f (x) = f (x1) + f (x2)
x1 - x2 x2 - x1
8 Find the equation of the line passing through
Use this formula to find the equation of the A(2, -1) and B(5, 8).
line through (4, 1) and (7, -5).
9 A spring has length 90 cm when a mass of
3 Find the equation of the line that passes 10 kg is applied and a length of 81 cm when a
through A(0, 3) and B(11, -1). 4 kg mass is applied. If l cm is the length of
the spring when mass m kg is applied
4 Find the gradient of the line that passes (a) find an equation expressing l in terms of m
through A( -9, 1) and B(2, 16). (b) calculate the length of the spring when a
mass of 7 kg is applied.
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7.5 Finding the distance between two points on a line 191 6
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) gradient 8, vertical intercept -3 5 3
(b) 3, 2 (c) 0, 9 (d) 3, 0
(e) 4, 3 6 2970 = 31.14
2 f (x) = -2x + 9 7 -14
4 8 y = 3x - 7
3 y = - x + 3
11
9 (a) l = 75 + 1.5m (b) 85.5 cm
15
4
11
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Common engineering functions
BLOCK 8
8.1 Introduction
This block provides a catalogue of some functions commonly met in engineering.
These include polynomials, rational functions, the modulus function, the unit step
function and the unit impulse or delta function. Important properties and definitions
are stated. This block can be used as a reference when the need arises throughout the
rest of the book. There are, of course, other types of function that arise in engineer-
ing applications, such as trigonometrical, exponential and logarithmic functions.
These are dealt with in later chapters.
8.2 Polynomial functions
A polynomial expression is one made up of multiples of non-negative whole
number powers of a variable, such as 3x2, -7x3, and so on. You are already familiar
with many such expressions:
x2 + 3x + 9, 3t 4 - 2t 3 + 7t 2 - 11t, 8x + 9
are all polynomial expressions.
Polynomial expressions are used to define polynomial functions. Polynomial
functions include
P1(x) = 3x2 - x + 2
P2(z) = 7z4 + z2 - 1
P3(t) = 3t + 9
P4(t) = 6
where x, z and t are independent variables. Purely for convenience, we have labelled
these polynomials P1, P2, P3 and P4.
When the context is clear, both polynomial functions and polynomial expressions
are loosely called polynomials.
Note that fractional and negative powers of the independent variable are not
allowed, so that f (x) = x - 1 and g(x) = x3>2 are not polynomials. The function
P4(t) = 6 is a polynomial – we can regard it as 6t0.
By convention a polynomial is written with the powers either increasing or
decreasing. For example,
3x + 9x2 - x3 + 2
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8.2 Polynomial functions 193 6
would be written as either
-x3 + 9x2 + 3x + 2 or 2 + 3x + 9x2 - x3
In general we have the following definition.
Key point A polynomial expression has the form
an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + an - 2 xn - 2 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where n is a non-negative integer, an, an - 1, . . . , a1, a0 are constants and x is a variable.
A polynomial function P(x) has the form
P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + an - 2 xn - 2 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
The degree of a polynomial is the value of the highest power. Referring to the ex-
amples listed above, polynomial P1 has degree 2, because the term with the highest
power is 3x2, P2 has degree 4, P3 has degree 1 and P4 has degree 0. Polynomials with
low degrees have the special names given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1
Degree Name
ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e 4 Quartic
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 3 Cubic
ax2 + bx + c 2 Quadratic
ax + b 1 Linear
a 0 Constant
Typical graphs of some polynomial functions are shown in Figure 8.1. In particu-
lar, observe that the graphs of the linear polynomials P1 and P2 are straight lines.
Figure 8.1
P3(x) x 2 3
Graphs of some
typical linear, 10
quadratic and 5 P1(x) 2x 3 10 10 P5(x) x 3
P2(x) x 4
cubic polynomials.
x x x
5 5 5 5 5 5
5
10
15
P4(x) x 2 2x
P6(x) x 3 7x 6
Another important feature of all polynomial graphs is that they are continuous.
Example 8.1
Which of the polynomial graphs in Figure 8.1 are odd and which are even? Are any
periodic?
Solution
P3 is even, P5 is odd. None is periodic.
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6 194 Block 8 Common engineering functions
Example 8.2
State which of the following are polynomial functions. For those that are, give the
degree and name.
(a) f (x) = 6x2 + 7x3 - 2x4
(b) f (t) = t3 - 3t2 + 7
1 3
(c) g(x) = 2 +
x x
(d) f (x) = 16
(e) g(x) = 16
Solution
Remember that a polynomial is built up by adding terms involving non-negative
whole number powers of the independent variable, and that the degree is the value of
the highest power.
(a) polynomial of degree 4 (quartic)
(b) polynomial of degree 3 (cubic)
(c) not a polynomial
(d) polynomial of degree 0 (constant)
(e) polynomial of degree 0 (constant)
Example 8.3 Dynamics – Motion with constant acceleration
Time, t, distance, s, initial velocity, u, final velocity, v, and constant acceleration, a,
are related by the following equations:
1
s = ut + at2 (1)
2
v = u + at (2)
Note that (1) is a polynomial of degree 2 in t; equation (2) is a polynomial of degree 1
(i.e. linear) in t.
Example 8.4 Structural engineering – Bending moment in a beam
In Example 7.9 we introduced the shear force in a simply supported beam of length
L carrying a uniform load, w, per unit length (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2 w
A simply
supported beam R R
with a uniform
load.
x
L
Another quantity of importance to a structural engineer is the bending moment,
which is a measure of the internal stress caused when the beam is loaded. A bending
moment is not a force but a turning effect, or a tendency to cause a rotation about an
axis, and arises through the interaction of internal forces in the beam. Generally a
moment is calculated as the product of the magnitude of a force and its perpendicular
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8.2 Polynomial functions 195 6
distance from the axis of rotation and hence the units of bending moment are N m.
Like the shear force, the bending moment, M, varies with position x along the beam.
It is given by the quadratic polynomial
w
M(x) = (Lx - x 2)
2
(a) Evaluate M(0) and M(L) and deduce that the bending moment is zero at both
ends of the beam.
(b) Sketch a graph of this quadratic function for 0 … x … L.
Solution
w
(a) Substituting x = 0 into M(x) = (Lx - x 2) immediately shows that M(0) = 0.
2
w
Similarly, substituting x = L we find M(L) = (L2 - L2) = 0. We deduce that
2
the bending moment is zero at both ends of the beam, as required.
(b) Observe that the form of this quadratic function corresponds closely to the
function P4(x) illustrated in Figure 8.1 in that the coefficient of x 2 is negative
and the constant term is zero. To sketch the graph it is helpful to locate the
values of x where M(x) = 0, that is the values of x where the graph crosses the
horizontal axis. We have already noted that M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0 so the graph
crosses the horizontal axis at x = 0 and x = L. This information is sufficient to
sketch the graph which is shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 M
A bending moment wL2
8
diagram for a
simply supported
beam with a
uniform load.
x
O L
From the symmetry of the graph we see that M(x) has its maximum value when
L
x = (i.e. at the middle of the beam). This maximum value is calculated thus:
2
L 2
Ma b = aL # - a b b
L w L
2 2 2 2
w L2 L2
= a - b
2 2 4
w L2
= a b
2 4
wL2
=
8
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6 196 Block 8 Common engineering functions
wL2
This allows the value to be indicated on the vertical axis.
8
An alternative approach to finding the points where the graph crosses the x axis
requires the solution of the equation
w
(Lx - x 2) = 0
2
which is the topic of Chapter 7, Block 2.
Exercises
1 Write down a polynomial of degree 3 with 4 State the degree of the following polynomials:
independent variable t. (a) P(t) = t4 + 7 (b) P(t) = -t3 + 3
(c) P(t) = 11 (d) P(t) = t
2 Write down a function that is not a
polynomial. 5 Write down a polynomial of degree 0 with
independent variable z.
3 Explain why y = 1 + x + x1>2 is not a
polynomial. 6 Referring to Figure 8.1, state which functions
are one-to-one and which are many-to-one.
Solutions to exercises
1 For example, f (t) = 1 + t + 3t2 - t3 4 (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) 1
1 5 P(z) = 13, for example
2 For example, y =
x
6 P1, P2 and P5 are one-to-one. The rest are
3 1>2
A term such as x , with a fractional index, is many-to-one.
not allowed in a polynomial.
8.3 Rational functions
A rational function is formed by dividing one polynomial by another. Examples
include
x + 2 t3 - 1 2z2 + z - 1
R1(x) = , R2 (t) = , R3(z) =
x2 + 1 2t + 3 z2 + z - 2
For convenience we have labelled these rational functions R1, R2 and R3.
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8.3 Rational functions 197 6
Key point A rational function has the form
P(x)
R(x) =
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomial expressions; P is called the numerator and Q is called
the denominator.
The graphs of rational functions can take a variety of different forms and can be dif-
ficult to plot by hand. Use of a graphics calculator or computer software can help. If
you have access to a plotting package or calculator it would be useful to obtain
graphs of these functions for yourself. The next three examples allow you to explore
some of the features of the graphs.
Example 8.5
x + 2
Study the graph in Figure 8.4 and the algebraic form of the function R1(x) = 2
carefully and try to answer the following questions. x + 1
Figure 8.4 R1
Graph of
x + 2 2
R1(x) = .
x2 + 1
x
2
(a) For what values of x, if any, is the denominator zero?
(b) For what values of x, if any, is the denominator negative?
(c) For what values of x is the function negative?
(d) What is the value of the function when x is zero?
(e) What happens to the function if x gets very large (say 10, 100, . . .)? Substitute
some values to see.
Solution
(a) x2 + 1 is never zero
(b) x2 + 1 is never negative
(c) only when x is less than -2
(d) 2
R1 approaches zero because the x2 term
(e)
in the denominator becomes very large.
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6 198 Block 8 Common engineering functions
Note that for large x values the graph gets closer and closer to the x axis. We say that
the x axis is a horizontal asymptote of this graph.
Asking yourself, and answering, questions such as these will help you to sketch
graphs of rational functions.
Example 8.6
3
t - 1
Study the graph in Figure 8.5 and the algebraic form of the function R2(t) =
carefully and try to answer the following questions. 2t + 3
Figure 8.5
Graph of R2
t3 - 1
R2(t) = .
2t + 3 10
t
10 5 5 10
10
(a) What is the function value when t = 1?
(b) What is the value of the denominator when t = - 32 ?
(c) What do you think happens when t = - 32 ?
Solution
(a) 0
(b) 0
When t = - 32 the function
(c) is not defined. An explanation
is given below.
Note from parts (b) and (c) that we must exclude the value t = - 32 from the domain
of this function because division by 0 is not defined. When t approaches - 32 from
below, R2 approaches positive infinity. When t approaches - 32 from above, R2
approaches negative infinity. Thus there is a discontinuity at t = - 32 . The dashed line
in Figure 8.5 is t = - 32 . This line is approached by the curve as t approaches - 32 . It is
known as a vertical asymptote.
Example 8.7
Study the graph in Figure 8.6 and the algebraic form of the function R3(z) =
2z2 + z - 1
carefully and try to answer the following questions.
(z - 1)(z + 2)
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8.3 Rational functions 199 6
Figure 8.6 R3
Graph of
R3(z) 10
2z2 + z - 1
= .
(z - 1)(z + 2)
z
5 5
10
(a) What is happening to the graph when z approaches -2 or 1?
(b) Which values should be excluded from the domain of this function?
(c) Try substituting some large values for z (e.g. 10, 100, . . .). What happens to R3
as z gets large?
(d) Is there a horizontal asymptote?
(e) What is the name given to the vertical lines z = 1 and z = -2?
Solution
denominator is zero, R3 tends to
(a) infinity as z approaches 2 from
below or 1 from above. It tends to
-infinity as z approaches 2 from
above or 1 from below.
(b) z = -2 and z = 1
(c) R3 approaches the value 2
(d) y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote
(e) vertical asymptotes
Examples 8.5–8.7 are intended to give you some guidance so that you will be able to
sketch rational functions of your own. Each function must be looked at individually,
but some general guidelines are given below:
1 Find the value of the function when the independent variable is zero. This is gen-
erally easy to evaluate and gives you a point on the graph.
2 Find values of the independent variable that make the denominator zero. These
values must be excluded from the domain of the function and give rise to vertical
asymptotes.
3 Find values of the independent variable that make the dependent variable zero.
This gives you points where the graph cuts the horizontal axis (if at all).
4 Study the behaviour of the function when x is positive and large, and negative and
large.
5 Are there any vertical or horizontal asymptotes? Oblique asymptotes can also
occur but these are beyond the scope of this book.
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6 200 Block 8 Common engineering functions
6 When you have studied differentiation you will know a further technique that will
enable you to locate maximum and minimum points of a function.
It is particularly important for engineers to find values for which the denominator is
zero. These values are known as the poles of the rational function.
Key point The poles of a rational function are any values that make the denominator zero.
Example 8.8
State the poles of the following rational functions:
t - 3
(a) f (t) =
t + 7
s + 7
(b) F(s) =
(s + 3)(s - 3)
2x + 5
(c) r (x) =
(x + 1)(x + 2)
Solution
In each case we locate the poles by seeking values of the independent variable that
make the denominator zero.
t - 3
(a) The denominator of f (t) = is zero when
t + 7
t = -7
s + 7
(b) The denominator of F(s) = is zero when
(s + 3)(s - 3)
s = 3 or -3
2x + 5
(c) The denominator of r (x) = is zero when
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x = -1 or -2
In each case the calculated values are the poles of the rational function. If you have
access to a plotting package, plot these functions now.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by a rational function. 4 Referring to Figures 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6, state
which functions, if any, are one-to-one and
2 State the degree of the numerator and the which are many-to-one.
degree of the denominator of the rational
function 5 Without using a graphical calculator plot
3x2 + x + 1 1 1
R(x) = graphs of y = and y = . Comment upon
x - 1 x x2
3 Explain the term ‘pole’ of a rational function. whether these graphs are odd, even or neither,
whether they are continuous or discontinuous,
and state the position of any poles.
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8.4 The modulus function 201 6
Solutions to exercises
P(x)
1 R(x) = 4 All are many-to-one.
Q(x)
1
where P and Q are polynomials. 5 is odd, and discontinuous. Pole at x = 0.
x
1
2 2, 1, respectively is even and discontinuous. Pole at x = 0.
x2
3 The pole is a value of the independent variable Neither of these functions is defined at x = 0,
that makes the denominator zero. so this value should be excluded from the
domain.
8.4 The modulus function
The modulus of a number is the size of that number with no regard paid to its sign.
For example, the modulus of -7 is 7. The modulus of +7 is also 7. We can write
|-7| = 7 and |+7| = 7. The modulus function is defined as follows:
Key point The modulus function is defined as
f (x) = | x |
The output from this function is simply the modulus of the input.
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 8.7. Note that this graph is continuous.
It is smooth everywhere except at the origin where there is a corner.
Figure 8.7
Graph of the
5 f (x) | x |
modulus function.
x
5 5
Study Figure 8.7 and note that when x is positive the graph is the same as that of
y = x. When x is negative the graph is the same as that of y = -x. Consequently we
can also write the modulus function in the form
x x Ú 0
f (x) = ƒ x ƒ = b
-x x 6 0
Example 8.9
Draw up a table of values of the function f (x) = |x - 2| for values of x between -3
and 5. Sketch a graph of this function.
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6 202 Block 8 Common engineering functions
Solution
The table has been started. Complete it for yourself.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) 5 3 2 0
The graph is shown in Figure 8.8. Plot your calculated points on the graph.
Figure 8.8
Graph for
Example 8.9. 5
f (x) | x 2|
x
3 2 5
Exercises
1 Sketch a graph of the following functions: 2 Is the modulus function one-to-one or many-
(a) f (x) = 3|x| (b) f (x) = |x + 1| to-one?
(c) f (x) = 7|x - 3|
Solutions to exercises
2 Many-to-one
8.5 The unit step function
The unit step function is defined as follows:
Key point 1 t Ú 0
u(t) = b
0 t 6 0
Study this definition carefully. You will see that it is defined in two parts, with one
expression to be used when t is greater than or equal to 0, and another expression to
be used when t is less than 0. The graph of this function is shown in Figure 8.9, from
which it is obvious why it is called a step function. Such functions are useful in engin-
eering applications when we wish to model a quantity that is ‘off’ but which is
‘switched on’ at t = 0.
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8.5 The unit step function 203 6
Figure 8.9 u(t)
Graph of the unit
step function.
1
t
There is a discontinuity in the graph when t = 0. That is why we need to define
the function in two parts: one part for when t is negative, and one part for when t is
non-negative. The point with coordinates (0, 1) is part of the function defined on
t Ú 0.
The position of the discontinuity may be shifted to the left or right. The graph of
u(t - d) is shown in Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10 u(t d)
Graph of u(t - d).
1
t
d
In Figures 8.9 and 8.10 the function takes the value 0 or 1. We can adjust the value
1 by multiplying the function by any other number we choose. The graph of
2u(t - 3) is shown in Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11 2u(t 3)
Graph of
2u(t - 3).
2
t
3
Example 8.10
Sketch the functions
(a) A(t) = u(t) - u(t - 1)
(b) B(t) = u(t) - u(t - 1) + u(t - 2)
(c) C(t) = 2u(t) - u(t - 3)
Solution
(a) Figure 8.9 above shows u(t). By considering Figure 8.10 with d = 1 we can
sketch u(t - 1) and this is shown in Figure 8.12.
Figure 8.12 u(t 1)
The function
u(t - 1).
1
O 1 t
Looking at the two graphs referred to, we see that u(t) - u(t - 1) is 0 everywhere
except for the interval 0 … t 6 1 where the function has a value of 1. This is
illustrated in Figure 8.13.
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6 204 Block 8 Common engineering functions
Figure 8.13 A(t)
The function A(t) =
u(t) - u(t - 1).
1
O 1 t
Note that in engineering terms this is a unit pulse of duration 1.
(b) The function B(t) = u(t) - u(t - 1) + u(t - 2) can be thought of as B(t) =
[u(t) - u(t - 1)] + u(t - 2) = A(t) + u(t - 2). We note that u(t - 2) is 0
for t 6 2 and 1 for t Ú 2. Adding u(t - 2) to A(t) yields the graph shown in
Figure 8.14.
Figure 8.14 B(t)
The function
u(t) - u(t - 1) +
1
u(t - 2).
O 1 2 t
(c) Figure 8.15(a), (b) shows the functions f(t) = 2u(t) and g(t) = u(t - 3)
respectively.
2u(t) u(t 3)
2 1
O t O 3 t
(a) (b)
Figure 8.15
(a) The function f(t) = 2u(t); (b) the function g(t) = u(t - 3).
By considering these two graphs the graph of C(t) = f(t) - g(t) = 2u(t) -
u(t - 3) is then evident. The value of 2u(t) is reduced by 1 for t Ú 3 owing to
subtracting the function u(t - 3). This results in the graph shown in Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.16 C(t)
The function
2u(t) - u(t - 3). 2
O 3 t
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8.5 The unit step function 205 6
Example 8.11 Electronic Engineering – Pulse wave
A pulse wave, f(t), of magnitude M and period T is illustrated in Figure 8.17.
f(t)
O T T 3T 2T 5T 3T t
2 2 2
Figure 8.17
Express f(t) using the unit step function, u(t).
Solution
By drawing upon Example 8.10 we can state that
b + u(t - T) - uat - b + u(t - 2T) - Á d
T 3T
f(t) = Mc u(t) - uat -
2 2
Note that this can be expressed as an infinite sum using the sigma notation:
f(t) = M a ( -1)iua t - b
q
iT
0 2
Example 8.12 Electronic Engineering – Sawtooth pulse
A sawtooth pulse, f(t), of duration T, starting at t = 0, is illustrated in Figure 8.18.
Figure 8.18 f(t)
Graph showing
f = 0 for t 6 0,
T
f = t for
0 … t 6 T and
f = 0 for t Ú T.
O T t
Note that for t Ú T the sawtooth pulse is 0. Express f(t) in terms of the unit step
function.
Solution
Consider the function g(t) = tu(t). Since u(t) = 0 for t 6 0 and u(t) = 1 for t Ú 0,
then g(t) may be expressed as
g(t) = e
0 for t 6 0
t for t Ú 0
A graph of g(t) is shown in Figure 8.19(a).
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6 206 Block 8 Common engineering functions
g(t) h(t)
O t O T t
(a) (b)
Figure 8.19
Consider now the function h(t) = tu(t - T ). Noting that u(t - T) = 0 for t 6 T,
and u(t) = 1 for t Ú T, we can express h(t) as
h(t) = e
0 for t 6 T
t for t Ú T
A graph of h(t) is shown in Figure 8.19(b).
Finally we consider g(t) - h(t). By looking at the graphs of g(t) and h(t) we can
see that g(t) - h(t) is simply the function shown in Figure 8.18, that is
f(t) = g(t) - h(t) = tu(t) - tu(t - T ) = t[u(t) - u(t - T )]
Exercises
1 Sketch graphs of the following functions: 3 A periodic square wave, f (t), is illustrated in
(a) u(t) (b) -u(t) (c) u(t - 1) (d) u(t + 1) Figure 8.20.
(e) u(t - 3) - u(t - 2) (f) 3u(t) Note that f (t) has period T. State f (t) in
(g) -2u(t - 3) terms of the unit step function.
2 Sketch a graph of the function t2u(t - 1).
f(t)
O T T 3T 2T 5T 3T t
2 2 2
–1
Figure 8.20
Solutions to exercises
b + 2u(t - T) - 2u at - b + 2u(t - 2T) - Á
T 3T
3 f(t) = u(t) - 2ua t -
2 2
This can be expressed as
u(t) + 2 a (-1)iuat - b
q
iT
1 2
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8.6 The delta function, or unit impulse function, ␦(t) 207 6
8.6 The delta function, or unit impulse function, ␦(t )
Consider the rectangular-shaped function R(t) shown in Figure 8.21. The base of the
1
rectangle has width h, and its height is . This means that the area of the rectangle
h
is 1.
A function of particular interest to control engineers is the impulse function or
delta function, written d(t), which is obtained by allowing h to become smaller and
Figure 8.21 R(t)
A rectangular-
shaped function
of width h and 1
1 h
height . t
h
h
smaller whilst the height of the rectangle is allowed to grow, so that the total area
enclosed remains constant at 1. Thus
d(t) = a rectangle function for which h is allowed to approach zero
So this function can be thought of as being zero everywhere except at the origin,
when it is infinitely large. In reality a function that has infinite size and which lasts
for zero time is impossible. However, this function can be used as a model of a situ-
ation in which, for example, a large voltage pulse is applied to an electrical system
for a very short period of time.
Because the area under the graph is 1 we say that d(t) represents an impulse of
strength 1. The function kd(t) encloses an area k and is referred to as an impulse of
strength k.
Because an infinitely large value cannot be drawn on a graph, the delta function is
often illustrated as in Figure 8.22 where the height of the arrow represents the
strength of the impulse.
The position of the delta function can be shifted to the left or the right. d(t - d) is
an impulse occurring at t = d.
Figure 8.22
The height of the
arrow represents
the strength of the 1
impulse. t
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6 208 Block 8 Common engineering functions
End of block exercises
1 State the degree of the following polynomials: 4 Plot a graph of
(a) (t - 1)(t - 2)t (b) 7x2(x3 + 3x2) R
f (R) = for R Ú 0
1 + R
2 Use a graphics calculator, or computer Are there any poles of this function lying
software, to plot y = x5 - x2 + 2 for x within the given domain?
between -2 and 2.
5 Sketch a graph of u(t - 6), u(t - 5) and
3 Without using a graphics calculator or u(t - 6) - u(t - 5).
software plot
1
x - 1 6 Sketch a graph of - u (t + 1).
y = 2
x + 2
7 Sketch t3u(t - 1).
State which, if any, values should be excluded
from the domain of the function. State the
position of any poles. State any asymptotes.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 3 (b) 5 4 No
3 Exclude x = -2. Pole at x = -2. Vertical
asymptote x = -2. Horizontal asymptote
y = 1.
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The equation of a circle
BLOCK 9
9.1 Introduction
This block develops the equation of a circle. Let the centre of the circle be C(a, b)
and the radius r. Consider any general point P(x, y) on the circumference. Figure 9.1
illustrates this.
Figure 9.1 y
A circle centre
(a, b) and radius r. P(x, y)
r
y−b
b C(a, b)
x−a Q(x, b)
x
a
We form the right-angled triangle CPQ. Note that the coordinates of Q are (x, b).
Then the distances CQ, PQ and CP are
CQ = x - a, PQ = y - b, CP = r
Using Pythagoras’s theorem we have
CQ2 + PQ2 = CP2
1x - a22 + 1y - b22 = r2
Any pair of values, x and y, that satisfy this equation represents a point lying on this
circle.
Key point The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is
1x - a22 + 1y - b22 = r2
By expanding brackets the equation may also be expressed as
x2 + y2 - 2ax - 2by + a2 + b2 - r2 = 0
Note that a circle, centre at the origin, radius r, has equation
x2 + y2 = r2
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6 210 Block 9 The equation of a circle
Example 9.1
Find the equation of the circle, centre (2, -1) with radius 3.
Solution
Here a = 2, b = -1 and r = 3, so the required equation is
1x - 222 + 1y + 122 = 9
Example 9.2
Find the equation of the circle, centre (4, 7), which passes through (3, 5).
Solution
The radius is the length from the centre (4, 7) to any point on the circumference, in
particular (3, 5). Using the Key point on page 190, the radius is found to be 25.
Hence the equation of the circle is
1x - 422 + 1y - 722 = 5
Example 9.3
Find where the circle
1x - 222 + 1y - 522 = 16
intersects (a) the y axis (b) the x axis.
Solution
The circle has centre (2, 5) and radius 4.
(a) When intersecting the y axis then x = 0 and so at the points of intersection
1 - 222 + 1y - 522 = 16
1y - 522 = 12
y = 5 ; 212
The circle intersects the y axis at 10, 5 + 2122 and 10, 5 - 2122.
(b) The centre of the circle is (2, 5). Thus the perpendicular distance from the
centre to the x axis is 5. Given that the radius is 4, it is clear that the circle does
not intersect the x axis.
Example 9.4
Find the equation of the circle through (1, -1), (2, 0) and ( -1, 3).
Solution
Let the equation of the circle be
1x - a22 + 1y - b22 = r2
Applying the points (1, -1), (2, 0) and ( -1, 3) in turn, the equation of the circle
becomes respectively
(1 - a)2 + ( -1 - b)2 = r2 (1)
(2 - a)2 + ( -b)2 = r2 (2)
( -1 - a)2 + (3 - b)2 = r2 (3)
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:10 AM Page 211
9.1 Introduction 211 6
We need to solve equations (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously. We eliminate r2 from
equations (1) and (2) by using equation (3). After simplification these become
a - 2b + 2 = 0 (4)
a - b + 1 = 0 (5)
Solving equations (4) and (5) yields a = 0, b = 1. Therefore, the centre is (0, 1).
Putting a = 0, b = 1 into equation (1) yields r = 25. The equation of the circle is
x2 + 1y - 122 = 5
End of block exercises
1 Find the equation of the circle with 4 Find the equation of the circle passing through
(a) centre the origin and radius 2.5 the origin, (0, 4) and ( -2, 5).
1
(b) centre (2, -2) and radius 5 Find the points of intersection of the circle
2
(c) centre ( -1, 4) and radius 3.
1x - 222 + 1y - 322 = 25
2 Find where the circle
and the line y = -3x + 1.
1x + 222 + 1y - 122 = 9
intersects (a) the x axis, (b) the y axis.
3 Find where the circles
1x - 122 + 1y - 122 = 1
and
1x - 122 + 1y + 122 = 4
intersect.
Solutions to exercises
4 + 215 3 4 - 215 3
a , b and a , b
1 (a) x2 + y2 = 2.52 = 6.25
3
4 4 4 4
(b) 1x - 222 + 1y + 222 = 0.25
9 2
ax + b + 1y - 222 =
145
(c) 1x + 122 + 1y - 422 = 9
4
4 16
10.964, -1.8912, 1-1.764, 6.2912
(a) 1-2 + 222, 02, 1-2 - 2 22, 02
5
2
(b) 10, 1 + 252, 10, 1 - 252
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 11/28/18 6:12 PM Page 212
6 212 Block 9 The equation of a circle
End of chapter exercises
s
1 If G(s) = 2
find G(s + a). 13 State the poles of the following rational
s + v2 functions:
v 1 s2 + 2s + 3
2 If F(s) = find F(s + a). (a) F(s) = (b) F(s) =
s2 + v2 s (s + 1)3
1 1
3 If F(s) = find 5F(5s). (c) F(s) =
s + 1 3s - 2
1
4 If F(t) = find sF(s). 14 Consider the function f (x) = 5 - 4x. Find
t + 1
f - 1(x). Show that f (f - 1(x)) = f - 1(f (x)) = x.
5 If f (x) = 3x2 find f (t - t).
15 Find the inverse of the function
1
6 If G(s) = find G( jv).
s + 1 1
f (x) = (4x - 3)
7
215
7 If f (x) = 3x4 find f a tb.
2 16 If f (x) = x2 + 3x and g(x) = x + 2 find
8 The signum function is defined as (a) f (f (x)), (b) f (g(x)), (c) g(f (x)), (d) g(g(x)).
+1 x 7 0 17 State the rule that describes the function
y = 3(x2 - 1).
f (x) = sgn(x) = c - 1 x 6 0
0 (x = 0) 18 Write a formula for the function given by the
rule ‘subtract the cube of the input from the
(a) Sketch a graph of this function. square of the input’.
(b) Is this function discontinuous or
continuous? 19 State the domain and range of the function
(c) Is this function odd, even or neither? y = 3t - 17, 0 … t … 9.
(d) Is this function periodic?
(e) Is this function many-to-one or one-to-one? 20 The maximal domain of a function is the
largest possible domain that can be defined for
9 (a) Sketch a graph of the function that function. Find the maximal domain of the
u(t - 1) - u(t - 2). function
(b) State the position of any discontinuities.
5
f(t) =
10 The ramp function is defined by t
21 Find the inverse of the function
0 x 6 0
f (x) = b 3
kx x Ú 0 f(x) = -
x
(a) Sketch a graph of this function.
(b) State the position of any discontinuities. 22 Find the equation of the straight line passing
(c) Find limx : 0 f (x).
through ( -1, 4) and (⫺4, 1). Does the line pass
through ( -2, 3)?
11 Sketch a graph of y = x + |x|.
23 Electrical Engineering and Electronics –
12 Sketch a graph of f (x) = u(x - 1)|x|.
Reactance of a capacitor. The reactance of a
capacitor is its resistance to the passage of
alternating current. Reactance, X, measured in
ohms, is given by
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 9/21/18 9:10 AM Page 213
End of chapter exercises 213 6
1
X = 25 Dynamics – Constant acceleration. The
2pfC distance travelled, s, by a particle with initial
velocity, u, and constant acceleration, a, after t
where f is the frequency of the current in hertz seconds is
and C is the capacitance, measured in farads.
Note that X is a function of f. 1 2
Calculate the reactance when the frequency s(t) = ut + at
2
is 50 hertz and the capacitance is 10 - 6 farads.
Note that s is a function of t. If the initial
24 Volume of a cone. The volume, V, of a cone velocity is 6 m s - 1 and the acceleration is
with base radius, r, and vertical height, h, is 0.5 m s - 2 calculate the distance travelled
given by (a) in the first 10 seconds
(b) from t = 10 to t = 20.
1 2
V = pr h
3 26 Extension of a spring. A spring has a natural
length of 90 cm. When a 1.5 kg mass is
Note that V is a function of two variables: r suspended from the spring, the length extends
and h. to 115 cm. Calculate the length when a 2.5 kg
(a) If the radius is doubled and the height mass is suspended from the spring.
remains constant, describe the effect on the
volume. 27 A curve is defined parametrically by
(b) If the height is doubled and the radius is
constant, describe the effect on the volume. x = t + 1, y = t2 + 1
(c) If both radius and height are doubled,
describe the effect on the volume. Obtain y explicitly in terms of x.
Solutions to exercises
s + a 2
1 2 2
13 (a) s = 0 (b) s = -1 (c) s =
(s + a) + v 3
v 5 - x
2 2 2
14 f - 1(x) =
(s + a) + v 4
5 7x + 3
3 15 f - 1(x) =
5s + 1 4
s 16 (a) x4 + 6x3 + 12x2 + 9x (b) x2 + 7x + 10
4
s + 1 (c) x2 + 3x + 2 (d) x + 4
5 3(t - t)2
17 Square the input, subtract 1, and multiply the
1 result by 3.
6
jv + 1
18 f (x) = x2 - x3
215 4
675 4
7 3a tb = t
2 16 19 domain [0, 9], range [-17, 10]
8 (b) discontinuous (c) odd (d) no
(e) many-to-one 20 all t except t = 0
3
9 discontinuities at t = 1 and t = 2 21 f - 1(x) = -
x
10 (b) none (c) 0 22 y = x + 5
(-2, 3) lies on this line.
M06_CROF5939_04_SE_C06.QXD 11/28/18 6:13 PM Page 214
6 214 Block 9 The equation of a circle
23 3183 Æ 25 (a) 85 m (b) 135 m
24 (a) volume increases by a factor of 4 26 131.7 cm
(b) volume is doubles
(c) volume increases by a factor of 8 27 y = x2 - 2x + 2
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 11/28/18 7:01 PM Page 215
Chapter 7
Polynomial equations, inequalities, partial
fractions and proportionality
This chapter is concerned with developing algebraic techniques.
Equations are made up of mathematical expressions in which there
are one or more unknown quantities. Equations arise in engineering
problems when the underlying laws or physical principles are applied
to model the problem.
To solve an equation means to find these unknown quantities. There
are many different types of equation, and the solution of these
different types is tackled in different ways. In the first instance it is
necessary to recognise the sort of equation that you are dealing with.
Having done this it is necessary to select an appropriate method of
solution.
In this chapter several sorts of equations and methods for solving
them will be described.
Inequalities are made up of mathematical expressions connected
through relationships of the form ‘is less than’, ‘is less than or equal
to’, ‘is greater than’ or ‘is greater than or equal to’. Inequalities, like
equations, contain unknowns which must be found. Block 5 describes
two ways in which inequalities can be solved.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 11/28/18 7:01 PM Page 216
The chapter continues with a block on partial fractions. This technique
allows some complicated algebraic fractions to be expressed as the
sum of simpler fractions. There are many situations when this is
useful, especially when performing calculations with Laplace
transforms, for example in control theory.
The chapter concludes with a treatment of proportionality. The
concepts of direct and inverse proportion are explained and illustrated.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 217
Chapter 7 contents
Block 1 Solving linear equations
Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving
polynomial equations
Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations
Block 5 Solution of inequalities
Block 6 Partial fractions
Block 7 Proportionality
End of chapter exercises
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 218
Solving linear equations
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Many problems in engineering reduce to the solution of an equation or a set of equa-
tions. An equation is a type of mathematical expression that contains one or more
unknown quantities which you will be required to find. In this block we consider a
particular type of equation that contains a single unknown quantity, known as a
linear equation. Later blocks will describe techniques for solving other types of
equation.
1.2 Linear equations
Key point A linear equation is an equation of the form
ax + b = 0
where a and b are known numbers, and x represents an unknown quantity that we must
find.
In the equation ax + b = 0, the number a is called the coefficient of x, and the
number b is called the constant term.
The following are examples of linear equations:
1
3x + 4 = 0, -2x + 3 = 0, - x - 3 = 0
2
Note that the unknown, x, appears only to the first power, that is as x, and not as x2,
2x, x1>2, etc. Linear equations often appear in a non-standard form, and different
letters are often used for the unknown quantity. For example,
1
3i - 7 = 17, 13 = 3z + 1 and 1 - y = 3
2
are all linear equations. Where necessary they can be rearranged and written in the
form ax + b = 0. We shall explain how to do this later in this block.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 219
1.2 Linear equations 219 7
Example 1.1
Which of the following are linear equations and which are not linear?
(a) 3x + 7 = 0 (b) -3t + 17 = 0 (c) 3x2 + 7 = 0 (d) 5x = 0
Solution
The equations that can be written in the form ax + b = 0 are linear.
(a) 3x + 7 = 0 is linear
(b) -3t + 17 = 0 is linear; the unknown is t
not linear because
(c) 3x2 + 7 = 0 is
of the term x2
linear; here the
(d) 5x = 0 is
constant term is zero
To solve a linear equation means to find the value of x that can be substituted into the
equation so that the left-hand side equals the right-hand side. Any such value is
known as a solution or root of the equation. If a number is a root, we say that it
satisfies the equation.
Example 1.2
Consider the linear equation 3x - 2 = 10.
(a) Check that x = 4 is a solution.
(b) Check that x = 2 is not a solution.
Solution
(a) To check that x = 4 is a solution we substitute the value 4 for x and see
whether both sides of the equation are equal. Evaluating the left-hand side we
find 3(4) - 2, which equals 10, the same as the right-hand side. So, x = 4 is a
solution. We say that x = 4 satisfies the equation.
(b) Substituting x = 2 into the left-hand side we find 3(2) - 2, which equals 4.
Clearly the left-hand side is not equal to 10, and so x = 2 is not a solution. The
number x = 2 does not satisfy the equation.
Example 1.3
Test which of the following values are solutions of the equation
18 - 4x = 26
(a) x = 2, (b) x = -2, (c) x = 8.
Solution
(a) Substituting x = 2, the left-hand side equals
10
But 10 Z 26 so x = 2 is not a solution.
(b) Substituting x = -2, the left-hand side equals
18 - 4(-2) = 26
This is the same as the right-hand side, so x = -2 is a solution.
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7 220 Block 1 Solving linear equations
(c) Substituting x = 8, the left-hand side equals
18 - 4(8) = -14
But -14 Z 26 and so x = 8 is not a solution.
Exercises
1
1 (a) Write down the general form of a linear 4 2x + 3 = 4, x =
equation. 2
(b) Explain what is meant by the root of a 1 4
linear equation. 5 x + = 2, x = 2
3 3
In questions 2–8 verify that the given value is a 6 7x + 7 = 7, x = 0
solution of the given equation.
7 11x - 1 = 10, x = 1
2 3x - 7 = -28, x = -7
8 0.01x - 1 = 0, x = 100
3 8x - 3 = -11, x = -1
Solutions to exercises
(b) A root is a number that satisfies the
1 (a) The general form is ax + b = 0 where a
equation.
and b are known numbers and x represents
the unknown quantity.
1.3 Solving a linear equation
To solve a linear equation we try to make the unknown quantity the subject of the
equation. This means we attempt to obtain the unknown quantity on its own on the
left-hand side. To do this we may apply the same five rules used for transposing for-
mulae given in Chapter 5, Block 7. These are given again here.
Key point Operations that can be used in the process of solving a linear equation:
1 Add the same quantity to both sides.
2 Subtract the same quantity from both sides.
3 Multiply both sides by the same quantity.
4 Divide both sides by the same quantity.
5 Take functions of both sides: for example, square both sides.
A useful summary of these rules is ‘whatever we do to one side of an equation we
must also do to the other’.
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1.3 Solving a linear equation 221 7
Example 1.4
Solve the equation x + 14 = 5.
Solution
Note that by subtracting 14 from both sides, we leave x on its own on the left. Thus
x + 14 - 14 = 5 - 14
x = -9
Hence the solution of the equation is x = -9. It is easy to check that this solution is
correct by substituting x = -9 into the original equation and checking that both
sides are indeed the same. You should get into the habit of doing this.
Example 1.5
Solve the equation 19y = 38.
Solution
In order to make y the subject of the equation we can divide both sides by 19:
19y = 38
19y 38
=
19 19
38
Cancelling the 19s gives y =
19
so y = 2
Hence the solution of the equation is y = 2.
Example 1.6
Solve the equation 4x + 12 = 0.
Solution
Starting from 4x + 12 = 0 we can subtract 12 from both sides to obtain
4x + 12 - 12 = 0 - 12
so that 4x = -12
If we now divide both sides by 4 we find
4x -12
=
4 4
Cancelling the 4s gives x = -3
So the solution is x = -3.
Example 1.7
Solve the linear equation 14t - 56 = 0.
Solution
First add 56 to both sides and obtain an expression for 14t:
14t = 56
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 222
7 222 Block 1 Solving linear equations
Finally, divide both sides by 14 to find
56
t = = 4
14
Example 1.8
Solve the following equations:
(a) x + 3 = 27 (b) x + 3 = - 27
Solution
(a) Subtracting 3 from both sides gives x = 27 - 3.
(b) Subtracting 3 from both sides gives x = - 27 - 3.
Note that when asked to solve x + 3 = ; 27 we can write the two solutions as
x = -3 ; 27. It is usually acceptable to leave the solutions in this form rather
than work out their decimal approximations. This form is known as the surd form.
Example 1.9
Solve the equation 23(t + 7) = 5.
Solution
There are a number of ways in which the solution can be attempted. The idea is to
remove unwanted terms on the left-hand side gradually to leave t on its own. By mul-
tiplying both sides by 32 we find
3 2 3
* (t + 7) = * 5
2 3 2
3 5
= *
2 1
15
and after simplifying and cancelling, t + 7 =
2
Finally, subtracting 7 from both sides gives
15
t = - 7
2
15 14
= -
2 2
1
=
2
So the solution is t = 12 .
Example 1.10
Solve the equation 3(p - 2) + 2(p + 4) = 5.
Solution
At first sight this may not appear to be in the form of a linear equation. Some prelim-
inary work is necessary. Removing the brackets and collecting like terms we find the
left-hand side can be written
3(p - 2) + 2(p + 4) = 3p - 6 + 2p + 8
= 5p + 2
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 223
1.3 Solving a linear equation 223 7
So the equation becomes 5p + 2 = 5. We can then proceed to find p. Subtracting 2
from both sides yields 5p = 3 so that, finally, p = 35 .
Example 1.11
Solve the equation 2(x - 5) = 3 - (x + 6).
Solution
First remove the brackets on both sides:
2x - 10 = 3 - x - 6
We may write this as
2x - 10 = -x - 3
We shall try to rearrange this equation so that terms involving x appear only on the
left-hand side, and constants on the right. Start by adding 10 to both sides:
2x = -x + 7
Now add x to both sides:
3x = 7
Finally, solve this to find x:
7
x =
3
Example 1.12
Solve the equation
6 7
=
1 - 2x x - 2
Solution
This equation appears in an unfamiliar form but can be rearranged into the standard
form of a linear equation. By multiplying both sides by (1 - 2x) and (x - 2) we find
6 7
(1 - 2x)(x - 2) * = (1 - 2x)(x - 2) *
1 - 2x x - 2
Consider each side in turn and cancel any common factors:
6(x - 2) = 7(1 - 2x)
Removing the brackets and rearranging to find x we have
6x - 12 = 7 - 14x
and further rearrangement gives 20x = 19
19
x =
20
19
The solution is therefore x = 20 .
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7 224 Block 1 Solving linear equations
Example 1.13 Electrical Engineering – Kirchhoff’s current law
Figure 1.1 I I2
X
The current
entering the node
equals the total
current leaving the I1
node: I = I1 + I2.
Consider Figure 1.1, which shows part of an electric circuit. At point X the circuit
divides into two branches. Point X is known as a node. The current in each of the
branches is denoted by I, I1 and I2. Kirchhoff’s current law states that the current
entering any node must equal the current leaving that node. Thus we have the
equation
I = I1 + I2
(a) If I2 = 10 A and I = 18 A calculate I1.
(b) Suppose I = 36 A and it is known that current I2 is five times as great as I1.
Find the branch currents.
Solution
(a) Substituting the given values into the equation we find 18 = I1 + 10. Solving
for I1 we find
I1 = 18 - 10
= 8
Thus I1 equals 8 A.
(b) We are given that, from Kirchhoff’s law, I = I1 + I2. We are told that I2 is five
times as great as I1, and so we can write I2 = 5I1. Since I = 36 we have
36 = I1 + 5I1
= 6I1
Solving the linear equation 36 = 6I1 gives I1 = 6 A. Finally, since I2 is five
times as great as I1, I2 = 5I1 = 30 A.
Example 1.14 Automotive Engineering – Car suspension
Springs form part of the suspension system of most cars. They must be able to sup-
port the car, together with passengers and luggage. So an understanding of the prop-
erties of springs under load is crucial in the design of cars.
Consider a spring of natural length a. A spring is in compression when it has been
reduced in length. If b is the compressed length, then the compression, x, is
compression = x = natural length - compressed length = a - b
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 225
1.3 Solving a linear equation 225 7
When a spring is compressed it exerts a thrust. This means there is a force in the
spring pushing outwards, away from its centre, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Thrust Thrust
A compressed
spring exerts an
outward force
known as a thrust.
The size of the thrust, T, depends upon the compression of the spring, x, and the
physical properties of the spring. The crucial characteristic is the spring stiffness, k
. This is a measure of the spring’s ability to resist compression, or, indeed, extension.
The higher the value of k, the greater the force needed to bring about a given com-
pression. In other words, for a given compression there is a greater thrust.
Springs used in car suspension systems are compressed by the weight of the car,
and then further compressed by the weight of any passengers and luggage. Car
springs must be able to withstand this weight. Additionally they must be chosen to
ensure that the car has sufficient ground clearance when fully loaded with passengers
and luggage.
Consider a spring in compression. Applying Hooke’s law produces
T = kx
The units of thrust T are newtons (N); the units of k are newtons per metre (N/m–1).
Car suspension on each rear wheel commonly consists of a spring, with one end
attached to the car body and the other to the wheel axle as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
Car suspension
consists of a spring Car body
connecting the car
body to the wheel
axle.
The natural length of a coil spring used in a particular car suspension is 0.4 m,
with a spring stiffness of 1.75 * 104 N/m–1. The part of the car supported by the
spring exerts a force of 3000 N on the spring.
(a) Find the length of the spring in its compressed state when attached to the car
and axle.
(b) Two passengers sit in the car and increase the load on the spring by 600 N. Find
the additional compression caused by the passengers.
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7 226 Block 1 Solving linear equations
Solution
(a) We use Hooke’s law given by
T = kx
where x is the compression in metres. So
3000 = 1.75 * 104 x
3000
x = = 0.171
1.75 * 104
The spring is compressed by just over 17 cm. The compressed length of the
spring is then 0.4 - 0.171 = 0.229 m; that is, just under 23 cm.
(b) When the passengers are in the car the load on the spring is
T = 3000 + 600 = 3600 N
Then
T = kx
3600 = 1.75 * 104 x
x = 0.206
So the additional compression is 0.206 - 0.171 = 0.035 m, that is 3.5 cm.
Exercises
In questions 1–24 solve each equation: x
10 = -3
6
1 7x = 14
11 7x + 2 = 9
2 -3x = 6
12 7x + 2 = 23
1
3 x = 7 13 -7x + 1 = -6
2
1 14 -7x + 1 = -13
4 3x =
2
17
5 4t = -2 15 t = -2
3
6 2t = 4 16 3 - x = 2x + 8
7 4t = 2 17 x - 3 = 8 + 3x
8 2t = -4 x
18 = 16
x 4
9 = 3
6
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1.3 Solving a linear equation 227 7
x
19 = -2 45 3x + 10 = 31
9
46 x + 4 = 28
13
20 - x = 14
2 47 x - 4 = 223
21 -2y = -6 48 If y = 2 find x if 4x + 3y = 9.
22 -7y = 11 49 If y = -2 find x if 4x + 5y = 3.
23 -69y = -690 50 If y = 0 find x if -4x + 10y = -8.
24 -8 = -4g 51 If x = -3 find y if 2x + y = 8.
52 If y = 10 find x when 10x + 55y = 530.
In questions 25–47 solve each equation:
53 If g = 2 find b if 54 = g - 4b.
1
25 3y - 8 = y
2 In questions 54–63 solve each equation:
26 7t - 5 = 4t + 7 x - 5 2x - 1
54 - = 6
27 3x + 4 = 4x + 3 2 3
28 4 - 3x = 4x + 3 x 3x x
55 + - = 1
4 2 6
29 3x + 7 = 7x + 2
x 4x
30 3(x + 7) = 7(x + 2) 56 + = 2x - 7
2 3
31 2x - 1 = x - 3 5 2
57 =
32 2(x + 4) = 8 3m + 2 m + 1
33 -2(x - 3) = 6 2 5
58 =
3x - 2 x - 1
34 -2(x - 3) = -6
x - 3
35 -3(3x - 1) = 2 59 = 4
x + 1
36 2 - (2t + 1) = 4(t + 2) x + 1
60 = 4
37 5(m - 3) = 8 x - 3
38 5m - 3 = 5(m - 3) + 2m y - 3 2
61 =
39 2(y + 1) = -8 y + 3 3
40 17(x - 2) + 3(x - 1) = x 4x + 5 2x - 1
62 - = x
1 6 3
41 (x + 3) = -9
3 3 1
63 + = 0
3 2s - 1 s + 1
42 = 4
m 64 Solve the linear equation ax + b = 0 to
5 2 find x.
43 =
m m + 1 1 1
65 Solve the linear equation =
44 -3x + 3 = 18 to find x. ax + b cx + d
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7 228 Block 1 Solving linear equations
Solutions to exercises
16
1 2 25
5
2 -2
26 4
3 14
27 1
1
4 1
6 28
7
1
5 - 5
2 29
4
6 2
7
1 30
7 4
2
31 -2
8 -2
32 0
9 18
33 0
10 -18
34 6
11 1
1
12 3 35
9
13 1 7
36 -
14 2 6
6 23
15 - 37
17 5
5 38 6
16 -
3 39 -5
11 37
17 - 40
2 19
18 64 41 -30
19 -18 3
42
28 4
20 -
13 5
43 -
21 3 3
11 44 -5
22 -
7 45 7
23 10 46 28 - 4
24 2 47 223 + 4
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1.3 Solving a linear equation 229 7
3 7
48 59 -
4 3
13
49 13
4 60
3
50 2
61 15
51 14
7
52 -2 62
6
53 -13
2
54 -49 63 -
5
12 b
55 64
19 -
a
56 42 d - b
57 1 65
a - c
8
58
13
End of block exercises
x
1 Solve the equation = 5. 6 Solve the equation 7R + 13 = 2R - 7.
9
2 Solve the equation 7x = 63. 7 Solve the equation 3(4x + 11) = 8.
3 Solve the equation 7I = -28. 8 Solve the equation 5(x + 3) + 2(2x - 1) = 9.
1 1
4 Solve the equation 3x + 11 = 20. 9 Solve the equation + = 10.
5x 4x
5 Solve the equation 3 - 11x = 25. 3 2
10 Solve the equation = .
s - 1 s - 5
Solutions to exercises
25
1 x = 45 7 x = -
12
2 x = 9 4
8 x = -
9
3 I = -4
9
9 x =
4 x = 3 200
10 s = 13
5 x = -2
6 R = -4
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:37 AM Page 230
Solving quadratic equations
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
A quadratic equation is one that can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b and c are numbers and x is the unknown whose value(s) we wish to find.
In this block we shall see that a quadratic equation can possess
• two solutions,
• a single solution, or
• no solutions at all.
We describe several ways in which quadratic equations can be solved. Familiarity
with all the techniques is important.
2.2 Quadratic equations
Key point A quadratic equation is one that can be written in the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a, b and c are numbers and x is the unknown whose value(s) we wish to find.
For example,
2x2 + 7x - 3 = 0, x2 + x + 1 = 0, 0.5x2 + 3x + 9 = 0
are all quadratic equations. To ensure the presence of the x2 term the number a
cannot be zero. However, b and c may be zero, so that
4x2 + 3x = 0, 2x2 - 3 = 0 and 6x2 = 0
are all quadratic equations. Frequently quadratic equations occur in non-standard
form but where necessary they can be rearranged into standard form using the rules
for rearranging linear equations given in Block 1 of this chapter.
For example,
3x2 + 5x = 8 and 2x2 = 8x - 9
can be rewritten as
3x2 + 5x - 8 = 0 and 2x2 - 8x + 9 = 0
respectively.
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2.3 Solution by factorisation 231 7
To solve a quadratic equation we must find values of the unknown x that make the
left-hand and right-hand sides equal. Such values are known as solutions or roots of
the quadratic equation. We shall now describe four techniques for solving quadratic
equations:
1 factorisation
2 using a formula
3 completing the square
4 solution using graphs.
Exercises
1 Verify that x = 2 and x = 3 are both solutions 2 Verify that x = -2 and x = -3 are both
of x2 - 5x + 6 = 0. solutions of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.
2.3 Solution by factorisation
It may be possible to solve a quadratic equation by factorisation using the method
described for factorising quadratic expressions in Chapter 5, Block 5, although you
should be aware that not all quadratic equations can be factorised.
Example 2.1
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + x - 6 = 0.
Solution
Factorising we find
x2 + x - 6 = (x + 3)(x - 2) = 0
When the product of two quantities equals zero, at least one of the two must equal
zero. In this case either (x + 3) is zero or (x - 2) is zero. It follows that
x + 3 = 0, giving x = -3
or
x - 2 = 0, giving x = 2
There are two solutions, x = -3 and x = 2. These solutions can be checked quite
easily by substitution back into the given equation.
Example 2.2
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 - 7x - 4 = 0.
Solution
Factorising we find
2x2 - 7x - 4 = (2x + 1)(x - 4) = 0
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7 232 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
In this case either (2x + 1) is zero or (x - 4) is zero. It follows that
1
2x + 1 = 0, giving x = -
2
or
x - 4 = 0, giving x = 4
There are two solutions, x = - 12 and x = 4.
Example 2.3
Solve the equation x2 + 5x = 0.
Solution
Factorising and equating each factor to zero we find
x2 + 5x = x(x + 5) = 0
so that x = 0 and x = -5 are the two solutions.
Example 2.4 Structural Engineering—Bending moment in a beam
In Example 8.4 in Chapter 6 we considered a simply supported beam of length L car-
rying a uniform load, w, per unit length (Figure 2.1), and introduced the bending
moment, M, which is a measure of the internal stress caused when the beam is
loaded.
Figure 2.1 w
A simply
supported beam R R
with a uniform
load.
x
L
M varies with position x along the beam. It can be shown (see Example 1.18 in
Chapter 17) that M is given by the quadratic polynomial
w
M(x) = (Lx - x2)
2
Determine the values of x for which the bending moment is zero.
Solution
The values of x for which the bending moment is zero are found by solving
w
(Lx - x2) = 0
2
which is a quadratic equation. We can proceed in exactly the same way as in Exam-
ple 2.3 and factorise the equation noting the common factor x in both terms in the
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2.3 Solution by factorisation 233 7
brackets:
w w
(Lx - x2) = x(L - x) = 0
2 2
w
Noting that cannot be zero, we have
2
x(L - x) = 0
Each factor is then equated to zero to give x = L and x = 0 as the two solutions. We
conclude that the bending moment is zero at both ends of the beam.
Example 2.5
Solve the equation 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0.
Solution
Factorising we find
4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3)(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2
This time the factor (2x + 3) occurs twice. The equation becomes
(2x + 3)2 = 0
so that
2x + 3 = 0
and we obtain the root x = - 32 . Because the factor 2x + 3 appears twice in the
equation (2x + 3)2 = 0 we say that this root is a repeated or double root.
Example 2.6
Solve the quadratic equation 7x2 - 20x - 3 = 0.
Solution
First factorise the left-hand side:
7x2 - 20x - 3 = (7x + 1)(x - 3)
Each factor is then equated to zero to obtain the two solutions:
1
x = and - and 3
7
Exercises
Solve the following equations by factorisation:
1 x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 3 x2 + x - 2 = 0
2 x2 - x - 2 = 0 4 x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
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7 234 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
5 x2 + 8x + 7 = 0 10 x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
6 x2 - 7x + 12 = 0 11 x2 + 11x = 0
7 x2 - x - 20 = 0 12 2x2 + 2x = 0
8 x2 - 1 = 0 13 x2 - 3x = 0
9 x2 - 2x + 1 = 0 14 x2 + 9x = 0
Solve the following quadratic equations by
factorisation:
15 2x2 - 5x + 2 = 0 17 -5x2 + 6x - 1 = 0
16 6x2 - x - 1 = 0 18 -x2 + 4x - 3 = 0
Solutions to exercises
1 1, 2 12 0, -1
2 -1, 2 13 0, 3
3 -2, 1 14 0, -9
4 -1, -2 1
15 2,
5 -7, -1 2
6 4, 3 1 1
16 ,-
2 3
7 -4, 5
1
8 1, -1 17 ,1
5
9 1 twice
18 1, 3
10 -1 twice
11 -11, 0
2.4 Solution by formula
When it is difficult or impossible to factorise a quadratic equation, it may be possible
to solve it using a formula that is used to calculate the roots.
Key point If ax2 + bx + c = 0 then
-b ; 2b 2 - 4ac
x =
2a
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2.4 Solution by formula 235 7
To apply the formula it is necessary to identify carefully the values of a, b and c, pay-
ing particular attention to the signs of these numbers. Substitution into the formula
gives the desired solutions.
Note that if the quantity b2 - 4ac is a positive number we can take its square root
and the formula will produce two solutions known as distinct real roots. The first
root is found by using the positive square root in the formula, and the second is
found using the negative square root. If b2 - 4ac = 0 there will be a single root
b
known as a repeated root. The value of this root is x = - . Finally if b2 - 4ac
2a
is negative we say the equation possesses complex roots. These require special treat-
ment and are described in Chapter 11.
Key point The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
• distinct real roots if b2 - 4ac 7 0
• a repeated root if b2 - 4ac = 0
• complex roots if b2 - 4ac 6 0.
Example 2.7
Compare the given equation with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 and identify
a, b and c. Calculate b2 - 4ac and use this information to state the nature of the roots.
(a) 3x2 + 2x - 7 = 0
(b) 3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0
(c) 3x2 - 2x + 7 = 0
(d) x2 + x + 2 = 0
(e) -x2 + 3x - 12 = 0
(f) 5x 2 - 3 = 0
(g) x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
Solution
(a) a = 3, b = 2 and c = -7. So
b2 - 4ac = (2)2 - 4(3)(-7)
= 88
and the roots will be real and distinct.
(b) a = 3, b = 2 and c = 7. So
b2 - 4ac = (2)2 - 4(3)(7)
= -80
The roots will be complex.
(c) a = 3, b = -2 and c = 7. So
b2 - 4ac = (-2)2 - 4(3)(7)
= -80
Again the roots will be complex.
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7 236 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
(d) a = 1, b = 1 and c = 2. So
b2 - 4ac = (1)2 - 4(1)(2)
= -7
and the roots will be complex.
(e) a = -1, b = 3 and c = - 12 . So
b2 - 4ac = 32 - 4(-1)(- 12)
= 7
The roots will be real and distinct.
(f) a = 5, b = 0 and c = -3. So
b2 - 4ac = 0 - 4(5)(-3)
= 60
The roots will be real and distinct.
(g) a = 1, b = -2 and c = 1. So
b2 - 4ac = (-2)2 - 4(1)(1)
= 0
There will be a single repeated root.
Example 2.8
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 + 3x - 6 = 0 using the formula.
Solution
We compare the given equation with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 in order
to identify a, b and c. We see that a = 2, b = 3 and c = -6. Note particularly the
sign of c. Substituting these values into the formula we find
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
-3 ; 232 - 4(2)(-6)
=
(2)(2)
-3 ; 29 + 48
=
4
-3 ; 257
=
4
-3 ; 7.5498
=
4
= 1.1375 and -2.6375
The two solutions are x = 1.1375 and x = -2.6375. However, it is often sufficient
-3 ; 257
to leave your answer in the so-called surd form x = .
4
Example 2.9
Solve the equation 3x2 - x - 6 = 0.
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2.4 Solution by formula 237 7
Solution
First identify a, b and c.
a = b = c = a = 3 , b = -1 , c = -6
Substitute these values into the formula
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
-(-1) ; 2(-1)2 - (4)(3)(-6)
=
(2)(3)
1 ; 273
=
6
Finally, calculate the values of x:
x = 1.5907, -1.2573
Exercises
Solve the following quadratic equations by using
7 -x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
the formula:
8 -2x2 - 3x + 1 = 0
1 x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
9 2x2 + 5x - 3 = 0
2 x2 + 7x - 2 = 0
10 -2s2 - s + 3 = 0
3 x2 + 6x - 2 = 0
11 9x2 + 6x + 1 = 0
4 4x2 + 3x - 2 = 0
12 x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
5 2x2 + 3x - 1 = 0
13 3x2 - 6x + 3 = 0
6 x2 + x - 1 = 0
Solutions to exercises
1 -0.1270, -7.8730 6 -1.6180, 0.6180
2 -7.2749, 0.2749 7 3.3028, -0.3028
3 0.3166, -6.3166 8 -1.7808, 0.2808
4 -1.1754, 0.4254 1
9 , -3
5 0.2808, -1.7808 2
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7 238 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
3
10 - ,1 12 -3
2
1 13 1
11 -
3
2.5 Completing the square
The technique known as completing the square can be used to solve quadratic equa-
tions, although it is applicable in other circumstances as well. We shall develop this
technique in the following examples.
Example 2.10
(a) Show that (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9.
(b) Hence show that x2 + 6x can be written as (x + 3)2 - 9.
Solution
(a) Removing the brackets we find
(x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x + 3x + 9
= x2 + 6x + 9
Thus
(x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
(b) By subtracting 9 from both sides of the previous equation it follows that
(x + 3)2 - 9 = x2 + 6x
Example 2.11
(a) Show that (x - 4)2 = x2 - 8x + 16.
(b) Hence show that x2 - 8x can be written as (x - 4)2 - 16.
Solution
(a) Removing the brackets we find
(x - 4)2 = (x - 4)(x - 4)
= x2 - 4x - 4x + 16
= x2 - 8x + 16
(b) Subtracting 16 from both sides we can write
(x - 4)2 - 16 = x2 - 8x
We shall now generalise the results of Examples 2.10 and 2.11. Noting that
(x + k)2 = x2 + 2kx + k2
we can write
x2 + 2kx = (x + k)2 - k2
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2.5 Completing the square 239 7
Note that the constant term in the brackets on the right is always half the coefficient
of x on the left. This process is called completing the square.
Key point Completing the square x2 + 2kx = (x + k)2 - k2
Example 2.12
Complete the square for the expression x2 + 16x.
Solution
Comparing x2 + 16x with the general form x2 + 2kx we see that k = 8. Hence
x2 + 16x = (x + 8)2 - 82
= (x + 8)2 - 64
Note that the constant term in the brackets on the right, that is 8, is half the coeffi-
cient of x on the left, which is 16.
Example 2.13
Complete the square for the expression 5x2 + 4x.
Solution
Consider 5x2 + 4x. First of all the coefficient 5 is removed outside a bracket as
follows
5x2 + 4x = 51x2 + 45x2
We can now complete the square for the quadratic expression in the brackets:
x2 + 45 x = 1x + 2522 - 12522
= 1x + 2522 - 4
25
Hence, multiplying both sides by 5 we find
5x2 + 4x = 5 C 1x + 2522 - 4
25 D
Completing the square can be used to solve quadratic equations as shown in the
following examples.
Example 2.14
Solve the equation x2 + 6x + 2 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution
First of all just consider x2 + 6x, and note from Example 2.10 that we can write
this as
x2 + 6x = (x + 3)2 - 9
Then the quadratic equation can be written as
x2 + 6x + 2 = (x + 3)2 - 9 + 2 = 0
that is
(x + 3)2 = 7
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7 240 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
Taking the square root of both sides gives
x + 3 = ; 27
x = -3 ; 27
The two solutions are x = -3 + 27 = -0.3542 and x = -3 - 27 = -5.6458.
Example 2.15
Solve the equation x2 - 8x + 5 = 0.
Solution
First consider x2 - 8x. Using Example 2.11 we can write
x2 - 8x = (x - 4)2 - 16
so that the equation becomes
x2 - 8x + 5 = (x - 4)2 - 16 + 5 = 0
(x - 4)2 = 11
x - 4 = ; 211
x = 4 ; 211
= 7.3166, 0.6834
Example 2.16
Solve the equation x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution
First examine the two leftmost terms in the equation, x2 - 4x. Complete the square
for these terms:
x2 - 4x = (x - 2)2 - 4
The equation x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 can then be written
x2 - 4x + 1 =
(x - 2)2 - 4 + 1 = (x - 2)2 - 3
= 0
From which
(x - 2)2 = 3
x - 2 = ; 13
x = 2 ; 13 = 3.7321, 0.2679
Exercise
1 Solve the quadratic equations at the end of
Section 2.4 by completing the square.
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2.6 Solution of quadratic equations using graphs 241 7
2.6 Solution of quadratic equations using graphs
Equations can be solved quite simply using graphs. For example, to solve the equa-
tion x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 we can plot a graph of the function y = x2 - 4x + 1. If the
graph crosses the horizontal axis it will do so when y = 0, and so the x coordinates
at such points are solutions of x2 - 4x + 1 = 0. This is illustrated in the following
example.
Example 2.17
Solve the equation x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 by plotting a graph of the function
y = x2 - 4x + 1
Solution
By constructing a table of function values we can plot the graph as shown in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 y
The graph of x 0 1 2 3 4
y 1 −2 −3 −2 1
y = x2 - 4x + 1
cuts the x axis at
C and D.
1
C D
−1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2
−3
The solutions of the equation x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 are found by looking for points
where the graph crosses the horizontal axis. The two points are approximately
x = 0.27 and x = 3.73, marked C and D on the figure.
If you have access to a graphics calculator or computer software for graph plotting
check that you can use it to plot quadratic graphs and locate solutions of quadratic
equations.
You may find the illustrative examples in Chapter 6, Block 2.3 helpful.
Computer and calculator exercises
Solve the following quadratic equations
by plotting graphs:
1 7x2 - 17x - 9 = 0 3 -0.25x2 - 0.05x + 0.01 = 0
2 0.56x2 + 0.05x - 3 = 0
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7 242 Block 2 Solving quadratic equations
End of block exercises
1 Solve the following quadratic equations: 4 Solve the equation x2 + 7x = 0.
(a) x2 - 9 = 0 (b) s2 - 25 = 0
(c) 3x2 - 12 = 0 5 Solve the equation 2x2 - 3x - 7 = 0.
2 Solve the equation x2 - 5x + 6 = 0. 6 Use the technique of completing the square
to derive the quadratic formula as given on
3 Solve the equation 6s2 + s - 15 = 0. page 234.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 3, -3 (b) s = 5, -5 (c) x = 2, -2 4 x = 0, -7
2 x = 3, 2 5 2.766, -1.266
3 s = 32, - 53
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Factorising polynomial expressions
BLOCK 3
and solving polynomial equations
3.1 Introduction
Key point A polynomial expression is one of the form
anxn + an - 1xn - 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where a0, a1, . . . are known coefficients (or numbers) and x is a variable.
For example, x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 is a polynomial expression. Note that only non-
negative whole number powers of the variable x are allowed in a polynomial expression.
When a polynomial expression is equated to zero, a polynomial equation is obtained.
Thus
3x2 + 6x - 7 = 0, x3 - 2x2 + 8x - 3 = 0
are examples of polynomial equations. The linear and quadratic equations that you
have already met are particular types of polynomial equation. In this block you will
learn how to factorise some polynomial expressions and how to solve some polyno-
mial equations. You will also learn the technique of equating coefficients, which is
very important when you need to perform calculations involving partial fractions in
Block 6.
3.2 Multiplying polynomials together
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power to which the variable is raised. Thus
x3 + 6x + 2 has degree 3, t6 - 6t4 + 2t has degree 6, and 5x + 2 has degree 1.
Let us consider what happens when two polynomials are multiplied together. For
example,
(x + 1)(3x - 2)
is the product of two first-degree polynomials. Expanding the brackets we obtain
(x + 1)(3x - 2) = 3x2 + x - 2
which is a second-degree polynomial.
In general we can regard a second-degree polynomial, or quadratic, as the product
of two first-degree polynomials, provided that the quadratic can be factorised.
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7 244 Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving polynomial equations
On the other hand
(x - 1)(x2 + 3x - 7) = x3 + 2x2 - 10x + 7
is a third-degree, or cubic, polynomial that is also the product of a linear polynomial
and a quadratic polynomial.
In general we can regard a cubic polynomial as the product of a linear polynomial
and a quadratic polynomial. This fact will be important in the following section
when we come to factorise cubics.
Key point cubic = linear * quadratic
Exercises
1 If x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = (x - 4) * a poly- 3 If 2x2 + 5x + 2 = (x + 2) * a polynomial,
nomial, state the degree of the polynomial. what must be the coefficient of x in this
unknown polynomial?
2 (a) If 3x2 + 13x + 4 = (x + 4) * a polyno-
mial, state the degree of the polynomial. 4 Two quadratic polynomials are multiplied
(b) What is the coefficient of x in this together. What is the degree of the resulting
unknown polynomial? polynomial?
Solutions to exercises
1 two 3 two
2 (a) one (b) it must be three in order to generate 4 four
the term 3x2 when the brackets are removed.
3.3 Factorising polynomial expressions and equating coefficients
Factorisation of polynomial expressions can sometimes be achieved if one or more
of the factors is already known. This requires a knowledge of the technique of
equating coefficients, which is illustrated in the following example.
Example 3.1
Factorise the expression x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 given that one of the factors is (x - 4).
Solution
Given that x - 4 is a factor we can write
x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = (x - 4) * an unknown quadratic polynomial
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3.3 Factorising polynomial expressions and equating coefficients 245 7
The unknown polynomial must be quadratic because the expression on the left is
cubic. Suppose we write this quadratic as ax2 + bx + g where a, b and g are
unknown numbers, which we shall try to find. Then
x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = (x - 4)(ax2 + bx + g)
Removing the brackets on the right and collecting like terms together we have
x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = ax3 + (b - 4a)x2 + (g - 4b)x - 4g
Equating coefficients means that we compare the coefficients of each term on the
left with the corresponding term on the right. Thus if we look at the x3 terms on each
side we see that
x3 = ax3
that is, a must equal 1 for both sides to be the same. Similarly by equating coeffi-
cients of x2 we find
-17 = b - 4a
With a = 1 we have -17 = b - 4 so that b must equal -13. Finally, equating
constant terms we find
-8 = -4g
so that g = 2. Check for yourself that, with these values of g and b , the coefficient
of x is the same on both sides. We can now write the polynomial expression as
x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = (x - 4)(x2 - 13x + 2)
The quadratic expression on the right cannot be factorised further.
Exercises
In questions 1–4 factorise the given polynomial
expressions into three linear factors:
1 x3 - 6x2 + 11x - 6, given x - 1 is a factor. 3 2x3 + 7x2 + 7x + 2, given x + 1 is a factor.
2 x3 - 7x - 6, given x + 2 is a factor. 4 3x3 + 7x2 - 22x - 8, given x + 4 is a factor.
Solutions to exercises
1 (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) 3 (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x + 2)
2 (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) 4 (x - 2)(x + 4)(3x + 1)
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7 246 Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving polynomial equations
3.4 Polynomial equations
Key point A polynomial equation has the form
anxn + an - 1xn - 1 + Á + a2x2 + a1x + a0 = 0
where a0, a1, . . . are known coefficients, and x represents an unknown whose value(s)
are to be found.
The following are examples of polynomial equations:
5x6 - 3x4 + x2 + 7 = 0, -7x4 + x2 + 9 = 0
Recall that the degree of the equation is the highest power of x occurring. The
solutions or roots of the equation are those values of x that satisfy the equation. A
polynomial equation of degree n has n roots.
Example 3.2
Verify that x = -1, x = 1 and x = 0 are roots of the equation
x3 - x = 0
Solution
We substitute each value in turn into x3 - x = 0:
(-1)3 - (-1) = -1 + 1
= 0
so x = -1 is clearly a root. It is easy to verify that x = 1 and x = 0 are also
solutions.
Polynomial equations of low degree have special names. A polynomial equation of
degree 1 is a linear equation and such equations have been solved in Block 1. A poly-
nomial equation of degree 2 is a quadratic equation and such equations have been
solved in Block 2. We now consider ways in which polynomial equations of higher
degree can be solved.
Exercises
In questions 1 and 2 verify that the given values are
solutions of the given equations:
1
1 x2 - 5x + 6 = 0, x = 3, x = 2 2 2t3 + t2 - t = 0, t = 0, t = -1, t = 2
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3.5 Solving polynomial equations when one solution is known 247 7
3.5 Solving polynomial equations when one solution is known
In Block 2 we gave a formula that can be used to solve quadratic equations. Unfortu-
nately, when dealing with equations of higher degree no such simple formulae exist.
If one of the roots can be spotted we can sometimes find the others by the method
shown in Example 3.3.
Example 3.3
Verify that x = 4 is a solution of the equation P(x) = x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8 = 0.
Hence find the other solutions.
Solution
We substitute x = 4 into the left-hand side of the given equation:
43 - 17(42) + 54(4) - 8 = 64 - 272 + 216 - 8
= 0
So, when x = 4 the left-hand side equals zero. Hence x = 4 is indeed a solution.
Knowing that x = 4 is a root we can state that (x - 4) must be a factor of P(x).
Therefore P(x) can be written
P(x) = x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8
= (x - 4) * quadratic polynomial
The quadratic polynomial has already been found in Example 3.1. So the given equa-
tion can be written
P(x) = x3 - 17x2 + 54x - 8
= (x - 4)(x2 - 13x + 2) = 0
In this form we see that
x - 4 = 0 or x2 - 13x + 2 = 0
The first equation gives x = 4, which we already knew. The second must be solved
using one of the methods for solving quadratic equations given in Block 2. For
example, using the formula we find
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
13 ; 2(-13)2 - 4.1.2
=
2
13 ; 2161
=
2
13 ; 12.6886
=
2
= 12.844, 0.156
Hence the solutions are x = 4, x = 12.844 and x = 0.156.
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7 248 Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving polynomial equations
Example 3.4
Solve the equation x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = 0 given that x = -3 is a root.
Solution
Consider the equation x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = 0. If x = -3 is a root then x + 3
must be a factor of the left-hand side. We can therefore write the left-hand side as
x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = (x + 3)(ax2 + bx + g)
Expanding the right-hand side we have
x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = ax3 + (3a + b)x2 + (3b + g)x + 3g
Equating coefficients of x3 we find
a = 1
Equating constant terms we find
3 = 3g so that g = 1
Finally, equating coefficients of x2 gives
8 = 3a + b
from which b = 5.
This enables us to write the equation as
(x + 3)(x2 + 5x + 1) = 0
Thus x + 3 = 0 or x2 + 5x + 1 = 0. The quadratic equation can be solved using
the formula to obtain x = -4.791 and x = -0.209.
Example 3.5 Control Engineering – Poles of a transfer function
We have already noted in Example 1.11 (Chapter 5, Block 1) that algebraic fractions
can appear in control engineering applications in the form of transfer functions
which relate the output of a system to the input. Poles of the transfer function are
those values which make the denominator of the fraction zero and knowledge of
these is particularly important when examining the stability of a control system.
Calculate the poles of the system which has transfer function
500
s3 + 15s2 + 50s
Solution
We examine the denominator and seek those values of s for which
s3 + 15s2 + 50s = 0
Observe that this is a polynomial equation of degree 3, that is a cubic equation.
Note that there is a common factor in the terms of the equation, namely s, and so
the equation can be factorised into
s(s2 + 15s + 50) = 0
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3.6 Solving a polynomial equation graphically 249 7
In turn, the quadratic term can be factorised:
s(s + 10)(s + 5) = 0
from which s = 0, s = -10 and s = -5. There are three poles.
Exercises
In questions 1–3 verify that the given value is a
solution of the equation and hence find all solutions:
1 x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 2 = 0, x = -2 3 Verify that x = 1 and x = 2 are solutions of
x4 + 4x3 - 17x2 + 8x + 4 = 0 and hence
2 2x3 + 11x2 - 2x - 35 = 0, x = -5 find all solutions.
Solutions to exercises
1 -2, -0.2087, -4.7913 3 1, 2, -0.2984, -6.7016
2 -5, -2.1375, 1.6375
3.6 Solving a polynomial equation graphically
The real roots of the polynomial equation P(x) = 0 are given by the values of the
intercepts of the function y = P(x) and the x axis because, on the x axis, y, and hence
P(x), is zero. Many excellent computer software packages and graphics calculators
exist that can be used for plotting graphs and hence solving polynomial equations.
Suppose the graph of y = P(x) is plotted and takes a form similar to that shown in
Figure 3.1.
The graph intersects the x axis at x = x1, x = x2 and x = x3 and so the equation
P(x) = 0 has real roots x1, x2 and x3.
Figure 3.1 y
A polynomial
function that cuts
the x axis at points x1 x2 x3
x1, x2 and x3. x
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7 250 Block 3 Factorising polynomial expressions and solving polynomial equations
Example 3.6
Plot a graph of the function y = 4x4 - 15x2 + 5x + 6 and hence solve the equation
4x4 - 15x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.
Solution
The graph has been plotted with the aid of a computer graph-plotting package and is
shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 y
Graph of
y = 4x4 -
15x2 + 5x + 6.
x
–4 5
The solutions of the equation are found by looking for where the graph crosses the
horizontal axis. We see that the solutions are x = 1, x = 1.5, x = -0.5 and x = -2.
An important feature of the graph of a polynomial is that it is continuous. By study-
ing the graph in Figure 3.2 you will see that if we choose any two values of x, say a
and b, such that y(a) and y(b) have opposite signs, then at least one root lies between
x = a and x = b.
Exercise
1 Consider the polynomial and P(3) show that at least one root of
P(x) = 5x3 - 47x2 + 84x. By evaluating P(2) P(x) = 0 lies between x = 2 and x = 3.
Computer and calculator exercises
By plotting graphs estimate the roots of each of the
following equations:
1 x3 + 2x2 - 7x + 3 = 0 3 x4 + 2x3 - 7x2 + 11x + 3 = 0
2 2x3 + 3x + 7 = 0
Solutions to exercises
1 0.53, -3.96, 1.43 3 -4.2, -0.25
2 -1.20
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3.6 Solving a polynomial equation graphically 251 7
End of block exercises
1 Factorise x3 - x2 - 65x - 63 given that 6 Given that two of the roots of
(x + 7) is a factor. x4 + 3x3 - 7x2 - 27x - 18 = 0 have the
same modulus but different sign, solve the
2 Show that x = -1 is a root of equation. (Hint: let two of the roots be a and
x3 + 11x2 + 31x + 21 = 0 and locate the -a and use the technique of equating
other roots algebraically. coefficients.)
3 Show that x = 2 is a root of x3 - 3x - 2 = 0 7 Without solving the equation, or using a
and locate the other roots. graphical calculator, show that
x4 + 4x - 1 = 0
4 Solve the equation x4 - 2x2 + 1 = 0.
has a root between x = 0 and x = 1.
5 Factorise x4 - 7x3 + 3x2 + 31x + 20 given
that (x + 1) is a factor.
Solutions to exercises
1 (x + 7)(x + 1)(x - 9) 4 x = -1, 1
2 x = -1, -3, -7 5 (x + 1)2(x - 4)(x - 5)
3 x = 2, -1 6 x = -3, 3, -1, -2
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Solving simultaneous equations
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Equations often arise in which there is more than one unknown quantity. When this
is the case there will usually be more than one equation involved. For example, in the
two equations
7x + y = 9, -3x + 2y = 1
there are two unknowns: x and y. In order to solve the equations we must find values
for x and y that satisfy both of the equations. The two equations are called
simultaneous equations. You should verify that the solution of these equations is
x = 1, y = 2 because by substituting these values into both equations, the left-hand
and right-hand sides are equal.
In this block we shall show how two simultaneous equations can be solved either
by a method known as elimination or by drawing graphs. If more than two equations
are involved you should refer to the techniques described in Chapter 13, Blocks 1, 2
and 3.
Exercises
1 In each case verify that the given values satisfy
(b) x = 4, y = 3 satisfy x + y = 7 and
x - y = 1.
the given simultaneous equations:
(a) x = 2, y = -2 satisfy 7x + y = 12 and (c) x = -3, y = 2 satisfy 8x - y = -26
and 9x + 2y = -23.
-3x - y = -4.
4.2 Solving simultaneous equations by elimination
One way of solving simultaneous equations is by elimination. Elimination, as the
name implies, involves removing one of the unknowns. Note that if both sides of an
equation are multiplied or divided by a non-zero number an equivalent equation
results. For example, if we are given the equation
x + 4y = 5
then by multiplying both sides by 7, say, we find
7x + 28y = 35
and this modified equation is equivalent to the original one.
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4.2 Solving simultaneous equations by elimination 253 7
Given two simultaneous equations, elimination of one unknown can be achieved
by modifying the equations so that the coefficients of that unknown in each equation
are the same. By subtracting one equation from the other that unknown is eliminated.
If the coefficients of one unknown differ only in sign, that unknown can be elimi-
nated by adding the equations together.
Consider the following example.
Example 4.1
Solve the simultaneous equations
3x + 5y = 31 (1)
2x + 3y = 20 (2)
Solution
We first try to modify each equation so that the coefficient of x is the same in both
equations. This can be achieved if equation (1) is multiplied by 2 and equation (2) is
multiplied by 3. This gives
6x + 10y = 62
6x + 9y = 60
Note that in this form the unknown x can be removed or eliminated if the second
equation is subtracted from the first:
6x + 10y = 62 -
6x + 9y = 60
0x + 1y = 2
The result implies that 1y = 2, and we see immediately that y must equal 2. To find
x we substitute the value found for y into either of the given equations. For example,
using equation (1),
3x + 5(2) = 31
3x = 21
x = 7
Thus the solution of the given equations is x = 7, y = 2. You should always check
your solution by substituting back into both of the given equations.
If the coefficients of x in the two equations differ only in sign, elimination can be
achieved by adding the two equations:
Example 4.2
Solve the equations
-3x + y = 18 (3)
7x - 3y = -44 (4)
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7 254 Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations
Solution
We modify the equations so that x can be eliminated by adding. For example, by
multiplying equation (3) by 7 and equation (4) by 3 we find
-21x + 7y = 126
21x - 9y = -132
If both equations are now added we can eliminate x. Therefore
-21x + 7y = 126 +
21x - 9y = -132
0x - 2y = -6
from which -2y = -6, so that y = 3. Substituting this value into equation (3) we
can find x:
-3x + 3 = 18
so that
-3x = 15
that is
x = -5
Sometimes it will be easier to eliminate y rather than x:
Example 4.3
Solve the equations
5x + 3y = -74
-2x - 3y = 26
Solution
Note that the coefficients of y differ only in sign. By adding the two equations we
find 3x = -48 so that x = -16. It follows that y = 2.
Example 4.4
Solve the equations
5x - 7y = -80 (5)
2x + 11y = 106 (6)
Solution
First modify the equations so that the coefficient of x is the same in both. This means
that if equation (5) is multiplied by 2 then equation (6) must be multiplied by
5
Write down the resulting equations:
10x - 14y = -160, 10x + 55y = 530
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4.2 Solving simultaneous equations by elimination 255 7
Subtract these to eliminate x and hence find y.
y = 10
Finally verify that x = -2.
Equations with no solution
On occasions you may come across a pair of simultaneous equations that have no
solution. Consider the following example.
Example 4.5
Solve the equations
10x - 2y = -3 (7)
-5x + y = 1 (8)
Solution
Leaving equation (7) unaltered and multiplying equation (8) by 2 we find
10x - 2y = -3
-10x + 2y = 2
Adding these equations to eliminate x we find y is eliminated as well:
10x - 2y = -3 +
-10x + 2y = 2
0x + 0y = -1
The last line is clearly nonsense. We say that the equations are inconsistent and they
have no solution.
Equations with an infinite number of solutions
Simultaneous equations can also possess an infinite number of solutions. Consider
the following example.
Example 4.6
Solve the equations
2x + y = 8 (9)
4x + 2y = 16 (10)
If equation (9) is multiplied by 2 we find
4x + 2y = 16
4x + 2y = 16
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7 256 Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations
Note that both equations are now identical. This means that one of them is redun-
dant. We need only consider the single equation
2x + y = 8
There are infinitely many pairs of values of x and y that satisfy this equation. For
example, if x = 0, y = 8. Similarly, if x = 1, y = 6, and if x = -3, y = 14. We
could continue like this, producing more and more solutions. Suppose we choose a
value for x. Because we are not restricted in any way we call x a free variable. Let us
call our choice l. We can then write
2l + y = 8 so that y = 8 - 2l
The solution is therefore x = l, y = 8 - 2l for any value of l whatsoever. There
are an infinite number of such solutions.
Example 4.7 Civil Engineering – Curve fitting
In many engineering applications physical quantities are specified at a few distinct
points rather than everywhere in a given domain. For example, if a civil engineer
wishes to analyse the strain in a building, strain gauges may be attached at several
specific points in the structure. Interpolation techniques can be used to find the strain
at other points. Curve fitting is used to achieve this, by fitting a curve whose mathe-
matical equation can be calculated through the known points. Curve fitting is partic-
ularly important in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture
(CAM) because the geometry or shape of a solid can be described by specifying a
number of points on the surface and interpolating using an appropriate curve or line.
Suppose two measured points have (x, y) coordinates (5, 8) and (6, 5) as shown in
Figure 4.1.
(a) Find the equation of the straight line that passes through or interpolates these
points.
(b) Use this linear approximation to estimate y(5.3).
Figure 4.1 y
The straight line
interpolates the (5, 8)
two given points.
(6, 5)
Solution
(a) Suppose the straight line has equation y = mx + c. Because the line passes
through (5, 8) and (6, 5) we know that
8 = 5m + c (11)
and 5 = 6m + c (12)
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4.3 Solving simultaneous equations using graphs 257 7
These are two simultaneous equations, which must be solved in order to find m
and c. Subtracting equation (12) from equation (11) we find
3 = -m
so that m = -3. Substituting this value for m into equation (11) we find
8 = 5(-3) + c
so that c = 23. Then the linear approximation has equation y = -3x + 23.
(b) We can use the linear approximation to estimate y when x = 5.3:
y(5.3) = -3(5.3) + 23 = 7.1
In practice, higher-degree polynomials or other curves are usually used for interp-
olation purposes rather than simple straight lines.
Exercises
In questions 1–3 solve the given simultaneous must be satisfied by a and b. Solve them and
equations by elimination: hence find the equation of the line.
1 5x + y = 8, -3x + 2y = -10 5 A quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is
used in signal processing to approximate a
2 2x + 3y = -2, 5x - 5y = 20 more complicated signal. If this function must
pass through the points with coordinates (0, 0),
3 7x + 11y = -24, -9x + y = 46 (1, 3) and (5, -11) write down the
simultaneous equations satisfied by a, b and c.
4 A straight line has an equation of the form Solve these to find the quadratic function.
y = ax + b. The line passes through the
points with coordinates (2, 4) and ( -1, 3).
Write down the simultaneous equations that
Solutions to exercises
1 10
1 x = 2, y = -2 4 y = x +
3 3
2 x = 2, y = -2 13 2 43
5 y = - x + x
10 10
3 x = -5, y = 1
4.3 Solving simultaneous equations using graphs
An alternative way of solving two simultaneous equations in two unknowns is to
draw a graph. Note that each of the equations we have studied is a linear equation
and plotting its graph will produce a straight line. We can plot a line for each equa-
tion and locate the point of intersection of the two lines. This point represents the
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7 258 Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations
solution of the equations. If the two lines do not intersect then the equations have no
solution. If the two lines are identical, there are an infinite number of solutions. Con-
sider the following examples.
Example 4.8
Solve the simultaneous equations
4x + y = 9 (13)
-x + y = -1 (14)
by plotting two straight line graphs.
Solution
Equation (13) is rearranged into the standard form of the equation of a straight line:
y = -4x + 9. By selecting two points on the line a graph can be drawn as shown in
Figure 4.2.
Similarly, equation (14) can be rearranged as y = x - 1 and its graph drawn. This
is also shown in Figure 4.2. The coordinates of any point on line I satisfy 4x + y = 9.
The coordinates of any point on line II satisfy -x + y = -1. At the point where the
two lines intersect the x and y coordinates must satisfy both equations and so the point
of intersection represents the solution. We see from the graph that the point of inter-
section is (2, 1). The solution of the given equations is therefore x = 2, y = 1.
Figure 4.2 y
The coordinates of II: y x 1
the point of inter-
3
section give the
2
required solution.
1
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 x
I: y 9 4x
Example 4.9
Solve the equations: 10x - 2y = -3, 5x - y = -1.
Solution
Rewriting the equations in standard form we find
3
y = 5x + and y = 5x + 1
2
Graphs of these lines are shown in Figure 4.3. Note that these lines do not intersect
because they are parallel. This means that the given simultaneous equations do not
have a solution; they are inconsistent.
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4.3 Solving simultaneous equations using graphs 259 7
Figure 4.3 y
The graphs do not
intersect – the y 5x 1
equations have no 3
solution. 2
1
2 1 1 2 x
y 5x 3
2
Exercises
In questions 1–4 solve the given equations
graphically:
1 5x - y = 7, 2x + y = 7 3 7x + 3y = 25, -2x + y = 4
2 2x - 2y = -2, 5x + y = -9 4 4x + 4y = -4, x + 7y = -19
Solutions to exercises
1 x = 2, y = 3 3 x = 1, y = 6
2 x = - 53, y = - 23 4 x = 2, y = -3
Computer and calculator exercise
1 Use your calculator or computer software to
plot graphs and hence estimate the solution of
0.5x - 0.25y = -0.6
0.33x + 0.8y = -0.15
Solution to exercise
1 approx. x = -1.07, y = 0.25
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7 260 Block 4 Solving simultaneous equations
End of block exercises
1 Solve the following simultaneous equations: 4 Find the equation of the straight line passing
(a) 3x + 2y = 7, x + y = 3
through a4, 13 b and a1, b .
3 13
(b) 3s + 4t = 0, 2s - 2t = 7
4 4
2 Show that the equations 11x + y = 7 and 5 A graph has equation y = ax2 + bx. Find a
7y = 7 - 77x have no solution. and b if the graph passes through the points
(1, 2) and (3, 5).
3 Solve the equations
3 2 7 5
+ = 11, - - = -26
s t s t
1 1
(Hint: let x = , y = .)
s t
Solutions to exercises
7 1
1 (a) 1, 2 (b) 2, -1.5 4 y = x -
2 4
1 1 13
3 ,1 5 - ,
3 6 6
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Solution of inequalities
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
An inequality is an expression involving one of the symbols Ú , … , 7 or 6 . This
block will first show how to manipulate inequalities correctly. Then the solution of
inequalities, both algebraically and graphically, will be described.
5.2 The inequality symbols
Recall the meaning of the following symbols:
Key point 7 means: ‘is greater than’, Ú means: ‘is greater than or equal to’
6 means: ‘is less than’, … means: ‘is less than or equal to’
So, we may state, for example, 8 7 7, 9 Ú 2, -2 6 3 and 7 … 7. The symbols 7 ,
6 , Ú , … are called inequalities.
A number line is often a helpful way of picturing inequalities. Given two numbers
a and b, if b 7 a then b will be to the right of a on the number line, as shown in
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
a b
If b 7 a, b will be
to the right of a on
the number line.
Note from Figure 5.2 that -3 7 -5, 4 7 -2 and 8 7 5.
Figure 5.2
⫺5 ⫺4 ⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Inequalities can always be written in two ways. For example, in English we can
state that 8 is greater than 7, or equivalently, 7 is less than 8. Mathematically we
write 8 7 7 or 7 6 8. Similarly if b 7 a then a 6 b. If a 6 b then a will be to the
left of b on the number line.
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7 262 Block 5 Solution of inequalities
Example 5.1
Rewrite the inequality - 25 6 x using only the ‘greater than’ sign, 7 .
Solution
- 25 6 x can be written as x 7 - 25 .
Example 5.2
Rewrite the inequality 5 7 x using only the ‘less than’ sign, 6 .
Solution
5 7 x can be written as x 6 5.
Sometimes two inequalities are combined into a single statement. Consider for
example 3 6 x 6 6. This is a compact way of writing 3 6 x and x 6 6. Now
3 6 x is equivalent to x 7 3 and so 3 6 x 6 6 means x is greater than 3 but less
than 6.
It would be incorrect to write 5 7 x 7 9 because 5 is not greater than 9. Instead
two inequalities would be used and we would write: x 6 5 or x 7 9, that is x is less
than 5 or greater than 9.
Inequalities obey simple rules when used in conjunction with arithmetical
operations.
Key point 1 Adding or subtracting the same quantity from both sides of an inequality leaves the
inequality sign unchanged.
2 Multiplying or dividing both sides by a positive number leaves the inequality sign
unchanged.
3 Multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative number reverses the inequality.
For example, since 8 7 5, by adding k to both sides we can state
8 + k 7 5 + k
for any value of k.
Further, by multiplying both sides of 8 7 5 by k we can state 8k 7 5k provided
k is positive. However,
8k 6 5k
if k is negative. Note that the inequality sign is reversed when multiplying both sides
by a negative number. A common mistake is to forget to reverse the inequality sign
when multiplying inequalities by a negative number. For example, 8 7 5, but multi-
plying both sides by -1 gives -8 6 -5.
Example 5.3
Find the result of multiplying both sides of the inequality -18 6 9 by the number
-3.
Solution
54 7 -27
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5.2 The inequality symbols 263 7
The modulus sign is sometimes used with inequalities. For example, |x| 6 1 means
all numbers whose actual size, irrespective of sign, is less than 1. This means any
value between -1 and 1. Thus
|x| 6 1 means -1 6 x 6 1
In general, if k is a positive number,
Key point |x| 6 k means -k 6 x 6 k
Similarly |x| 7 4 means all numbers whose size, irrespective of sign, is greater than
4. This means any value greater than 4 or less than -4. Thus
|x| 7 4 means x 7 4 or x 6 -4
In general, if k is a positive number,
Key point |x| 7 k means x 7 k or x 6 -k
Exercises
1 State whether each of the following statements 4 |x| … 7.5
is true or false.
(a) 4 7 9 (b) 4 7 4 (c) 4 Ú 4 5 |x - 3| 6 2
(d) 0.001 6 10 - 5 (e) |-19| 6 100
(f) |-19| 7 -20 (g) 0.001 … 10 - 3 6 |x - a| 6 1
In questions 2–9 rewrite each of the statements
7 |x| 7 2
without using a modulus sign:
2 |x| 6 2 8 |x| 7 7.5
3 |x| 6 5 9 |x| Ú 0
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) T (f) T (g) T 6 -1 6 x - a 6 1
2 -2 6 x 6 2 7 x 7 2 or x 6 -2
3 -5 6 x 6 5 8 x 7 7.5 or x 6 -7.5
4 -7.5 … x … 7.5 9 x Ú 0 or x … 0, in fact any x
5 -2 6 x - 3 6 2
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7 264 Block 5 Solution of inequalities
5.3 Solving inequalities algebraically
When we are asked to solve an inequality, the inequality will contain an unknown
variable, x say. To solve means to find all values of x for which the inequality is true.
In a linear inequality the unknown appears only to the first power, that is as x, and
not as x2, x3, x1>2, and so on. It is possible to solve a linear inequality by making the
unknown the subject. Consider the following examples.
Example 5.4
Solve the inequality 4x + 3 7 0.
Solution
4x + 3 7 0
4x 7 -3 by subtracting 3 from both sides
x 7 - 34 by dividing both sides by 4
Hence all values of x greater than - 34 satisfy 4x + 3 7 0.
Example 5.5
Solve the inequality -3x - 7 … 0.
Solution
-3x - 7 … 0
-3x … 7 by adding 7 to both sides
x Ú - 73 dividing both sides by -3
and reversing the inequality
Hence all values of x greater than or equal to - 73 satisfy -3x - 7 … 0.
Example 5.6
Solve the inequality 17x + 2 6 4x + 1.
Solution
We try to make x the subject and obtain it on its own on the left-hand side. Start by
subtracting 4x from both sides to remove quantities involving x from the right.
13x + 2 6 1
Then subtract 2 from both sides to remove the 2 on the left:
13x 6 -1
Finally, find the range of values satisfied by x:
1
x 6 - 13
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5.3 Solving inequalities algebraically 265 7
Example 5.7
Solve the inequality |5x - 2| 6 4 and depict the solution graphically.
Solution
|5x - 2| 6 4
is equivalent to
-4 6 5x - 2 6 4
We shall treat both parts of the inequality separately:
-4 6 5x - 2
-2 6 5x by adding 2 to both sides
- 25 6 x by dividing both sides by 5
So x 7 - 25 . Now consider the second part: 5x - 2 6 4.
5x - 2 6 4
5x 6 6 by adding 2 to both sides
x 6 65 by dividing both sides by 5
Putting both parts of the solution together we see that the inequality is satisfied when
- 25 6 x 6 65 . This range of values is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
|5x - 2| 6 4 0
⫺ 25 6
5
when
- 25 6 x 6 65 .
Example 5.8
Solve the inequality |1 - 2x| 6 5.
Solution
First of all rewrite the inequality without using the modulus sign.
|1 - 2x| 6 5 is equivalent to -5 6 1 - 2x 6 5
Then treat each part separately. First of all consider -5 6 1 - 2x. Solve this.
x 6 3
The second part is 1 - 2x 6 5. Solve this.
x 7 -2
Finally, confirm that the solution is -2 6 x 6 3.
Exercises
In questions 1–16 solve the given inequality algebraically:
1 4x 7 8 2 5x 7 8
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7 266 Block 5 Solution of inequalities
3 8x 7 5 10 3x Ú 0
4 8x … 5 11 3x 7 4
5 2x 7 1 12 3
4x 7 1
6 3x 6 -1 13 4x … -3
7 5x 7 2 14 3x … -4
8 2x 7 0 15 5x Ú 0
9 8x 6 0 16 4x … 0
In questions 17–26 solve the given inequality
algebraically:
17 5x + 1 6 8 22 1 - 5x … 0
18 5x + 1 … 8 23 2 + 5x Ú 1
19 7x + 3 Ú 0 24 11 - 7x 6 2
20 18x + 2 7 9 25 5 + 4x 7 2x + 1
21 14x + 11 7 22 26 7 - 3x 7 x - 5
In questions 27–33 solve the inequality:
27 |7x - 3| 7 1 31 |1 - 5x| 7 2
28 |2x + 1| Ú 3 32 |2 - 5x| Ú 3
29 |5x| 6 1 33 |2x - 1| 6 1
30 |5x| … 0
Solutions to exercises
1 x 7 2 14 x … - 43
8
2 x 7 5 15 x Ú 0
5
3 x 7 8 16 x … 0
5 7
4 x … 8 17 x 6 5
1 7
5 x 7 2 18 x … 5
6 x 6 - 13 19 x Ú - 37
2 7
7 x 7 5 20 x 7 18
11
8 x 7 0 21 x 7 14
1
9 x 6 0 22 x Ú 5
10 x Ú 0 23 x Ú - 15
4 9
11 x 7 3 24 x 7 7
4
12 x 7 3 25 x 7 -2
13 x … - 34 26 x 6 3
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 267
5.4 Solving inequalities using graphs 267 7
4 2
27 x 7 7 or x 6 7 31 x 6 - 15, x 7 3
5
28 x Ú 1 or x … -2 32 x … - 15, x Ú 1
29 - 15 6 x 6 1
5 33 0 6 x 6 1
30 x = 0
5.4 Solving inequalities using graphs
Graphs can be used to solve inequalities, particularly if the inequality is not linear.
Graphics calculators or software can help save a lot of time and effort here.
Example 5.9
Solve graphically the inequality 5x + 2 6 0.
Solution
We consider the function y = 5x + 2 whose graph is shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 y
Graph of y 5x 2
10
y = 5x + 2.
1 O 1 2 x
x 25
The values of x that make 5x + 2 negative are those for which y is negative. We
see directly from the graph that y is negative when x 6 - 25 .
Example 5.10
Find the range of values of x for which x2 - x - 6 6 0.
Solution
We consider the graph of y = x2 - x - 6, which is shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 y
Graph of
y = x2 - x - 6. 5 y x2 x 6
2 1 O 1 2 3 x
5
Note that the graph crosses the x axis when x = -2 and when x = 3. Now
x2 - x - 6 will be negative when y is negative. Directly from the graph we see that
y is negative when -2 6 x 6 3.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 268
7 268 Block 5 Solution of inequalities
Example 5.11
Find the range of values of x for which x2 - x - 6 7 0.
Solution
The graph of y = x2 - x - 6 has been drawn in Figure 5.5. We require
y = x2 - x - 6 to be positive. Use the graph to solve the problem.
x 6 -2 or x 7 3
Example 5.12
By plotting a graph of y = 20x4 - 4x3 - 143x2 + 46x + 165 find the range of
values of x for which
20x4 - 4x3 - 143x2 + 46x + 165 6 0
Solution
A software package has been used to plot the graph, which is shown in Figure 5.6.
We see that y is negative when -2.5 6 x 6 -1 and when 1.5 6 x 6 2.2.
Figure 5.6
Graph of y
y = 20x4 -
4x3 - 143x2 +
46x + 165.
5 4 3 2 1 1 3 4 5 x
Exercises
In questions 1–4 solve the given inequality
graphically:
1 3x + 1 6 0 3 6x + 9 7 0
2 2x - 7 6 0 4 5x - 3 7 0
Solutions to exercises
1 3
1 x 6 - 3 x 7 -
3 2
7 3
2 x 6 4 x 7
2 5
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 269
5.4 Solving inequalities using graphs 269 7
Computer and calculator exercises
Use a graphics calculator or software to solve the
following inequalities:
x + 1
1 6x3 + x2 - 4x + 1 6 0 4 7 0
x + 2
2 4x4 + 9x3 - 3x2 - 10x 7 0 (x - 1)(x + 1)
5 6 0
x + 2 x - 3
3 6 0
x - 3
End of block exercises
1 Express in words, the meaning of 6 Find the range of values satisfied by X if
(a) N … -21 (b) 0 … p … 1
` ` 6 1 and s 7 0.
X - m
2 Express in symbols the statement ‘a can take s
any value between -3 and 9 inclusive’. 7 Sketch a graph of the rational function
3 Express in symbols ‘x is non-negative’.
x + 1
R(x) =
4 Solve the inequality 5 - 4x … -2. 2x - 6
Hence state the range of values for which
5 Solve the given inequalities:
(a) ƒ 2x - 12 ƒ 6 2 (b) |3x + 4| 7 8 x + 1
7 0
(c) |4x + 3| Ú 1 (d) |5x - 2| 6 10 2x - 6
Solutions to exercises
4
1 (a) N is any number less than or equal to -21. (b) x 6 -4 or x 7
(b) p lies between 0 and 1, inclusive. 3
2 -3 … a … 9 1
(c) x … -1 or x Ú -
2
3 x Ú 0
8 12
(d) - 6 x 6
7 5 5
4 x Ú
4
6 -s + m 6 X 6 s + m
3 5
5 (a) - 6 x 6 7 x 7 3 or x 6 -1
4 4
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 270
Partial fractions
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
It is often helpful to break down a complicated fraction into the sum of simpler
4x + 7
fractions. For example, it can be shown that 2 has the same value as
1 3 x + 3x + 2
+ for any value of x. We say that
x + 2 x + 1
4x + 7 1 3
2 is identically equal to +
x + 3x + 2 x + 2 x + 1
4x + 7 1 3
and that the partial fractions of are and . The ability to
x2 + 3x + 2 x + 2 x + 1
express a fraction as its partial fractions is particularly useful in the study of Laplace
transforms, and in control theory. In this block we explain how partial fractions are
found.
6.2 Proper and improper fractions
Frequently we find that an algebraic fraction appears in the form
numerator polynomial
algebraic fraction = =
denominator polynomial
that is as the ratio of two polynomials. For example,
x3 + x2 + 3x + 7 3x2 - 2x + 5 x
, and
x2 + 1 x2 - 7x + 2 4
x + 1
The procedure for finding partial fractions depends critically upon the form of the
denominator, as we shall see. The degree of the numerator, n say, is the highest
power occurring in the numerator. The degree of the denominator, d say, is the high-
est power occurring in the denominator. If d 7 n the fraction is said to be proper. If
d … n the fraction is said to be improper. Before calculating the partial fractions of
an algebraic fraction it is important to decide whether the fraction is proper or
improper.
Example 6.1
For each of the following fractions state the degrees of the numerator and denomi-
nator. Hence classify the fractions as proper or improper.
x3 + x2 + 3x + 7 3x2 - 2x + 5 x s2 + 4s + 5
(a) (b) (c) (d)
x2 + 1 x2 - 7x + 2 x4 + 1 (s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3)
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6.3 Proper fractions with linear factors 271 7
Solution
(a) The degree of the numerator, n, is 3. The degree of the denominator, d, is 2.
Because d … n the fraction is improper.
(b) Here n = 2 and d = 2. State whether this fraction is proper or improper.
d … n; the fraction is improper
(c) Noting that x = x1 we see that n = 1 and d = 4. State whether this fraction is
proper or improper.
d 7 n; the fraction is proper
(d) Removing the brackets in the denominator we see that it has degree 3. The
degree of the numerator is 2 and so this fraction is proper.
The denominator of an algebraic fraction can be factorised into a product of linear and
quadratic factors. Linear factors are those of the form ax + b, for example 2x + 7,
3x - 2 and 4 - x. Quadratic factors are those of the form ax2 + bx + c such as
x2 + x + 1, and 4x2 - 2x + 3, which cannot be factorised into linear factors.
Exercises
1 For each fraction state the degrees of the x + 1 x2
(a) (b) 3
numerator and denominator, and hence x x - x
determine which are proper and which are (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)
improper: (c)
x - 5
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) n = 1, d = 1, improper
(b) n = 2, d = 3, proper
(c) n = 3, d = 1, improper
6.3 Proper fractions with linear factors
First we describe how to calculate partial fractions of proper fractions where the
denominator may be written as a product of linear factors. The steps needed to calcu-
late the partial fractions are as follows:
1 Factorise the denominator.
2 Each factor will produce a partial fraction. A factor such as 3x + 2 will produce
A
a partial fraction of the form where A is an unknown constant. In general
3x + 2
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 272
7 272 Block 6 Partial fractions
A
a linear factor ax + b will produce a partial fraction . The unknown con-
ax + b
stants for each partial fraction may be different and so we shall call them A, B, C,
and so on.
3 Evaluate the unknown constants by equating coefficients or substituting specific
values of x.
The sum of the partial fractions is identical in value to the original algebraic fraction
for any value of x.
Key point A
A linear factor ax + b produces a partial fraction of the form .
ax + b
The steps involved are illustrated in the following example.
Example 6.2
7x + 10
Express 2 as its partial fractions.
2x + 5x + 3
Solution
Note that this fraction is proper. The denominator is factorised to give (2x + 3)(x + 1).
It has been written as the product of two linear factors. Each factor produces a partial
A
fraction. The factor 2x + 3 produces a partial fraction of the form . The fac-
2x + 3
B
tor x ⫹ 1 produces a partial fraction , where A and B are unknown constants
x + 1
which we now try to find. We write
7x + 10 A B
= +
(2x + 3)(x + 1) 2x + 3 x + 1
By multiplying both sides by (2x + 3)(x + 1) we obtain
7x + 10 = A(x + 1) + B(2x + 3) (1)
We may now let x take any value we choose. By an appropriate choice we can sim-
plify the right-hand side. Let x = -1 because this choice eliminates A. We find
7(-1) + 10 = A(0) + B(-2 + 3)
3 = B
so that the constant B must equal 3. The constant A can be found by substituting
other values for x or alternatively by equating coefficients. Observe that, by rearranging
the right-hand side, equation (1) can be written as
7x + 10 = (A + 2B)x + (A + 3B)
Comparing the coefficients of x on both sides we see that 7 = A + 2B. We already
know B = 3 and so
7 = A + 2(3)
= A + 6
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6.3 Proper fractions with linear factors 273 7
from which A = 1. We can therefore write
7x + 10 1 3
2
= +
2x + 5x + 3 2x + 3 x + 1
We have succeeded in expressing the given fraction as the sum of its partial fractions.
The result can always be checked by adding the fractions on the right.
Example 6.3
9 - 4x
Express 2 in partial fractions.
3x - x - 2
Solution
First factorise the denominator:
3x2 - x - 2 = (3x + 2)(x - 1)
Because there are two linear factors we write
9 - 4x 9 - 4x
2
=
3x - x - 2 (3x + 2)(x - 1)
A B
= +
3x + 2 x - 1
Multiply both sides by (3x + 2)(x - 1) to obtain the equation from which we can
find values for A and B.
9 - 4x = A(x - 1) + B(3x + 2)
By substituting an appropriate value for x obtain B.
substitute x = 1 and get B = 1
Finally by equating coefficients of x obtain the value of A.
-4 = A + 3B, A = -7 since B = 1
Finally, write down the partial fractions:
9 - 4x -7 1
2
= +
3x - x - 2 3x + 2 x - 1
Exercises
(c) Express in partial fractions
1 (a) Find the partial fractions of
5x - 1 7x + 25
(x + 1)(x - 2) (x + 4)(x + 3)
(b) Check your answer by adding the partial (d) Check your answer by adding the partial
fractions together again. fractions together again.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 274
7 274 Block 6 Partial fractions
11x + 1 5
2 Find the partial fractions of . 4 2
(x - 1)(2x + 1) x + 7x + 12
Express each of the following as the sum of partial -3
5
fractions: (2x + 1)(x - 3)
3
3
(x + 1)(x + 2)
Solutions to exercises
2 3 3 4 5 5
1 (a) + (c) + 4 -
x + 1 x - 2 x + 4 x + 3 x + 3 x + 4
4 3
2 + 6 3
x - 1 2x + 1 5 -
7(2x + 1) 7(x - 3)
3 3
3 -
x + 1 x + 2
6.4 Proper fractions with repeated linear factors
As before, the denominator is factorised first. Sometimes a linear factor appears
more than once. For example, in
1 1
which equals
(x + 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)2
the factor (x + 1) occurs twice. We call it a repeated linear factor. The repeated
A B
linear factor (x + 1)2 produces two partial fractions of the form + .
x + 1 (x + 1)2
2
In general, a repeated linear factor of the form (ax + b) generates two partial
fractions of the form
A B
+
ax + b (ax + b)2
Key point Repeated linear factors (ax + b)2 produce partial fractions of the form
A B
+
ax + b (ax + b)2
Once again the unknown constants are found by a mixture of equating coefficients
and substituting specific values for x.
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6.4 Proper fractions with repeated linear factors 275 7
Example 6.4
Express
10x + 18
2
4x + 12x + 9
in partial fractions.
Solution
First the denominator is factorised.
4x2 + 12x + 9 =
(2x + 3)(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2
You should have found a repeated linear factor. The repeated linear factor (2x + 3)2
gives rise to two partial fractions of the form
10x + 18 A B
2
= +
(2x + 3) 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2
Multiply both sides through by (2x + 3)2 to obtain the equation that must be solved
to find A and B.
10x + 18 = A(2x + 3) + B
Now evaluate the constants A and B by equating coefficients. Equating coefficients
of x gives
10 = 2A, A = 5
Equating constant terms gives 18 = 3A + B, from which B = 3. So, finally, we
may write
10x + 18 5 3
2
= +
(2x + 3) 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2
Exercises
Express the following in partial fractions:
3 - x 2x2 - x + 1
1 5
2
x - 2x + 1 (x + 1)(x - 1)2
5x2 + 23x + 24
7x - 15 6
2 - 2
(2x + 3)(x + 2)2
(x - 1)
6x2 - 30x + 25
7
3x + 14 (3x - 2)2 (x + 7)
3
x2 + 8x + 16 s + 2
8
(s + 1)2
5x + 18 2s + 3
4 9
(x + 4)2 s2
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7 276 Block 6 Partial fractions
Solutions to exercises
1 2 3 1 2
1 - + 6 + +
x - 1 (x - 1)2 2x + 3 x + 2 (x + 2)2
7 8 1 1 1
2 - + 7 - + +
x - 1 (x - 1)2 3x - 2 (3x - 2)2 x + 7
3 2 1 1
3 + 8 +
x + 4 (x + 4)2 s + 1 (s + 1)2
5 2 2 3
4 - 9 + 2
x + 4 (x + 4)2 s s
1 1 1
5 + +
x + 1 x - 1 (x - 1)2
6.5 Proper fractions with quadratic factors
Sometimes a denominator is factorised producing a quadratic factor that cannot be
factorised into linear factors. One such quadratic factor is x2 + x + 1. This factor
Ax + B
would produce a partial fraction of the form 2 . In general a quadratic fac-
x + x + 1
tor of the form ax2 + bx + c produces a single partial fraction of the form
Ax + B
2
.
ax + bx + c
Key point A quadratic factor of the form ax2 + bx + c produces a partial fraction of the form
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
Example 6.5
Express as partial fractions
3x + 1
2
(x + x + 10)(x - 1)
Solution
Note that the quadratic factor cannot be factorised further. We have
3x + 1 Ax + B C
2
= 2 +
(x + x + 10)(x - 1) x + x + 10 x - 1
Multiplying both sides by (x2 + x + 10)(x - 1) gives
3x + 1 =
(Ax + B)(x - 1) + C(x2 + x + 10)
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6.5 Proper fractions with quadratic factors 277 7
To evaluate C we can let x = 1, which eliminates the first term on the right. This
gives
1
4 = 12C, so that C =
3
Equate coefficients of x2 and hence find A. Finally substitute any other value for x or
equate coefficients of x to find B.
1 7
A = - ,B =
3 3
Finally
3x + 1 - 13 x + 73 1
3
2
= 2 +
(x + x + 10)(x - 1) x + x + 10 x - 1
1 7 - x 1
= 2
+
3 x + x + 10 3(x - 1)
Example 6.6 Electrical Engineering – Admittance
Admittance, Y, is a quantity that is used in analysing electronic circuits. A typical
expression for admittance might take the form
s2 + 4s + 5
Y(s) = 2
(s + 2s + 4)(s + 3)
where s can be thought of as representing frequency. To calculate the behaviour of
the circuit it is often necessary to express the admittance as the sum of its partial
fractions and find the effect of each part separately. Express Y(s) in partial fractions.
Solution
The fraction is proper. The denominator contains a quadratic factor that cannot be
factorised further, and also a linear factor. Thus
s2 + 4s + 5 As + B C
2
= 2 +
(s + 2s + 4)(s + 3) s + 2s + 4 s + 3
Multiplying both sides by (s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3) we obtain
s2 + 4s + 5 = (As + B)(s + 3) + C(s2 + 2s + 4)
To find the constant C we can let s = -3 to eliminate A and B. Thus
(-3)2 + 4(-3) + 5 = C[(-3)2 + 2(-3) + 4]
so that
2 = 7C
and so C = 27 .
Equating coefficients of s2 we find
1 = A + C
so that A = 1 - C = 1 - 27 = 57 .
Equating constant terms gives
5 = 3B + 4C
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7 278 Block 6 Partial fractions
so that
3B = 5 - 4C
= 5 - 4a b
2
7
8
= 5 -
7
27
=
7
9
so B =
7
Finally
5 9 2
s2 + 4s + 5 7s + 7 7
Y(s) = = +
(s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3) s2 + 2s + 4 s + 3
which can be written as
5s + 9 2
Y (s) = 2
+
7(s + 2s + 4) 7(s + 3)
Exercises
Express each of the following as the sum of its partial fractions:
3 2x + 4
1 2
3 2
(x + x + 1)(x - 2) 4x + 12x + 9
27x2 - 4x + 5 6x2 + 13x + 2
2 4
(6x2 + x + 2)(x - 3) (x2 + 5x + 1)(x - 1)
Solutions to exercises
3 3(x + 3) 1 1
1 - 3 +
7(x - 2) 7(x2 + x + 1) 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2
3x + 1 4 3x + 1 3
2 + 4 2
+
2
6x + x + 2 x - 3 x + 5x + 1 x - 1
6.6 Improper fractions
When calculating the partial fractions of improper fractions an extra term needs to be
included. The extra term is a polynomial of degree n - d where d is the degree of
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 279
6.6 Improper fractions 279 7
the denominator and n is the degree of the numerator. Recall that
• a polynomial of degree 0 is a constant, A say,
• a polynomial of degree 1 has the form Ax + B,
• a polynomial of degree 2 has the form Ax2 + Bx + C,
and so on. For example, if the numerator has degree 5 and the denominator has
degree 3, then n - d = 2, the fraction is improper, and we need to include an extra
term of the form Ax2 + Bx + C.
Key point If a fraction is improper an additional term is included taking the form of a polynomial
of degree n - d, where n is the degree of the numerator and d is the degree of the
denominator.
Example 6.7
Express as partial fractions
2x2 - x - 2
x + 1
Solution
The fraction is improper because n = 2, d = 1 and so d … n. Further, note that
n - d = 1. We therefore need to include an extra term: a polynomial of the form
Ax + B, in addition to the usual partial fractions. So
2x2 - x - 2 C
= Ax + B +
x + 1 x + 1
where the final term arises from the linear factor in the denominator. Multiplying
both sides by x + 1 we find
2x2 - x - 2 = (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C
= Ax2 + (A + B)x + (B + C)
Equating coefficients of x2 gives A = 2. Equating coefficients of x gives -1 = A + B
and so B = -1 - A = -3. Equating the constant terms gives -2 = B + C and so
C = -2 - B = -2 - (-3) = 1. Finally we have
2x2 - x - 2 1
= 2x - 3 +
x + 1 x + 1
The computing packages Maple and Matlab have built-in commands that enable par-
tial fractions to be found. For full details you should refer to the on-line help.
Example 6.8
3x3 - 7x2 - 77x - 137
Use software to express R1x2 = in partial fractions.
x2 - 4x - 21
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7 280 Block 6 Partial fractions
Solution
Maple
It is straightforward in Maple to find a partial fractions expansion with the command
convert ( , parfrac).
> convert((3*x^3-7*x^2-77*x-137)/(x^2-4*x-21),parfrac)
gives as output
5 1
3x + 5 + +
x + 3 x - 7
Matlab
Matlab has the facility to calculate partial fractions symbolically using the command
partfrac. An alternative is to use the residue command, but care must be taken
when interpreting the output. The input to the residue command is two arrays that con-
tain the coefficients of the numerator and the denominator. The output is three arrays that
contain the residues (the numerators of the resulting partial fractions), the poles (the val-
ues which make the denominators of the partial fractions zero), and the coefficients of the
resulting polynomial term (if any). Thus
>> n = [3 -7 -77 -137]
d = [1 -4 -21]
[r,p,k]= residue(n,d)
produces the output
r =
1.0000
5.0000
p =
7.0000
-3.0000
k =
3 5
Compare this answer with the Maple output above to understand its meaning.
Exercises
Express the following in partial fractions:
x + 3 2x2 + 7x + 7
1 4
x + 2 x + 2
3x - 7 3x5 + 4x4 - 21x3 - 40x2 - 24x - 29
2 5
x - 3 (x + 2)2 (x - 3)
x2 + 2x + 2 4x5 + 8x4 + 23x3 + 27x2 + 25x + 9
3 6
x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)(2x + 1)
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6.6 Improper fractions 281 7
Solutions to exercises
1 1
1 1 + 4 2x + 3 +
x + 2 x + 2
2 1 1 1
2 3 + 5 + + + 3x2 + x + 2
x - 3 (x + 2)2 x + 2 x - 3
1 1 1
3 1 + x + 6 2x2 + x + 7 + + 2
x + 1 2x + 1 x + x + 1
End of block exercises
1 Express in partial fractions: 3 Express in partial fractions
2x - 4
(a) 2s + 1 2s3 + 6s2 + 6s + 3
x(x - 1)(x - 3) (a) (b)
s5(s + 1) s + 1
1 + x
(b)
(x + 3)2 (x + 1) 4 Express in partial fractions
x2 + 1 2x + 1
(c)
(2x + 1)(x - 1)(x - 3) (x - 2)(x + 1)(x - 3)
4s - 3
(d)
2s + 1
3s + 1
(e)
s(s - 2)
2 Express in partial fractions
K(1 + as)
(1 + ts)s
where K, a and t are constants.
Solutions to exercises
4 1 1 K K(a - t)
1 (a) - + + 2 +
3x x - 1 3(x - 3) s 1 + ts
1
(b) 1 1 1 1 1 1
(x + 3)2 3 (a) + - + - +
5 1 5 s5 s4 s3 s2 s s + 1
(c) - +
21(2x + 1) 3(x - 1) 7(x - 3) 1
(b) + 2s2 + 4s + 2
5 s + 1
(d) 2 -
2s + 1
5 1 7
7 1 4 - - +
(e) - 3(x - 2) 12(x + 1) 4(x - 3)
2(s - 2) 2s
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 282
Proportionality
BLOCK 7
7.1 Definition
Consider two variables, a and b. We say that a is proportional to b if
a = kb (1)
where k is a constant. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality. We
may also write
a r b
to show that a is proportional to b. Note that if a is proportional to b, then it also follows
that b is proportional to a.
You will notice that (1) is the equation of a straight line passing through the origin;
that is, the vertical intercept is 0. The gradient of this line is k. This means that when
the value of a doubles (or trebles) then likewise the value of b doubles (or trebles). If
the value of a halves, then the value of b halves too.
Example 7.1 Mechanical Engineering – Extension of a spring
When a force, F, is applied to the end of a spring, it produces an extension, e.
Hooke’s law states that the extension is proportional to the force applied. So we may
write
e r F
or equivalently
e = kF
where k is a constant of proportionality.
Example 7.2 Mechanical Engineering – Extension of a spring
When a force of 10 N is applied to the end of a spring it produces an extension of
12 cm. Given that the extension of the spring is proportional to the applied force,
calculate
(a) the extension produced when a force of 17 N is applied
(b) the force required to produce an extension of 15 cm.
Solution
Extension, e, is proportional to the applied force, F, so
e = kF
We are given that e = 12 when F = 10 so
12 = k(10)
from which k = 65 , so
6F
e =
5
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 283
7.1 Definition 283 7
(a) A force of 17 N is applied, that is F = 17. Then the extension produced is
6F 6(17)
e = = = 20.4
5 5
The extension produced is 20.4 cm.
(b) The extension, e, is 15. So
6F
15 =
5
15 * 5
F = = 12.5
6
The force required is 12.5 N
Sometimes it is useful to introduce a new variable when doing calculations involving
proportion. Consider the following illustration. The area, A, of a circle is given by
A = pr2
where r is the radius. If we introduce a new variable, x, where x is the square of the
radius, that is x = r2, then
A = px
So, area, A, is proportional to x, the square of the radius. The constant of proportion-
ality is p. Note that A is not proportional to r. A graph of A against x would be a
straight line through the origin; a graph of A against r, however, would be a curve.
Example 7.3 Electronic Engineering – Resistance
Resistivity is a measure of how difficult it is for electrons to flow through a material.
If the material has length, L, cross-sectional area, A, and resistance, R, then
rL
R =
A
where r is a constant called the resistivity of the material. If the cross-sectional area
is fixed (constant) then
R = kL
r
where k = = constant. So resistance, R, is proportional to length, L.
A
Example 7.4 Electrical Engineering – Power in a resistor
In an electric circuit the power, P, current, I, and resistance, R, are related by
P = I2 R (2)
If the resistance is constant, k1 say, then
P = k1I2
So for constant resistance, the power is proportional to the square of the current.
Note that power is not proportional to current, but is proportional to the square of the
current.
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 284
7 284 Block 7 Proportionality
Referring again to equation (2), if the current, I, is constant, then I2 is also con-
stant; call it k2, giving
P = k2R
So for constant current, the power is proportional to resistance.
Example 7.5 Fluid Flow
The rate of flow, Q, of a fluid through a valve depends upon the pressure, P, across
the valve, according to the law
Q = k2P
where k is a constant. Here we see that flow rate, Q, is proportional to 2P, the
square root of the pressure. Note that Q is not proportional to P.
7.2 Inverse proportion
1
A variable, a, is inversely proportional to a variable, b, if a is proportional to . In
b
other words
1
a r
b
which can be expressed as
k
a =
b
where k is the constant of proportionality. Note that when b doubles, then a is halved;
when b is halved, then a doubles.
Example 7.6 Electrical Engineering – Voltage, current and resistance
Suppose that in an electric circuit
V
R =
I
where R = resistance, V = voltage and I = current. For a fixed voltage, that is
V = k (a constant), then
k
R =
I
and so resistance is inversely proportional to current.
Example 7.7 Mechanical Engineering – Vibration
The resonant frequency of a body, v, is given by
k
v = (3)
Am
where k is the stiffness of the body and m is its mass. We may write (3) as
K
v =
2m
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 285
7.2 Inverse proportion 285 7
where K = 2k. We see that the resonant frequency is inversely proportional to the
square root of the mass.
Example 7.8
It is known that a is inversely proportional to b. Measurements taken during an
experiment are recorded in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
a 5 10 15 20
b 6 3 2 1.5
(a) Find the equation connecting a and b.
(b) Calculate the value of a when b = 30.
Solution
(a) We are told that a is inversely proportional to b and so
k
a = (4)
b
where k is a constant. From the measurements given in Table 7.1, a = 5 when
b = 6. Substituting these values into (1) gives
k
5 =
6
from which k = 30. Hence (4) becomes
30
a = (5)
b
Note that all the pairs of values from Table 7.1 fit this equation. For example,
when b = 3, equation (5) gives
30
a = = 10
3
which concurs with the value in Table 7.1.
(b) Using (5), with b = 30, gives
30
a = = 1
30
So when b = 30, then a = 1.
End of block exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the phrase ‘a is 3 Given a is proportional to b, state which of the
proportional to b’. following are true and which are false:
(a) when a doubles, then b also doubles
2 Explain what is meant by the phrase ‘a is (b) when a is halved, then b is doubled
inversely proportional to b’. (c) a graph of a against b is a straight line graph
(d) a divided by b is a constant
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 286
7 286 Block 7 Proportionality
4 It is known that y is proportional to x. 5 Given that y is inversely proportional to x, state
Experimental measurements are recorded in which of the following are true and which are
Table 7.2. false:
Table 7.2
(a) when x is doubled, y is doubled also
(b) x is inversely proportional to y
y 30 40 50 60 (c) when x is halved, y is doubled
x 5 6.67 8.33 10 (d) a graph of y against x is a straight line with
a negative gradient
(a) Determine the equation connecting y and x.
(b) Calculate y when x = 2.
Solutions to exercises
3 (a) T (b) F (c) T (d) T 5 (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F
4 (a) y = 6x (b) y(2) = 12
End of chapter exercises
1 Solve the equation 4x - 20 = 9. x2 + 2x - 1
10 Express in partial fractions.
x3 - x
2 Solve the equation 15 - 3x = 3(x - 7) + 11. x - g
11 Express in partial fractions .
x + 2 x (x - a)(x - b)
3 Solve the equation + 3 = .
5 7
x3 + x + 1
4 Solve the simultaneous equations 12 Express in partial fractions .
3x - 2y = 11, 5x + 7y = 39. x2 + 7x + 12
13 Express in partial fractions
5 On a number line show the numbers -p, 0,
22 , - 23 , ƒ -0.5 ƒ , -(3!) and 11 6(s + 2)
19 . G(s) = .
(s + 1)(s + 3)
6 Is the statement 12321>2 … 11222>3 true or false?
14 Calculate the poles of the rational function
7 Draw an x-y coordinate frame and shade the s + 5
G(s) = 2 .
region for which x 6 3 and y 7 -2. s + 3s + 2
8 Use the method of completing the square to 15 Express in partial fractions
derive the formula for solving a quadratic
equation. K
C(s) =
s(1 + ts)
9 By sketching an appropriate graph, or where K and t are constants.
1
otherwise, solve the inequality 6 5.
2 - x
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 9/21/18 10:38 AM Page 287
End of chapter exercises 287 7
16 Express in partial fractions
(c) calculate the value of x when y = 200
K Table 7.3
C(s) =
(1 + ts)s2 x 5 10 15 20 25
where K and t are constants. y 22.5 45 67.5 90 112.5
17 Factorise n3 - 3n2 - 33n + 35 given that
(n - 7) is a factor. 25 If a is proportional to b state which of the
following are true and which are false:
18 Factorise x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 5 given that x + 5 (a) a multiplied by b is a constant
is a factor. (b) a divided by b is a constant
(c) 2a is proportional to 2b
19 Solve the following quadratic equations by an
appropriate method. 26 A variable P is proportional to I 2.
(a) x2 + 16x + 64 = 0 (b) x2 - 6x + 3 = 0 (a) Use the measurements in Table 7.4 to
(c) 2x2 - 6x - 3 = 0 (d) x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 determine an equation connecting P and I.
(e) x2 - 22x + 121 = 0 (f) x2 - 8 = 0 Table 7.4
3 2
20 Solve the equation x - 5x + 2x + 8 = 0. P 24 54 96 150 216
21 Solve the inequality |3x + 2| … 4. I 2 3 4 5 6
22 Factorise t3 + 3t2 + 2t.
(b) Calculate P when I = 10.
2
23 Show that 3 - 2t - t = -(t + 3)(t - 1).
27 If a is inversely proportional to b state which
24 Table 7.3 shows the values of x and y. Given of the following are true and which are false:
that y is proportional to x (a) a multiplied by b is a constant
(a) find an equation connecting y and x (b) a divided by b is a constant
(b) calculate the value of y when x = 36 (c) a2 is inversely proportional to b2
Solutions to exercises
29 a - g b - g
1 x = 11 +
4 (a - b)(x - a) (b - a)(x - b)
25 67 29
2 x = 12 - + x - 7
6 x + 4 x + 3
119 3 3
3 - 13
2 s + 3
+
s + 1
4 x = 5, y = 2 14 s = -1, s = -2
6 False K Kt
15 C(s) = -
9 s 1 + ts
9 x 7 2 and x 6 5
Kt2 K Kt
16 C(s) = + 2 -
1 1 1 1 + ts s s
10 - + +
x + 1 x - 1 x
M07_CROF5939_04_SE_C07.QXD 11/28/18 7:03 PM Page 288
7 288 Block 7 Proportionality
2
17 (n - 7)(n + 5)(n - 1) 21 -2 … x … 3
18 (x + 5)(x2 + x + 1) 22 t(t2 + 3t + 2) = t(t + 2)(t + 1)
19 (a) x = - 8 twice (b) x = 3 ; 26 24 (a) y = 4.5x (b) y(36) = 162 (c) x = 44.4
3 215 25 (a) F (b) T (c) T
(c) x = ; (d) x = 2 ; 23
2 2 26 (a) P = 6I2 (b) P(10) = 600
(e) x = 11 twice (f) x = ; 222
27 (a) T (b) F (c) T
20 x = 4, 2, - 1
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 10/3/18 5:31 PM Page 289
Chapter 8
Logarithms and exponentials
This chapter examines two important functions: the exponential
function and the logarithmic function. Each function is the inverse
of the other.
The exponential function has been found to have widespread
application in many areas of science and engineering, whereas the
gain of an amplifier can be modelled using the logarithmic function.
Logarithms are used extensively in the study of sound, and the
decibel, used in defining the intensity of sound, is based on a
logarithmic scale.
The properties and laws of both functions are covered in this chapter,
and methods of solving equations involving exponentials and
logarithms are explained.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 290
Chapter 8 contents
Block 1 The exponential function
Block 2 Logarithms and their laws
Block 3 Solving equations involving logarithms and exponentials
Block 4 Applications of logarithms
End of chapter exercises
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 291
The exponential function
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
The exponential function has widespread application in many areas of science and
engineering. Areas that utilise the exponential function include expansion of ma-
terials, laws of cooling, radioactive decay, and the discharge of a capacitor. This
block details some properties of the exponential function and includes some of its
applications.
The hyperbolic functions are also introduced. These functions are defined in terms
of the exponential function. Identities involving the hyperbolic functions are
tabulated.
1.2 Exponential expressions
An exponent is another name for a power or index. Expressions involving exponents
are called exponential expressions. For example, 34 and ab are exponential expres-
sions. In the exponential expression ax, a is called the base and x is the exponent.
Exponential expressions can be simplified and manipulated using the laws of
indices. These laws were given in Chapter 5, Block 2 but are stated again here for
reference.
Laws of indices
am
aman = am + n, = am - n, (am)n = amn
an
In this chapter we shall be dealing with exponential expressions in which the base
will always be a particular constant called the exponential constant. This has the
symbol e and is approximately equal to 2.718. Exponential expressions with this
base dominate engineering applications.
Example 1.1
Most calculators have powers of the exponential constant preprogrammed; these can
be calculated, probably with a button marked ex. Check that you can use your calcu-
lator by calculating the following:
(a) e3.7 (b) e - 1.6 (c) 2e1.5
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 292
8 292 Block 1 The exponential function
Solution
(a) e3.7 = 40.4473
(b) e - 1.6 = 0.2019
(c) 2e1.5 = 8.9634
1.3 Simplifying exponential expressions
The laws of indices and the rules of algebra apply to exponential expressions. The
following examples illustrate this.
Example 1.2
e4x
Simplify (a) e2xe3x, (b) , (c) (e2x)3.
e7x
Solution
(a) e2xe3x = e2x + 3x = e5x.
e4x 1
(b) 7x = e4x - 7x = e-3x. This may be written as 3x .
e e
(c) (e2x)3 = e2x * 3 = e6x.
Example 1.3
Expand the brackets and simplify where possible:
(a) ex(e - x + 1)
(b) (ex + 1)2 - 1
(c) (ex + e - x)2 - 2
Solution
(a) ex(e-x + 1) = exe-x + ex
= e0 + ex
= 1 + ex
(b) (ex + 1)2 - 1 = exex + 2ex + 1 - 1
= e2x + 2ex
(c) (ex + e-x )2 - 2 = exex + 2exe-x + e-xe-x - 2
= e2x + 2 + e-2x - 2
= e2x + e-2x
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 293
1.4 The exponential function and its graph 293 8
Exercises
1 Simplify each expression as far as possible: (c) (e2x + ex)(e - 2x + e - x)
(a) e2xe7x (d) (1 + e2x + e - 2x)(1 - ex)
(b) (3ex)(2e - x)
(c) e2x(e - 2x + e - x + 1) - ex(1 + ex) 3 Simplify as far as possible:
ex + e-x ex - e-x
e-3x (a) +
(d) 2 2
2e - x
x 1 -x
(b) e + x - e
2 Expand the brackets of the following e
expressions: e2x + ex
(c) - 1
(a) (ex + 2)2 ex
(b) (ex + 1)(e - x - 1) (d) e3x(e-2x - e-3x) + 1
Solutions to exercises
e-2x
1 (a) e9x (b) 6 (c) 1 (d) (c) 2 + ex + e - x
2 (d) 1 - ex + e2x - e3x + e - 2x - e - x
2 (a) e2x + 4ex + 4 (b) e - x - ex
3 (a) ex (b) ex (c) ex (d) ex
1.4 The exponential function and its graph
Key point An exponential function has the form
y = ax
where a is a positive constant called the base.
Hence y = (0.4)x, y = 2.5x and y = 10x are all exponential functions. Note that, in
an exponential function, the independent variable appears as a power.
Key point The most commonly used exponential function, commonly called the exponential
function, is
y = ex
where the base e is the exponential constant whose value is e = 2.71828182 . . .
Table 1.1 gives values of the exponential function ex for various x values and
Figure 1.1 illustrates a graph of y = ex for -3 … x … 3.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 294
8 294 Block 1 The exponential function
Figure 1.1 y
The exponential
20
function, y = ex.
18 y = ex
16
14
Table 1.1 12
Values of ex. x ex x ex
10
-3.0 0.05 0.5 1.65
8
-2.5 0.08 1.0 2.72
-2.0 0.14 1.5 4.48 6
-1.5 0.22 2.0 7.39 4
-1.0 0.37 2.5 12.18
2
-0.5 0.61 3.0 20.09
0 1.00 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
From Figure 1.1 we note some properties of the exponential function:
1 As x becomes large and positive, ex increases without bound. We express this
mathematically as ex : q as x : q .
2 As x becomes large and negative, ex approaches 0. We write ex : 0 as x : - q .
3 ex is never negative.
The property that ex increases as x increases is referred to as exponential growth.
Figure 1.2 shows a graph of the related function y = e - x for -3 … x … 3 and
Table 1.2 lists appropriate values of e - x .
Figure 1.2 y
The function
20
y = e - x exhibits y = e−x
exponential decay. 18
16
14
Table 1.2
x e -x
x e -x 12
Values of e - x.
10
-3 20.09 0.5 0.61
-2.5 12.18 1.0 0.37 8
-2.0 7.39 1.5 0.22 6
-1.5 4.48 2.0 0.14 4
-1.0 2.72 2.5 0.08
2
-0.5 1.65 3.0 0.05
0 1.00
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
From Figure 1.2 we see that e-x decreases as x increases: this is referred to as
exponential decay.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 295
1.4 The exponential function and its graph 295 8
Example 1.4
Plot y = e0.5x and y = e0.7x for 0 … x … 3. Comment on your graphs.
Solution
Table 1.3 shows values of e0.5x and e0.7x for 0 … x … 3. Figure 1.3 illustrates the
graphs.
From Figure 1.3 we see that y = e0.7x grows more rapidly than y = e0.5x.
Figure 1.3 y
y = e0.7x grows
more rapidly than 9
y = e0.5x. 8
7 y = e0.7x
Table 1.3 0.5x 0.7x 6
Values of e0.5x and x e e
e0.7x. 5
0 1.00 1.00
4
0.5 1.28 1.42
1.0 1.65 2.01 3
1.5 2.12 2.86 y = e0.5x
2
2.0 2.72 4.06
1
2.5 3.49 5.75
3.0 4.48 8.17 O x
1 2 3
Exercises
1 Evaluate (a) e2.7, (b) e-1.6, (c) 3e0.7, 3 Sketch
(d) -1.9e0.5.
R(t) = 4 - 2e-1.5t
2 Sketch
Which value does R approach as t increases?
x = 3 + 2e-t
4 State the domain and range of (a) y = ex,
Which value does x approach as t increases? (b) y = e-x.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 14.8797 (b) 0.2019 3 See Figure 1.5. As t increases
(c) 6.0413 (d) ⫺3.1326 R approaches 4.
2 See Figure 1.4. As t increases, x approaches 3. 4 (a) (- q , q ), (0, q ) (b) (- q , q ), (0, q )
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 296
8 296 Block 1 The exponential function
5 R
4 4
x ⫽ 3 ⫹ 2e⫺t R(t) ⫽ 4 ⫺ 2e⫺1.5t
3 3
2 2
1 1
O 1 2 3 4 t O 1 2 3 t
Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5
1.5 Applications of the exponential function
The following examples illustrate some of the applications of the exponential
function.
Example 1.5 Electrical Engineering – Discharge of a capacitor
The charge, q(t), stored on a capacitor having a capacitance C, discharging through a
resistor of resistance R, is given by
t
- CR
q(t) = Qe
where Q is the initial charge.
(a) Find the value of the charge when t = 1 given Q = 50, C = 0.25 and R = 2.
(b) If the value of R is doubled calculate the new value of the charge when t = 1.
Solution
(a)
- 1
q(1) = 50e (0.25)(2)
= 50e-2
= 6.77
(b)
- 1
q(1) = 50e (0.25)(4)
= 50e-1
= 18.39
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1.5 Applications of the exponential function 297 8
Example 1.6 Electrical Engineering – Decay of a current in a circuit
Consider a circuit with resistance R, inductance L and an initial current of i0. The
current i(t) will decay with time, t, according to the law
- Rt
i(t) = i0e L
(a) Calculate the current when t = 1.5 given i0 = 12, R = 2 and L = 6.
(b) If L is increased from 6 to 9 calculate the new value of i(1.5).
Solution
- 2(1.5)
(a) i(1.5) = 12e 6
= 12e- 0.5
= 7.28
2(1.5)
- -1
(b) i(1.5) = 12e 9 = 12e 3 = 8.60
Example 1.7 Chemical Engineering – Newton’s law of cooling
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which a body cools is proportional to
the excess of its temperature above the temperature of the environment in which it is
placed. Let ∏ (t) be the temperature of a body at time t, ∏ 0 its initial temperature and
∏ e the temperature of the environment. Newton’s law of cooling can be stated math-
ematically as
⌰(t) = ⌰e + (⌰0 - ⌰e)e - kt
where k is a positive constant that depends upon the material of the body. From this
equation we see that the temperature is dropping exponentially owing to the term
e-kt: that is, the temperature follows an exponential decay curve. In this example we
take k = 1, ∏ e = 20 and ∏ 0 = 120, so
⌰(t) = 20 + 100e-t
(a) Plot ∏ (t) for t ⫽ 0 to t ⫽ 6.
(b) Use your graph to find the temperature that the body approaches as t increases.
Solution
(a) Table 1.4 gives values of ∏ (t) for various values of t from 0 to 6. Figure 1.6
shows the graph of ∏ (t).
Table 1.4
t ∏(t) = 20 + 100e - t t ∏(t) = 20 + 100e - t
0 120.0 3.5 23.0
0.5 80.7 4.0 21.8
1.0 56.8 4.5 21.1
1.5 42.3 5.0 20.7
2.0 33.5 5.5 20.4
2.5 28.2 6.0 20.2
3.0 25.0
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 298
8 298 Block 1 The exponential function
Figure 1.6 Θ
Temperature
decays exponen- 120
tially with time.
100
80
60
40
20
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
(b) From Figure 1.6 we see that the temperature, ∏ (t), approaches 20 as t
increases. This is to be expected: the temperature of the body approaches the
temperature of the environment.
The result stated in Example 1.7(b) can be seen for the general case by considering
the equation
⌰(t) = ⌰e + (⌰0 - ⌰e)e-kt
We have already noted that e-x approaches 0 as x increases; clearly e-t and e-kt
approach 0 as t increases since k is positive. Hence (∏ 0 - ∏ e )e-kt approaches 0 as t
increases. Finally ∏ e + (∏ 0 - ∏ e )e-kt approaches ∏ e as t increases.
Exercises
1 The number of particles, N(t), emitted by a (a) Calculate the percentage change in length
radioactive substance varies with time, t, when T increases from T = 20 to T = 100,
according to the law given a = 0.001.
(b) Calculate the percentage change in length
N(t) = 9.63 * 1017e-0.6t t Ú 0
when T decreases from T = 150 to T = 50.
(a) Calculate the number of particles emitted
when t = 0. 3 Atmospheric pressure, P(h) atmospheres,
(b) Calculate the number of particles emitted varies according to the height, h metres, above
when t = 2. the surface of the Earth. Given
P(h) = e-0.000016h
2 The length, l(T), of a bar depends upon the
temperature, T, according to the law calculate the pressure at a height of
aT (a) 2 km
l(T) = l0e
(b) 10 km
where l0 is the length of the bar when T = 0, above the Earth.
and a is a positive constant.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 299
1.6 Hyperbolic functions 299 8
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 9.63 * 1017 (b) 2.90 * 1017 3 (a) 0.9685 atmospheres
(b) 0.8521 atmospheres
2 (a) 8.33% increase (b) 9.52% decrease
1.6 Hyperbolic functions
Closely associated to the exponential function are the hyperbolic functions. The
hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:
Key point ex - e-x
hyperbolic sine: sinh x =
2
ex + e-x
hyperbolic cosine: cosh x =
2
sinh x ex - e-x
hyperbolic tangent: tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e-x
1 2
cosech x = = x
sinh x e - e-x
1 2
sech x = = x
cosh x e + e-x
1 ex + e-x
coth x = = x
tanh x e - e-x
Readers already familiar with the trigonometrical functions will note the similarity
of the names. Most scientific calculators have values of the hyperbolic functions pre-
programmed. Use Example 1.8 to check that you can use your calculator to find the
values of the hyperbolic functions.
Example 1.8
Use a calculator to evaluate
(a) sinh 2.1 (b) cosh(-1.3) (c) tanh 1.4
(d) cosech 2.2 (e) sech(-1.6) (f) coth(-2)
Solution
(a) sinh 2.1 = 4.0219
(b) cosh(-1.3) = 1.9709
(c) tanh 1.4 = 0.8854
1
(d) cosech 2.2 = = 0.2244
sinh 2.2
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 300
8 300 Block 1 The exponential function
1
(e) sech(-1.6) = = 0.3880
cosh(-1.6)
1
(f) coth(-2) = = -1.0373
tanh(-2)
Figure 1.7 illustrates graphs of y = sinh x, y = cosh x and y = tanh x.
Figure 1.7 y y
(a) y = sinh x, 10
(b) y = cosh x, 10
8 8
(c) y = tanh x.
6 6
4 4
2
2
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 ⫺2 1 2 3 x
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 O 1 2 3 x
⫺4 (b)
⫺6
⫺8
⫺10
(a)
y
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 1 2 3 x
⫺0.2
⫺0.4
⫺0.6
⫺0.8
⫺1.0
(c)
Example 1.9
Express 7ex + 3e-x in terms of sinh x and cosh x.
Solution
We note that
ex + e-x ex - e-x
cosh x + sinh x = +
2 2
= ex
ex + e-x ex - e-x
cosh x - sinh x = -
2 2
= e-x
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 301
1.7 Hyperbolic identities 301 8
So
7ex + 3e-x = 7(cosh x + sinh x) + 3(cosh x - sinh x)
= 10 cosh x + 4sinh x
Example 1.10 Mechanical Engineering – The catenary
A heavy chain, suspended at both ends, hangs in the shape defined by
y = a cosh a b
x
b
Note that when x = 0 we have
y(0) = a cosh 0
= a
and that when x = b we have
y(b) = a cosh a b
b
b
= a cosh 1
= 1.54a
The points (0, a) and (b, 1.54a) are marked on Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8 y
A catenary is
defined by a cosh 1 ⫽ 1.54a
B
y = a cosh a b.
x
b
A
O b x
Such a curve is known as a catenary.
1.7 Hyperbolic identities
If two expressions have the same value for all values of x, we say that they are identi-
cal. For example, ex and cosh x + sinh x have the same value for any value of x.
A statement of the form ex = cosh x + sinh x is called an identity. There are many
identities that relate different hyperbolic functions. Table 1.5 lists some of the com-
mon hyperbolic identities.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 302
8 302 Block 1 The exponential function
Table 1.5
Hyperbolic ex cosh x + sinh x
=
identities. e-x cosh x - sinh x
=
cosh2 x - sinh2 x 1
=
1 - tanh2 x sech2 x
=
coth2 x - 1 cosech2 x
=
sinh(x ; y) sinh x cosh y ; cosh x sinh y
=
cosh(x ; y) cosh x cosh y ; sinh x sinh y
=
sinh 2x 2 sinh x cosh x
=
cosh 2x cosh2 x + sinh2 x
=
cosh 2x + 1
cosh2 x =
2
cosh 2x - 1
sinh2 x =
2
Note that cosh2 x means (cosh x)2 and sinh2 x means (sinh x)2.
Example 1.11
Prove the following identities:
(a) cosh2 x - sinh2 x = 1
(b) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
Solution
(a) Note that from Example 1.9
cosh x + sinh x = ex, cosh x - sinh x = e-x
Now
cosh2 x - sinh2 x = (cosh x + sinh x) (cosh x - sinh x)
= (ex)(e-x)
= 1
(b) We have
e2x - e-2x
sinh 2x =
2
Also
ex - e-x ex + e-x
2 sinh x cosh x = 2a ba b
2 2
(ex - e-x)(ex + e-x)
=
2
(e ) + e e - e-xex - (e-x)2
x 2 x -x
=
2
2x
e + 1 - 1 - e-2x
=
2
e2x - e-2x
=
2
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:09 AM Page 303
1.7 Hyperbolic identities 303 8
Hence
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
Example 1.12 Electrical Engineering – Voltage in a transmission line
A transmission line is an arrangement of electrical conductors for transporting elec-
tromagnetic waves. The coaxial cable used to carry a signal from a TV aerial to a TV
set is a common example.
The voltage in a line depends upon both distance along the line, z, and time, t. For
any fixed time, the voltage at distance z along the line has the form
v(z) = Ae-az + Beaz
where A and B are constants. For a particular transmission line A = 1 and B = 4
giving
v = e-az + 4eaz
Show that v may be written as
v = 3 sinh a z + 5 cosh a z
Solution
v = e-az + 4eaz
= (cosh a z - sinh a z) + 4(cosh a z + sinh a z) (using Table 1.5)
= 5 cosh a z + 3 sinh a z
Exercises
1 Evaluate 5 Express 4e2x - 6e-2x in terms of sinh 2x and
(a) sinh(-3) (b) cosh 1.9 (c) tanh(-3.2) cosh 2x.
(d) cosech 2 (e) sech (-2.5) (f) coth 0.6
6 Electrical Engineering – Transmission line.
2 Sketch y = cosech x for -3 … x … 3. The voltage in a transmission line, v, is given
by
3 Sketch y = sech x for -3 … x … 3.
v = 7e-az + 3eaz
4 Prove the identities Express the voltage, v, using hyperbolic
(a) 1 - tanh2 x = sech2 x functions.
cosh 2x - 1
(b) sinh2 x =
2
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 304
8 304 Block 1 The exponential function
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) -10.02 (b) 3.42 (c) -1.00 (d) 0.28 3 See Figure 1.10.
(e) 0.16 (f) 1.86
2 See Figure 1.9.
y y
2.0 1.0
0.8
1.5
0.6
1.0 0.4
0.2
0.5
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 O 1 2 3 x
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 O 1 2 3 x
Figure 1.10
⫺0.5 y = sech x.
⫺1.0
⫺1.5
⫺2.0
5 10 sinh 2x - 2 cosh 2x
Figure 1.9
y = cosech x. 6 10 cosh a z - 4 sinh a z
End of block exercises
1 Sketch y = coth x for -3 … x … 3. (a) Calculate the charge when t = 3.
(b) Calculate the charge when t = 5.
2 Simplify each of the following as much as
possible: 5 (a) Plot y = 6 + 4e-2t, for 0 … t … 3.
(a) e-7xe4x (b) 2e3xe5x (c) (3e3x)(2e2x)(-e-x) (b) What value does y approach as t increases?
8e6x
(d) 6 Given
2e-2x
3 Prove the identities y = a + be-t
(a) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x where a and b are constants, state the value
(b) sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y that y approaches as t increases.
4 The charge on a capacitor, C(t), decays 7 (a) Show that
according to the law
ex + 6
C(t) = 100e-0.2t t Ú 0 2ex + 5
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 305
1.7 Hyperbolic identities 305 8
may be expressed as - Rt
-x i(t) = i0e L
1 + 6e
2 + 5e-x (a) Calculate the current when t = 0.5 given
i0 = 10, R = 3 and L = 5.
(b) What value does (b) Describe the effect on i(t) if the value of R
ex + 6 is increased, all other values remaining
2ex + 5 constant.
(c) Describe the effect on i(t) if the value of L
approach as x becomes large and positive? is increased, all other values remaining
constant.
8 Electrical Engineering – Decay of a current
in a circuit. The current, i(t), in a circuit
changes with time, t, according to
Solutions to exercises
1 See Figure 1.11. 5 (a) See Figure 1.12 (b) 6
y
2.0 y
10
1.5 9
8
1.0 7
6
0.5 5
4
x 3
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 O 1 2 3
2
⫺0.5 1
⫺1.0 O 1 2 3 t
Figure 1.12
⫺1.5 y = 6 + 4e-2t.
⫺2.0
6 a
Figure 1.11
y = coth x. 7 (b) 0.5
2 (a) e-3x (b) 2e8x (c) -6e4x (d) 4e8x 8 (a) 7.41
(b) The current decreases as R increases.
4 (a) 54.88 (b) 36.79 (c) The current increases as L increases.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 10/3/18 5:32 PM Page 306
Logarithms and their laws
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Logarithms are an alternative way of writing expressions that involve powers, or
indices. They are used extensively in the study of sound. The decibel, used in defin-
ing the intensity of sound, is based on a logarithmic scale. In this block we define the
logarithm and give the laws that are used to simplify and manipulate expressions
involving logarithms.
2.2 Definition of the logarithm
Consider the statement that
16 = 24
Here 2 is the base and 4 is the power. This may be expressed in an alternative way
using logarithms as
log2 16 = 4
We read this as ‘log 16, to the base 2, equals 4’. Some more examples follow:
8 = 23 may be written as log2 8 = 3
25 = 52 may be written as log5 25 = 2
81 = 34 may be written as log3 81 = 4
0.125 = (0.5)3 may be written as log0.5 0.125 = 3
10000 = 104 may be written as log10 10000 = 4
10-1 = 0.1 may be written as log10 0.1 = - 1
In general we have
Key point If a is a positive constant with a Z 1, and
N = ax
then
loga N = x
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2.2 Definition of the logarithm 307 8
The number a is called the base of the logarithms. Note that a is positive and a Z 1.
In practice, most logarithms are to the base 10 or e. Logarithms to base e are called
natural logarithms. Natural logarithms are often denoted by ln rather than loge,
whereas logarithms to base 10 are denoted simply by log rather than log10.
Key point If N = 10x then x = log10 N = log N.
If N = ex then x = loge N = ln N.
Scientific calculators are preprogrammed with both natural logarithms and logar-
ithms to base 10. Use Example 2.1 to check that you can use your calculator.
Example 2.1
Use a scientific calculator to find:
(a) log 79 (b) ln 79 (c) log 0.21 (d) ln 0.036
Solution
(a) log 79 = 1.8976
(b) ln 79 = 4.3694
(c) log 0.21 = -0.6778
(d) ln 0.036 = -3.3242
Example 2.2
Express each of the following statements using logarithms:
(a) 103 = 1000 (b) 10-2 = 0.01 (c) 12.1825 = e2.5 (d) e-2.3026 = 0.1
Solution
(a) log 1000 = 3 (b) log 0.01 = -2 (c) ln 12.1825 = 2.5
(d) ln 0.1 = -2.3026
Exercises
1 Write the following using logarithms: 4 Write the following using indices:
(a) 32 = 25 (b) 125 = 53 (c) 243 = 35 (a) log5 625 = 4
(d) 43 = 64 (e) 62 = 36 (b) log2 256 = 8
(c) log 0.0251 = -1.6
2 Write the following using logarithms: (d) ln 17 = 2.8332
(a) 102 = 100 (b) 0.001 = 10-3
(c) e-1.3 = 0.2725 (d) e1.5 = 4.4817
3 Evaluate
(a) log 250 (b) ln 250 (c) log 0.46
(d) ln 0.46
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8 308 Block 2 Logarithms and their laws
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) log2 32 = 5 (b) log5 125 = 3 3 (a) 2.3979 (b) 5.5215
(c) log3 243 = 5 (d) log4 64 = 3 (c) -0.3372 (d) -0.7765
(e) log6 36 = 2
4 (a) 54 = 625 (b) 28 = 256
2 (a) log 100 = 2 (b) log 0.001 = -3 (c) 10-1.6 = 0.0251 (d) e2.8332 = 17
(c) ln 0.2725 = -1.3 (d) ln 4.4817 = 1.5
2.3 Logarithms to any base
To calculate a logarithm to base a, knowing logarithms to base b, we use
Key point loga N =
logb N
logb a
We prove this result later in the chapter.
Example 2.3
Evaluate log3 40.
Solution
log 40
log3 40 =
log 3
1.6021
=
0.4771
= 3.358
Example 2.4
Evaluate log7 36.
Solution
log 36
log7 36 = = 1.842
log 7
Exercises
1 Evaluate
(a) log4 36 (b) log2 9 (c) log12 10
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2.585 (b) 3.170 (c) 0.927
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2.4 Laws of logarithms 309 8
2.4 Laws of logarithms
Just as expressions involving indices can be simplified using appropriate laws, so
expressions involving logarithms can be simplified using the laws of logarithms. The
laws of logarithms hold true for any base. However, it is essential that the same base
is used throughout an expression before the laws can be applied.
The first law of logarithms is
Key point log A + log B = log AB
Example 2.5
Simplify each of the following to a single logarithmic expression:
(a) log 7 + log 2
(b) ln 9 + ln 10
(c) log x + log x2
(d) ln 2y + ln 3y
Solution
(a) log 7 + log 2 = log(7 * 2) = log 14
(b) ln 9 + ln 10 = ln 90
(c) log x + log x2 = log(xx2) = log x3
(d) ln 2y + ln 3y = ln(2y3y) = ln 6y2
The second law of logarithms states
Key point log A - log B = log a b
A
B
Example 2.6
Express as a single logarithm:
(a) log 15 - log 3
(b) ln 6 - ln(0.5)
(c) ln 6x2 - ln 2x
(d) log 1 - log x
Solution
(a) log 15 - log 3 = log a b = log 5
15
3
(b) ln 6 - ln (0.5) = ln a b = ln 12
6
0.5
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8 310 Block 2 Logarithms and their laws
6x2
(c) ln 6x2 - ln 2x = ln a b = ln 3x
2x
1
(d) log 1 - log x = log
x
We use the second law of logarithms to develop another result. Clearly
log A - log A = 0. Using the second law we may also write
log A - log A = log a b
A
A
= log 1
Hence we see that
Key point log 1 = 0
The third law of logarithms states
Key point log An = n log A
Example 2.7
Rewrite the following in an alternative form without using a power:
(a) log 23 (b) log 22 (c) log x2 (d) ln t5
Solution
(a) log 23 = 3 log 2
2
(b) log 2 = 2 log 2
(c) log x2 = 2 log x
5
(d) ln t = 5 ln t
Example 2.8
Simplify each of the following as much as possible:
(a) 3 log 2 - log 6
(b) ln 250 + 2 ln 2
(c) log 3x3 + 2 log x
(d) ln t5 - 3 ln t2
Solution
(a) 3 log 2 - log 6 = log 23 - log 6
= log 8 - log 6
= log a b
8
6
= log a b
4
3
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2.4 Laws of logarithms 311 8
(b) ln 250 + 2 ln 2 = ln 250 + ln 22
= ln 250 + ln 4
= ln(250 * 4)
= ln 1000
(c) log 3x3 + 2 log x = log 3x3 + log x2
= log(3x3 # x2) = log 3x5
(d) ln t5 - 3 ln t2 = ln t5 - ln(t2)3
= ln t5 - ln t6
t5
= ln 6
t
1
= ln
t
Note that
1
ln = ln t-1
t
= -ln t
Example 2.9
Simplify
1 1 1 1
(a) log 25 (b) log 8 (c) log x2 (d) ln 9t2
2 3 2 2
Solution
1
(a) log 25 = log 251>2 = log 5
2
1
(b) log 8 = log 81>3 = log 2
3
1
(c) log x2 = log(x2)1>2 = log x
2
1
(d) ln 9t2 = ln(9t2)1>2 = ln 3t
2
(Hint: (9t2)1>2 = 91>2(t2)1>2 = 3t using the generalised third law of indices.)
Example 2.10
Simplify
(a) 3 log x - 2 log a b -
1 1
log 9
x 2
(b) 4 log t2 - 2 log t3 + log a 2 b
1
t
Solution
1 1 1
(a) 3 log x = log x3, 2 log = log 2 = log x-2, and log 9 = log 91>2 = log 3, so
x x 2
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8 312 Block 2 Logarithms and their laws
3 log x - 2 log a b -
1 1
log 9 = log x3 - log x-2 - log 3
x 2
x3
= log a b
3x-2
x5
= log a b
3
(b) 4 log t2 = log(t2)4 = log t8
2 log t3 = log(t3)2 = log t6
1
log = log t-2
t2
So
1
4 log t2 - 2 log t3 + log = log t8 - log t6 + log t-2
t2
t8 t-2
= log a b
t6
= log 1
= 0
In Section 2.3 we stated the formula that enables the calculation of a logarithm to
any base. Specifically, we looked at how to calculate the logarithm of a number, N, to
base a, knowing logarithms to base b:
logb N
loga N =
logb a
We can now develop this formula using the third law.
Suppose
N = an (1)
so that
loga N = n (2)
Taking logs to base b of equation (1)
logb N = logb(an) (3)
= n logb a using the third law (4)
Then
loga N = n from (2) (5)
logb N
= from (4) (6)
logb a
as required.
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2.4 Laws of logarithms 313 8
Exercises
1 Simplify to a single log term:
(b) log x + log 3x + log 5x
(a) log 10 + log 20 (c) log x2y - log y2
(b) log 30 - log 6 (d) log x2 + log y2 - log z2
(c) log 1 + log 2 + log 3 + log 4 1
(d) log 4 - log 3 (e) log A + log B - log
C
(e) log 6 - log 5 + log 4 - log 3
2 Simplify to a single log term: 5 Simplify to a single log term:
(a) 2 log 3 + 3 log 2 (a) 2 log x2 - 3 log x
(b) 4 log 3 - log 27 (b) 3 log x2y + 2 log xy
(c) 2 log 8 - 4 log 2 + log 3 (c) 4 log AB2 - 3 log A2B
(d) 2 log 12 - 3 log 6 + 2 log 2
(d) 2 log rs + 3 log rs2 - 4 log r2s
(e) 5 log 3 - 2 log 9 + 2 log 6 - 3 log 2
(e) 4 log abc - 2 log a2b - 3 log bc
3 Simplify to a single log term:
1 1 6 Simplify to a single log term:
(a) log 16 + log 8 x y
2 3 (a) 2 log + 3 log
2 y x
(b) log 27 - 2 log 3
3 x2 y2
1 3 1 (b) 2 log - 3 log
(c) log 1 + log 16 + log 9 - 2 log 2 y x
4 4 2 r2
3 2 (c) 4 log rs2 t - 2 log r2st2 + 3 log
(d) log 4 - log 8 st
2 3
4 2 1 x2 1 x3
(e) log 64 + log 27 - log 24 (d) log 2 - log 6
3 3 2 y 3 y
2 a2b 3 c 1
(e) log 2 + log - log abc
4 Simplify to a single log term: 3 c 2 ab 2
(a) log x + log 2x
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) log 200 (b) log 5 (c) log 24 B5
5 (a) log x (b) log x8y5 (c) log
4 8 A2
(d) log (e) log s4 c
3 5 (d) log 3 (e) log
r b
2 (a) log 72 (b) log 3 (c) log 12 y x7 r6 s3
8 27
6 (a) log (b) log 8 (c) log 3
x y t
(d) log (e) log
3 2 1
(d) log y (e) log 2>3
3 (a) log 8 (b) log 1 = 0 (c) log 6 a b4>3 c1>3
(d) log 2 (e) log 96
x2
4 (a) log 2x2 (b) log 15x3 (c) log
y
x2 y2
(d) log (e) log ABC
z2
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8 314 Block 2 Logarithms and their laws
2.5 The logarithmic functions
We are now ready to introduce the logarithmic functions. They are defined as
follows:
Key point y = log x and y = ln x for x 7 0
Table 2.1 shows values of x, log x and ln x. Their graphs are shown in Figure 2.1.
We note the following common properties:
1 As x increases, both log x and ln x increase indefinitely. We write this mathemat-
ically as log x : q as x : q , ln x : q as x : q.
2 As x approaches 0, both log x and ln x approach minus infinity. We express this as
log x : - q as x : 0, ln x : - q as x : 0.
3 log 1 = ln 1 = 0.
4 log x and ln x are not defined when x is negative or zero. Thus the domain of the
logarithm functions is x 7 0. The range of these functions is (- q , q ).
Table 2.1
x log x ln x
0.1 -1 -2.30
0.2 -0.70 -1.61
0.5 -0.30 -0.69
1 0 0
2 0.30 0.69
3 0.48 1.10
4 0.60 1.39
5 0.70 1.61
6 0.78 1.79
7 0.85 1.95
8 0.90 2.08
9 0.95 2.20
10 1 2.30
Figure 2.1 y
The graphs of
3
y = log x and
y = ln x. y = ln x
2
y = log x
1
O
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1
−2
−3
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2.5 The logarithmic functions 315 8
End of block exercises
1 Express the following statements using 3 Express as a single log term in its simplest
logarithms: form:
(a) 27 = 128 (a) 2 log y + 3 log x
(b) 45 = 1024 (b) 3 log AB - 2 log B - log A
(c) 243 = 35 1 1
(c) log 4x2 - log x
(d) 0.125 = 2-3 2 3
(e) 4-1>2 = 0.5 1 3
(d) log 8x + log 2x
2 2
2 Express the following using indices: (e) log 2x - 2 log x + x log 2
(a) log3 81 = 4
4 Simplify as far as possible
(b) log10 0.0001 = -4 (a) log (x2 + 4x + 3) - log (x + 1)
(c) log16 8 = 0.75
(b) 2 log (x - 1) - log (x2 - 1)
(d) log4 8 = 1.5
(e) log4 0.125 = -1.5 5 Evaluate (a) log4 9, (b) log12 6.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) log2 128 = 7 (b) log4 1024 = 5 3 (a) log x3y2 (b) log A2B (c) log 2x2>3
(c) log3 243 = 5 (d) log2 0.125 = -3 2x + 1
(e) log4 0.5 = -0.5 (d) log 8x2 (e) log a b
x
(a) log (x + 3) (b) log a b
2 (a) 34 = 81 (b) 10-4 = 0.0001 x - 1
4
(c) 160.75 = 8 (d) 41.5 = 8 x + 1
(e) 4-1.5 = 0.125 5 (a) 1.585 (b) 0.721
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 316
Solving equations involving logarithms
BLOCK 3
and exponentials
3.1 Introduction
In this block we examine the techniques used in solving equations involving logar-
ithmic and exponential terms. We recall the connection between logarithmic and
exponential expressions:
Key point if N = ax then x = loga N
In particular,
Key point if N = 10x then x = log N
and
Key point if N = ex then x = ln N
The process of finding x, having been given 10 x or e x, is known as taking logs.
The following examples illustrate the technique for solution.
Example 3.1
Solve
(a) 10x = 17.4 (b) ex = 5.25
Solution
(a) We have
10 x = 17.4
so taking logs gives
x = log 17.4
= 1.2405
(b) We have ex = 5.25. Taking logs gives
x = ln 5.25
= 1.6582
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3.1 Introduction 317 8
Example 3.2
Solve
(a) 102x = 39 (b) e3x-1 = 75
Solution
(a) We have 102x = 39. Taking logs gives
2x = log 39
log 39
x =
2
= 0.7955
(b) e3x - 1 = 75
3x - 1 = ln 75
3x = ln 75 + 1
ln 75 + 1
x =
3
= 1.7725
Example 3.3
Solve 3(100.5x-2) = 96.
Solution
3(100.5x - 2) = 96
96
100.5x - 2 =
3
= 32
0.5x - 2 = log 32
0.5x = log 32 + 2
x = 2(log 32 + 2)
= 7.0103
Example 3.4
Solve
(a) log x = 1.4 (b) ln x = -0.5
Solution
(a) log x = 1.4
x = 101.4
= 25.12
(b) ln x = -0.5
x = e-0.5
= 0.61
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 318
8 318 Block 3 Solving equations involving logarithms and exponentials
Example 3.5
Solve
(a) log(x2 + 2) = 2.6 (b) 3 ln(5x + 1) = 9.3
Solution
(a) log(x2 + 2) = 2.6
x2 + 2 = 10 2.6
x2 = 10 2.6 - 2
x = 210 2.6 - 2
= ;19.90
(b) 3 ln(5x + 1) = 9.3
9.3
ln(5x + 1) =
3
= 3.1
5x + 1 = e3.1
5x = e3.1 - 1
e3.1 - 1
x = x =
5
= 4.24
Example 3.6 Electronic Engineering – Current through a diode
The current through a diode, I, is given by
I = Is (e40V - 1)
where Is is the reverse saturation current and V is the voltage across the diode.
(a) Express V as the subject of the equation.
(b) Evaluate V when I = 3 * 10-2, Is = 1.5 * 10-4.
Solution
(a) I = Is (e40V - 1)
I
e40V - 1 =
Is
I
e40V = + 1
Is
Now, taking logs,
40V = ln a
I
+ 1b
Is
ln a + 1b
1 I
V =
40 Is
(b) Substituting the given values of I and Is into the expression for V results in
ln a
1 3 * 10-2
V = + 1b
40 1.5 * 10-4
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 319
3.1 Introduction 319 8
1
= ln(200 + 1)
40
1
= ln 201
40
= 0.133
Example 3.7 Electronic Engineering – Gain of an amplifier
The voltage gain, measured in decibels (dB), of an amplifier is given by
gain = 20 log a b
Vo
Vi
where Vi is the input voltage and Vo is the output voltage.
The output voltage from an amplifier is 250 mV. If the amplifier has a gain of
17 dB calculate the input voltage.
Solution
We have
gain = 20 log a b
Vo
Vi
where the gain is 17 dB and Vo = 250 mV. So
17 = 20 log a b
250
Vi
log a b =
250 17
Vi 20
= 0.85
250
= 100.85
Vi
250
Vi = 0.85
10
= 35.31
The input voltage is 35.3 mV.
Exercises
1 Solve the following equations: 3 Solve
(a) log x = 0.7531 (a) 10x = 7
(b) log x = 1.6431 (b) 10x = 70
(c) log x = -0.4213 (c) 10x = 17
(d) log x = -2.3500 (d) 10x = 0.7000
2 Solve 4 Solve
(a) ln x = 2.4050 (a) ex = 5
(b) ln x = 0.9611 (b) ex = 0.5
(c) ln x = -0.9611 (c) ex = 25
(d) ln x = -2.0000 (d) ex = 0.001761
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8 320 Block 3 Solving equations involving logarithms and exponentials
5 Solve 7 An amplifier has a gain of 25 dB. If the input
(a) log 2x = 1.5 voltage is 15 mV calculate the output voltage.
(b) log(3x + 1) = 2.1500
(c) log(x2 + 3) = 2.3671 8 The current, I, through a diode is given by
(d) 4 log(5x - 6) = -0.8000
I = Is(e40V - 1)
6 Solve
(a) ln(2x2) = 3 where Is is the reverse saturation current and
V is the voltage across the diode. If the current
(b) 2 ln(x2) = 3 is 300 times greater than the reverse saturation
(c) ln(x2 + 2) = 1.3 current, calculate the voltage across the diode.
(d) 3 ln(x2 + 1) = 3.9
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 5.6637 (b) 43.9643 (c) 0.3791 5 (a) 15.8114 (b) 46.7513 (c) ;15.1612
(d) 0.004467 (d) 1.3262
2 (a) 11.0784 (b) 2.6146 (c) 0.3825 6 (a) ;3.1690 (b) ;2.1170 (c) ;1.2920
(d) 0.1353 (d) ;1.6338
3 (a) 0.8451 (b) 1.8451 (c) 1.2304 7 267 mV
(d) -0.1549
8 143 mV
4 (a) 1.6094 (b) -0.6931 (c) 3.2189
(d) -6.3419
End of block exercises
1 Solve 4 Solve
(a) log(3x - 7) = 2.6500 (a) 3e4x = 2.7 (b) 3 ln 4x = -2.7
(b) 2 ln(x2 + 4) = 3.9
5 Solve
2 Solve 1 3 1
(a) log(5 - x2) = (b) ex =
(a) e-2x = 4 (b) 103-x = 20 2 3
3 Solve
103x
(a) x = 30 (b) log x + log(2x) = 3
10
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 151.2 (b) ;1.7403 4 (a) -0.02634 (b) 0.1016
2 (a) -0.6931 (b) 1.6990 5 (a) ;1.3556 (b) -2.7307
3 (a) 0.7386 (b) 22.36
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 321
Applications of logarithms
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Block 2 looked at the definition and laws of logarithms. This block concentrates on
some of the applications of logarithms.
4.2 Signal ratio and decibels
The ratio between two signal levels is often of interest to engineers. For example, the
output and input signals of an electronic system can be compared to see whether
the system has increased the level of a signal. A common case is an amplifier, where
the output signal is usually much larger than the input signal. This signal ratio is
often expressed in decibels (dB), given by
power gain (dB) = 10 log a b
Po
Pi
where Po is the power of the output signal and Pi is the power of the input signal. The
term gain is used because if Po 7 Pi then the logarithm function is positive, corre-
sponding to an increase in power. If Po 6 Pi then the gain is negative, corresponding
to a decrease in power. A negative gain is often termed an attenuation.
The advantage of using decibels as a measure of gain is that if several electronic
systems are connected together then it is possible to obtain the overall system gain in
decibels by adding together the individual system gains. We shall show this for three
systems connected together, but the development is easily generalised to more sys-
tems. Let the power input to the first system be Pi1, and the power output from the
third system be Po3. Suppose the three are connected so that the power output from
system 1, Po1, is used as input to system 2: that is, Pi2 = Po1. The power output from
system 2, Po2, is then used as input to system 3: that is, Pi3 = Po2. We wish to find
the overall power gain, 10 log a b . Now
Po3
Pi1
Po3 Po3Po2Po1
=
Pi1 Pi3Pi2Pi1
because Pi3 = Po2 and Pi2 = Po1. Therefore
b = 10 loga b
Po3 Po3Po2Po1
10 loga
Pi1 Pi3Pi2Pi1
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8 322 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
That is,
b = 10 loga b + 10 loga b + 10 loga b
Po3 Po3 Po2 Po1
10 loga
Pi1 Pi3 Pi2 Pi1
using the laws of logarithms.
It follows that the overall power gain is equal to the sum of the individual power
gains. Often engineers are more interested in voltage gain rather than power gain.
The power of a signal is proportional to the square of its voltage. We define voltage
gain (dB) by
V 2o
voltage gain (dB) = 10 log a b = 20 log a b
Vo
V 2i Vi
Example 4.1 Electronic Engineering – Gain of an amplifier
Calculate the voltage gain in decibels of an amplifier where the input signal is 0.8 V
and the output signal is 1.2 V.
Solution
We have Vo = 1.2 and Vi = 0.8. Then
Vo
voltage gain (dB) = 20 log
Vi
1.2
= 20 log
0.8
= 3.52
The voltage gain is 3.52 decibels.
Exercises
1 Calculate the voltage gain in decibels of an 2 Calculate the voltage gain in decibels of an
amplifier where the input signal is 0.5 V and amplifier where the input signal is 0.15 V and
the output signal is 2.2 V. the output signal is 1.9 V.
Solutions to exercises
1 12.87 dB 2 22.05 dB
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4.3 Use of log–linear and log–log scales 323 8
4.3 Use of log–linear and log–log scales
We look at each kind of scale separately.
Log–linear scales
Suppose we wish to plot
y(x) = x6 1 … x … 10
This may appear a straightforward exercise, but consider the variation in the x and y
values. As x varies from 1 to 10, then y varies from 1 to 1000000, as tabulated in
Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
x y
1 1
2 64
3 729
4 4096
5 15625
6 46656
7 117649
8 262144
9 531441
10 1000000
Several of these points would not be discernible on a graph, and so information
would be lost. This can be overcome by using a log scale, which accommodates the
large variation in y. Thus log y is plotted against x, rather than y against x.
Table 4.2 shows values of x and log y, and the corresponding graph is illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
Table 4.2 Figure 4.1 log y
x log y The function 6
y = x6 is plotted
1 0 5
on a log–linear
2 1.81 graph. 4
3 2.86 3
4 3.61 2
5 4.19 1
6 4.67 O
7 5.07 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
8 5.42
9 5.73
10 6
As x varies from 1 to 10, log y varies from 0 to 6. A plot in which one scale is logar-
ithmic and the other is linear is known as a log–linear graph. In effect, use of the log
scale has compressed a large variation into one that is much smaller and easier to
observe.
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8 324 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Example 4.2
Consider y = 7x for -3 … x … 3. Plot a log–linear graph of this function.
Solution
We have
y = 7x
and so
log y = log(7x)
= x log 7
= 0.8451x
Putting Y = log y we have Y = 0.8451x, which is the equation of a straight line
passing through the origin with gradient log 7. Hence when log y is plotted against x
a straight line graph is produced. This is shown in Figure 4.2. Note that, by taking
logs, the range on the vertical axis has been greatly reduced.
Figure 4.2 Y
A log–linear plot x y Y = log y 2.5
of y = 7x pro-
duces a straight -3 0.003 -2.54
line graph. -2 0.020 -1.69
-1 0.143 -0.85
0 1 0
1 7 0.85 x
⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 1 2 3
2 49 1.69
3 343 2.54
⫺2.5
Log–log scales
A plot in which both scales are logarithmic is known as a log–log plot. Here log y is
plotted against log x.
Example 4.3
Consider y = x7 for 1 … x … 10. Plot a log–log graph of this function.
Solution
We have
y = x7
and so
log y = log(x7)
= 7 log x
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4.3 Use of log–linear and log–log scales 325 8
We plot log y against log x for a log–log plot. Putting Y = log y and X = log x we
have Y = 7X, which is a straight line through the origin with gradient 7, as shown in
Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Y
A log–log plot of x y X = log x Y = log y
7
y = x7 produces a
1 1 0 0
straight line graph.
2 128 0.301 2.107
3 2187 0.477 3.340
4 16384 0.602 4.214
5 78125 0.699 4.893
6 279936 0.778 5.447
7 823543 0.845 5.916
8 2097152 0.903 6.322
1 X
9 4782969 0.954 6.680
10 10000000 1 7
We have seen how a log scale has the effect of compressing a very large range of val-
ues into a more meaningful size. Similarly a log scale expands a very small range
into a more meaningful size. Consider the following example.
Example 4.4
Plot a log–log graph of
y = x3 10-6 … x … 10-1
Solution
The small range of x values would almost be impossible to plot. The plot is
more meaningful when a log–log scale is used. Table 4.3 shows values of x, y, log x
and log y.
Table 4.3
x y log x log y
-6 -18
10 10 -6 -18
10-5 10-15 -5 -15
10-4 10-12 -4 -12
10-3 10-9 -3 -9
10-2 10-6 -2 -6
10-1 10-3 -1 -3
From Table 4.3 we see that both x and y have a very small range but that log x
and log y have a much more meaningful range. Figure 4.4 shows a plot of log y
against log x.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 326
8 326 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Figure 4.4 log y
A plot of log y
⫺6 ⫺1
against log x.
⫺3 log x
⫺18
Figure 4.4 shows a straight line graph with gradient 3. This can be seen from
y = x3
log y = log x3
= 3 log x
4.4 Use of log–linear and log–log paper
The requirement to take logarithms is a tedious process, which can be avoided by
using special graph papers called log–linear graph paper and log–log graph paper.
An example of log–linear graph paper is shown in Figure 4.5.
Note that on one axis the scale is uniform; this is the linear scale. On the other, the
scale is not uniform and is marked in cycles from 1 to 9. This is the logarithmic
scale. On this scale values of y are plotted directly, without first taking logarithms.
On the graph paper shown in Figure 4.5 there are two cycles but papers are also
available with three or more cycles. To decide which sort of graph paper is appropri-
ate it is necessary to examine the variation in size of the variable to be plotted
measured in powers of 10. If, for example, y varies from 1 to 10, then paper with one
cycle is appropriate. If y varies from 1 to 102, two-cycle paper is necessary. If y
varies from 10-1 to 104, then paper with 4 - (-1) = 5 cycles would be appropriate.
To see how log–linear paper is used in practice, consider the following example.
Example 4.5
Following an experiment the following pairs of data values were recorded:
A B C D
x 0 1 5 12
y 4.00 5.20 14.85 93.19
It is believed that y and x are related by the equation y = abx. By plotting a log–linear
graph verify the relationship is of this form and determine a and b.
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4.4 Use of log–linear and log–log paper 327 8
Figure 4.5 1
Two-cycle 9
log–linear 8
graph paper. 7
6
5
Second cycle
4
Logarithmic scale
1
9
8
7
6
5
4
First cycle
3
Linear
Solution
If the relationship is given by y = abx, then taking logarithms yields
log y = log a + x log b
So, plotting log y against x should produce a straight line graph with gradient log b
and vertical intercept log a. The need to find log y is eliminated by plotting the y val-
ues directly on a logarithmic scale. Examining the table of data we see that y varies
from approximately 100 to 102 so that two-cycle paper is appropriate. Values of y
between 1 and 10 are plotted on the first cycle, and those between 10 and 100 are
plotted on the second. The points are plotted in Figure 4.6. Note in particular that in
this example the ‘1’ at the start of the second cycle represents the value 10, the ‘2’
represents the value 20, and so on. From the graph, the straight line relationship
between log y and x is evident. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the relation-
ship between y and x is of the form y = abx.
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8 328 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Figure 4.6 1
log y D (12, 93.19)
The log–linear 9
graph is a 8
straight line. 7
6
5
Second cycle
4
C (5, 14.85)
1
9
8
7
6
B (1, 5.20) 5
4
A (0, 4)
First cycle
3
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
To find the gradient of the graph we can choose any two points on the line, for
example C and B. The gradient is then
log a b
14.85
log 14.85 - log 5.20 5.20
=
5 - 1 4
= 0.1139
Recall that log b is the gradient of the line and so
log b = 0.1139
that is
b = 100.1139
= 1.2999
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4.4 Use of log–linear and log–log paper 329 8
The vertical intercept is log a. From the graph the vertical intercept is log 4 so that
log a = log 4
that is
a = 4
We conclude that the relationship between y and x is given by y = 4(1.3)x.
Example 4.6
The variables x and y are thought to be connected by an equation of the form
y = ax n
Some experimental values are tabulated below:
A B C D
x 1 3 7 9
y 2 31 255 500
By plotting the data on appropriate graph paper, determine the law connecting x and y.
Solution
If y = axn then
log y = log(axn)
= log a + n log x
Letting Y = log y and X = log x we have
Y = nX + log a
This is a straight line equation with gradient n and vertical intercept log a. Since both
log x and log y are used then a log scale on both axes is needed: that is, log–log paper
is used. One cycle is needed to accommodate the x variation; three cycles are
needed to accommodate the y variation. Log–log paper comes in 1 cycle * 1 cycle,
2 cycle * 2 cycle and 3 cycle * 3 cycle. Consequently, for the example in ques-
tion, 3 cycle * 3 cycle paper is needed. Figure 4.7 shows the log–log paper with the
data points plotted. The straight line fit tells us that x and y are connected by a law of
the form y = axn.
Using points A and D to calculate the gradient we have
log 500 - log 2
gradient =
log 9 - log 1
log 250
=
log 9
= 2.5
Hence we see that n = 2.5.
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8 330 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Figure 4.7
11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
If y = axn, 9 9
8 8
then log–log 7 7
paper pro- 6 6
duces a 5 D 5
straight line. 4 4
3 3
C
2 2
1 1
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 B 3
2 2
1 1
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
A
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91
From the graph the vertical intercept is log 2 and so
log a = log 2
a = 2
Hence x and y are connected by y = 2x2.5.
Examples 4.5 and 4.6 illustrate the following points.
Key point If y = axn then a log–log plot produces a straight line with gradient = n and vertical
intercept = log a.
If y = abx, then a log–linear plot produces a straight line with gradient = log b and
vertical intercept = log a.
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4.4 Use of log–linear and log–log paper 331 8
Example 4.7 Electrical Engineering – Bode plot of a linear circuit
Engineers are often interested in how a circuit will respond to a sinusoidal signal. A
Bode plot helps in the analysis.
A Bode plot consists of two components:
1 The ratio of the amplitudes of the output signal and the input signal is plotted
against frequency.
2 The phase shift between the input and output signals is plotted against frequency.
A log scale is used for the frequency in order to compress its length: for example, a
typical frequency range is 0.1 Hz to 106 Hz, which corresponds to a range of -1 to 6
on a log scale. A log scale is also used for the ratio of the signal amplitudes as this is
calculated in decibels. Phase shift is plotted on a linear scale. So the signal amplitude
ratio against frequency is a log–log graph and the phase shift against frequency is a
linear–log graph.
Exercises
1 It is thought that x and y are connected by a x 2 3 4 4.5 5 5.5
law of the form y = axn. y 18 54 160 280 500 840
Measurements of x and y are
(a) By using appropriate paper find the law
connecting x and y.
x 1.5 3 5 10 20 25
(b) Predict the y measurement when x = 6.
y 7.2 23 55 180 600 860
4 It is thought that x and y are connected by a
(a) By using appropriate paper find the law law of the form y = abx.
connecting x and y. Measurements of x and y are
(b) Predict the y measurement when x = 30.
x 2 5 10 20 30 35 38
2 It is thought that x and y are connected by a y 1 1.75 4.33 27 170 400 700
law of the form y = axn.
Measurements of x and y are
(a) By using appropriate paper find the law
connecting x and y.
(b) Predict the y measurement when x = 40.
x 0.25 0.5 0.8 1.3 4 7
y 0.18 0.30 0.42 0.61 1.41 2.2 5 The time of swing of a pendulum, T seconds,
is measured for different lengths of the
pendulum, l metres. The results are
(a) By using appropriate paper find the law
connecting x and y.
(b) Predict the y measurement when x = 10. l 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
T 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2
3 It is thought that x and y are connected by a
law of the form y = abx. If T = kln use appropriate graph paper to find
Measurements of x and y are the values of k and n.
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8 332 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) y = 3.6x1.7 (b) 1168 4 (a) y = 0.7(1.2x) (b) 1029
2 (a) y = 0.5x0.75 (b) 2.81 5 k = 2, n = 0.5
3 (a) y = 2(3x) (b) 1458
End of block exercises
1 Measurements of the variables x and y are (b) If the voltage is increased to 12 V,
recorded as follows calculate the power.
(c) Calculate the minimum voltage required if
x 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 the power must exceed 1000 W.
y 1.76 1.47 1.23 1.03 0.86
3 Calculate the voltage gain (dB) of an amplifier
(a) Given y = abx, use appropriate graph that produces an output signal of 2.35 V when
paper to find a and b. the input signal is 40 mV.
(b) Predict y when x = 4.
4 An amplifier consists of a preamplifier and
2 It is believed that in a particular circuit the a main amplifier. The input signal to the
power, P, and voltage, V, are related by a law of preamplifier is 5 mV and the output signal is
the form P = kV n. Measurements of P and V are 80 mV. The input to the main amplifier is
80 mV and the output signal is 3 V.
P 11 45 125 245 405 (a) Calculate the voltage gain of the
V 1.5 3 5 7 9 preamplifier.
(b) Calculate the voltage gain of the main
(a) By plotting the data on appropriate paper, amplifier.
find the values of k and n. (c) Calculate the overall gain of the amplifier.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) a = 3, b = 0.7 (b) 0.72 3 35.4
2 (a) k = 5, n = 2 (b) 720 (c) 14.2 4 (a) 24.08 (b) 31.48 (c) 55.6
End of chapter exercises
1
1 Evaluate (a) e1.6, (b) e-1.6, (c) . (a) State the current when t = 0.
e1.6 (b) Calculate the value of the current when
2 The current in a circuit, i(t), is given by t = 2.
(c) Calculate the time when the value of the
i(t) = 25e-0.2t t Ú 0 current is 12.5.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 9/21/18 11:10 AM Page 333
End of chapter exercises 333 8
3 Simplify as far as possible: 15 Solve
e 2xe x (a) ln(ex) = 5000
(a) -3x (b) (4e2x)(3e-x) (b) ln(ex + 10) = 5
e
2e x + 1 2 - ex 2
(c) + (d) e4x - (e2x + 1)2 (c) ln(x2 + 9) = 3
2 3 3
(d) log a + 1b = 1.5
x
4 Simplify as far as possible:
2
(ex)2 e4x
(a) e2te3t (b) 3e2te-t (c) 2x (d) 16 Simplify (a) 2e 2 ln x , (b) log(100x).
e A 9
5 Evaluate (a) sinh 4.7, (b) cosh(-1.6), 17 The temperature, T, of a chemical reaction is
(c) tanh 1.2. given by
6 Express 6ex + 3e-x in terms of the hyperbolic T = 120e0.02t t Ú 0
functions sinh x and cosh x. Calculate the time needed for the temperature
to (a) double its initial value, (b) treble its
7 Prove the hyperbolic identity initial value.
cosh 2x = sinh2 x + cosh2 x 18 Calculate the voltage gain in decibels of an
8 Express the following statements using amplifier where the input voltage is 17 mV
logarithms: and the output voltage is 300 mV.
(a) 82 = 64 (b) 43 = 64 (c) 26 = 64 19 The voltage input to an amplifier is 30 mV.
(a) Calculate the output voltage if the
9 Express the following using indices: amplifier has a gain of 16 dB.
(a) log 35 = 1.5441 (b) log6 1296 = 4 (b) Calculate the output voltage if the
(c) ln 50 = 3.9120 (d) log9 3 = 0.5 amplifier has a gain of 32 dB.
10 Evaluate (a) log2 20, (b) log7 2. 20 The variables x and y are believed to be
connected by a law of the form y = axn.
11 Simplify to a single logarithmic expression: Measurements of x and y are
(a) ln 4y + ln x
(b) 3 ln t2 - 2 ln t x 2 5 7 10 15 20
(c) 3 log t - log 3t y 7.9 28.6 46.0 74.7 134.1 200.0
(d) log 2x + log 5x - 1
(a) By drawing an appropriate graph, find the
12 Solve
law connecting x and y.
(a) 2 ln(3x - 10) = 8.5
(b) Predict y when x = 17.
(b) log(x3 + 1) = 2.4
(c) 3 log 4x - 8 = 0 21 Variables y and t are thought to be connected
by a law of the form
ln 5x
(d) = 1.6 at
2 y =
k
13 Solve
(a) e4x = 90 Measurements of t and y are
(b) 10x>2 - 20 = 0
(c) 3e-x = 20 t 2 4 6 8 10
(d) 103x-6 = 40 y 0.80 2.62 8.50 27.8 90.0
14 Solve (a) By using appropriate graph paper find the
(a) 10log x = 17 law connecting y and t.
(b) 102 log x = 17 (b) Predict y when t = 12.
(c) 10x102x = 90 (c) Predict the value of t when y first exceeds
(d) 102x = 30(10x) 1000.
M08_CROF5939_04_SE_C08.QXD 11/28/18 7:10 PM Page 334
8 334 Block 4 Applications of logarithms
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 4.9530 (b) 0.2019 (c) 0.2019 12 (a) 26.7018 (b) 6.3012 (c) 116.0397
(d) 4.9065
2 (a) 25 (b) 16.76 (c) 3.4657
2e x 7 13 (a) 1.1250 (b) 2.6021 (c) -1.8971
3 (a) e6x (b) 12ex (c) + (d) -(2e2x + 1) (d) 2.5340
3 6
e 2x 14 (a) 17 (b) 217 (c) 0.6514 (d) 1.4771
4 (a) e5t (b) 3et (c) 1 (d)
3 15 (a) 5000 (b) 4.9302 (c) 9.0010 (d) 61.2456
5 (a) 54.9690 (b) 2.5775 (c) 0.8337
16 (a) x (b) 2x
6 9 cosh x + 3 sinh x
17 (a) 34.66 (b) 54.93
8 (a) log8 64 = 2 (b) log4 64 = 3
(c) log2 64 = 6 18 24.93 dB
9 (a) 101.5441 = 35 (b) 64 = 1296 19 (a) 189.3 (b) 1194.3
(c) e3.9120 = 50 (d) 90.5 = 3
20 (a) y = 3x1.4 (b) 158
10 (a) 4.3219 (b) 0.3562 1.8t
2 21 (a) y = (b) 289 (c) 14.11
(a) ln 4xy (b) ln t4 (c) log a b (d) log x2
t 4
11
3
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 2:05 PM Page 335
Chapter 9
Trigonometry
This chapter opens with a treatment of the two common units used for
measuring angles: degrees and radians. The trigonometrical ratios of
sine, cosine and tangent are then introduced. Initially the ratios of
angles between 0° and 90° are dealt with and then the ratios of angles
of any size are incorporated. The common identities involving
trigonometrical ratios are studied together with the solution of
trigonometrical equations. The application of trigonometry to
combining two waves into a single wave concludes the chapter.
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:52 AM Page 336
Chapter 9 contents
Block 1 Angles
Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
Block 3 The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants
Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
Block 5 Trigonometrical identities
Block 6 Trigonometrical equations
Block 7 Engineering waves
End of chapter exercises
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:52 AM Page 337
Angles
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Angles measure the amount through which a line or object has been turned. The
Greek letters a, u and f are commonly used to denote angles. In Figure 1.1 the angle
between lines AB and AC is u.
Figure 1.1 C
The angle between
AB and AC is u.
q
A B
We can think of the line AB as being turned through or rotated an angle u to the
new position AC.
1.2 Units
There are two main units used to measure angles: the degree and the radian. Both
units are defined with reference to a circle.
Degree
Consider a circle, centre O, as shown in Figure 1.2.
A typical radius, OA, is shown. If the radius OA is rotated as indicated so that it ends
up in its original position we say it has been turned through a complete revolution. The
angle that is equivalent to a complete revolution is 360 degrees, denoted 360°.
Figure 1.2 A
One complete
revolution is 360°.
O 360°
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:52 AM Page 338
9 338 Block 1 Angles
Key point 1 complete revolution = 360°
Radian
Consider a circle of radius r, centre O. An arc AB of length r is shown. The situation
is illustrated in Figure 1.3. We say that the arc AB subtends an angle at the centre O.
This is angle AOB. Note that there is no symbol to denote that an angle is being mea-
sured in radians. Hence if an angle is given and no symbol is present then you must
assume the angle is measured in radians.
Then the angle AOB is defined to be 1 radian.
Figure 1.3
A
The arc AB has
r
length r.
O r
Key point 1 radian = angle subtended at centre by an arc whose length is one radius
An arc length r subtends an angle of 1 radian. Then an arc of length 2r subtends an
angle of 2 radians and in general an arc of length ar subtends an angle of a radians.
Let us examine the case where a = 2p. An arc length of 2pr is the entire circumfer-
ence of the circle, and this subtends an angle of 2p radians. But the circumference
subtends a complete revolution at the centre, that is 360°, and so
2p radians = 360°
Hence we have
Key point p radians = 180°
Some common angles, marked in both degrees and radians, are shown in Figure 1.4.
Example 1.1
Convert 37° to radians.
Solution
We have
180° = p radians
and so
p
1° = radians
180
p
37° = 37 * radians
180
= 0.6458 radians
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 339
1.2 Units 339 9
Figure 1.4
Some common
angles.
45° ⫽ π4 radians 60° ⫽ π3 radians 90° ⫽ π2 radians
30° ⫽ π6 radians
(a) (b) (c) (d)
180° ⫽ π radians 270° ⫽ 3π
2 radians
(e)
(f)
Example 1.2
Convert 1.2 radians to degrees.
Solution
p radians = 180°
180°
1 radian =
p
180°
1.2 radians = 1.2 *
p
= 68.75°
Commonly, angles measured in radians are expressed as multiples of p: for example,
3p radians, p2 radians and 2p
3 radians.
Example 1.3
Express 72° in the form ap radians.
Solution
We have
180° = p radians
1
1° = * p radians
180
72
72° = * p radians
180
2p
= radians
5
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 340
9 340 Block 1 Angles
Example 1.4
Express 117° in radians.
Solution
We have
180° = p radians
p
1° = radians
180
p
117° = 117 * = 2.0420 radians
180
Example 1.5
Express 3.12 radians in degrees.
Solution
p radians = 180°
180°
1 radian =
p
180°
3.12 radians = 3.12 * = 178.8°
p
End of block exercises
1 Convert the following angles in radians to 3 Express the following angles in the form ap
degrees: radians:
(a) 0.3609 (b) 0.4771 (c) 1.3692 (d) p3 (a) 90° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 120° (e) 240°
(e) 2p p 3p (f) 72° (g) 216° (h) 135° (i) 108° (j) 270°
3 (f) 6p (g) 5 (h) 2
2 Convert the following angles in degrees to
radians:
(a) 12° (b) 65° (c) 200° (d) 340° (e) 1000°
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 20.68° (b) 27.34° (c) 78.45° (d) 60° 3 (a) p2 (b) p4 (c) p3 (d) 2p 4p 2p
3 (e) 3 (f) 5
(e) 120° (f) 1080° (g) 36° (h) 270°
(g) 6p 3p 3p 3p
5 (h) 4 (i) 5 (j) 2
2 (a) 0.2094 (b) 1.1345 (c) 3.4907 (d) 5.9341
(e) 17.4533
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 341
The trigonometrical ratios
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
The three common trigonometrical ratios of sine, cosine and tangent are defined with
reference to a right-angled triangle. Some simple properties of the ratios are devel-
oped. The use of scientific calculators to find the trigonometrical ratios and their
inverses is explained.
2.2 Some terms associated with a right-angled triangle
A right angle is an angle of 90°. In Figure 2.1, ^ABC has a right angle at C. The
side opposite a right angle is called the hypotenuse. In Figure 2.1, AB is the
hypotenuse.
Figure 2.1 B
The hypotenuse is
AB. The
hypotenuse is
always opposite
the right angle.
A C
Consider now the angle at A. We often write just A when referring to the angle at
A; similarly with B. The side opposite A is BC. The side adjacent to A is AC. Sim-
ilarly the side opposite B is AC; the side adjacent to B is BC.
2.3 Definition of the trigonometrical ratios
We refer to the right-angled triangle in Figure 2.1 to define the trigonometrical
ratios, sine, cosine and tangent. The sine of A is written sin A, the cosine of A is
written cos A, and the tangent of A is written tan A. We define:
Key point length of side opposite BC
sin A = =
length of hypotenuse AB
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9 342 Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
length of side adjacent AC
cos A = =
length of hypotenuse AB
length of side opposite BC
tan A = =
length of side adjacent AC
The sine, cosine and tangent of B are defined in exactly the same way, leading to
AC BC AC
sin B = , cos B = , tan B =
AB AB BC
2.4 Properties of the trigonometrical ratios
We note some properties of the trigonometrical ratios:
1 Since all are defined as the ratio of two lengths, none of the trigonometrical ratios
has any units.
2 Since the hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle, the sine
and cosine ratios can never be greater than 1.
3 The tangent ratio does not involve the hypotenuse and so this ratio can be greater
than 1.
BC
4 tan A =
AC
BC AB
=
AB AC
BC>AB
=
AC>AB
sin A
=
cos A
Similarly we see that
sin B
tan B =
cos B
Indeed, for any angle, u, we have
Key point sin u
tan u =
cos u
BC
5 sin A =
AB
= cos B
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2.4 Properties of the trigonometrical ratios 343 9
AC
cos A =
AB
= sin B
We note that B = 90° - A. Hence we have for any angle A
Key point sin A = cos(90° - A)
cos A = sin(90° - A)
6 We have
BC
tan A =
AC
1
=
AC>BC
1
=
tan B
We also note that B = 90° - A and so
Key point tan A =
1
tan(90° - A)
We now look at some examples.
Example 2.1
Figure 2.2 shows a right-angled triangle with the lengths of the sides labelled.
Calculate
(a) sin A (b) cos A (c) tan A (d) sin B (e) cos B (f) tan B
Figure 2.2 B
5 4
A 3 C
Solution
BC 4
(a) sin A = = = 0.8
AB 5
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9 344 Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
AC 3
(b) cos A = = = 0.6
AB 5
BC 4
(c) tan A = = = 1.3333
AC 3
AC
(d) sin B = = 0.6
AB
BC
(e) cos B = = 0.8
AB
AC 3
(f) tan B = = = 0.75
BC 4
Example 2.2
Figure 2.3 shows ^XYZ. The angle at X is 90°. Calculate
(a) sin Y (b) cos Y (c) sin Z (d) tan Y (e) tan Z (f) cos Z
Figure 2.3 Y
13 5
Z 12 X
Solution
opposite XZ 12
(a) sin Y = = =
hypotenuse YZ 13
adjacent XY 5
(b) cos Y = = =
hypotenuse YZ 13
XY 5
(c) sin Z = =
YZ 13
opposite XZ 12
(d) tan Y = = =
adjacent XY 5
XY 5
(e) tan Z = =
XZ 12
XZ 12
(f) cos Z = =
YZ 13
When an angle is known, a scientific calculator can be used to find its trigonometrical
ratios. The angle may be expressed in degrees or radians.
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2.4 Properties of the trigonometrical ratios 345 9
Example 2.3
Use a scientific calculator to evaluate the following:
(a) sin 37° (b) cos 80° (c) tan 53° (d) sin 1.1 (e) cos 0.6321 (f) tan 0.5016
Solution
Using a scientific calculator we find:
(a) sin 37° = 0.6018
(b) cos 80° = 0.1736
(c) tan 53° = 1.3270
For (d), (e) and (f) the angles are given in radians. Make sure your calculator is set to
RADIAN mode.
(d) sin 1.1 = 0.8912
(e) cos 0.6321 = 0.8068
(f) tan 0.5016 = 0.5484
Example 2.4 Mechanics – The tension in a cable
Traffic lights are suspended from a gantry above a carriageway as shown in Figure 2.4.
The cable anchor points are 12 metres apart and the traffic light unit must hang 1 m
below the gantry. By resolving forces vertically it can be shown that the tension, T,
in each of the cables suspending the lights is given by
mg
T =
2 cos u
where u is the angle between a cable and the upward vertical, m is the mass of the
traffic light unit and g is a constant – the acceleration due to gravity – nominally
9.81 m s⫺2. In this model, the mass of the cables has been ignored on the assumption
that they are light compared with the mass of the traffic light unit. From this formula
it can be deduced that as the angle u increases – as will happen if the anchor points
are placed further apart – then the tension in the cable will also increase.
Figure 2.4 12 m
Using
trigonometrical A O B
ratios to calculate 1m q
√37 m
the tension in a C
cable.
(a) Find the tension T when the mass of the traffic light unit is 18 kg.
(b) If the maximum permitted tension in the cable is 400 N and the traffic light unit
must remain 1 m below the gantry, calculate how far apart the suspension
points, A and B, must be.
Solution
1
(a) By inspection of the right-angled triangle OBC we see that cos u = . Then
237
18 * 9.81
T = = 537 N (3 s.f.)
1
2 *
237
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9 346 Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
Note that when the traffic light unit is in this position,
1
u = cos-1 = 80.5°
237
(b) Let us calculate the corresponding angle when T = 400 N:
mg 18 * 9.81
cos u = = = 0.2207
2T 2 * 400
u = cos-1 0.2207 = 77.25°
Here cos⫺1 is the inverse cosine function described in detail on page 349, and
which can be found using a calculator. Therefore, referring to Figure 2.5,
Figure 2.5 O x
B
1 q
C
x
tan u = tan 77.25 =
1
so that
x = tan 77.25 = 4.42 m
We deduce that the suspension points must be no more than 8.84 metres apart.
Example 2.5 Structural Engineering – Trigonometry for the method of
sections
A truss is a structure consisting of straight members connected at joints. An example
is shown in Figure 2.6. In the study of structural mechanics, the method of sections is
a technique used to find the forces in the different members of the truss.
Figure 2.6 C
A truss consisting
of several
B
members.
A D E
The method consists of isolating a particular part of the truss and considering only
those forces which act on that isolated part. Figure 2.7 shows the part which could be
isolated in order to find the forces in members BC, BE and DE.
Figure 2.7 C
A section, or cut,
through the truss.
B
A D E
Section
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2.4 Properties of the trigonometrical ratios 347 9
To calculate the forces it is necessary to use trigonometry to find angles and
lengths which are not immediately available. In particular it is necessary to find the
perpendicular distance of the member BC from the point E if an engineer wants to
calculate the moment of the force in BC about the point E. Use the information pro-
vided in Figure 2.8 to find this distance (EF).
Figure 2.8 C
F
a
B
4m
2m
A 3m D 3m E
Section
Solution
Note that the required length EF is one side of the right-angled triangle EFC, another
side of which is already known (CE = 4 m). The angle at C, labelled a, in this trian-
gle can be found by considering the larger triangle ACE.
Note that
tan a = , a = tan - 1 a b = 56.3° (1 d.p.)
6 6
4 4
Then, in triangle EFC,
EF
sin a =
4
EF = 4 sin a
= 4 sin 56.3°
= 3.3 (1 d.p.)
that is EF = 3.3 m. Knowing this distance enables a structural engineer to write
down an expression for the moment about E of the force in member BC. In turn, and
with knowledge of other moments, the force in BC can be calculated.
Exercises
1 In ^CDE, D is a right angle. The lengths of 2 Use a scientific calculator to evaluate
CD, DE and CE are a, b and g respectively. (a) cos 61° (b) tan 0.4 (c) sin 70°
State (d) cos 0.7613 (e) tan 51° (f) sin 1.2
(a) sin C (b) cos C (c) tan C (d) sin E
(e) tan E (f) cos E
Solutions to exercises
b a b a a b
1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 2 (a) 0.4848 (b) 0.4228 (c) 0.9397 (d) 0.7239
g g a g b g (e) 1.2349 (f) 0.9320
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9 348 Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
2.5 Secant, cosecant and cotangent ratios
These ratios are the reciprocals of the cosine, sine and tangent ratios. Secant, cosecant
and cotangent are usually abbreviated to sec, cosec and cot, respectively.
Key point sec A =
1
cos A
1
cosec A =
sin A
1
cot A =
tan A
Example 2.6
Evaluate
(a) cosec 50° (b) cot 20° (c) sec 70° (d) cot 0.7
Solution
1
(a) cosec 50° =
sin 50°
= 1.3054
1
(b) cot 20° =
tan 20°
= 2.7475
1
(c) sec 70° = = 2.9238
cos 70°
(d) Note that the angle is in radians.
1
cot 0.7 =
tan 0.7
= 1.1872
Exercise
1 Evaluate the following:
(a) cot 1.2 (b) sec 45° (c) cosec 0.6391
(d) cot 57° (e) sec 0.9600
Solution to exercise
1 (a) 0.3888 (b) 1.4142 (c) 1.6765 (d) 0.6494
(e) 1.7436
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2.6 The inverse trigonometrical ratios 349 9
2.6 The inverse trigonometrical ratios
Suppose we know the value of sin A, but not the value of A. For example, let
sin A = 0.6513, and we wish to find the value of A. Given
sin A = 0.6513
we write
A = sin - 1(0.6513)
This states that A is the angle whose sine is 0.6513. We read this as A is the inverse
sine of 0.6513. So the notation sin - 1 means ‘the angle whose sine is . . .’. The -1
should not be interpreted as a power. Other notations are sometimes used, namely
A = inv sin(0.6513) and A = arcsin(0.6513)
Similarly if cos B = 0.3619 we write B = cos - 1(0.3619); if tan C = 1.4703 then
C = tan - 1(1.4703).
Key point sin - 1 means ‘the angle whose sine is . . .’
cos - 1 means ‘the angle whose cosine is . . .’
tan - 1 means ‘the angle whose tangent is . . .’
We use a scientific calculator to find the inverse sine, inverse cosine and inverse
tangent of a number.
Example 2.7
Find A given
(a) sin A = 0.4213 (b) cos A = 0.5316 (c) tan A = 1.7503
Solution
(a) We have
sin A = 0.4213
and so
A = sin - 1 (0.4213)
Using a scientific calculator we see
A = 24.92°
If your calculator is in radian mode you will obtain the equivalent answer in
radians, that is 0.4349 radians.
(b) cos A = 0.5316
A = cos - 1(0.5316)
= 57.89°
(c) tan A = 1.7503
A = tan - 1(1.7503)
= 60.26°
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9 350 Block 2 The trigonometrical ratios
Example 2.8
Find B given
(a) cos B = 0.8061 (b) sin B = 0.4611 (c) tan B = 1.2500
Solution
(a) cos B = 0.8061
B = cos - 1(0.8061)
= 36.28°
(b) sin B = 0.4611
B = 27.46°
(c) tan B = 1.2500
B = 51.34°
End of block exercises
1 u is an angle between 0° and 90°. In each case 7 ^ABC has a right angle at C, AC = 6 cm,
find u given: BC = 10 cm and AB = 11.66 cm. Find
(a) sin u = 0.3467 (a) sin A
(b) cos u = 0.6419 (b) cos A
(c) tan u = 1.7500 (c) tan A
(d) sin u = 0.7396 (d) sin B
(e) tan u = 0.5050 (e) cos B
(f) cos u = 0.3507 (f) tan B
(g) A
2 Evaluate sec 37°. (h) B
3 Evaluate cot 75°.
8 We have seen that sin - 1 x means ‘the angle
4 Evaluate cosec 17°. 1
whose sine is x’ and not the reciprocal .
sin x
How would you write the reciprocal
5 Evaluate cosec 1. using a negative power?
6 u is an angle between 0° and 90°. In each case,
find u.
(a) sin u = cos u
(b) sin u = 2 cos u
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 20.29° (b) 50.07° (c) 60.26° (d) 47.70° 3 0.2679
(e) 26.79° (f) 69.47°
4 3.4203
2 1.2521
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2.6 The inverse trigonometrical ratios 351 9
5 1.1884 8 Brackets would be inserted to show the
intention, that is
6 (a) 45° (b) 63.43°
1
= (sin x) - 1
7 (a) 0.8576 (b) 0.5146 (c) 1.6667 (d) 0.5146 sin x
(e) 0.8576 (f) 0.6 (g) 59.04° (h) 30.96°
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 352
The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Block 2 defined the trigonometrical ratios sine, cosine and tangent with reference to
the sides of a right-angled triangle. No angle in a right-angled triangle is greater than
90°. So, if we wish to define the trigonometrical ratios of angles greater than 90° we
need a method that does not use right-angled triangles. This block looks at how this
is achieved.
3.2 The four quadrants
Figure 3.1 shows the x and y axes intersecting at the origin O. The axes divide the
x-y plane into four sections, called quadrants. These are numbered 1 to 4 as
indicated in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 y
The x and y axes
divide the plane 2 1
into four
quadrants.
O x
3 4
We now consider a rotating arm, OC. The arm is fixed at the origin, O. We measure
the angle u from the positive x axis to the arm, measuring in an anticlockwise
direction. Figure 3.2 shows the arm in each of the four quadrants.
Note that in quadrant 1, u lies between 0° and 90°; in quadrant 2, u is between 90°
and 180°; in quadrant 3, u is between 180° and 270°; and in quadrant 4, u is between
270° and 360°. Figure 3.3 illustrates this.
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3.3 Projections onto the x and y axes 353 9
Figure 3.2 y
The arm OC
C y
rotates
anticlockwise into C
each of the four θ θ
quadrants. O x
O x
(a) (b)
y
θ y
O x
O x
θ
C
C
(c) (d)
Figure 3.3 y y
(a) In quadrant 1, u
lies between 0° 90° 90°
and 90°; (b) in
quadrant 2, u lies 0° 180°
between 90° and O x O x
180°; (c) in
quadrant 3, u lies
between 180° and (a) (b)
270°; (d) in
quadrant 4, u lies
between 270° and
y y
360°.
180° O x O 360° x
270° 270°
(c) (d)
3.3 Projections onto the x and y axes
We now introduce projections of the arm OC onto the x and y axes. The projection
of OC onto the x axis is OA; the projection onto the y axis is OB. Figure 3.4 shows
the x and y projections as the arm rotates into the four quadrants.
Note that the projections may be positive or negative. For example, when OC is
in the second quadrant, the x projection, OA, is on the negative x axis and so is
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9 354 Block 3 The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants
Figure 3.4 y y
The x projection is
OA, the y B C
C B
projection is OB.
O A x A O x
(a) (b)
y y
A A
O x O x
B C
B (d)
(c) C
negative. The y projection, OB, is on the positive y axis and so is positive. The arm
OC is considered to be always positive.
Table 3.1 gives the signs of the x and y projections of OC as it rotates through the
four quadrants.
Table 3.1
First quadrant Second quadrant Third quadrant Fourth quadrant
x projection + - - +
y projection + + - -
3.4 Extended definition of the trigonometrical ratios
We define the trigonometrical ratios in terms of the x and y projections of a rotating
arm, OC.
Key point y projection of OC
sin u =
OC
x projection of OC
cos u =
OC
y projection of OC
tan u =
x projection of OC
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3.4 Extended definition of the trigonometrical ratios 355 9
By examining the signs of the x and y projections in Table 3.1 it is easy to determine
the signs of sin u, cos u and tan u for the four quadrants. For example, consider u in
the second quadrant. Since the y projection is positive, then sin u is positive.
Similarly, as the x projection is negative, then cos u is negative. The sign of tan u is
negative since it is given by the ratio of a positive number and a negative number.
Table 3.2 shows the sign of sin u, cos u and tan u for u in the four quadrants.
Table 3.2
First quadrant Second quadrant Third quadrant Fourth quadrant
sin u + + - -
cos u + - - +
tan u + - + -
Example 3.1
An angle u is such that sin u 6 0 and cos u 7 0. In which quadrant does u lie?
Solution
Referring to Table 3.2 we see that sin u 6 0 when u lies in the third or fourth quad-
rants. When cos u 7 0, u lies in the first or fourth quadrants. Hence for both con-
ditions to be satisfied simultaneously u must be in the fourth quadrant.
Example 3.2
Show sin 17° = sin 163°.
Solution
Although sin 17° and sin 163° can easily be evaluated using a calculator and hence
shown to be equal, it is instructive to show their equality using the definition of sin u.
Figure 3.5 y
OC and OC⬘
have the same y C' B C
projection and so 163°
sin 17° = sin 163°. 17°
O x
Consider two arms, OC and OC⬘, of equal length. Figure 3.5 shows the arm OC
forming an angle of 17° with the positive x axis, and the arm OC⬘ forming an angle
of 163° with the positive x axis. Noting that 163° = 180° - 17°, we can see that
OC ¿ is the reflection of OC in the y axis. By symmetry both the y projections of
OC and OC ¿ will be OB. Since the y projections are equal and the arms are of equal
length, then from the definition of sin u we have sin 17° = sin 163°.
Example 3.2 illustrates a general rule that is true for any value of u:
Key point sin(180° - u) = sin u
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9 356 Block 3 The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants
Example 3.3
An angle u is such that tan u 7 0 and sin u 6 0. In which quadrant does u lie?
Solution
Using Table 3.2, we see that tan u 7 0 when u lies in the
and quadrants first and third
Also, sin u 6 0 when u lies in the
and quadrants third and fourth
Hence u lies in the quadrant. third
Exercises
1 An angle u is such that sin u 6 0 and 2 An angle b is such that cos b 7 0 and
cos u 6 0. In which quadrant does u lie? tan b 6 0. State the range of possible values
of b .
Solutions to exercises
1 third 2 270° 6 b 6 360°
3.5 Adding and subtracting multiples of 360°
The sine of an angle is governed by the position of the rotating arm, OC. We note
that 360° corresponds to exactly one complete revolution. Thus rotating the arm,
either clockwise or anticlockwise, through multiples of 360° will leave it in exactly
the same position, and consequently the value of the sine remains unchanged. This
may be stated mathematically as
sin u = sin(u + 360°)
= sin(u + 720°)
= sin(u + 1080°)
= Á
and also
sin u = sin(u - 360°)
= sin(u - 720°)
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3.5 Adding and subtracting multiples of 360° 357 9
= sin(u - 1080°)
= Á
Written compactly we have
Key point sin u = sin(u ; n 360°) n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
An exactly similar argument can be applied to cos u. Thus
Key point cos u = cos(u ; n 360°) n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
We now consider tan u. Recall that tan u is defined by
y projection
tan u =
x projection
The corresponding result for tan u is
Key point tan u = tan(u ; n 180°) n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Hence, adding 180° to, or subtracting 180° from, an angle leaves the tangent un-
altered. Note that with sine and cosine we can add or subtract multiples of 360°, but
with the tangent we can add and subtract multiples of 180°.
Expressions that repeat their values at regular intervals are called periodic. Hence
sin u, cos u and tan u are all periodic.
Example 3.4
Simplify sin(u + 1000°).
Solution
Subtracting multiples of 360° from u + 1000° leaves the sine unchanged. Hence
sin(u + 1000°) = sin[u + 1000° - 2(360°)]
= sin(u + 280°)
Example 3.5
Simplify cos(x - 900°).
Solution
Adding multiples of 360° to x - 900° leaves the cosine unchanged. Hence
cos(x - 900°) = cos[x - 900° + 3(360°)]
= cos(x + 180°)
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9 358 Block 3 The trigonometrical ratios in all quadrants
Example 3.6
Simplify tan(z - 540°).
Solution
Adding multiples of 180° to z - 540° leaves the tangent unchanged. So we have
tan(z - 540°) = tan[z - 540° + 3(180°)]
= tan z
Example 3.7
Simplify sin(-180° - u).
Solution
Adding 360° to an angle leaves the sine unchanged. Hence
sin(-180° - u) = sin(-180° - u + 360°)
= sin(180° - u)
Using the result following Example 3.2, we can further simplify this to
sin u
Hence
sin(-180° - u) = sin u
Exercises
1 Simplify 2 Simplify
(a) sin(a + 400°) (a) cos(x - 300°)
(b) sin(b - 500°) (b) cos(u - 810°)
(c) sin(a - 450°) (c) tan(x + 200°)
(d) sin(u + 1000°) (d) tan(x - 540°)
(e) sin(2u + 1080°) (e) cos(b + 500°)
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) sin(a + 40°) (b) sin(b - 140°) 2 (a) cos(x + 60°) (b) cos(u - 90°) = sin u
(c) sin(a - 90°) (d) sin(u - 80°) (c) tan(x + 20°) (d) tan x (e) cos(b + 140°)
(e) sin 2u
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3.5 Adding and subtracting multiples of 360° 359 9
End of block exercises
1 The angles are given in radians. Evaluate the 7 An angle a is such that sin a Ú 0 and
following: sin 2a Ú 0. State the range of possible values
(a) sin 30 of a.
(b) cos 27
(c) tan 31 8 An angle u is such that cos u 6 0 and
cos 2u 7 0. State the range of possible
2 An angle a is such that sin a 6 0 and values for u.
cos a 7 0. In which quadrant does a lie?
9 An angle u is such that tan u 7 0 and
3 Simplify cos(450° - u). tan 2u 6 0. State the range of possible values
of u.
4 Simplify tan(y + 1260°).
10 An angle f is such that sin f 7 0 and
5 Simplify sin(-1260° - u). cos 2f 6 0. State the range of possible values
of f.
6 An angle b is such that tan b 7 0 and
sin b 6 0. In which quadrant does b lie?
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) -0.9880 (b) -0.2921 (c) -0.4417 6 third quadrant
2 fourth quadrant 7 0° … a … 90°
3 sin u 8 135° 6 u 6 180°
4 tan y 9 180° 6 u 6 270°
5 sin u 10 45° 6 f 6 135°
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 360
Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Having introduced the trigonometrical ratios of sine, cosine and tangent we are ready
to consider the three trigonometrical functions y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x.
A number of properties and graphs of these functions are considered. Extensions are
made to include the functions y = sin kx, y = cos kx and y = tan kx for various
values of k.
4.2 The function y ⫽ sin x
Table 4.1 gives values of x in degrees and the corresponding values of sin x found
using a scientific calculator.
Table 4.1
x 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
sin x 0 0.500 0.866 1 0.866 0.500 0
x 210 240 270 300 330 360
sin x -0.500 -0.866 -1 -0.866 -0.500 0
Plotting these values produces the graph shown in Figure 4.1.
Note that the maximum value of sin x is 1; the minimum value of sin x is -1.
Figure 4.1 sin x
A graph of
1
y = sin x for
0° … x … 360°.
90° 180° 270° 360° x
⫺1
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4.2 The function y ⫽ sin x 361 9
If we had been working in radians, then 0° … x … 360° would be replaced by
0 … x … 2p. The shape of the sine function is often referred to as a sine wave or
a cycle.
We saw in Block 3 that sin x = sin(x + 360°) = sin(x + 720°) and sin x =
sin(x - 360°) = sin(x - 720°), and so on. In other words, adding or subtracting
multiples of 360° to an angle does not alter the sine of the angle. Hence the graph in
Figure 4.1 can be extended to the left and to the right by repeating cycles of the same
shape every 360°. Figure 4.2 illustrates this.
Figure 4.2 sin x
Cycles are
1
repeated every
360°.
⫺360° 360° 720° x
⫺1
When using radian measure, cycles are repeated every 2p radians.
Exercises
Use the graphs in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 to answer the
following questions:
1 What is the maximum possible domain of the 3 Is the function y = sin x one-to-one or
function y = sin x? many-to-one?
2 What is the range of y = sin x?
Solutions to exercises
1 all x 3 many-to-one
2 3-1, 14
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9 362 Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
4.3 The function y ⫽ cos x
Using a scientific calculator values of cos x are found for various values of x
measured in degrees. These are recorded in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2
x 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
cos x 1 0.866 0.500 0 -0.500 -0.866 -1
x 210 240 270 300 330 360
cos x -0.866 -0.500 0 0.500 0.866 1
The values are graphed in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 cos x
The function 1
y = cos x for
0° … x … 360°.
180° 360° x
⫺1
As with y = sin x, the function y = cos x may be extended to the left and to the
right. Since adding or subtracting multiples of 360° to an angle leaves its cosine
unchanged, then full cycles will be repeated every 360°. Figure 4.4 illustrates this.
Figure 4.4 cos x
The function 1
y = cos x
completes a
full cycle
every 360°. ⫺720 ⫺360° 360° 720° x
⫺1
Note that y = cos x completes a full cycle every 360° or 2p radians. The maximum
value of cos x is 1; the minimum value is -1.
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4.4 The function y ⫽ tan x 363 9
Exercises
Use the graphs in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 to answer the
following questions:
1 What is the maximum possible domain of the 3 Is the function y = cos x one-to-one or
function y = cos x? many-to-one?
2 What is the range of y = cos x?
Solutions to exercises
1 all x 3 many-to-one
2 3-1, 14
4.4 The function y ⫽ tan x
Table 4.3 gives values of x in degrees and corresponding values of tan x.
Table 4.3
x 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
tan x 0 0.577 1.732 - -1.732 -0.577 0
x 210 240 270 300 330 360
tan x 0.577 1.732 – -1.732 -0.577 0
Figure 4.5 shows a graph of y = tan x for 0° … x … 360°.
Figure 4.5 tan x
The function
3
y = tan x for
0° … x … 360°.
2
90° 180° 270° 360° x
⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
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9 364 Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
Note that the graph is radically different from those of y = sin x and y = cos x.
The function y = tan x has no maximum or minimum value.
Recalling from Block 3 that adding or subtracting multiples of 180° to an angle
leaves its tangent unchanged, we see that extending the graph in Figure 4.5 to the left
and right produces that shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 tan x
For y = tan x,
cycles are repeated
every 180° or p
radians.
⫺180° 180° 360° x
Note that the function is discontinuous at x = Á -270°, -90°, 90°, 270°, . . ..
Exercises
Use the graphs in Figures 4.5 and 4.6 to answer the
following questions:
1 What is the maximum possible domain of the 3 Is the function y = tan x one-to-one or many-
function y = tan x? to-one?
2 What is the range of y = tan x?
Solutions to exercises
1 All values except x = Á -270°, 2 (- q , q )
-90°, 90°, 270°, Á . These values must be
excluded from the domain. 3 many-to-one
4.5 The amplitude of y ⫽ A sin x and y ⫽ A cos x
Consider the function y = A sin x, where A is a positive constant, that is A 7 0. The
number A is called the amplitude. It is the maximum value of y. The minimum value
of y is -A. Thus y = 3 sin x has an amplitude of 3. The maximum value of 3 sin x is
3; the minimum value is -3. Note that the amplitude of y = sin x is 1. Figure 4.7
shows graphs of y = sin x and y = 3 sin x for 0° … x … 360°.
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4.5 The amplitude of y ⫽ A sin x and y ⫽ A cos x 365 9
Figure 4.7
The amplitude of y ⫽ 3 sin x
3
y = sin x is 1; the
amplitude of 2
y = 3 sin x is 3.
y ⫽ sin x
1
90° 180° 270° 360° x
⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
Note that a full cycle of y = 3 sin x is completed in 360°. The amplitude does not
affect the periodic properties of sin x: that is, it takes 360° for both y = sin x and y =
3 sin x to complete a full cycle. In general, y = A sin x completes a cycle every 360°.
Similar comments apply to y = A cos x. The amplitude of A cos x is A. It takes
360° for a full cycle of A cos x to be completed.
Key point The amplitude of y = A sin x and y = A cos x is A.
Example 4.1
State the amplitude of each of the following functions:
(a) y = 2 sin x
(b) y = 4.7 cos x
2 sin x
(c) y =
3
(d) y = 0.8 cos x
Solution
(a) 2 (b) 4.7 (c) 23 (d) 0.8
Exercise
1 State the amplitude of
(a) 10 sin x (b) 7.3 cos x (c) 0.01 sin t
(d) 1.2 cos u
Solution to exercise
1 (a) 10 (b) 7.3 (c) 0.01 (d) 1.2
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9 366 Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
4.6 The functions y ⫽ A sin kx and y ⫽ A cos kx
We have already seen that A is the amplitude and this is the maximum value of y. We
now consider the effect of the parameter k in A sin kx. To allow us to focus on k we
take A to be 1. Thus we examine the function y = sin kx for various values of k, for
x 3x
example y = sin 2x, y = sin 3x, y = sin and y = sin . We can deduce the
2 2
graphs of these functions by reference to the graph of y = sin x.
We begin by looking at y = sin 2x. Recall that y = sin x completes one full cycle
as x varies from 0° to 360°. Then y = sin 2x completes one full cycle as 2x varies
from 0° to 360°, that is as x varies from 0° to 360°
2 = 180°
. If x is measured in radians
then y = sin 2x completes a full cycle as x varies from 0 to p radians. A graph of the
function is illustrated in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 sin 2 x
The function 1
y = sin 2x
completes a full
cycle every 180° or
p radians.
O
45° 90° 135° 180° x
⫺1
We have noted previously that the amplitude does not affect the periodic prop-
erty of y = sin x. Since y = sin 2x completes a cycle every 180°, then in general
y = A sin 2x completes a cycle every 180° also. Note that the amplitude of
y = sin 2x is 1.
3x 3x
As another example consider y = sin . A full cycle is completed as varies
2 2
3x
from 0° to 360°: that is, as x varies from 0° to 360°
3>2 = 240°. A graph of y = sin is
2
illustrated in Figure 4.9.
3x
Similarly, y = A sin completes a cycle every 240°.
2
360° 2p
In general, y = A sin kx completes a full cycle in or radians.
k k
The function y = A cos kx also has these properties. We have
Key point The functions y = A sin kx and y = A cos kx complete a cycle every
360° 2p
or
k k
radians.
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4.6 The functions y ⫽ A sin kx and y ⫽ A cos kx 367 9
Figure 4.9
3x
y = sin
2 ( )
sin 3x
2
completes a cycle 1
4p
every 240° or
radians. 3
O
60° 120° 180° 240° x
⫺1
Example 4.2
State the number of cycles of y in 360° given
(a) y = 3 sin 4x
(b) y = 4 cos 3x
1 x
(c) y = cos
2 2
3x
(d) y = 5sin
4
Solution
360°
(a) y = 3 sin 4x completes a cycle every = 90°. In 360°, four cycles are
4
completed.
360°
(b) y = 4 cos 3x completes a cycle every = 120°. In 360° three cycles are
completed. 3
1 x 360°
(c) y = cos completes a cycle every = 720°. In 360°, 0.5 of a cycle is
2 2 1>2
completed.
3x 360°
(d) y = 5 sin completes a cycle every = 480°. In 360°, 0.75 of a cycle is
4 3>4
completed.
Example 4.2 illustrates the following general statement.
Key point The functions y = A sin kx and y = A cos kx complete k cycles every 360° or every
2p radians.
Example 4.3
For each function, state (i) the minimum value and (ii) the increase in x required for
y to complete a full cycle.
(a) y = 3 sin 5x
(b) y = 0.65 cos 6x
4 x
(c) y = sin
5 3
5x
(d) y = -2 cos
3
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9 368 Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
Solution
(a) The amplitude is 3 and so the minimum value is -3. A full cycle requires x to
360°
increase by = 72°.
5
360°
(b) The minimum value is -0.65. A full cycle requires x to increase by = 60°.
6
4 360°
(c) The minimum value is - . A full cycle requires x to increase by = 1080°.
5 1>3
360°
(d) The minimum value is -2. A full cycle requires x to increase by = 216°.
5>3
Example 4.4
State the maximum value, the minimum value and the number of cycles completed
3 5x
in 720° for the function y = cos .
2 2
Solution
3 5x 3 3
The amplitude of y = cos is . Hence the maximum value is
2 2 2 2
3
and the minimum value is -
2
3 5x 5
The function y = cos completes cycles every 360°.
2 2 2
Hence in 720° the function completes cycles. 5
Example 4.5 Electronic Engineering – Rectified half sine wave
A rectified half sine wave, f(t), is illustrated in Figure 4.10. Recall (from Chapter 6,
Block 6) that any function that has a pattern which repeats at regular intervals is said
to be periodic and the interval over which the repetition takes place is called the
period. Hence f(t) is a periodic function with period T. Write a mathematical expres-
sion for this rectified half sine wave. Note that, in this example, the independent vari-
able is t, not x, and that angles are measured in radians.
Figure 4.10 f(t)
A rectified half
sine wave.
2
t
O T T 3T 2T 5T 3T
2 2 2
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4.7 The function y ⫽ A tan kx 369 9
Solution
For 0 … t 6 T>2 the rectified half-wave is a sine wave of amplitude 2 and period T.
2p
Note again the Key point above which states that sin kt completes a cycle every ,
k
2p 2p
that is the period is . Applying this to the current function we see that T =
k k
2p
from which k = . So f(t) can be expressed as
T
b
2pt
f(t) = 2 sina
T
T
For … t … T then f(t) ⫽ 0. Note also that the rectified half-wave has period T. So
2
2 sin a b
2pt T
for 0 … t 6
T 2
f(t) = d
T
0 for … t 6 T
2
and f(t) ⫽ f(t ⫹ T) for all values of t.
4.7 The function y ⫽ A tan kx
We consider the function y = A tan kx. As with y = A sin kx and y = A cos kx, the
factor A does not affect the periodic properties of the tangent function. Recall that
y = tan x completes a cycle as x increases by 180° or p radians. Hence tan kx
180°
completes a cycle as kx increases through 180°, that is as x increases through . So,
k
180°
for example, y = A tan 2x completes a cycle every = 90°, y = A tan 3x completes
2
180° 2x 180°
a cycle every = 60°, and y = A tan completes a cycle every = 270°.
3 3 2>3
A graph of y = 2 tan 3x for -30° … x … 150° is shown in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11 2 tan 3x
y = 2 tan 3x 4
completes a cycle
every 60°. 3
2
1
O
⫺30° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° x
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9 370 Block 4 Trigonometrical functions and their graphs
180°
In general y = A tan kx completes a cycle every . In other words, k cycles
are completed every 180°. k
Example 4.6
State the number of cycles completed every 360° for
(a) y = 3 tan x
(b) y = 7 tan 2x
1 3x
(c) y = - tan
2 2
Solution
(a) For y = 3 tan x, the ‘3’ does not affect the periodic properties.
Now y = 3 tan x completes cycles every 180° and so in 360°, 1
cycles are completed. 2
(b) y = 7 tan 2x completes cycles every 180° and hence completes 2
cycles every 360°. 4
1 3x 3
(c) y = - tan completes cycles every 180° and so completes
2 2 2
cycles every 360°. 3
End of block exercises
State the amplitude of the functions given in
questions 1–6.
1 y = 3 sin 4x 8 y = -2 sin 3x
3 5x
2 y = 7 cos 2x 9 y = 4 cos
6
3 y = 0.96 sin x 10 y = 0.5 cos 0.5x
4 y = -2 cos 7x 11 y = 6 tan 6x
5 y = -0.6 sin 3x 12 y = -3 tan 9x
4 cos x
6 y = 13 Sketch y = sin(-x) for 0° … x … 360°.
7
x
14 Sketch y = tan for 0° … x … 360°.
State the number of cycles completed every 360° 2
for the functions given in questions 7–12.
15 State two properties that are common to both
7 y = 2 sin 3x y = A sin kx and y = A cos kx.
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4.7 The function y ⫽ A tan kx 371 9
Solutions to exercises
1 3 7 3
3
2 7 8 3
5
3 0.96 9 6
4 2 10 0.5
5 0.6 11 12
4
6 7 12 18
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Trigonometrical identities
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
Consider the two expressions sin 2x and 2 sin x cos x. These two expressions have
the same value for every value of x. Try evaluating the expressions for, say, x = 25°,
60°, 1.2 radians.
If two expressions are equal for all values of the variables used, then we say the
expressions are identical. Hence sin 2x and 2 sin x cos x are identical, that is equal
for all values of x. A statement such as sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x is known as an
identity. In this block we provide a table of important identities and show how
expressions involving the trigonometrical ratios can be simplified using them.
5.2 Common trigonometrical identities
There are several commonly used trigonometrical identities. These are listed in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sin A
= tan A
cos A
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - sin B cos A
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
cos(A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A - 1 = cos2 A - sin2 A
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B
tan A - tan B
tan(A - B) =
1 + tan A tan B
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)
2 sin A sin B = cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)
1
sin2 A = 2 (1 - cos 2A)
1
cos2 A = 2 (1 + cos 2A)
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5.2 Common trigonometrical identities 373 9
Note that we write sin2 A to mean (sin A)2. Similarly, cos2 A is the accepted nota-
tion for (cos A)2. The identities can be used to simplify trigonometrical expressions.
The first entry in the table is particularly important and should be remembered.
Key point sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
Choose any angle A for yourself and verify that this identity is true.
Example 5.1
Use trigonometrical identities to simplify cos A tan A.
Solution
sin A
We note that tan A = and so
cos A
sin A
cos A tan A = cos A
cos A
= sin A
Hence cos A tan A is identical to sin A.
Example 5.2
(a) Use the identity for sin (A + B) to show that sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A.
(b) Use the identity for cos (A + B) to show that cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A.
Solution
(a) We use the identity
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
A special case of this identity occurs when B = A. We then have
sin 2A = sin A cos A + sin A cos A
that is
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
(b) We use the identity
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
A special case of this identity occurs when B = A. We then have
cos 2A = cos A cos A - sin A sin A
that is
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
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9 374 Block 5 Trigonometrical identities
Example 5.3
Show that cos(-u) = cos u.
Solution
We use the identity for cos(A - B) with A = 0 and B = u.
Now from Table 5.1
cos(A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
With A = 0 and B = u this becomes
cos(-u) = cos 0 cos u + sin 0 sin u
Noting that sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1 this simplifies to
cos u
Hence cos(-u) = cos u as required.
Example 5.4
Show that
1 + tan u
tan(u + 45°) =
1 - tan u
Solution
We use the identity
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B
Putting A = u and B = 45° gives
tan u + tan 45°
tan(u + 45°) =
1 - tan u tan 45°
Now tan 45° = 1 and so
tan u + 1
tan(u + 45°) =
1 - tanu
1 + tanu
=
1 - tanu
Example 5.5
Simplify
sin3 A
+ sin A cos A
cos A
Solution
We write the expression with a common denominator of cos A:
sin3 A sin3 A + sin A cos2 A
+ sin A cos A =
cos A cos A
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5.2 Common trigonometrical identities 375 9
Now
sin3 A + sin A cos2 A sin A(sin2 A + cos2 A)
=
cos A cos A
sin A
= since sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
cos A
= tan A
sin3 A
Hence + sin A cos A simplifies to tan A.
cos A
Example 5.6
Simplify
sin 2A sin A
+ cos 2A
2 cos A
Solution
From Table 5.1 we have sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A and so
sin2A sin A 2 sin Acos Asin A
= = sin2 A
2 cos A 2 cos A
Also from Table 5.1, cos 2A = cos2 A - sin 2 A. Hence
sin 2A sin A
+ cos 2A
2cos A
⫽ sin2 A + cos2 A - sin2 A = cos2 A
Example 5.7 Electrical Engineering – Amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is a technique which allows a signal of a certain frequency
(the signal frequency) to be transmitted at a different frequency (the carrier fre-
quency). (Note that the term frequency is explained in Block 7.)
The signal can be represented by the cosine wave ys = S cos vst. The carrier can
be represented by yc = C cos vct. The modulated signal is given by the product ycys.
Use a trigonometrical identity to show that the modulated signal can be written as
the sum of two cosine waves.
Solution
The modulated signal is
ycys = (C cos vct) * (S cos vst)
= CS(cos vct cos vst)
Using the identity 2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B) (Table 5.1), we can
write
1
ycys = CS(cos(vc + vs)t + cos(vc - vs)t)
2
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:53 AM Page 376
9 376 Block 5 Trigonometrical identities
which is the sum of two cosine waves, oscillating at different frequencies from the
original signal. This result enables the design of an antenna which can be used to
transmit the original signal efficiently.
End of block exercises
1 From Table 5.1 we have 12 Show sin(180° + u) = -sin u.
cos(A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
13 Show cos(180° + u) = -cos u.
Verify this identity when A = 80° and B = 30°.
14 Show tan(180° + u) = tan u.
2 Verify the identity
15 Show sin(360° - u) = -sin u.
2 sin A sin B = cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)
with A = 50° and B = 15°. 16 Show cos(360° - u) = cos u.
17 Show tan(360° - u) = -tan u.
3 Verify
tan A - tan B 18 Show sin 3A = 3 sin A cos2 A - sin3 A.
tan(A - B) =
1 + tan A tan B
19 Show cos 3A = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A.
with A = 65° and B = 30°.
20 Show sin 4A = 4 sin A cos A(cos2 A - sin2 A).
4 Show sin(-u) = -sin u.
Show cos 4A = 8 cos4 A - 8 cos2 A + 1.
Show sin a
p 21
5 - ub = cos u.
2
22 Simplify
p
6 Show cosa - ub = sin u. 2 sin A cos3 A
2 sin A cos A tan A +
sin 2A
Show sin au + b = cos u.
p
7
2 23 Simplify
b = -sin u.
p 1
8 Show cosa u + tan A +
2 tan A
9 Show sin(180° - u) = sin u.
24 Show
10 Show cos(180° - u) = -cos u. sin 3A 1
= 2 cos A -
sin 2A 2 cos A
11 Show tan(180° - u) = -tan u.
Solutions to exercises
1 2
22 1 23 which may be written as
cos A sin A sin 2A
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Trigonometrical equations
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
We examine the method of solving equations of the form sin u = k, cos u = k and
tan u = k, where k is a constant. Because sin u, cos u and tan u are periodic func-
tions, then there are an infinite number of solutions of trigonometrical equations.
Often the values of u are restricted to a limited range. This restriction means there
are then only a finite number of solutions.
6.2 Notation
If
sin u = k
then we write
u = sin - 1 k
This is read as ‘u equals the inverse sine of k’. Similarly if cos u = k then u = cos - 1 k
and if tan u = k then u = tan - 1 k. The inverse functions sin - 1, cos - 1 and tan - 1 are
available on scientific calculators. Sometimes sin - 1 is written as ‘inv sin’ or ‘arcsin’.
Example 6.1
Given sin u = 0.3214 find u using a scientific calculator.
Solution
sin u = 0.3214
and so
u = sin - 1(0.3214)
= 18.75°
using a scientific calculator.
Example 6.2
Given sin u = -0.2000 find u using a scientific calculator.
Solution
sin u = -0.2000
u = sin - 1(-0.2000) = -11.54°
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9 378 Block 6 Trigonometrical equations
Example 6.3
Given cos u = -0.6132 find u using a scientific calculator.
Solution
cos u = -0.6132
u = cos - 1(-0.6132) = 127.82°
A scientific calculator returns only one solution to a trigonometrical equation. As
sin u, cos u and tan u are periodic functions, then trigonometrical equations involving
these functions have many solutions. The following section illustrates how these
equations are solved.
6.3 Solving trigonometrical equations
The method of solution is illustrated by examples.
Example 6.4
Solve
sin u = 0.7215 0° … u … 360°
Solution
Figure 6.1 illustrates a graph of y = sin u for 0° … u … 360°. We require solutions
between 0° and 360°. The values of u such that sin u = 0.7215 are marked as A and B.
From Figure 6.1 we see there are two solutions, one between 0° and 90°, that is the
first quadrant, and one between 90° and 180°, that is the second quadrant. Using a
scientific calculator gives
u = sin - 1(0.7215) = 46.18°
Figure 6.1 sin θ
sin u = 0.7215 has 1
a solution in the
first quadrant and a 0.7215
solution in the
second quadrant.
A B
O
90° 180° 270° 360° θ
⫺1
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6.3 Solving trigonometrical equations 379 9
This is the solution represented by point A. By symmetry, the solution at B is given by
u = 180° - 46.18° = 133.82°
The required solutions are u = 46.18°, 133.82°.
Example 6.5
Solve
cos x = 0.3456 0 … x … 2p
Solution
A graph of y = cos x for 0 … x … 2p is shown in Figure 6.2. Note that in this
example angles are measured in radians.
Figure 6.2 cos x
cos x = 0.3456 1
has a solution in
the first quadrant
and a solution in
the fourth 0.3456
quadrant.
A B
O π
2
π 3π
2
2π x
⫺1
From Figure 6.2 there are two solutions, A and B. Solution A is in the first quad-
rant, that is between 0 and p2 , and solution B is in the fourth quadrant, that is between
3p
2 and 2p.
We have
cos x = 0.3456
Using a scientific calculator we find
x = cos - 1(0.3456) = 1.2179
This is the solution represented by A. Using symmetry the solution in the fourth
quadrant is found from
x = 2p - 1.2179 = 5.0653
The required solutions are x = 1.2179, 5.0653.
Example 6.6
Solve
tan t = -1.3000 0 … t … 2p
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9 380 Block 6 Trigonometrical equations
Solution
Figure 6.3 illustrates y = tan t and marks the solution points A and B.
p
Point A lies between and p
2
3p
Point B lies between and 2p
2
Using a scientific calculator we have
tan t = -1.3000
t = tan - 1(-1.3000) = -0.9151
Clearly the value of t returned by a calculator is not within the range of values of
interest, namely 0 to 2p.
Recall from Block 3 that adding p radians to an angle does not change its tangent,
and so another solution is given by -0.9151 + p = 2.2265. This is the solution
represented in the second quadrant by point A.
Figure 6.3 tan t
tan t = -1.3000 2.5
has solutions at
A and B.
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
A B
O π
2
π 3π
2
2π t
⫺0.5
⫺1.0
⫺1.3000
⫺1.5
⫺2.0
⫺2.5
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6.3 Solving trigonometrical equations 381 9
By examining the graph in Figure 6.3, we see the solution at point B is p radians
above point A. So the solution at point B is given by 2.2265 + p = 5.3681.
The required solutions are t = 2.2265, 5.3681.
Example 6.7
Solve
sin u = -0.6500 0 … u … 2p
Solution
From Figure 6.4, sin u = -0.6500 has solutions at A and B.
Figure 6.4 sin θ
sin u = -0.6500 1
has solutions at
A and B.
A B
O
π 2π θ
⫺0.6500
⫺1
3p
Point A is between p and
2
3p
Point B is between and 2p
2
We have
sin u = -0.6500
and so
u = sin - 1(-0.6500) = -0.7076
Clearly this solution is not within the range of interest.
Recall from Block 3 that adding 2p (360°) to an angle does not change its sine.
Hence -0.7076 + 2p = 5.5756 is a solution.
This solution is represented by point B
Using the symmetry of Figure 6.4 we see that point A is above p by the same
amount that B is below 2p.
Hence the solution at point A is given by
p + 0.7076 = 3.8492
The required solutions are u = 3.8492, 5.5756.
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9 382 Block 6 Trigonometrical equations
Example 6.8
Solve
cos u = -0.4215 0° … u … 360°
Solution
Sketch y = cos u and mark the points where cos u = -0.4215.
O
90° 180° 270° 360°
−0.4215
There are two solutions.
One is between and the other is between 90° and 180°
180° and 270°
We have
cos u = -0.4215
and so
u = cos - 1(-0.4215) = 114.93°
Using the symmetry of the cosine curve, the other solution is
u = 360° - 114.93° = 245.07°
Exercises
1 Solve
(a) sin u = 0.3510, 0° … u … 360° (d) cos x = 0.7654, 0° … x … 360°
(b) sin u = -0.4161, 0 … u … 2p (e) tan y = 1.7136, 0° … y … 360°
(c) cos t = -0.3778, 0 … t … 2p (f) tan y = -0.3006, 0° … y … 360°
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 20.55°, 159.45° (b) 3.5707, 5.8540 (e) 59.73°, 239.73° (f) 163.27°, 343.27°
(c) 1.9582, 4.3250 (d) 40.06°, 319.94°
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6.4 Further trigonometrical equations 383 9
6.4 Further trigonometrical equations
We now consider more complex trigonometrical equations.
Example 6.9
Solve
sin 3u = 0.7215 0° … u … 360°
Solution
We introduce a new variable, z, defined by z = 3u. As u moves from 0° to 360° then
z moves through 0° to 1080°. Hence the problem may be written as one of finding z
given
sin z = 0.7215 0° … z … 1080°
Using Example 6.4, the solutions between 0° and 360° are
z = 46.18°, 133.82°
Recognising that adding 360° to an angle does not change its sine, we see that the
solutions between 360° and 720° are
z = 46.18° + 360°, 133.82° + 360°
= 406.18°, 493.82°
Similarly the solutions between 720° and 1080° are
z = 406.18° + 360°, 493.82° + 360°
= 766.18°, 853.82°
Hence
z = 46.18°, 133.82°, 406.18°, 493.82°, 766.18°, 853.82°
Recall that z = 3u, that is u = 3z , and so
u = 15.39°, 44.61°, 135.39°, 164.61°, 255.39°, 284.61°
Example 6.10
Solve
u
cos = -0.4215 0° … u … 360°
2
Solution
u
We define z =
2
As u moves from 0° to 360°, then z moves from 0° to 180°. Hence the problem may
be recast as one of finding z given
cos z = -0.4215 0° … z … 180°
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9 384 Block 6 Trigonometrical equations
In Example 6.8 we solved
cos u = -0.4215 0° … u … 360°
and found u = 114.93°, 245.07°. Since z is restricted to 0° to 180°, then the only
solution is z = 114.93°. Recall that z = 2u , that is u = 2z, and so
u = 2 * 114.93° = 229.86°
Example 6.11
Solve
tan 2u = -1.4213 0° … u … 360°
Solution
We define z ⫽ 2u
As u ranges through 0° to 360° then z ranges through 0° to 720°
Hence the problem becomes one of solving
tan z = -1.4213 0° … z … 720°
Using a scientific calculator we see
z = tan - 1(-1.4213) = -54.87°
This is outside the range of interest.
Adding 180° to an angle does not change the value of its tangent.
Hence the required solutions are
z = 125.13°, 305.13°, 485.13°, 665.13°
Recall that z = 2u, that is u = 2z , and so
u = 62.57°, 152.57°, 242.57°, 332.57°
Exercise
2u
1 Solve the following: (d) sin = -0.5000, 0° … u … 360°
(a) sin 3u = 0.7614, 0° … u … 360° 3
u
u (e) cos = 0.4162, 0° … u … 360°
(b) tan = 1.0137, 0° … u … 360° 3
2
4u
(c) cos 2u = -0.8314, 0° … u … 360° (f) tan = -1, 0° … u … 360°
3
Solution to exercise
1 (a) 16.53°, 43.47°, 136.53°, 163.47°, 256.53°, (c) 73.12°, 106.88°, 253.12°, 286.88°
283.47° (d) 315° (e) 196.22° (f) 101.25°, 236.25°
(b) 90.78°
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6.4 Further trigonometrical equations 385 9
End of block exercises
Solve the following trigonometrical equations:
13 tan z = -0.1421, 0 … z … 4p
1 sin u = 0.7506, 0° … u … 360°
14 4 tan f + 2.5 = 0, 0° … f … 540°
2 sin x = 0.2913, 0 … x … 2p
15 sin 4u = 0.6000, 0° … u … 180°
3 3 sin u = 2, 0° … u … 360°
16 sin 3u = -0.2556, 0° … u … 180°
4 sin t = -0.3490, 0 … t … 2p t
17 cos = -0.4000, 0 … t … 3p
5 2 sin x = -1.4600, 0 … x … 2p 3
18 2 cos 2u = -1.3146, 0° … u … 360°
6 3 sin u + 1.5 = 0, 0 … u … 2p
2u
7 cos t = 0.4500, 0 … t … 2p 19 tan = -1, -180° … u … 180°
3
8 cos t = 0.8020, 0 … t … 2p 20 tan(u - 20°) = 0.5614, 0° … u … 360°
9 3 cos u - 1.4216 = 0, 0° … u … 360° 21 sin(2u + 10°) = 0.7516, 0° … u … 360°
10 5 cos x + 3 = 0, 0 … x … 2p u
22 cosa - 20°b = -0.5516, 0° … u … 360°
2
11 tan u = 0.4906, 0° … u … 360°
b = -1.6319, -270° … u … 270°
u + 30°
23 tana
4
12 tan t = 2.1630, 0 … t … 4p
Solutions to exercises
1 48.64°, 131.36° 13 3.0004, 6.1420, 9.2836, 12.4252
2 0.2956, 2.8460 14 147.99°, 327.99°, 507.99°
3 41.81°, 138.19° 15 9.22°, 35.78°, 99.22°, 125.78°
4 3.4981, 5.9267 16 64.94°, 115.06°
5 3.9599, 5.4649 17 5.9469°
6 3.6652, 5.7596 18 65.55°, 114.45°, 245.55°, 294.45°
7 1.1040, 5.1792 19 -67.5°
8 2.5014, 3.7818 20 49.31°, 229.31°
9 61.71°, 298.29° 21 19.36°, 60.64°, 199.36°, 240.64°
10 2.2143, 4.0689 22 286.95°
11 26.13°, 206.13° 23 -264.00°
12 1.1377, 4.2793, 7.4209, 10.5625
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 386
Engineering waves
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
Often voltages and currents vary with time, and can be modelled by sine and cosine
functions. Important parameters such as amplitude, frequency, period and phase are
used in the description of these waves. These terms are described in the following
sections.
Two or more waves may be added together, producing a new single wave. The
method of doing this is explained and illustrated.
7.2 Time-varying waves
The functions y = sin u and y = cos u were described in Block 4. There we saw that
the graphs of these functions look like waves. The angle u may be measured in
degrees or radians.
Voltages and currents encountered in electric circuits usually vary with time, t.
Hence we consider sine and cosine waves in which the independent variable is t. For
example, consider y = sin t. As t increases from 0 seconds to 2p seconds, one com-
plete cycle is produced. This is illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 sin t
As time t varies 1
from 0 to 2p
seconds one
complete cycle is
0.5
produced.
O
π 2π t
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7.4 Angular frequency of a wave 387 9
7.3 Amplitude of a wave
We introduced the amplitude in Block 4 and simply recap here. Consider the func-
tion y = A sin t for A 7 0. Then A is the amplitude of the wave. This is the highest
value attained by the wave. Similarly the amplitude of y = A cos t is A.
Key point The amplitude of both y = A sin t and y = A cos t is A.
Example 7.1
State the amplitude of each of the following functions:
(a) y = 3 sin t
(b) y = 23 cos t
(c) y = -sin t
Solution
(a) amplitude = 3
(b) amplitude = 23
(c) Noting that the amplitude of a wave is the largest value attained, the amplitude
of -sin t is 1.
7.4 Angular frequency of a wave
Consider the wave y = A sin vt. We call v the angular frequency of the wave. The
units of v are radians per second. Noting that t is measured in seconds, then vt has
units of radians. For example, y = sin 4t has an angular frequency of 4 radians per
second. Note that y = sin t has an angular frequency of 1 radian per second. In like
manner the angular frequency of y = A cos vt is v radians per second.
Key point The angular frequency of y = A sin vt and y = A cos vt is v radians per second.
Note that the amplitude, A, has no effect upon the angular frequency of a function.
Example 7.2
State the angular frequency of each of the following waves:
(a) y = 5 sin 3t
t
(b) y = 7 cos
2
2t
(c) y = cos
3
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9 388 Block 7 Engineering waves
Solution
(a) Comparing 5 sin 3t with A sin vt, we see that v = 3: that is, the angular
frequency is 3 radians per second.
1
(b) angular frequency = 2 radian per second
2
(c) angular frequency = 3 radians per second
Exercises
t 4t 3 2t
1 State (i) the amplitude and (ii) the angular (c) y = sin (d) y = cos (e) y = sin
frequency of the following waves: 2 3 2 3
(a) y = 2 sin 5t (b) y = 3 cos 6t (f) y = -4 sin pt
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2, 5 (b) 3, 6 (c) 1, 12 (d) 1, 43 (e) 32 , 23 (f) 4, p
7.5 Period of a wave
The time taken to complete one full cycle is called the period of the wave. It is
closely connected to the angular frequency of the wave.
2p
Consider y = A sin vt. When t = 0 seconds, then vt = 0 radians. When t =
v
b = 2p radians. Hence as t increases by
2p 2p
seconds, then vt = va seconds, the
v v
angle, vt, increases by 2p radians. Recall from Block 4 that a sine function completes
one full cycle as the angle increases by 2p radians. Hence y = A sin vt completes a
2p 2p
full cycle as t increases by seconds: that is, the period of y is seconds. Similarly
v v
2p
the period of y = A cos vt is also seconds. The period is denoted by T.
v
Key point The period of both y = A sin vt and y = A cos vt is given by T =
2p
.
v
Example 7.3
State the period of each of the following functions:
(a) y = 3 sin 6t
(b) y = 5.6 cos pt
(c) y = 50 sin 100pt
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 389
7.5 Period of a wave 389 9
Solution
(a) Here v = 6 and so
2p
T =
6
p
=
3
p
The period isseconds.
3
(b) Here v = p and so
2p
T = = 2
p
The period is 2 seconds.
(c) Here v = and so 100p
2p
T = = 0.02
100p
The period is 0.02 seconds.
Example 7.4 Electrical Engineering – Oscilloscope trace
Figure 7.2 shows an oscilloscope trace of a sine wave. State the equation of the wave.
Figure 7.2
Oscilloscope trace. 3
O
2 4 6 t
⫺3
Solution
The wave has an equation of the form
y = A sin vt
The maximum value of the wave is 3: that is, the amplitude, A, is 3. A full cycle is
completed in 4 seconds: that is, T = 4. So
2p
T =
v
= 4
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 390
9 390 Block 7 Engineering waves
from which
p
v =
2
pt
The equation of the wave is y = 3 sin .
2
Example 7.5 Electrical Engineering – Oscilloscope trace
Figure 7.3 shows an oscilloscope trace of a cosine wave. State the equation of the wave.
Figure 7.3 4.2
Oscilloscope trace 4
of a cosine wave.
3
2
1
O
1.5 4.5 7.5 t
⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
⫺4
⫺4.2
Solution
The wave has an equation of the form
y = A cos vt
The highest value of the wave is 4.2
Hence the value of the amplitude is 4.2.
A cycle is completed in seconds, and so 6
2p
T =
v
= 6
Hence
2p p
v = =
6 3
pt
The equation of the wave is therefore 4.2 cos
3
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 391
7.6 The frequency of a wave 391 9
7.6 The frequency of a wave
The frequency, f, of a wave is the number of cycles completed in 1 second. It is mea-
sured in hertz (Hz). One hertz is one cycle per second. 2p
Consider again the function y = A sin vt. The period is seconds: that is, one
v
2p
cycle is completed in seconds. Hence v cycles are completed in 2p seconds and
v
v
cycles are completed in 1 second. Thus we have
2p
Key point frequency f =
v
2p
We note that
2p v
period T = , frequency f =
v 2p
and so
Key point T =
1
f
Example 7.6
State the period and frequency of the following waves:
(a) y = 2 sin 4t
(b) y = 3 cos 2t
(c) y = sin pt
Solution
(a) Comparing 2 sin 4t with A sin vt we see that v = 4. Hence the frequency, f, is
found from
v
f =
2p
4
=
2p
2
=
p
= 0.6366 Hz
So 0.6366 cycles are completed every second. The period, T, is found from
1
T =
f
p
=
2
= 1.5708
It takes 1.5708 seconds to complete one cycle.
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9 392 Block 7 Engineering waves
(b) Here v = 2 and so
v 2 1
f = = = = 0.3183 Hz
2p 2p p
Thus, 0.3183 of a cycle is completed every second.
The period, T, is found using
1
T = = p = 3.1416
f
It takes p seconds to complete one cycle.
(c) Here v = p and so
v p 1
f = = = Hz
2p 2p 2
and
1
T = = 2
f
Thus, 0.5 of a cycle is completed each second. It takes 2 seconds to complete
one full cycle.
Exercises
1
1 State (i) the period and (ii) the frequency of the (c) y = -4 sin t (d) y = 2 cos 100pt
following waves: (e) y = p sin 1.5t
(a) y = 6 sin 4t (b) y = cos 3t
Solutions to exercises
p 2 2p 3 1 4p 3
1 (a) , (b) , (c) 2p, (d) 0.02, 50 (e) ,
2 p 3 2p 2p 3 4p
7.7 Phase and time displacement of a wave
We now introduce waves of the form y = A sin(vt + a) and y = A cos(vt + a).
Introducing a has the effect of moving the wave to either the left or the right.
Figure 7.4 shows graphs of y = sin 2t and y = sin(2t + 1).
From Figure 7.4 we note that the peak of y = sin(2t + 1) occurs 0.5 seconds
before the peak of y = sin 2t. We say sin(2t + 1) leads sin 2t by 0.5 seconds. The
quantity, 0.5 seconds, is known as the time displacement of y = sin(2t + 1).
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7.7 Phase and time displacement of a wave 393 9
Figure 7.4 y
The waves 0.5
y = sin 2t and 1 y 5 sin 2t
y = sin(2t + 1).
O π
2 π t
y 5 sin(2t 1 1)
21
Figure 7.5 y
The waves 0.5
y = sin 2t and 1
y = sin(2t - 1).
y 5 sin(2t 2 1)
O π
2 π t
y 5 sin2t
21
Figure 7.5 shows graphs of y = sin 2t and y = sin(2t - 1).
The peak of y = sin(2t - 1) is reached 0.5 seconds after the peak of y = sin 2t.
We say sin(2t - 1) lags sin 2t by 0.5 seconds. The time displacement of sin(2t - 1)
is -0.5 seconds.
These examples lead us to the following general treatment.
Consider the wave y = A sin(vt + a). The angle a is called the phase angle, or
simply the phase. We note that y may be written as
y = A sin cva t + bd
a
v
a
We call the time displacement of the wave.
v
Key point The phase of y = A sin(vt + a) is a radians.
a
The time displacement of y = A sin(vt + a) is seconds.
v
In similar manner the phase and time displacement of y = A cos(vt + a) are a
a
radians and seconds.
v
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 394
9 394 Block 7 Engineering waves
Example 7.7
State the phase and time displacement of each of the following waves:
(a) y = sin(2t + 1)
(b) y = sin(2t - 1)
(c) y = 3 cos a + 3 b
t
2
Solution
(a) Here v = 2, a = 1 and so the phase is 1 radian and the time displacement is
a 1
= = 0.5 seconds
v 2
This wave is illustrated in Figure 7.4.
(b) Here v = 2, a = -1 and so the phase is -1 radian and the time displacement is
a -1
= = -0.5 seconds
v 2
This wave is illustrated in Figure 7.5.
(c) Here v = and a = 0.5, 3
3
and so the phase is 3 radians and the time displacement is = 6 seconds.
(0.5)
Exercises
1 State (i) the phase and (ii) the time (d) y = sin(0.5t - 2)
displacement of the following waves:
b
t + 4
(a) y = 4 sin(3t + 12) (e) y = 3 cosa
(b) y = sin(4t - 6) 3
(c) y = 2 cos(t + 0.5)
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 12, 4 (b) -6, -1.5 (c) 0.5, 0.5 (d) -2, -4 (e) 43 , 4
7.8 Adding waves of the same frequency
Waves of the same angular frequency may be added together to form a new wave.
The new wave has the same angular frequency as the original waves. The trigono-
metrical identities (see Block 5) are used, especially the formulae for sin(A ; B)
and cos(A ; B). The following examples illustrate the technique.
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7.8 Adding waves of the same frequency 395 9
Example 7.8
Express 2 sin 3t + 6 cos 3t in the form A cos(vt + a), a Ú 0.
Solution
The angular frequency of both 2 sin 3t and 6 cos 3t is 3 radians per second. Hence,
on adding the waves, the angular frequency of the sum is also 3 radians per second
and so v = 3. Recall the trigonometrical identity from Block 5:
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
and so
2 sin 3t + 6 cos 3t = A cos(vt + a)
= A cos(3t + a)
= A(cos 3t cos a - sin 3t sin a)
= (A cos a) cos 3t - (A sin a) sin 3t
= -(A sin a) sin 3t + (A cos a) cos 3t
We now compare the coefficients of sin 3t and cos 3t on the left-hand and right-
hand sides.
Comparing the sin 3t coefficients we have
2 = -A sin a (1)
Comparing the cos 3t coefficients we have
6 = A cos a (2)
Equations (1) and (2) must be solved for A and a. To find A, a is eliminated. This is
accomplished by squaring equations (1) and (2) and then adding the results.
Squaring equation (1) gives
4 = A2 sin2 a (3)
Squaring equation (2) gives
36 = A2 cos2 a (4)
Adding equations (3) and (4) gives
40 = A2 sin2 a + A2 cos2 a
= A2(sin2 a + cos2 a)
= A2 using sin2 a + cos2 a = 1
Hence A = 240.
To find a, A is eliminated from equations (1) and (2). This is achieved by dividing
sin a
equation (1) by equation (2) and using the identity = tan a.
cos a
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) gives
2 A sin a
= - = -tan a
6 A cos a
Hence
1
tan a = -
3
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 396
9 396 Block 7 Engineering waves
Since tan a 6 0, then a lies in either the second quadrant or the fourth quadrant.
Noting from equation (1) that sin a 6 0, then a must be in the fourth quadrant.
1
Solving tan a = - with a in the fourth quadrant gives a = 5.9614. So finally
3
2 sin 3t + 6 cos 3t = 240 cos(3t + 5.9614)
The resulting wave has an amplitude of 240, an angular frequency of 3 radians per
second and a phase of 5.9614 radians.
Example 7.9
Express 2 sin 5t - 5 cos 5t in the form A sin(vt - a), a Ú 0.
Solution
The angular frequency of both 2 sin 5t and 5 cos 5t is 5, and so the resultant wave has
an angular frequency of 5, that is v = 5.
Recall the trigonometrical identity for sin(A - B):
sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - sin B cos A
Hence
2 sin 5t - 5 cos 5t = A sin(vt - a)
= A sin(5t - a)
= A(sin 5t cos a - sin a cos 5t)
= (A cos a) sin 5t - (A sin a) cos 5t
Comparing the sin 5t terms on both sides gives
2 = A cos a (5)
Comparing the cos 5t terms on both sides gives
5 = A sin a (6)
To eliminate a from equations (5) and (6), the equations are squared and then added.
Squaring the equations gives
4 = A2 cos2 a
25 = A2 sin2 a
and then adding gives
29 = A2 cos2 a + A2 sin2 a
= A2(cos2 a + sin2 a)
= A2
Hence A = 229.
To eliminate A, equation (6) is divided by equation (5) to give
5 A sin a
=
2 A cos a
= tan a
tan a = 2.5
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7.8 Adding waves of the same frequency 397 9
We note that tan a 7 0 and from equation (5) that cos a 7 0, so a must be in the
first quadrant:
a = tan - 1 2.5 = 1.1903
So
2 sin 5t - 5 cos 5t = 229 sin(5t - 1.1903)
Example 7.10
Express cos 2t - 2 sin 2t in the form A sin(vt + a), a Ú 0.
Solution
The angular frequency of both cos 2t and 2 sin 2t is
2
Hence the angular frequency of the resulting wave is also 2, that is v = 2.
Recall from Block 5 the trigonometrical identity
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
Hence
cos 2t - 2 sin 2t = A sin(vt + a)
= A sin(2t + a)
= A(sin 2t cos a + sin a cos 2t)
= sin 2t + cos 2t A cos a, A sin a
So we have
cos 2t - 2 sin 2t = A cos a sin 2t + A sin a cos 2t
Comparing the sin 2t terms on both sides of the equation gives
-2 = (7) A cos a
Comparing the cos 2t terms on both sides of the equation gives
1 = (8) A sin a
Squaring equations (7) and (8) and then adding gives
A2 = 5
and so A = 25.
To determine a, equation (8) is divided by equation (7). This gives
tan a = -0.5
Recognising that a is in the quadrant we see that second
a = tan - 1(-0.5) = 2.6779
Hence
cos 2t - 2 sin 2t = 25 sin(2t + 2.6779)
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9 398 Block 7 Engineering waves
Exercises
1 Express 6 sin 3t - 7 cos 3t in the form 3 Express 5 sin 2t + cos 2t in the form
A cos(vt + a), a Ú 0. A cos(vt - a), a Ú 0.
2 Express 2 cos t + 6 sin t in the form 4 Show that the maximum value of
A sin(vt - a), a Ú 0. State the maximum
value of 2 cos t + 6 sin t. a sin vt + b cos vt is 2a2 + b2.
Solutions to exercises
1 285 cos(3t + 3.8502) 3 226 cos(2t - 1.3734)
2 240 sin(t - 5.9614),240
End of block exercises
State the amplitude of the functions in questions 1–5.
y = sin a - b
1 y = 3 sin 2t 2t p
25
3 2
2 y = 2 cos 3t For questions 26–30 state the time displacement of
y = sina b
4 t the functions in questions 21–25.
3
3 2
31 Express 3 sin 5t + 6 cos 5t in the form
b
2t A sin(vt + a), a Ú 0.
4 y = cosa
3
5 cos 3t 32 Express 2 cos 3t - sin 3t in the form
5 y = A sin(vt + f), f Ú 0.
3
For questions 6–10 state the angular frequency of 33 Express sin 4t + 3 cos 4t in the form
the functions given in questions 1–5. A cos(vt + f), f Ú 0.
For questions 11–15 state the period of the functions 34 Express cos t - 7 sin t in the form
in questions 1–5. A cos(vt + a), a Ú 0.
For questions 16–20 state the frequency of the 35 Express 4 sin 2t + 5 cos 2t in the form
functions in questions 1–5. A sin(vt - f), f Ú 0.
State the phase of the functions in questions 21–25. 36 Express 5 sin 3t - 3 cos 3t in the form
A sin(vt - a), a Ú 0.
21 y = 3 sin(t + 2)
37 Express sin t - 3 cos t in the form
22 y = 2.3 cos(4t - 2) A cos(vt - f), f Ú 0.
b
3t - 1 38 Express -2 sin 2t + 4 cos 2t in the form
23 y = cosa
2 A cos(vt - a), a Ú 0.
24 y = sin(0.5t + 3)
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 9/21/18 11:54 AM Page 399
End of chapter exercises 399 9
Solutions to exercises
1 3 14 3p 26 2
2p 1
2 2 15 27 -
3 2
4 1 1
3 3 16 28 -
p 3
4 1 3 29 6
17
2p 3p
5
5 3 1 30 -
18 4
4p
6 2 31 245 sin(5t + 1.1071)
1
19
7 3 3p 32 25 sin(3t + 2.0344)
3
1 20
8 2
2p 33 210 cos(4t + 5.9614)
2 21 2
9 3 34 250 cos(t + 1.4289)
22 -2
10 3 35 241 sin(2t - 5.3871)
1
23 -
11 p 2 36 234 sin(3t - 0.5404)
2p 24 3
12 37 210 cos(t - 2.8198)
3 p
25 -
13 4p 2 38 220 cos(2t - 5.8195)
End of chapter exercises
1 Convert the following angles to radians, giving 6 Express 6 sin 2t - 3 cos 2t in the form
your answer to 4 d.p.: A cos(vt - a), a Ú 0.
(a) 40° (b) 100° (c) 527° (d) -200°
7 If sin f 6 0 and cos f 7 0, state the
2 Convert the following angles in radians to quadrant in which f lies.
degrees:
p p 4p 8 If tan f 6 0 and sin f 7 0, state the
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1.25p (e) 1.25 quadrant in which f lies.
2 3 3
(f) 9.6314 (g) 3
9 Express 12 cos t + sin t in the form
3 Evaluate A sin(vt - a), a Ú 0.
(a) cosec 37° (b) cot 1.3 (c) sec 40°
10 A voltage source, v(t), varies with time, t,
4 An arc of a circle, radius 5 cm, subtends an according to
angle of 3p
4 radians at the centre. Calculate the
length of the arc. v(t) = 50 sin(pt + 10)
5 A sector of a circle, radius 9 cm, has an area of State (a) the angular frequency, (b) the phase,
100 cm2. Calculate the angle subtended at the (c) the amplitude, (d) the period, (e) the time
centre by the sector. displacement, (f) the frequency of the voltage.
M09_CROF5939_04_SE_C09.QXD 11/28/18 7:12 PM Page 400
9 400 Block 7 Engineering waves
11 Solve 18 Solve
3 cos u = 1.2 0 … u … 2p sin u cos 41° + sin 41° cos u = 0.6100
12 Solve 0° … u … 360°
sin 2u = - 0.4010 0 … u … 2p 19 If 0 … u … 2p and cos 2u 6 0, state the
range of possible values for u.
13 Simplify sin u cos u tan u + cos2 u.
20 Simplify
14 Express 5 cos 3t + 2 sin 3t in the form
A cos(vt + a), a Ú 0. (sin u + cos u)2 - sin 2u
15 Show that 21 Solve
(a) tan2 u + 1 = sec2 u
tan a b = 0.7 0 … x … 2p
(b) 1 + cot2 u = cosec2 u 2x
3
16 (a) Sketch y = cos(x - 20°),
22 Solve
0° … x … 360°.
(b) On the same axes, sketch y = sin x.
cos a b = - 0.6010 0 … u … 720°
u - 30°
(c) Use your graphs to obtain approximate 3
solutions of
sin x = cos(x - 20°) 23 A voltage, v(t), has the form
17 A current, i(t), varies with time, t, and is given by 2 sin t + cos t t Ú 0
i(t) = 30 cos(t - 0.4) t Ú 0 (a) Calculate the maximum value of v.
(a) Find the time when the current is first zero. (b) Calculate the first time that this maximum
(b) Find the time when the current reaches its value occurs.
first peak.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.6981 (b) 1.7453 (c) 9.1979 11 1.1593, 5.1239
(d) - 3.4907
12 1.7771, 2.9353, 4.9187, 6.0769
2 (a) 90° (b) 60° (c) 240° (d) 225° (e) 71.62°
(f) 551.84° (g) 171.89° 13 1
3 (a) 1.6616 (b) 0.2776 (c) 1.3054 14 229 cos(3t + 5.9027)
16 (c) 55°, 235°
4 11.78 cm
17 (a) 1.9708 (b) 0.4
5 2.4691 radians
18 101.41°, 356.59°
6 245 cos(2t - 2.0344) p 3p 5p 7p
19 6 u 6 , 6 u 6
7 fourth quadrant 4 4 4 4
20 1
8 second quadrant
21 0.9161, 5.6285
9 1.1180 sin(t - 5.8195)
22 410.82°
10
10 (a) p (b) 10 (c) 50 (d) 2 (e) (f) 0.5 23 (a) 25 (b) 1.1071
p
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 2:08 PM Page 401
Chapter 10
Further trigonometry
The chapter opens with a statement of Pythagoras’s theorem. This
famous theorem relates the lengths of the sides of a right-angled
triangle. A triangle is solved when all its angles and the lengths of all
its sides have been found. Methods are covered for solving right-
angled triangles.
Blocks 2 and 3 deal with the sine and cosine rules. These are used to
solve any triangle. Conditions under which the rules can be applied are
clearly stated.
The application of the solution of triangles in surveying is covered in
Block 4. Finally trigonometry is applied to the resolution and addition
of forces.
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 402
Chapter 10 contents
Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled
triangles
Block 2 Solving triangles using the sine rule
Block 3 Solving triangles using the cosine rule
Block 4 Surveying
Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
End of chapter exercises
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 403
Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution
BLOCK 1
of right-angled triangles
1.1 Introduction
We introduce some common terms and notation used for right-angled triangles.
Consider a right-angled ^ ABC as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 B
A right-angled
^ABC.
AB ⫽ c BC ⫽ a
A AC ⫽ b C
There is a right angle at C; the hypotenuse is AB. The side AC is opposite B. A
common notation is to refer to the length of AC as b. Similarly, BC is opposite A and
so the length of BC is written as a. Finally, the hypotenuse AB is opposite C and so
is labelled c. In summary we have
a = BC, b = AC, c = AB
The convention of referring to sides of a triangle in such a way is not restricted to
right-angled triangles. It is used for any triangle.
1.2 Pythagoras’s theorem
Pythagoras’s theorem can only be applied to right-angled triangles. Consider the
right-angled ^ABC in Figure 1.1. Then Pythagoras’s theorem states
Key point c2 = a2 + b2
Thus the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two
sides.
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 404
10 404 Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled triangles
Example 1.1
In ^ABC in Figure 1.1, AC = 9 cm and BC = 14 cm. Calculate AB.
Solution
We have b = AC = 9 and a = BC = 14. We need to find AB, that is c. By
Pythagoras’s theorem we know
c2 = a2 + b2
= 142 + 92
= 277
c = 2277 = 16.64
The hypotenuse, AB, is 16.64 cm.
Example 1.2
Consider ^ABC in Figure 1.1. Given AB = 19 cm and AC = 12.5 cm calculate BC.
Solution
We have c = AB = 19 and b = 12.5
We seek BC, that is a. Using Pythagoras’s theorem
c2 = a2 + b2
192 = a2 + 12.52
a2 = 192 - 12.52 = 204.75
a = 2204.75 = 14.31
The length of BC is 14.31 cm.
Exercises
1 ^ABC has a right angle at B. Given 3 ^CDE has a right angle at E. Given
AB = 7 cm, BC = 12 cm, calculate the CD = 55 mm and DE = 37 mm, calculate the
length of AC. length of CE.
2 ^PQR has a right angle at P. If PR = 3.2 m,
QR = 4.9 m, calculate the length of PQ.
Solutions to exercises
1 13.89 cm 3 40.69 mm
2 3.71 m
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1.3 Solving right-angled triangles 405 10
1.3 Solving right-angled triangles
When asked to solve a triangle we need to calculate all the unknown angles and all
the unknown sides. Sometimes we are asked to calculate only specified angle(s)
and/or side(s). The following examples illustrate the method. You should be aware
that the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180°.
Example 1.3
As shown in Figure 1.2, ^ABC has a right angle at C, A = 53° and BC = 9 cm.
Calculate (a) AC and (b) AB.
Figure 1.2 B
9 cm
53°
A C
Solution
BC
(a) tan A =
AC
9
tan 53° =
AC
9
AC =
tan 53°
= 6.7820
BC
(b) sin A =
AB
9
sin 53° =
AB
9
AB =
sin 53°
= 11.2692
Example 1.4
^XYZ has a right angle at Y, X = 26° and XZ = 12 cm.
(a) Sketch ^XYZ.
(b) Calculate XY.
(c) Calculate YZ.
Solution
(a) ^XYZ is illustrated in Figure 1.3.
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 406
10 406 Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled triangles
Figure 1.3 X
26°
12 cm
Y Z
XY
(b) cos X =
XZ
XY
cos 26° =
12
XY = 12 cos 26° = 10.7855
YZ
(c) sin X =
XZ
YZ
sin 26° =
12
YZ = 12 sin 26° = 5.2605
Example 1.5
^KLM has a right angle at L, M = 25° and ML = 14 cm. It is illustrated in
Figure 1.4. Calculate (a) KL and (b) KM.
Figure 1.4 M
25°
14 cm
K L
Solution
KL
(a) tan M =
ML
KL
tan 25° =
14
KL = 6.5283
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 407
1.3 Solving right-angled triangles 407 10
ML 14
(b) cos M = =
KM KM
14
KM = = 15.4473
cos 25°
Example 1.6
^PQR has a right angle at P, Q = 39° and QR = 18 cm.
(a) Sketch ^PQR.
(b) Calculate PQ.
(c) Calculate PR.
Solution
(a) ^PQR is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 P Q
39°
18 cm
PQ PQ
(b) cos 39° = =
QR 18
PQ = 18 cos 39° = 13.9886
PR PR
(c) sin 39° = =
QR 18
PR = 18 sin 39° = 11.3278
Example 1.7
^ABC has C = 90°, AC = 14 cm and BC = 9 cm.
(a) Sketch ^ABC.
(b) Solve ^ABC.
Solution
(a) ^ABC is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6 B
9 cm
A 14 cm C
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10 408 Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled triangles
(b) We need to find A, B and AB. First we find A.
BC
tan A =
AC
9
=
14
A = tan-1 a b
9
14
= 32.74°
B may now be found. The sum of the angles in any triangle is 180° and so
A + B + C = 180°
B = 180° - A - C
= 180° - 32.74° - 90°
B = 57.26°
Finally using Pythagoras’s theorem we have
(AB)2 = (BC)2 + (AC)2
= 92 + 142
= 277
AB = 2277
= 16.64
Example 1.8
XYZ is a right-angled triangle as shown in Figure 1.7, with XY = 23 cm and
YZ = 14 cm. Solve ^XYZ.
Figure 1.7 Y
23 cm
14 cm
X Z
Solution
We need to find X, Y and XZ. We find X first.
14
sin X =
23
sin-1 a b = 37.50°
14
X =
23
Y may now be found.
X + Y + Z = 180°
Y = 52.50°
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 409
1.3 Solving right-angled triangles 409 10
Using Pythagoras’s theorem we can find XZ.
(XY)2 = (XZ)2 + (YZ)2
(XZ)2 = (XY)2 - (YZ)2 = 333
XZ = 2333 = 18.25
Example 1.9 Materials Engineering – Measuring the hardness
of a material
We have already noted in Example 7.7 in Chapter 5 that measuring the hardness of a
material is important in materials engineering. This is particularly the case in life-
critical systems which experience significant stresses, such as aircraft parts where
material failure can be, and has been, catastrophic. The Vickers hardness test
involves applying a known force through a square-based pyramid-shaped indenter
(Figure 1.8(a), where point Q is the apex of the pyramid) into a metal surface.
The surface area, A, of the resulting indentation is then calculated and the Vickers
hardness (HV) is given by the formula
F
HV = 0.102 *
A
where F is the applied force (in newtons) and the surface area, A, is measured
in mm2.
To calculate the surface area of the indentation a microscope is used to measure
the lengths of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 (Figure 1.8(b)). Ideally d1 = d2, but
material imperfections mean that this is not necessarily the case. Their average is
d1 + d2
calculated as D = . We then assume that the diagonal length is accurately
2
represented by the value of D.
(a) Show that the surface area of the indentation is given by
D2
A =
2 sin (u>2)
where u is the angle between opposite faces of the pyramid indenter as shown
in Figure 1.8(c, d).
(b) A hardness test is performed by using a square-based diamond pyramid
indenter in which the angle between the opposite faces of the pyramid is 136°
and the applied force is 1000 N. The two diagonal distances are measured as
d1 = 0.88 mm, d2 = 0.90 mm. Calculate the surface area, A, of the indentation
and deduce the Vickers hardness, HV.
Figure 1.8 Q
d1
d2
(a) (b)
Q
Q
R
q
(c) P (d) P R
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10 410 Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled triangles
Solution
(a) Note that the surface area of the indentation is made up of four triangular sides.
We first calculate the length of the base of the triangular sides using the known
diagonal length D and Pythagoras’s theorem. Figure 1.9 shows the base of the
pyramid and the diagonal length D. We have labelled the unknown length x.
Figure 1.9
x
D
x
Then, using Pythagoras’s theorem,
D2 = x2 + x2 = 2x2
D2
x2 =
2
from which
D
x =
12
This is the length of the side of the square base. Figure 1.10 shows one of the tri-
angular sides of the pyramid with the base length now shown.
Figure 1.10 Q
P
D
√2
To calculate its area we need to know the length PQ; this can be determined
from Figure 1.8(d) using the right-angled triangle shown:
1
u 2 PR
sin =
2 PQ
and so
1
2 D> 12 D
PQ = =
sin 2u 212 sin 2u
Finally we can calculate the area of the triangular side of the pyramid as
1
area = * base * height
2
1 D D
= * *
2 12 212 sin 2u
D2
=
8 sin 2u
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1.3 Solving right-angled triangles 411 10
Given there are four triangular sides, the surface area of the indentation is then
D2
A =
2 sin 2u
(b) The average diagonal distance is
d1 + d2 0.88 + 0.90
D = = = 0.89
2 2
Then
D2 0.892
A = = = 0.43 mm2
2 sin (u>2) 2 sin (136>2)
Thus
F 1000
HV = 0.102 * = 0.102 * = 237 N>mm - 2
A 0.43
A hardness number of this magnitude would be typical for a mild steel.
Exercises
Questions 1–3 refer to ^ABC in Figure 1.1.
1 Find A given BC = 13 cm and AB = 19 cm. 4 ^PQR has a right angle at R, P = 62° and
PR = 11 cm. Calculate (a) PQ, (b) QR, (c) Q.
2 Find B given BC = 14 cm and AB = 21 cm.
5 ^ABC has a right angle at A, B = 25° and
3 Find A given AC = 10 cm and BC = 12 cm. AC = 17.2 cm. Solve ^ABC.
Solutions to exercises
1 43.17° 4 (a) 23.43 cm (b) 20.69 cm (c) 28°
2 48.19° 5 AB = 36.89 cm BC = 40.70 cm C = 65°
3 50.19°
End of block exercises
Questions 1–3 refer to ^ABC in Figure 1.1.
1 Find AB given AC = 3 cm and 3 Find BC given AB = 190 cm and
BC = 6 cm. AC = 142 cm.
2 Find AC given AB = 12.3 cm and 4 ^ABC has a right angle at C, AB = 21 cm
BC = 9.6 cm. and AC = 17 cm. Calculate the length of BC.
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10 412 Block 1 Pythagoras’s theorem and the solution of right-angled triangles
5 ^XYZ has a right angle at Z, Y = 47° and B
XY = 17 cm. Calculate (a) XZ, (b) YZ, (c) X.
6 ^CDE has a right angle at D, CD = 17 cm
and DE = 19 cm. Solve ^CDE.
7 ^KLM has a right angle at M, KL = 14 cm θ 2θ
and KM = 10 cm. Calculate (a) K, (b) L, A D C
6
(c) LM. 17
8 ^RST has a right angle at T, S = 36° and Figure 1.11
ST = 15 cm. Solve ^RST.
9 ^UVW has a right angle at V, UV = 15 cm 13 Figure 1.11 illustrates ^ABC and ^BDC,
and VW = 6 cm. Solve ^UVW. where C is a right angle, AC = 17 cm and
DC = 6 cm. Given ∠BDC = 2u and
10 ^CDE has a right angle at E, CE = 19 cm ∠BAD = u, find u.
and DE = 14 cm. Calculate (a) CD, (b) C,
(c) D. 14 ^DEF has a right angle at F, E = 38° and
DF = 14 cm. Solve ^DEF.
11 ^KLM has a right angle at K, L = 51° and
ML = 10 cm. Calculate (a) KL, (b) KM, 15 ^XYZ has a right angle at Y, XY = 40 cm
(c) M. and YZ = 57 cm. Solve ^XYZ.
12 ^XYZ has a right angle at Y, X = 42° and 16 ^ABC has a right angle at C, AB = 30 cm
YZ = 13 cm. Calculate (a) XY, (b) XZ, (c) Z. and AC = 2BC. Solve ^ABC.
Solutions to exercises
1 6.71 cm 10 (a) 23.60 cm (b) 36.38° (c) 53.62°
2 7.69 cm 11 (a) 6.29 cm (b) 7.77 cm (c) 39°
3 126.24 cm 12 (a) 14.44 cm (b) 19.43 cm (c) 48°
4 12.33 cm 13 28.47°
5 (a) 12.43 cm (b) 11.59 cm (c) 43° 14 EF = 17.92 cm, DE = 22.74 cm, D = 52°
6 E = 41.82°, C = 48.18°, CE = 25.50 cm 15 X = 54.94°, Z = 35.06°, XZ = 69.63 cm
7 (a) 44.42° (b) 45.58° (c) 9.80 16 A = 26.57°, B = 63.43°, BC = 13.42 cm,
AC = 26.83 cm
8 R = 54°, RT = 10.90 cm, RS = 18.54 cm
9 W = 68.20°, U = 21.80°, UW = 16.16 cm
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 413
Solving triangles using the sine rule
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Recall that by solving a triangle we mean calculating all the unknown angles and
sides. In Block 1 we solved right-angled triangles. In this block and the next we
solve triangles where there is no right angle. This is done by using either the sine rule
or the cosine rule. This block focuses on the sine rule.
2.2 The sine rule
Consider any ^ABC as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 A
a = BC, b = AC,
c = AB.
b ⫽ AC
c ⫽ AB
C
a ⫽ BC
We have used the convention that the side opposite A is labelled a, and so on. The
sine rule states:
Key point a
=
b
=
c
sin A sin B sin C
The rule can be used to solve a triangle when we are given either (a) one side and two
angles or (b) two sides and one angle that is not included by the given sides. The two
cases are illustrated by the following examples.
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10 414 Block 2 Solving triangles using the sine rule
Example 2.1
Solve ^ABC given A = 46°, B = 32° and BC = 13 cm.
Solution
We are given two angles and a side and so the triangle can be solved using the sine
rule. We have A = 46°, B = 32° and a = BC = 13 cm, and need to find C, AB and
AC.
First we calculate C.
A + B + C = 180°
C = 180° - A - B
= 180° - 46° - 32°
= 102°
We now apply the sine rule.
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
13 b c
= =
sin 46° sin 32° sin 102°
so
13 sin 32° 13 sin 102°
b = and c =
sin 46° sin 46°
that is
b = 9.58 and c = 17.68
Hence C = 102°, b = AC = 9.58 cm, c = AB = 17.68 cm.
It is worth noting that the largest angle is always opposite the longest side, and the
smallest angle is opposite the shortest side.
Example 2.2
In ^ABC, A = 21°, AC = 17 cm and BC = 14 cm. Solve ^ABC.
Solution
Figure 2.2 illustrates the situation.
Figure 2.2 B
Two sides and a
non-included angle
are known. 14
21°
A 17 C
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2.2 The sine rule 415 10
We know A = 21°, a = BC = 14 and b = AC = 17. Since two sides and a
non-included angle are given the sine rule can be applied. We need to calculate B, C
and AB. The sine rule states
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
so
14 17 c
= =
sin 21° sin B sin C
Hence
17 sin 21°
sin B = = 0.4352
14
So
B = sin-1(0.4352)
= 25.80° and 154.20°
Note that there are two possible solutions for B. Both are acceptable.
Case 1: B = 25.80°
We calculate C.
C = 180° - A - B
= 133.2°
Applying the sine rule gives
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
14 17 c
= =
sin 21° sin 25.8° sin 133.2°
So
17 sin 133.2°
c = = 28.47
sin 25.8°
Solution 1 is B = 25.8°, C = 133.2°, c = AB = 28.47 cm.
Case 2: B = 154.20°
Here C = 180° - A - B = 4.80°.
Applying the sine rule gives
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
and so
14 17 c
= =
sin 21° sin 154.20° sin 4.8°
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10 416 Block 2 Solving triangles using the sine rule
Hence
17 sin 4.8°
c = = 3.27
sin 154.20°
Solution 2 is B = 154.20°, C = 4.80°, c = AB = 3.27 cm.
Example 2.3
In ^ABC, C = 42°, AB = 15 cm and AC = 11 cm. Solve ^ABC.
Solution
We are given two sides and a non-included angle and so the sine rule can be applied.
We have C = 42°, b = AC = 11 and c = AB = 15. We need to calculate A, B and
BC. Using the sine rule,
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
and so
a 11 15
= =
sin A sin B sin 42°
Hence
11 sin 42°
sin B =
15
= 0.4907
B = sin-1(0.4907)
= 29.39° and 150.61°
The solution B = 150.61° is rejected because we are given C = 42° and the sum of
the angles in a triangle must equal 180°. We now calculate A.
A = 180° - B - C
= 108.61°
Finally
15 sin A
a =
sin 42°
15 sin 108.61°
=
sin 42°
= 21.25
Thus we have A = 108.61°, B = 29.39°, a = BC = 21.25 cm.
Example 2.4
Solve ^XYZ given X = 63°, Z = 42° and YZ = 11.3 cm.
Solution
We are given two angles and a side, so the sine rule can be applied. We have
X = 63°, Z = 42° and x = YZ = 11.3. We need to calculate Y, XZ = y and
XY = z. First we calculate Y.
Y = 75°
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2.2 The sine rule 417 10
The sine rule states
x y z
= =
sin X sin Y sin Z
and so
11.3 y z
= =
sin 63° sin 75° sin 42°
Hence
11.3 sin 75°
y = = 12.25
sin 63°
11.3 sin 42°
z = = 8.49
sin 63°
Example 2.5
Solve ^ABC given C = 40°, b = 23 cm and c = 19 cm.
Solution
We are given two sides and a non-included angle and so the sine rule can be applied.
We know C = 40°, AB = c = 19 and AC = b = 23. We need to calculate A, B
and a. Using the sine rule
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
we have
a 23 19
= =
sin A sin B sin 40°
Hence
23 sin 40°
sin B = = 0.7781
19
B = 51.09° or 128.91°
Both solutions are acceptable.
Case 1: B = 51.09°
Then A = 180° - 40° - 51.09° = 88.91°
and from the sine rule
19 sin 88.91°
a = = 29.55
sin 40°
Solution 1 is: A = 88.91°, B = 51.09°, BC = 29.55 cm.
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10 418 Block 2 Solving triangles using the sine rule
Case 2: B = 128.91°
Then
A = 180° - 40° - 128.91° = 11.09°
and
19 sin 11.09°
a = = 5.69
sin 40°
Solution 2 is A = 11.09°, B = 128.91°, BC = 5.69 cm.
End of block exercises
For questions 1–10 solve ^ABC given
1 A = 36°, B = 79°, AC = 11.63 cm 6 AC = 29 cm, BC = 19 cm, B = 49°
2 AB = 15 cm, AC = 23 cm, B = 57° 7 A = 37°, B = 47°, AB = 17 cm
3 AB = 10 cm, BC = 6 cm, A = 32° 8 BC = 14 cm, AB = 20 cm, C = 50°
4 B = 21°, C = 46°, AB = 9 cm 9 AB = 27 cm, AC = 36 cm, B = 17°
5 B = 18°, C = 110°, BC = 12.3 cm 10 B = 42°, C = 93°, BC = 13 cm
Solutions to exercises
1 C = 65°, BC = 6.96 cm, AB = 10.74 cm 6 A = 29.63°, C = 101.37°, AB = 37.67 cm
2 C = 33.16°, A = 89.84°, BC = 27.42 cm 7 C = 96°, AC = 12.50 cm, BC = 10.29 cm
3 solution 1: C = 62.03°, B = 85.97°, 8 A = 32.43°, B = 97.57°, AC = 25.88 cm
AC = 11.29 cm; solution 2: C = 117.97°,
B = 30.03°, AC = 5.67 cm 9 A = 150.33°, C = 12.67°, BC = 60.95 cm
4 A = 113°, BC = 11.52 cm, AC = 4.48 cm 10 A = 45°, AC = 12.30 cm, AB = 18.36 cm
5 A = 52°, AC = 4.82 cm, AB = 14.67 cm
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 419
Solving triangles using the cosine rule
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
The cosine rule, like the sine rule, can be applied to any triangle. It is used to solve a
triangle when we are given either (a) three sides or (b) two sides and the included
angle.
3.2 The cosine rule
Key point For any ^ABC the cosine rule states
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
Example 3.1
In ^ABC, AB = 17.3 cm, BC = 23.9 cm and B = 71°. Solve ^ABC.
Solution
Figure 3.1 illustrates the given information.
Figure 3.1 A
Given two sides
and the included
angle, the cosine
rule can be c ⫽ 17.3
applied.
71°
C a ⫽ 23.9 B
We are given two sides and the included angle and so the cosine rule can be used.
We have a = BC = 23.9, c = AB = 17.3 and B = 71°. We need to find A, C and
AC: that is, b. We find b first using the cosine rule.
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
= 23.92 + 17.32 - 2(23.9)(17.3) cos 71°
= 601.27
b = 24.52
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10 420 Block 3 Solving triangles using the cosine rule
We now find A. We can use either the sine rule or the cosine rule to find A. Using the
sine rule,
a b
=
sin A sin B
that is
23.9 24.52
=
sin A sin 71°
23.9 sin 71°
sin A =
24.52
= 0.9216
A = 67.16° or 112.84°
The solution A = 112.84° is rejected because we already have B = 71° and the
sum of the angles of a triangle must be 180°. Finally
C = 180° - A - B
= 41.84°
Hence A = 67.16°, C = 41.84°, AC = 24.52 cm.
Example 3.2
Solve ^XYZ given XY = 18.4 cm, YZ = 19.6 cm and XZ = 29.3 cm.
Solution
Figure 3.2 illustrates the situation.
Figure 3.2 Y
Three sides of the
triangle are known
and so the cosine z ⫽ 18.4 x ⫽ 19.6
rule can be
applied.
X y ⫽ 29.3 Z
We are given three sides and so the cosine rule can be applied. We have x = YZ =
19.6, y = XZ = 29.3 and z = XY = 18.4. Using the cosine rule we find X.
x2 = y2 + z2 - 2yz cos X
19.62 = 29.32 + 18.42 - 2(29.3)(18.4) cos X
29.32 + 18.42 - 19.62
cos X = = 0.7539
2(29.3)(18.4)
X = 41.07°
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3.2 The cosine rule 421 10
Now we find Y.
y2 = x2 + z2 - 2xz cos Y
29.32 = 19.62 + 18.42 - 2(19.6)(18.4) cos Y
cos Y =
19.62 + 18.42 - 29.32
= -0.1882
2(19.6)(18.4)
Y = 100.85°
Finally
Z = 180° - X - Y
= 38.08°
Hence X = 41.07°, Y = 100.85°, Z = 38.08°.
Example 3.3
In ^RST, RS = 85 cm, ST = 104 cm and S = 105°. Figure 3.3 illustrates the
triangle. Solve ^RST.
Figure 3.3 R
When given two
sides and the
included angle, the
cosine rule can be 85
applied.
105°
S 104 T
Solution
We are given two sides and the included angle and so the cosine rule can be applied.
We have t = RS = 85, r = ST = 104 and S = 105°. We need to calculate R, T
and s = RT. First s is found using the cosine rule.
s2 = r2 + t2 - 2rt cos S
= 1042 + 852 - 2(104)(85) cos 105°
= 22616.92
s = 150.39
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10 422 Block 3 Solving triangles using the cosine rule
Using the sine rule, R is found. We have
r s
=
sin R sin S
from which
104 150.39
=
sin R sin 105°
104 sin 105°
sin R = = 0.6680
150.39
R = 41.91°
Finally T = 180° - R - S = 33.09°.
Hence RT = 150.39, R = 41.91°, T = 33.09°.
Example 3.4
In ^XYZ, XY = 40 cm, YZ = 57 cm and XZ = 81 cm. The triangle is illustrated
in Figure 3.4. Solve ^XYZ.
Figure 3.4 X
When all three
sides of a triangle
are known, the 81
40
cosine rule can be
applied.
Z 57 Y
Solution
We are given three sides and so the cosine rule can be applied. We have x = YZ = 57,
y = XZ = 81 and z = XY = 40. We need to calculate X, Y and Z. First X is
calculated. From the cosine rule we have
x2 = y2 + z2 - 2yz cos X
Substituting in the known values of x, y and z, and rearranging for cos X, gives
812 + 402 - 572
cos X = = 0.7580
2(81)(40)
X = 40.71°
Now Y is found.
y2 = x2 + z2 - 2xz cos Y
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3.2 The cosine rule 423 10
Rearranging for cos Y yields
572 + 402 - 812
cos Y = = -0.3754
2(57)(40)
Y = 112.05°
Finally Z = 180° - X - Y = 27.24°.
Hence X = 40.71°, Y = 112.05°, Z = 27.24°.
End of block exercises
In questions 1–10 solve ^ABC given
1 AB = 42 cm, BC = 37 cm, AC = 26 cm 6 AB = 32 cm, BC = 30 cm, AC = 41 cm
2 AB = 29 cm, BC = 41 cm, B = 100° 7 BC = 17 cm, AC = 27 cm, C = 45°
3 AC = 105 cm, AB = 76 cm, A = 29° 8 AB = 36 cm, BC = 36 cm, B = 60°
4 BC = 36 cm, AC = 92 cm, C = 51° 9 AB = 21 cm, AC = 30 cm, A = 42°
5 AB = 69 cm, BC = 52 cm, AC = 49 cm 10 AB = 80 cm, BC = 70 cm, AC = 62 cm
Solutions to exercises
1 A = 60.63°, B = 37.76°, C = 81.61° 6 A = 46.54°, B = 82.73°, C = 50.73°
2 AC = 54.18 cm, A = 48.19°, C = 31.81° 7 A = 38.75°, B = 96.25°, c = AB = 19.21 cm
3 a = BC = 53.31 cm, B = 107.28°, C = 43.72° 8 AC = 36 cm, A = 60°, C = 60°
4 AB = 74.78 cm, B = 107.03°, A = 21.97° 9 a = BC = 20.12 cm, B = 93.69°, C = 44.31°
5 A = 48.76°, B = 45.11°, C = 86.13° 10 A = 57.40°, B = 48.26°, C = 74.33°
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 424
Surveying
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
This block considers the application of mathematics to surveying. The three areas
covered are (a) units to measure angles, (b) angles of elevation and depression, and
(c) bearings. Typical calculations in each area are included.
4.2 Units of angles
We have already introduced the units degree and radian in Chapter 9. Surveyors use
the degree. For greater accuracy the degree is subdivided into minutes denoted and
seconds denoted .
Key point 1° = 60 minutes = 60¿
1¿ = 60 seconds = 60–
The angle 36 degrees 21 minutes and 4 seconds is written as 36°2104. Many
calculations express angles in decimal format, for example 36.3511°. It is useful to
be able to convert from decimal format to degrees/minutes/seconds and vice versa.
To retain the accuracy required for surveying, angles in decimal format should be
given to 4 decimal places.
Example 4.1
Convert 36°2104 to decimal format.
Solution
We note there are 60 minutes in 1 degree and 60 seconds in each minute. Hence there
are 60 * 60 = 3600 seconds in 1 degree.
To write 36°2104 in decimal format we consider the fractional part, that is
2104, and express this in seconds.
21¿ = 21 * 60
= 1260¿¿
and so
21¿04¿¿ = 1264¿¿
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4.3 Angles of elevation and depression 425 10
We now express 1264 as a decimal fraction.
1264°
1264¿¿ = = 0.3511°
3600
Hence 21¿04– = 0.3511° and so 36°21¿04– = 36.3511°.
Example 4.2
Convert 42.9614° to degree/minute/second format.
Solution
The fractional part 0.9614° needs to be converted to minutes and seconds. Each
degree comprises 60 minutes and so to convert from degrees to minutes we multiply
by a factor of 60.
0.9614° = 0.9614 * 60¿
= 57.684¿
We now look at the fractional part, 0.684, and convert this to seconds. Each minute
comprises 60 seconds and so to convert from minutes to seconds we multiply by 60.
0.684¿ = 0.684 * 60¿¿
= 41.04¿¿
Hence 42.9614° may be written as 42°5741.
Exercises
1 Express the following angles in degree/minute/ 2 Express the following angles in decimal
second format. format.
(a) 11.1731° (b) 14.0017° (c) 36.9213° (a) 12°1746 (b) 32°3256 (c) 1°140
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 11°1023 (b) 14°06 (c) 36°5517 2 (a) 12.2961° (b) 32.5489° (c) 1.0278°
4.3 Angles of elevation and depression
Consider a tower AB and an observer at O, as shown in Figure 4.1.
The angle e is called the angle of elevation of the tower from the point O. It is the
angle, measured from the horizontal, through which an observer must turn his or her
eyes to look at the top of the tower.
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10 426 Block 4 Surveying
Figure 4.1 B
The angle of d
elevation is e and
the angle of
depression is d.
e
O A
Now consider an observer at the top of the tower, B. The angle d is called the
angle of depression. This is the angle, again measured from the horizontal, through
which an observer turns his or her eyes to look at a point O. Note that e and d have
equal magnitude.
Example 4.3 Civil Engineering – Height of a tower
An observer is 50 m from the base of a vertical tower. The angle of elevation is
11°317. Calculate the height of the tower.
Solution
Figure 4.1 illustrates the situation, with OA = 50 m and e = 11°3¿17– . First e is
expressed in decimal format as 11.0547°. Now consider the right-angled ^OAB.
tan e = tan 11.0547°
AB AB
= =
OA 50
AB = 50 tan 11.0547° = 9.77
The tower is 9.77 m high.
Example 4.4 Civil Engineering – Angle of depression
An observer is on top of a vertical tower, AB, 23.7 m high. The angle of depression
of a point O is 15°4218. Calculate the distance of O from the foot of the tower.
Solution
Figure 4.1 illustrates the problem, with AB = 23.7 m and d = 15°42¿18– .
First d is expressed in decimal format as
15.705°
Noting that e = d we consider ^OBA.
tan e = tan 15.705°
AB 23.7
= =
OA OA
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4.3 Angles of elevation and depression 427 10
23.7
OA = = 84.29
tan 15.705°
The point O is 84.29 m from the foot of the tower.
Example 4.5 Civil Engineering – Finding the height of a tower using
three angles of elevation
A, B and C are three points lying in a straight line. The distance AB is known to be
x, and the distance BC is known to be y. It is required to find the height, h, of a verti-
cal tower, DE. From A, B and C the angles of elevation to the top of the tower are
a, b and g respectively. Figure 4.2 illustrates the position.
Determine the height, h, in terms of the known quantities, x, y, a, b and g.
Figure 4.2 E
The height, h, can
be expressed in
terms of known h
distances, x and y,
and known angles D
a, b and g.
γ
α β
A x B y C
Solution
Consider ^ADE. In this triangle, ∠ADE = 90° and so
DE
tan a =
AD
h
=
AD
h
AD =
tan a
= h cot a
Similarly by considering ^BDE and ^CDE we see BD = h cot b and CD = h cot g.
We now consider ^ADB and let ∠DAB = f. Figure 4.3 illustrates this triangle.
Figure 4.3 D
The cosine rule is
applied to ^ADB.
h cot α
h cot β
φ
A x B
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10 428 Block 4 Surveying
Applying the cosine rule to ^ADB gives
(h cot b)2 = (h cot a)2 + x2 - 2xh cot a(cos f)
from which
(h cot a)2 + x2 - (h cot b)2
cos f = (1)
2xh cot a
Next we consider ^ADC, as illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 D
The cosine rule is
applied to ^ADC.
h cot α
h cot γ
φ
A x⫹y C
Applying the cosine rule to ^ADC gives
(h cot g)2 = (h cot a)2 + (x + y)2 - 2(x + y)h cot a (cos f)
from which
(h cot a)2 + (x + y)2 - (h cot g)2
cos f = (2)
2(x + y)h cot a
We have two expressions for cos f given by (1) and (2). Equating these yields
(h cot a)2 + x2 - (h cot b)2 (h cot a)2 + (x + y)2 - (h cot g)2
=
2xh cot a 2(x + y)h cot a
This equation is rearranged to make h the subject.
h2 cot2 a + x2 - h2 cot2 b h2 cot2 a + x2 + 2xy + y2 - h2 cot2 g
=
x x + y
(x + y)(h2 cot2 a + x2 - h2 cot2 b) = x(h2 cot2 a + x2 + 2xy + y2 - h2 cot2 g)
-xh2 cot2 b + yh2 cot2 a - yh2 cot2 b = x2 y + xy2 - xh2 cot2 g
h2 [x(cot2 g - cot2 b) + y(cot2 a - cot2 b)] = xy(x + y)
xy(x + y)
h2 =
x (cot g - cot b) + y (cot2 a - cot2 b)
2 2
xy(x + y)
h =
A x (cot g - cot b) + y (cot2 a - cot2 b)
2 2
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4.4 Bearings 429 10
Example 4.6
A, B and C are points lying on a straight line. The distance from A to B is 40 m, the
distance from B to C is 70 m. The angles of elevation to the top of a tower from A, B
and C are 21°, 27° and 24° respectively. Calculate the height of the tower.
Solution
We use the notation and result of Example 4.5, that is AB = x = 40, BC = y = 70,
a = 21°, b = 27°, g = 24°.
If h is the height of the tower then
40(70)(40 + 70)
h =
A 40(cot2 24° - cot2 27°) + 70(cot2 21° - cot2 27°)
= 34.88
The tower is 34.88 m high.
Exercises
1 From a point 26.3 m from the foot of a tower 3 The angle of depression to the point O from
the angle of elevation to the top of the tower is the top of a tower 17 m high is 12°17.
29.27°. Calculate the height of the tower. Calculate the distance of O from the foot of
the tower.
2 A tower is 36 m high. Calculate the angle of
elevation to the top of the tower from a point
50 m from the base of the tower.
Solutions to exercises
1 14.74 m 3 78.08 m
2 35.75°
4.4 Bearings
A bearing is the angle that a line makes with some reference direction, usually north.
Bearings are measured clockwise from north. (Note the different conventions: in
mathematics clockwise angles are considered negative; in surveying clockwise
angles are considered positive.) In Figure 4.5, OA has a bearing of 58°31, OB has a
bearing of 100°17 and OC has a bearing of 301°49.
Example 4.7
A ship leaves harbour and sails for 19.1 km on a bearing of 47°17. It then changes
direction and travels for 12 km on a bearing of 100°25. Calculate the distance from
the harbour to the ship.
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10 430 Block 4 Surveying
Figure 4.5 North
Bearings are
measured
clockwise from
north.
A
C
58°31'
301°49'
O 100°17'
B
Solution
Figure 4.6 illustrates the ship’s movement, starting from the harbour at O.
Figure 4.6 North
The ship moves
from the harbour at
O to A and then B.
A 100°25'
12 km
19.1 km B
47°17'
O C
The ship travels 19.1 km on a bearing of 47°17. This is represented by OA. It then
travels 12 km on a bearing of 100°25: this is represented by AB. The final position of
the ship is B. We seek the distance OB.
Clearly OA = 19.1 and AB = 12.0. Consider ^OAC.
∠AOC = 90° - 47°17¿
= 42°43¿
∠OAC = 90° - ∠AOC
= 90° - 42°43¿
= 47°17¿
Now
∠BAC = 180° - 100°25¿
= 79°35¿
Hence
∠OAB = ∠OAC + ∠BAC
= 47°17¿ + 79°35¿
= 126°52¿
= 126.8667°
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4.4 Bearings 431 10
We now apply the cosine rule to ¢OAB.
OB2 = OA2 + AB2 - 2(OA)(AB) cos 126.8667°
= (19.1)2 + 122 - 2(19.1)(12) cos 126.8667°
= 783.83
OB = 28.00
The ship is 28 km from the harbour.
Example 4.8
A ship travels 17.1 km on a bearing of 120°35. It then travels 24 km on a bearing of
275°20.
(a) Find the distance of the ship from its starting position.
(b) Find the bearing the ship must take so that it can travel in a straight line back to
its starting position.
Solution
Figure 4.7 illustrates the movement of the ship, starting at O. The final position of
the ship is B.
Figure 4.7 North
The ship travels on
a bearing of
120°35 to A, and
then on a bearing
O 120°35'
of 275°20 to B.
α
17.1
γ
B β α
C 24 A
275°20'
(a) We need to find the distance OB. The angles a and b are determined, and then
the cosine rule is applied to ^OAB.
a = 180° - 120°35¿ = 59°25¿
b = 360° - 275°20¿ - a
= 360° - 275°20¿ - 59°25¿
= 25°15¿
The cosine rule is applied to ^OAB.
(OB)2 = 126.0332
OB = 11.23
The ship is 11.23 km from its starting position.
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10 432 Block 4 Surveying
(b) The bearing that the ship must take to return to its starting point is g. We note
that
∠BOC = g and ∠BOA = a + g
The sine rule is applied to ^OAB.
24 11.23
=
sin BOA sin BAO
24 11.23
=
sin(a + g) sin 25°15¿
24 sin 25°15¿
sin(a + g) = = 0.91163
11.23
a + g = 65°44¿, 114°16¿
from which
g = 6°19¿ , 54°51¿
In any triangle the longest side is always opposite the largest angle. Referring
to Figure 4.7, in which the longest side is AB 24km, it follows that a + g
must equal 11416 and hence g 5451 is accepted as the required
bearing.
Exercises
1 A ship travels for 10 km on a bearing of 30°. It 3 A ship travels 50 km from O on a bearing of
then follows a bearing of 60° for 20 km. 290° to get to position A. From A it heads
Calculate the distance of the ship from the directly to B. Position B is 90 km from O on a
starting position. bearing of 190°.
(a) Calculate the distance AB.
2 An aeroplane flies 150 miles on a bearing of (b) Calculate the bearing the ship must follow
105° and then 107 miles on a bearing of 217°. from A to arrive directly at B.
Find the bearing that the aeroplane must take
to fly directly back to the starting position.
Solutions to exercises
1 29.09 km 3 (a) 110.29 km (b) 163.48°
2 327.07°
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4.4 Bearings 433 10
End of block exercises
(a) Find the distance of the ship from its
1 Convert the following angles to degree/
starting point.
minute/second format:
(b) Calculate the bearing the ship must take to
(a) 39.4613° (b) 101.0913° (c) 1.0036°
go directly back to its starting point.
2 Convert the following angles to decimal
7 The angle of elevation to the top of a tower is
format:
19°30¿ ; 15¿ when measured from a point
(a) 21°3146 (b) 19°4917 (c) 1°11
27.00 ; 0.5 m from the base of the tower.
Calculate the maximum and minimum
3 The angle of elevation to the top of an aerial is
possible heights of the tower.
21°312 when measured from a point 41.6 m
from the base of the aerial. Calculate the
8 A tower AB leans, being 3° from the vertical
height of the aerial.
position. From C the angle of elevation to the
top of the tower is 42°. C is 17 m from the
4 The angle of elevation to the top of a tower is
base of the tower. Figure 4.9 illustrates the
23°017 when measured from a point 51.5 m
problem.
from the base of the tower. Calculate the
height of the tower.
B
5 A vertical tower AB is situated on a ramp, as
shown in Figure 4.8.
3°
42°
C 17 m A
Figure 4.9
17° 35 m
C 12°
Calculate
A (a) the length of the tower AB
(b) the height of B above the horizontal AC.
Figure 4.8
9 A ship starts at O and travels for 10 km on a
From C, the angle of elevation to the top of bearing of 42°10 to arrive at A. From O point
the tower is 17°; the angle of depression to the B has a bearing of 90° (i.e. due east of O) and
foot of the tower is 12°. Given that C is 35 m is distant 21 km from O. Calculate the bearing
from the tower, calculate the height of the the ship must take from A so as to travel
tower. directly to B.
6 A ship travels for 9.3 km on a bearing of
36°19. It then changes its bearing to 100°00
and travels for 12.2 km.
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10 434 Block 4 Surveying
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 39°2741 (b) 101°529 (c) 1°013 6 (a) 18.33 km (b) 252°5712
2 (a) 21.5294° (b) 19.8214° (c) 1.0169° 7 Minimum height is 9.25 m, maximum height
is 9.87 m.
3 16.40 m
8 (a) 14.64 m (b) 14.62 m
4 21.87 m
9 117°2511
5 18.14 m
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Resolution and resultant of forces
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
Many engineering problems involve calculations involving forces. To specify a force
both its magnitude and its direction must be known. The unit of force is the newton,
N. For example, a force may be described as 10 N acting at 40° to the horizontal. This
force is illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 y
A force has
magnitude and
direction.
10 N
40°
O x
The length of the line represents the magnitude of the force and the direction of
the line shows the direction of the force.
5.2 Resolution of a force
A single force may be replaced by two forces acting at right angles to each other.
Together these forces are equivalent to the original single force. The process of
replacing a single force by two perpendicular forces is called resolution. The single
force is said to have been resolved into two forces at right angles to one another. The
following example shows how to resolve a force.
Example 5.1
Resolve the force shown in Figure 5.1 into a horizontal and vertical force.
Solution
Figure 5.2 illustrates the resolution of the 10 N force.
Consider the magnitude of the horizontal component. ^OAB contains the relevant
information, with OB representing the horizontal force. Then
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10 436 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
Figure 5.2 y y
A force may be
resolved into two
perpendicular A
C
forces. 10 N
10
40° 40°
O x O B x
OB
cos 40° =
OA
OB
=
10
OB = 10 cos 40°
= 7.66
The horizontal force is 7.66 N.
Similarly the vertical force may be calculated using ^OCA. OC represents the
vertical force. Then
∠COA = 90° - 40°
= 50°
OC
cos 50° =
OA
OC
=
10
OC = 10 cos 50°
= 6.43
The vertical force is 6.43 N. It is useful to note that the vertical force can also be
found by calculating AB in ^OAB. In this triangle
AB
sin 40° =
OA
AB
=
10
AB = 10 sin 40°
= 6.43
The vertical force is 6.43 N.
Hence the 10 N force in Figure 5.1 may be resolved into a 7.66 N force acting
horizontally and a 6.43 N force acting vertically.
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5.2 Resolution of a force 437 10
Example 5.2
A force of 17 N acts at 35° to the negative x axis as shown in Figure 5.3. Resolve the
force into two forces, one in the x direction and one in the y direction.
Figure 5.3 y
A force of 17 N
acts at 35° to the
negative x axis. A
17 N
35°
O x
Solution
The horizontal force is represented by OB as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 A
The horizontal
force is represented
17
by OB; the vertical
force is represented
by BA. 35°
B O
From ^OBA
OB
cos 35° =
OA
OB
=
17
OB = 17 cos 35° = 13.93
The vertical force is represented by BA. From ^OBA
AB AB
sin 35° = =
OA 17
AB = 17 sin 35° = 9.75
The 17 N force is equivalent to 13.93 N acting in the negative x direction and 9.75 N
acting in the y direction.
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10 438 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
Example 5.2 illustrates the general result:
Key point y The horizontal component = R cos u
The vertical component = R sin u
θ
x
Figure 5.5
Exercises
1 A 23 N force acts at 71° to the horizontal axis. 3 A 12 N force acts at 43° to the vertical.
Resolve the force into forces acting Resolve the force into horizontal and vertical
horizontally and vertically. forces.
2 A 40 N force acts at 54° to the horizontal.
Resolve the force into horizontal and vertical
forces.
Solutions to exercises
1 7.49 N horizontally, 21.75 N vertically 3 8.18 N horizontally, 8.78 N vertically
2 23.51 N horizontally, 32.36 N vertically
5.3 Resolving on an inclined plane
Figure 5.6 illustrates a plane inclined at angle u to the horizontal. Resting on the
plane at O is a body of mass m kg. The body experiences a vertical force mg N due
to its weight, as illustrated. Here, g is a constant called the acceleration due to grav-
ity. It is often required to resolve this force into forces that are parallel and perpen-
dicular to the plane.
Figure 5.7 shows the force resolved into forces OA down the plane, and OB per-
pendicular to the plane. Note that ∠AOC has been labelled a and a = 90° - u.
Side OC is the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle OAC. Furthermore,
sin a = cos u and cos a = sin u
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5.3 Resolving on an inclined plane 439 10
Figure 5.6 O Figure 5.7 O
A α
mg
C B
θ θ
In ^AOC
OA
cos a =
OC
so
OA = OC cos a
= OC sin u
Also
AC
sin a =
OC
so
AC = OC sin a
= OC cos u
Note also that
OB = AC = OC cos u
So the component parallel to the plane is
OA = OC sin u
= mg sin u
The component perpendicular to the plane is
OB = OC cos u
= mg cos u
Note the limiting case. If u = 0° then the plane is horizontal and intuitively there is
no component parallel to the plane. Evaluating the component parallel to the plane,
mg sin u with u = 0° agrees with the intuitive result.
Key point For a vertical force mg N and a plane inclined at u° to the horizontal:
• Component parallel to plane = mg sin u
• Component perpendicular to plane = mg cos u
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10 440 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
Example 5.3
A body of mass 6 kg rests on a plane inclined at 15° to the horizontal. Find the com-
ponent of the weight (a) perpendicular to the plane, (b) parallel to the plane.
Solution
Here m = 6 and u = 15°.
(a) The force perpendicular to the plane is
mg cos u = 6g cos 15°
= 5.7956g N
(b) The force parallel to the plane is
mg sin u = 6g sin 15°
= 1.5529g N
Exercises
1 A body of mass 10 kg rests on a plane inclined 2 A body of mass 1 kg rests on an inclined
at 20° to the horizontal. Calculate the plane. The force perpendicular to the plane is
component of the weight 0.9g N. Calculate the angle of the inclined
(a) perpendicular to the plane plane.
(b) parallel to the plane.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 9.3969g N (b) 3.420g N 2 25.84°
5.4 Resultant of a set of forces
In Section 5.2 we saw how a single force can be resolved: that is, expressed as
two forces acting at right angles to one another. We now examine a related
problem, that of replacing two or more forces acting at a point by a single
equivalent force. A single force that is equivalent to two or more forces is called
the resultant.
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5.4 Resultant of a set of forces 441 10
Example 5.4 Mechanical Engineering – Forces in a line
A force of 6 N acts in the positive x direction and a force of 2 N acts in the negative
x direction. Calculate the resultant.
Solution
The resultant force is 6 - 2 = 4 N acting in the x direction. Figure 5.8 illustrates this.
Figure 5.8 2N 6N 4N
The resultant is O x O x
4 N acting in the
x direction.
Example 5.5 Mechanical Engineering – Forces in a plane
A force of 7 N acts in the x direction and a force of 10 N acts in the negative y direc-
tion. Find the resultant force.
Solution
The forces are illustrated in Figure 5.9. The 7 N force is represented by OA; the 10 N
force is represented by OC. Let the resultant force be R. The magnitude and direction
of R must be found. ^OAB contains the relevant information. Note that AB = 10.
Let ∠AOB = a. Using ^OAB
AB 10
tan a = =
OA 7
a = tan-1 110
7 2 = 55.0°
Figure 5.9 y
R is the resultant
of the 10 N force A
7N
and the 7 N force. O α x
10 N
R
C
B
Using Pythagoras’s theorem,
OB2 = OA2 + AB2
R2 = 72 + 102
= 149
R = 2149
= 12.21
The resultant is 12.21 N acting at 55° below the x axis.
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10 442 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
Example 5.6 Mechanical Engineering – Several forces acting at a point
Figure 5.10 illustrates three forces acting at the origin O.
Figure 5.10 y
Three forces acting
at the origin.
9N
12 N
10° 60°
O x
40°
15 N
By resolving each force find the resultant.
Solution
Each force is resolved into forces in the x and y directions.
The 9 N force is resolved into N acting in the x direction
and N acting in the y direction. 9 cos 60°, 9 sin 60°
The 12 N force is resolved into N in the negative x
direction and N in the y direction. 12 cos 10°, 12 sin 10°
The 15 N force is resolved into N in the x direction and
N in the negative y direction. 15 sin 40°, 15 cos 40°
The net total force acting in the x direction is then
9 cos 60° - 12 cos 10° + 15 sin 40° = 2.3241 N
The net total force acting in the y direction is
9 sin 60° + 12 sin 10° - 15 cos 40° = -1.6127 N
The resultant, R, may now be found. Figure 5.11 illustrates the situation.
From Figure 5.11
1.6127
tan u =
2.3241
u = 34.76°
The magnitude of the resultant is found using Pythagoras’s theorem.
R2 = (2.3241)2 + (1.6127)2
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5.4 Resultant of a set of forces 443 10
Figure 5.11 y
The resultant, R, is
found using the net
O 2.3241 N
forces in the x and
θ x
y directions.
1.6127 N
R
R = 2.83
The resultant is 2.83 N acting at 34.76° below the x axis.
Example 5.7 Mechanical Engineering – Several forces acting at a point
Figure 5.12 shows three forces acting at the origin O. Calculate the resultant.
Figure 5.12 y
The resultant of
several forces may
be found.
15 N
408 O
508 x
608
12 N
11 N
Solution
Each force is resolved into forces along the x and y axes.
The 12 N force is resolved into N in the x direction and
N in the negative y direction. 12 sin 60°, 12 cos 60°
The 11 N force is resolved into N in the negative x direction
and N in the negative y direction. 11 cos 50°, 11 sin 50°
The 15 N force is resolved into N in the negative x
direction and N in the y direction. 15 cos 40°, 15 sin 40°
The net total force in the x direction is -8.1690
The net total force in the y direction is -4.7847
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10 444 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
Figure 5.13 illustrates these forces.
Figure 5.13 y
The resultant force
is R.
8.1690 N
θ x
4.7847 N
R
Using Pythagoras’s theorem
R2 = (8.1690)2 + (4.7847)2
R = 9.47
and
4.7847
tan u =
8.1690
u = 30.36°
The resultant is a force of 9.47 N acting at 30.36° below the negative x axis.
Exercises
1 Find the resultant of the forces shown in
Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.14 y y
30 N
12 N
43° 38°
x 50° 25° x
40° 27 N
14 N 25 N
(a) (b)
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5.4 Resultant of a set of forces 445 10
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 17.96 N acting at 8.13° below the positive (b) 19.45 N acting at 38.43° below the negative
x axis. x axis.
End of block exercises
1 Resolve the forces shown in Figure 5.15 into 2 Find the resultant of the forces shown in
forces along the x and y axes. Figure 5.16.
y
y
12 N 17 N
35°
40°
O x O x
(a)
y 20° 15 N
7N 40°
Figure 5.16
O x
(b)
y
O 3 Find the resultant of the forces shown in
x
Figure 5.17.
11 N 37°
y
(c)
9N 9N
40°
y
O 30°
x O x
47 50°
12 N 12 N
(d)
Figure 5.15 Figure 5.17
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10 446 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
4 Find the resultant of the forces shown in 6 The forces in Figure 5.20 are in equilibrium.
Figure 5.18. Find R and u.
y y
17 N
10 N 30° 10 N
12 N
20° 40° 40° O
O x 30° x
θ
8 N 25°
9N
R
Figure 5.18 Figure 5.20
5 Forces are said to be in equilibrium if their
resultant is zero. The forces in Figure 5.19 are
in equilibrium. Find R and u.
y
10 N 30° 6N
40°
O θ x
Figure 5.19
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 6.88 N in the x direction; 9.83 N in the y (d) 8.78 N in the x direction; 8.18 N in the
direction negative y direction
(b) 4.50 N in the negative x direction; 5.36 N
in the y direction 2 8.50 N, directed at 21.87° below the negative x
(c) 6.62 N in the negative x direction; 8.78 in axis.
the negative y direction
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 447
End of chapter exercises 447 10
3 R = 8.07 N, directed at 27.13° above the 5 R = 12.52 N, u = 88.15°
negative x axis.
6 R = 1.93 N, u = 3.97°
4 21.29 N, directed at 44.57° above the negative
x axis.
End of chapter exercises
In questions 1–11 ¢ABC has a right angle at C.
1 Calculate AB given AC = 9 cm and 8 Calculate AC given BC = 10 cm and A = 40°.
BC = 15 cm.
9 Calculate BC given AB = 27 cm and B = 32°.
2 Calculate sin A given AC = 10 cm and
AB = 14 cm. 10 Calculate AB given AC = 12 cm and A = 57°.
3 Calculate sin B given AC = 6 cm and 11 Calculate AC given BC = 12 cm and B = 53°.
BC = 9 cm.
12 A 15 N force acts at 35° to the x axis. Resolve
4 Calculate A given AC = 14 cm and the force into forces in the x and y directions.
BC = 9 cm.
13 A 12 N force acts at 40° to the negative y axis.
5 Calculate AC given AB = 15 cm and Resolve the force into forces in the x and y
BC = 12 cm. directions.
6 Calculate B given AB = 2(BC). 14 Convert the following angles to decimal format:
(a) 36°29¿42¿¿ (b) 1°2¿41¿¿ (c) 10°12¿21¿¿
7 Calculate A given BC is three times AC.
15 Convert the following angles to degree/
minute/second format:
(a) 7.3614° (b) 10.0932° (c) 14.9610°
In questions 16–23 solve ¢XYZ given
16 XY = 17 cm, YZ = 23 cm and XZ = 31 cm.
17 YZ = 15 cm, X = 39° and Y = 75°.
18 XZ = 85 cm, YZ = 70 cm and Z = 59°. 16 N 17 N
19 Z = 46°, YZ = 30 m and XY = 25 m.
40° 35°
20 XY = 71 cm, Y = 110° and Z = 21°. O
21 XZ = 41 cm, YZ = 29 cm and XY = 52 cm. 30°
15 N
22 Y = 51°, XY = 25 cm and XZ = 22.5 cm.
23 XY = 100 cm, XZ = 73 cm and Y = 50°.
24 Calculate the resultant of the forces in
Figure C10.1. Figure C10.1
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 11/28/18 7:13 PM Page 448
10 448 Block 5 Resolution and resultant of forces
25 Calculate the resultant of the forces shown in (a) the distance of the ship from its starting
Figure C10.2. point
(b) the bearing the ship must take to return to
its starting position.
29 The forces in Figure C10.3 are in equilibrium.
Find R and u.
10 N
40°
20° O
9N
5N 10 N
3 N 20° 12 N
20°
20° 37°
O θ
R
Figure C10.2
26 The angle of elevation to the top, B, of a
vertical tower AB is 19°3¿ when measured
from a point, C, 27.3 m from the base of the Figure C10.3
tower. Calculate
(a) the height of the tower
(b) the distance BC.
30 A tower has a bearing of 37°00¿ when
27 Two vertical towers have heights 9 m and measured from a point O, and is 973 m distant
17.2 m and are 42 m apart. from O. A chimney has a bearing of 100°30¿
(a) Calculate the angle of elevation from the when measured from O and is 1042 m distant
base of the shorter tower to the top of the from O. Calculate the distance from the tower
taller tower. to the chimney.
(b) Calculate the angle of depression from the
top of the taller tower to the top of the 31 A point A has a bearing of 45° and is 10 km
shorter tower. distant from O. A point B has a bearing of
160° and is 20 km distant from O. A point C is
28 A ship travels on a bearing of 40°00¿ for mid-way between A and B. Calculate
12 km and then changes to a bearing of 270° (a) the bearing of C from O
and travels for 30 km. Calculate (b) the distance of C from O.
Solutions to exercises
1 17.49 cm 4 32.74°
2 0.6999 5 9 cm
3 0.5547 6 60°
M10_CROF5939_04_SE_C10.QXD 9/21/18 12:31 PM Page 449
End of chapter exercises 449 10
7 71.57° 20 X = 49°, XZ = 186.17 cm, YZ = 149.52 cm
8 11.92 cm 21 X = 33.7835°, Y = 51.8271°, Z = 94.3894°
9 22.90 cm 22 solution 1: X = 69.29°, Z = 59.71°,
YZ = 27.08 cm; solution 2: X = 8.71°,
10 22.03 cm Z = 120.29°, YZ = 4.38 cm
11 15.92 cm 23 no triangle possible
12 12.29 N horizontally, 8.60 N vertically 24 11.56 N acting at 37.54° above positive x axis.
13 x component is 7.71 N; y component is -9.19 N 25 R = 2.87 N, acting at 47.59° to the positive
x axis.
14 (a) 36.495° (b) 1.0447° (c) 10.2058°
26 (a) 9.43 m (b) 28.88 m
15 (a) 7°21¿41¿¿ (b) 10°5¿35¿¿ (c) 14°57¿40¿¿
27 (a) 22.27° (b) 11.05°
16 X = 46.84°, Y = 100.54°, Z = 32.63°
28 (a) 24.11 km (b) 112.41°
17 Z = 66°, XZ = 23.02 cm, XY = 21.77 cm
29 R = 19.64, u = 71.08°
18 XY = 77.43 cm, X = 50.79°, Y = 70.21°
30 1062 m
19 solution 1: X = 59.6787°, Y = 74.3213°,
XZ = 33.46 m; solution 2: X = 120.3213°, 31 (a) 130.1198° (b) 9.0961 km
Y = 13.6787°, XZ = 8.22 m
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/28/18 8:45 PM Page 450
Chapter 11
Complex numbers
Complex numbers are a generalisation of the real number system
with which you have been working all your life. Whenever any real
non-zero number, whether positive or negative, is squared the result
is always positive. Relaxing this condition and allowing numbers that
when squared result in negative numbers is the driving force behind
the theory of complex numbers. These numbers seem strange when
first introduced because we deal with imaginary quantities. However,
by persevering a much wider variety of problems can be solved. For
example, equations that have no real solutions can have complex
solutions as we shall see in this chapter.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:26 PM Page 451
Chapter 11 contents
Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Block 3 The exponential form of a complex number
Block 4 De Moivre’s theorem
Block 5 Solving equations and finding roots of complex numbers
Block 6 Phasors
End of chapter exercises
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:26 PM Page 452
Arithmetic of complex numbers
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In this block we explain how the set of real numbers is extended to enable us to find
solutions of a greater range of equations. This leads to a study of complex numbers,
which are useful in a variety of applications, especially alternating current circuit
analysis. Complex numbers may seem rather strange at first because you will be
dealing with imaginary rather than real quantities. Nevertheless they are so useful in
applications that an understanding of them is essential.
1.2 Finding the square root of a negative number
If a real number is squared the answer cannot be negative. For example, squaring
both 7 and -7, the result is positive. That is,
72 = 49 and (-7)2 = 49
It is impossible to obtain a negative result by squaring a real number.
Suppose we introduce a new sort of number, called j, with the property that
j2 = -1. The number j cannot be a real number because its square is negative. We
say it is imaginary. Having defined j2 as -1 it follows that j = 2 -1 and we can
use this to write down the square root of any negative number.
Key point j is an imaginary number such that j2 = -1
Example 1.1
Write down expressions for the square roots of (a) 9, (b) -9.
Solution
(a) 29 = ;3
(b) Noting that -9 = 9 * -1 we can write
2 -9 = 29 * -1
= 29 * 2 -1
= ;3 * 2 -1
Then using the fact that 2 -1 = j we have
2 -9 = ;3j
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:26 PM Page 453
1.2 Finding the square root of a negative number 453 11
Example 1.2
Write down (a) 2100, (b) 2 -100, (c) 2 -v2.
Solution
(a) 2100 = ;10
(b) Write -100 = 100 * -1 so that
2 -100 = 2100 * (-1)
= ;10j
(c) 2 -v2 = 2 -1 * v2
= ;jv
Example 1.3
Using the fact that j2 = -1 simplify (a) j3, (b) j4.
Solution
(a) j3 = j2 * j. But j2 = -1 and so j3 = -1 * j = -j.
(b) j4 = j2 * j2 = (-1) * (-1) = 1.
Using the imaginary number j it is possible to solve all quadratic equations.
Example 1.4
Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve 2x2 + x + 1 = 0.
Solution
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
We use the formula x = . With a = 2, b = 1 and c = 1 we find
2a
-1 ; 212 - (4)(2)(1)
x =
2(2)
-1 ; 2 -7
=
4
-1 ; 27j
=
4
1 27
= - ; j
4 4
Example 1.5
Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve x2 - 10x + 29 = 0.
Solution
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
Using the formula x = we find
2a
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:26 PM Page 454
11 454 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
10 ; 2 -16
x =
2
Now using j we can find the square root of -16 and write down two solutions of the
equation. Finally, simplifying the answers gives
x = and 5 + 2j and 5 - 2j
Exercises
1 Write down an expression for 4 Solve the following quadratic equations:
(a) 24, (b) 2 -4, (c) 281, (d) 2 -81. (a) x2 + 1 = 0 (b) x2 + x + 2 = 0
(c) x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 (d) 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
2 With the help of a calculator find (e) 2x2 + x + 3 = 0
(a) 27, (b) 2 -7, (c) 25.32, (d) 2 -5.32.
5 Solve the quadratic equation
3 Simplify (a) -j2, (b) (-j)2, (c) (-j)3, (d) -j3. 5x2 - 11x + 13 = 0.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) ;2 (b) ;2j (c) ;9 (d) ;9j 3 1 223
(d) -1, - (e) - ; j
2 4 4
2 (a) ;2.646 (b) ;2.646j (c) ;2.307
(d) ;2.307j 11 2139
5 ; j
10 10
3 (a) 1 (b) -1 (c) j (d) j
1 27 5 213
4 (a) ;j (b) - ; j (c) - ;
2 2 2 2
1.3 Complex numbers
Real and imaginary parts
In Example 1.5 we found that the solutions of the equation x2 - 10x + 29 = 0
are 5 ; 2j. The solutions are known as complex numbers. A complex number
such as 5 + 2j is made up of two parts, a real part 5 and an imaginary part 2.
The imaginary part is the multiple of j.
It is common practice to use the letter z to stand for a complex number and write
z = a + bj where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:26 PM Page 455
1.3 Complex numbers 455 11
Key point If z is a complex number then we write
z = a + bj
where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.
Example 1.6
State the real and imaginary parts of -11 - 19j.
Solution
The real part is -11
The imaginary part is -19
Equal complex numbers
Two complex numbers are equal only when their real parts are equal and their imag-
inary parts are equal. So if a + bj is equal to 3 - 2j it follows that a must be 3 and
b must be -2.
Complex conjugate
In Example 1.5 we solved the quadratic equation x2 - 10x + 29 = 0 and saw that
the second solution, 5 - 2j, is almost the same as the first, 5 + 2j; only the sign of
the imaginary part has changed. The number 5 - 2j is said to be the complex
conjugate of 5 + 2j.
In general, to find the complex conjugate of a complex number the sign of the
imaginary part is changed from + to - , or vice versa. We denote the complex
conjugate of z by z.
Key point If z = a + bj, its complex conjugate, denoted by z, is
z = a - bj
When solving quadratic equations with real coefficients any complex roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs just as we saw in Example 1.5.
Example 1.7
A complex number z1 is given by z1 = a1 + b1j.
(a) State the real and imaginary parts of z1.
(b) Write down the complex conjugate of z1.
Solution
(a) The real part of z1 is a1. The imaginary part is b1.
(b) The complex conjugate of z1 is found by changing the sign of the imaginary
part. Thus z1 = a1 - b1j.
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11 456 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
Example 1.8
Write down the complex conjugates of each of the following complex numbers:
(a) z1 = 11 + 2j, (b) z2 = 7 - 3j, (c) z3 = 8, (d) z4 = -9j.
Solution
In each case the sign of the imaginary part is changed. In part (c) there is no imagin-
ary part to alter.
(a) z1 = 11 - 2j
(b) z2 = 7 + 3j
(c) z3 = 8
(d) z4 = 9j
Exercises
1 If z = a + bj explain what is meant by z. 3 Write down the complex conjugate of
(a) 3 + 13j (b) 3 - 13j (c) 17j (d) 18.5
2 State the real and imaginary parts of (e) 3.36 + 2.24j
(a) 3 + 7j (b) a1 + b1j (c) -0.35j
(d) cos u + j sin u (e) cos vt + j sin vt 4 State the real and imaginary parts of
jV sin (vt + f).
Solutions to exercises
1 z is the complex conjugate of z. That is, 3 (a) 3 - 13j (b) 3 + 13j (c) -17j
z = a - bj. (d) 18.5 (e) 3.36 - 2.24j
2 (a) real part 3, imaginary part 7 4 Real part 0, imaginary part V sin (vt + f).
(b) a1, b1 (c) 0, -0.35 (d) cos u, sin u
(e) cos vt, sin vt
1.4 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers
Given two complex numbers we can find their sum and difference in an obvious way.
Key point Addition and subtraction of complex numbers
If z1 = a1 + b1j and z2 = a2 + b2j then
z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)j
z1 - z2 = (a1 - a2) + (b1 - b2)j
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 457
1.4 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers 457 11
Note that to add the complex numbers we simply add the real parts together and add
the imaginary parts together.
Example 1.9
If z1 = 3 + 11j and z2 = 18 - 21j find (a) z1 + z2, (b) z2 - z1.
Solution
(a) z1 + z2 = (3 + 11j) + (18 - 21j)
= 21 - 10j
(b) z2 - z1 = (18 - 21j) - (3 + 11j)
= 15 - 32j
Example 1.10
If z1 = 3 + 4j and z2 = 8 + 11j, find (a) z1 + z2, (b) z1 - z2.
Solution
(a) To add the complex numbers just add the real parts and then add the imaginary
parts:
z1 + z2 = 11 + 15j
(b) Subtract the real parts, and then subtract the imaginary parts:
z1 - z2 = (3 + 4j) - (8 + 11j)
= -5 - 7j
Exercises
1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 3 If z = a + jb and w = g + jd write down
(a) z1 + z2, (b) z1 - z2, (c) z2 - z1. z + w.
2 If z = 13 - 11j and w = -2 + 5j find
(a) z + w, (b) z - w, (c) w - z.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 4 + 3j (b) -2 - j (c) 2 + j 3 a + g + j(b + d)
2 (a) 11 - 6j (b) 15 - 16j (c) -15 + 16j
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11 458 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
1.5 Multiplication of complex numbers
To multiply two complex numbers we use the normal rules of algebra and also the fact
that j2 = -1. If z1 and z2 are the two complex numbers their product is written z1 z2.
Example 1.11
If z1 = 5 - 2j and z2 = 2 + 4j find z1 z2.
Solution
z1z2 = (5 - 2j)(2 + 4j)
= 10 - 4j + 20j - 8j2
Replacing j2 by -1 we obtain
z1z2 = 10 + 16j - 8(-1)
= 18 + 16j
In general we have the following result:
Key point Multiplication of two complex numbers
If z1 = a1 + b1j and z2 = a2 + b2 j then
z1z2 = (a1 + b1j) (a2 + b2 j)
= a1a2 + a1b2 j + b1a2 j + b1b2 j2
= (a1a2 - b1b2) + j(a1b2 + a2b1)
Example 1.12
Find z1 z2 if z1 = 3 - 2j and z2 = 5 + 3j.
Solution
z1z2 = (3 - 2j)(5 + 3j)
= 15 + 9j - 10j - 6j2
Simplify your result to obtain
(3 - 2j)(5 + 3j) = 21 - j
Example 1.13
Find z z if z = a + bj.
Solution
Recall that z is the complex conjugate of z.
z z = (a + bj) (a - bj)
= a2 + baj - abj - b2j2
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 459
1.6 Division of complex numbers 459 11
= a2 - b2(-1)
= a2 + b2
Note that the result is purely real: multiplying a complex number by its conjugate
results in a non-negative real answer. For example, taking a = 4 and b = 3, we see
that (4 + 3j)(4 - 3j) = 42 + 32 = 25.
The result of the previous example is particularly important.
Key point If z = a + bj then
z z = a2 + b2
Exercises
1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 4 Find a cubic equation with roots
(a) z1z2, (b) z1, (c) z2, (d) z1z1, (e) z2z2. z = 2, z = 1 + j and z = 4 + 2j. (Note that
this cubic equation will have complex
2 Express in the form x + jy coefficients.)
(a) j(3 + 2j) (b) (4 - 2j)j (c) 5j(1 - j)
(d) (1 + j)(9 + j) 5 Find the real and imaginary parts of
(a) 7(2 + j), (b) -13(j - 1).
3 Find a quadratic equation whose roots are
s = -7 + 0.5j and s = -7 - 0.5j. 6 Find (a) (4 - 3j)(4 + 3j),
(b) (5 - 2j)(5 + 2j).
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 1 + 5j (b) 1 - j (c) 3 - 2j (d) 2 (e) 13 4 For example,
z3 - (7 + 3j)z2
2 (a) -2 + 3j (b) 2 + 4j (c) 5 + 5j
+ (12 + 12j) z - 4 - 12j = 0
(d) 8 + 10j
5 (a) real 14, imaginary 7 (b) 13, -13
3 For example, 4s2 + 56s + 197 = 0
6 (a) 25 (b) 29
1.6 Division of complex numbers
Division of complex numbers requires a special technique that uses the complex
conjugate. Consider the following example.
Example 1.14
z1
Find when z1 = 3 + 2j and z2 = 4 - 3j.
z2
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11 460 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
Solution
We require
z1 3 + 2j
=
z2 4 - 3j
The special technique is to multiply both numerator and denominator by the com-
plex conjugate of the denominator. Overall, this is equivalent to multiplying by 1 and
so the fraction remains unaltered. However, it has the effect of making the denomi-
nator purely real as we saw in Example 1.13.
3 + 2j 3 + 2j 4 + 3j
= *
4 - 3j 4 - 3j 4 + 3j
(3 + 2j)(4 + 3j)
=
(4 - 3j)(4 + 3j)
12 + 8j + 9j + 6j2
=
16 + 12j - 12j - 9j2
6 + 17j
=
25
6 17
= + j
25 25
In general we have the following result:
Key point Division of two complex numbers
z1 a1 + b1j
=
z2 a2 + b2 j
a1 + b1j a2 - b2 j
= *
a2 + b2 j a2 - b2 j
a1a2 + b1b2 + (a2b1 - a1b2)j
=
a22 + b22
Example 1.15
z1
If z1 = 2 + 9j and z2 = 5 - 2j find .
z2
Solution
Both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
So
2 + 9j 2 + 9j 5 + 2j
= *
5 - 2j 5 - 2j 5 + 2j
10 + 45j + 4j + 18j2
=
25 + 4
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1.6 Division of complex numbers 461 11
Simplify the result to produce
2 + 9j 8 49
= - + j
5 - 2j 29 29
The computing packages Maple and Matlab have the facility to perform calculations
with complex numbers. For full details you should refer to the on-line help.
Example 1.16 4j
7
Use software to simplify the following complex number: + .
3 - 2j 2 + 5j
Solution
Maple
In Maple the imaginary number j is entered as I. The expression is entered and Maple
will perform the calculation and simplify the result.
> 7/(3-2*I) + 4*I/(2+5*I);
resulting in
869 510
+ I
377 377
The evalf command presents the results in decimal form:
> evalf(7/(3-2*I) + 4*I/(2+5*I));
2.3050 + 1.3528I
Matlab
When using Matlab the imaginary number j is entered as either i or j. As with Maple, the
expression is entered and the calculation and simplification will be performed automatically.
>> 7/(3-2*j) + 4*j/(2+5*j)
ans =
2.3050 + 1.3528i
Example 1.17
Use software to solve the polynomial equation s3 + 2s2 + 0.2s + 0.0556 = 0 and
0.5
hence deduce the poles of the rational function G1s2 = 3 2
.
s + 2s + 0.2s + 0.0556
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11 462 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
Solution
Maple
In Maple, the command solve will find the roots of a polynomial equation:
solve(s^3+2*s^2+0.2*s+0.0556=0);
producing
- 0.0447 + 0.1646I, -1.9106, -0.0447 - 0.1646I
Observe that there is a single real root. The two complex roots appear as a complex
conjugate pair which is a consequence of the coefficients of the polynomial being real
numbers. The poles of a rational function are those values which make the denomina-
tor zero. We deduce that there are poles when s = -0.0447 + 0.1646I, -1.9106 and
-0.0447 - 0.1646I.
Matlab
The Matlab function roots can be used to solve a polynomial equation. The coefficients
of the polynomial are entered as an array:
>> roots([1 2 0.2 0.0556])
ans =
-1.9106 + 0.0000i
-0.0447 + 0.1646i
-0.0447 - 0.1646i
Exercises
3 + 2j 1
1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 4 If z = express both (a) and
z1 z2 z1 z2 2 - j z
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
z2 z1 z1 z2 (b) z + in the form x + jy.
z
7 - 6j 3 + 9j
2 Find (a) , (b) . 1
2j 1 - 2j 5 Express in the form a + bj.
cos u - j sin u
3 Express the following in the form x + jy:
1 2 3 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
j j -j 1 + j 1 - j
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1.6 Division of complex numbers 463 11
Solutions to exercises
5 j 5 j 5 12 4 7 72 56
1 (a) + (b) - (c) j (d) + j 4 (a) - j (b) + j
13 13 2 2 13 13 13 13 65 65
7 5 cos u + j sin u
2 (a) -3 - j (b) -3 + 3j
2
1 j
3 (a) -j (b) -2j (c) 3j (d) - (e) 1 + 1j
2 2
Computer and calculator exercises
Computer algebra packages allow the user to input
2 Solve the equations
and manipulate complex numbers. Investigate how
(a) x3 + 7x2 + 9x + 63 = 0
the complex number a + bj is input to the package
(b) 2x4 - 3x3 + 11 = 0
to which you have access.
3 A common requirement in control theory is to
1 Use a package to express each of the following
find the poles of a rational function, G(s). The
numbers in the form a + bj:
poles are the values of s that make the
5 denominator zero. Find the poles of
(a) (2 - j)6 (b)
(3 - 2j)4 0.25
G(s) = 3 2
s - 2s + 0.1s + 0.006
End of block exercises
1 Write down an expression for (a) 21, 7 Express the following in the form x + jy:
(b) 2 -1, (c) 249, (d) 2 -49. 5 2 + j 3
(a) (b) (c)
-j j 4 - j
2 Find 2 -9.24. j 2j
(d) (e)
1 + j 1 - j
3 Solve the equations
8 Write down the complex conjugate of
(a) x2 + x + 1 = 0, (b) 7s2 + s + 1 = 0. (a) a + jb (b) cos u + j sin u
(c) cos u - j sin u (d) cos vt - j sin vt
4 Write down the complex conjugate of
(a) 15 + 3j (b) -3j + 2 9 Express in the form x + jy
1 1 23 (a) (3 + 2j)j(4 - 3j)
(c) j + 3 (d) + j (b) (5 + 3j)(2 + j)(2 - j)
2 2 2
(2 - 3j)(6 + 7j)
5 Find (c)
3 + 2j 5 + 4j j(1 - j)
(a) , (b) .
5 + 4j 3 + 2j 10 Find a quadratic equation whose roots are
x = -3 + j and x = -3 - j.
6 Find z1 z2
(a) z1 z2, (b) , (c) , if z1 = 3 + 5j
z2 z1 11 Find a cubic equation with roots x = 1,
and z2 = 3 - 5j. x = 1 - j and x = 1 + j.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 464
11 464 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers
Solutions to exercises
12 3 1 1
1 (a) ;1 (b) ;j (c) ;7 (d) ;7j 7 (a) 5j (b) 1 - 2j (c) + j (d) + j
17 17 2 2
2 ;3.04j (e) -1 + j
1 23j 1 323 8 (a) a - jb (b) cos u - j sin u
3 (a) - ; (b) - ; j
2 2 14 14 (c) cos u + j sin u (d) cos vt + j sin vt
4 (a) 15 - 3j (b) 3j + 2 29 37
9 (a) 1 + 18j (b) 25 + 15j (c) - j
2 2
1 1 23
(c) - j + 3 (d) - j
2 2 2 10 x2 + 6x + 10 = 0, for example
23 2 23 2
5 (a) - j (b) + j 11 x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 2 = 0, for example
41 41 13 13
8 15 8 15
6 (a) 34 (b) - + j (c) - - j
17 17 17 17
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 465
The Argand diagram and polar form
BLOCK 2
of a complex number
2.1 Introduction
Engineers often find a graphical interpretation of complex numbers useful. This
graphical interpretation is known as an Argand diagram. From the Argand diagram
two other useful quantities, the modulus and the argument, can be defined. These
provide an alternative way of describing complex numbers, known as the polar form.
2.2 The Argand diagram
The complex number z = a + bj is plotted as a point with coordinates (a, b) as
shown in Figure 2.1. Because the real part of z is plotted on the horizontal axis we
often refer to this as the real axis. The imaginary part of z is plotted on the vertical
axis and so we refer to this as the imaginary axis. Such a diagram is called an
Argand diagram. Engineers often refer to this diagram as the complex plane.
Figure 2.1 Imaginary
An Argand axis
diagram in which
the point with
coordinates (a, b)
represents the z a bj
complex number b (a, b)
z = a + bj.
O a Real axis
Example 2.1
Plot the complex numbers z1 = 2 + 3j, z2 = -3 + 2j, z3 = -3 - 2j, z4 = 2 - 5j,
z5 = 6, z6 = j on an Argand diagram.
Solution
Figure 2.2 shows the Argand diagram. Note that purely real numbers lie on the real
axis. Purely imaginary numbers lie on the imaginary axis. Note also that complex
conjugate pairs such as -3 ; 2j lie symmetrically on opposite sides of the real axis.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 466
11 466 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Figure 2.2
Argand diagram 5
for Example 2.1.
4
3 2 3j
3 2j 2
1 j
6
5 4 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
3 2j 2
3
4
5 2 5j
Exercises
1 Plot the following numbers on an Argand 2 Simplify the following complex numbers and
diagram: show them on an Argand diagram:
(a) 3 + 3j (b) 2 - 4j (c) -0.5 (d) 6j (a) j2 (b) -j2 (c) (-j)2 (d) j3 (e) j4
(e) -j (f) -5 - 11j
Solutions to exercises
1 See Figure 2.3. 2 See Figure 2.4.
Imaginary Imaginary
axis 6j axis
3 3j
j2 (j)2 1 j2 j4 1
0.5
j Real axis 1 1 Real axis
j
2 4j
j j
3
5 11j Figure 2.4
Figure 2.3
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 467
2.3 The modulus and argument of a complex number 467 11
2.3 The modulus and argument of a complex number
Modulus
Consider the Argand diagram in Figure 2.5, which shows the complex number
z = a + bj. The distance of the point (a, b) from the origin is known as the
modulus, or magnitude, of the complex number and is given the symbol r. Alterna-
tively r is written as |z|.The plural of modulus is moduli. The modulus can be found
using Pythagoras’s theorem, that is ƒ z ƒ = r = 2a2 + b2. The modulus is never
negative.
Figure 2.5 Imaginary
The modulus of axis
a + bj is the
distance of (a, b)
from the origin O.
z a bj
b (a, b)
|z| r
O a Real axis
Key point The modulus of the complex number z = a + bj is
r = ƒ z ƒ = 2a2 + b2
Graphically, this is the distance of (a, b) from the origin.
Example 2.2
Plot the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram and find their moduli:
(a) z1 = 3 + 4j (b) z2 = -2 + j (c) z3 = 3j
Solution
The complex numbers are shown in Figure 2.6.
In each case we can use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the modulus.
(a) ƒ z1 ƒ = 232 + 42 = 225 = 5.
(b) ƒ z2 ƒ = 2(-2)2 + 12 = 25 or 2.236. It is usually sufficient to leave your
answer in the surd form as 25.
(c) ƒ z3 ƒ = 202 + 32 = 3.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/26/18 9:58 AM Page 468
11 468 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Figure 2.6
4 z1 3 4j
z3 3j
3
z2 2 j 1
2 1 O 1 2 3
Example 2.3
Find the modulus of each of the following complex numbers:
(a) z = 5 + 12j (b) z = - 6 - 8j
Solution
(a) ƒ z ƒ = ƒ 5 + 12j ƒ = 252 + 122 = 13
(b) ƒ z ƒ = ƒ -6 - 8j ƒ = 2( -6)2 + ( - 8)2 = 10
Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers with z1 = a1 + b1j and z2 = a2 + b2j. We
consider the expression ƒ z1 - z2 ƒ . Now
z1 - z2 = a1 + b1j - 1a2 + b2j2 = 1a1 - a22 + 1b1 - b22j
and so
ƒ z1 - z2 ƒ = 21a1 - a222 + 1b1 - b222
From Figure 2.7, using Pythagoras’s theorem, we see that this expression is the dis-
tance between z1 and z2.
Figure 2.7
ƒ z1 - z2 ƒ is the
distance between z1 5 a1 1 b1 j
z1 and z2. b1
b1 2 b2
z2 5 a 2 1 b 2 j
b2
a1 2 a 2
a2 a1
Key point Graphically, ƒ z1 - z2 ƒ is the distance between z1 and z2.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 469
2.3 The modulus and argument of a complex number 469 11
Argument
Consider Figure 2.8. Given a complex number z = a + bj we can calculate the
angle between the positive x axis and a line joining (a, b) to the origin. This angle is
called the argument of the complex number. It is abbreviated to arg(z) and often
given the symbol u.
Figure 2.8
The argument of a
complex number.
z a bj
b
θ
O a
We usually measure this angle so that -p 6 u … p, in which case u is called
the principal value of the argument. Angles measured anticlockwise from the
positive x axis are conventionally positive whereas angles measured clockwise are
negative. Several complex numbers with positive and negative arguments are shown
in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9
Some complex
numbers with z1j
1
positive and
negative
arguments. π π
4
z 1 O 1
π3
1
z 1 3j
2
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 470
11 470 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Because the angles in Figure 2.9 can be described in a variety of ways, the argu-
ment of a complex number is not unique. For example, the argument of z = 1 + j
has been labelled p4 . This is the principal value of the argument. However, it is impor-
tant to note that we could have also stated the argument as p4 + 2p = 9p 4 . Repeatedly
adding on 2p will produce other valid arguments. This will become important in
Block 5 when we use complex numbers to solve equations.
Given z = a + bj, then trigonometry can be used to determine u. Specifically,
referring to Figure 2.8,
b
tan u =
a
so that
u = tan-1 a b
b
a
but when using a calculator to find an inverse tangent care must be taken that the
solution obtained is in the correct quadrant. Drawing an Argand diagram will always
help to identify the correct quadrant. At this stage you may find it helpful to refer
back to Chapter 9 on trigonometry, and ensure that you are aware of the sign of the
trigonometrical ratios in the four quadrants.
Key point The argument of the complex number z = a + bj is the angle between the positive
x axis and the line joining (a, b) to the origin.
Polar form
The position of a complex number is uniquely determined by giving its modulus and
argument. This description is known as the polar form. Engineers often write the
polar form of a complex number as z = r∠u.
Key point The polar form of a complex number can be written as
z = r∠u
where r is the modulus and u is the argument.
Example 2.4
Find the arguments of the complex numbers in Example 2.2 and pictured in
Figure 2.6.
Solution
(a) z1 = 3 + 4j is in the first quadrant. Its argument is given by
4
u = tan-1
3
Using a calculator we find u = 0.927 radians.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 471
2.3 The modulus and argument of a complex number 471 11
(b) z2 = -2 + j is in the second quadrant. To find its argument we seek an angle,
u, in the second quadrant such that tan u = -12. To calculate this correctly it may
help to refer to Figure 2.10 in which a is an acute angle with tan a = 12 . From a
calculator a = 0.464, and so u = p - 0.464 = 2.678 radians.
Figure 2.10
To calculate u it is
simpler to 2 j
1
calculate a first.
1 θ
α
2 1 O 1
tan α 1
2
(c) z3 = 3j is purely imaginary. Its argument is p2 radians.
Example 2.5
Sketch an Argand diagram showing the following complex numbers and in each case
calculate the argument.
(a) z = 5 + 12j (b) z = - 23 + j (c) z = 2 - 3j
Solution
(a) Sketch z = 5 + 12j and identify the quadrant in which it lies:
z 5 12 j
12
first
θ
O 5
tan-1 a b = 1.176 radians
12
Then arg z = u =
5
(b) Sketch z = - 23 + j and identify the quadrant in which it lies:
z 3j
1
θ
α second
3 O
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 472
11 472 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Then arg z = u =
tan-1 a - b =
1 5p
= 2.618 radians
23 6
If you have difficulty calculating the correct angle it is often simpler to calculate
1
first the related acute angle. So, in the diagram above, a is acute and tan a =
23
p 5p
from which a = 6 = 0.524 radians. It follows that u = p - a = 6 = 2.618
radians.
(c) Sketch z = 2 - 3j and identify the quadrant in which it lies:
O θ 2
fourth
3 z 2 3j
Then arg(z) = u =
tan-1 a- b = -0.983 radians
3
2
Ensure you have located the angle in the correct quadrant. If you have difficulty
calculating the correct angle use the method described in part (b).
Most scientific calculators are able to convert complex numbers given in cartesian
form into polar form and vice versa. You should check your calculator to see whether
you can carry out these conversions.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 473
2.3 The modulus and argument of a complex number 473 11
Exercises
(b) If z = 2 + 3j, plot z and jz. Show that the
1 The following complex numbers were plotted
same behaviour as that in part (a) occurs.
on an Argand diagram in question 1 of the
Is it true in general that multiplying a
previous exercises:
complex number by j will rotate it
(a) 3 + 3j (b) 2 - 4j (c) -0.5 (d) 6j (e) -j
anticlockwise through 90°?
(f) -5 - 11j
Express each one in polar form.
4 (a) Solve the equation z2 - 4z + 13 = 0 and
plot your solutions on an Argand diagram.
2 Show the following complex numbers on an
(b) Express the solutions in polar form.
Argand diagram:
(a) 5 ∠30° (b) 4∠45° (c) 2∠-135°
(d) 4 ∠270° (e) 17 ∠110° (f) 1∠1p3 2
5 If z = a + bj show that ƒ z ƒ = ƒ z ƒ and that
(g) 4 ∠1p4 2 (h) 2∠-2.3
2
ƒ z ƒ = z z.
3 (a) If z = 5, plot z and jz on an Argand
diagram. Deduce that multiplying z by j
causes an anticlockwise rotation through
90° about the origin.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 218∠ p4 = 322∠ p4 (b) 2 25∠-1.107
(c) 0.5 ∠p (d) 6∠1p2 2 (e) 1∠1- p2 2
(f) 2146 ∠ -1.997
2 See Figure 2.11.
4 17 1
5 110° π
30° 45° 3
(a) (b) (e) (f)
4
270° π
4
2
2 135° 2.3
4
(c) (d) (g) (h)
Figure 2.11
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 474
11 474 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
3 (b) Yes, multiplying a number by j has the effect of rotating it anticlockwise by 90°.
4 (a) 2 ; 3j (b) 213∠0.98, 213 ∠-0.98
2.4 The form r (cos ⫹ j sin )
Consider Figure 2.12, which shows the complex number z = a + bj = r∠u.
Figure 2.12
(a, b)
b
r
b
θ
O a
a
Using trigonometry we can write
a b
cos u = and sin u =
r r
so that, by rearrangement,
a = r cos u and b = r sin u
We can use these results to find the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
given in polar form:
Key point If z = r ∠u, the real and imaginary parts of z are, respectively,
a = r cos u and b = r sin u
Using these results we can then write z = a + bj as
z = a + bj = r cos u + jr sin u
= r (cos u + j sin u)
This is an alternative way of expressing the complex number with modulus r and
argument u.
Key point z = a + bj
= r ∠u
= r (cos u + j sin u)
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2.4 The form r (cos u ⫹ j sin u) 475 11
Recall that the complex conjugate of z = a + bj is the complex number z = a - bj,
as shown in Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13
The complex
conjugate of
a + bj.
O θ a
r
z a bj
b (a, b)
Note that z has the same real part as z but the sign of the imaginary part has
changed. It follows that we can write z = a - bj = r (cos u - j sin u).
Key point z = a - bj
= r (cos u - j sin u)
Example 2.6
State the modulus and argument of z = 17(cos 3.2 + j sin 3.2).
Solution
Comparing the given complex number with the standard form r(cos u + j sin u) we
see that r = 17 and u = 3.2 radians.
Example 2.7
(a) Find the modulus and argument of the complex number z = 5j.
(b) Express 5j in the form r(cos u + j sin u).
Solution
(a) On an Argand diagram the complex number 5j lies on the positive vertical axis
a distance 5 from the origin. Thus 5j is a complex number with modulus 5 and
argument p2 .
(b) z = 5j
= 5 acos + j sin b
p p
2 2
Example 2.8
(a) Show the complex number z = 4∠1 3 2 on an Argand diagram.
p
(b) State its modulus and argument.
(c) Find the real and imaginary parts of the complex number and hence express it
in the form a + bj.
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11 476 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Solution
(a) The complex number z = 4 ∠1 3 2 is shown in Figure 2.14.
p
Figure 2.14
The complex 3
number
z = 4 ∠1p3 2.
2
4 b
1
π
3
O 1 2 3
a
p
(b) Its modulus is 4 and its argument is 3 .
(c) To find the real and imaginary parts we can use
a = r cos u, b = r sin u
so that
p
a = 4 cos
3
= 2
and
p
b = 4 sin
3
= 3.464
Hence the complex number can be written 2 + 3.464j.
Example 2.9
p
Find the real and imaginary parts of z = 3∠(15 ).
Solution
Writing z = a + bj, the real part is found from a = r cos u and the imaginary part
from b = r sin u. Thus
3 cos a b = 2.934
p
a =
15
3 sin a b = 0.624
p
b =
15
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2.5 Multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar form 477 11
Exercises
1 State the modulus and argument of z when 3 Express the following complex numbers in the
form a + bj:
(a) z = 13 acos + j sin b ,
p p
3 3 (a) 4∠40° (b) 5 ∠1.9302 (c) 4∠130°
(d) 3 ∠0.7513
(b) z = 15 acos - j sin b .
p p
3 3
2 State the modulus and argument of
(a) z = -13, (b) z = -4, (c) z = -2j,
(d) z = 3.
Solutions to exercises
p p
1 (a) 13, (b) 15, - 3 (a) 3.0642 + 2.5712j (b) -1.7586 + 4.6805j
3 3
(c) -2.5712 + 3.0642j (d) 2.1924 + 2.0478j
2 (a) modulus 13, argument -p (b) 4, -p
p
(c) 2, - (d) 3, 0
2
2.5 Multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar form
We can multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form. The following develop-
ment shows how two simple formulae are derived which make multiplication and
division particularly easy when numbers are in polar form. The development uses
some of the trigonometrical identities from Chapter 9, specifically the expansions of
sin1A ; B2 and cos1A ; B2, together with sin2A + cos2A = 1.
Consider two complex numbers, z1 and z2. Let
z1 = r1 ∠u1 = r11cos u1 + j sin u12
z2 = r2 ∠u2 = r21cos u2 + j sin u22
We now multiply these two numbers.
z1z2 = r1 ∠u1r2 ∠u2
= r11cos u1 + j sin u12r21cos u2 + j sin u22
= r1r23cos u1 cos u2 + j sin u2 cosu1 + j sin u1 cosu2 + j2 sin u1 sin u24
Using j2 = -1 we have
z1z2 = r1r231cos u1 cos u2 - sin u1 sin u22 + j1sin u1 cos u2 + sin u2 cos u124
= r1r23cos1u1 + u22 + j sin1u1 + u224 using the identities on page 372
= r1r2 ∠1u1 + u22
So when multiplying complex numbers we multiply their moduli and add their
arguments.
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11 478 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
We now turn our attention to division of complex numbers in polar form.
z1 r1 ∠ u1
=
z2 r2 ∠ u2
r11cos u1 + j sin u12
r21cos u2 + j sin u22
=
r11cos u1 + j sin u12 cos u2 - j sin u2
r21cos u2 + j sin u22
= *
cos u2 - j sin u2
Multiplying the numerators together, then the denominators, and simplifying produces
z1 r1 cos u1 cos u2 + sin u1 sin u2 + j1sin u1 cos u2 - sin u2 cos u12
= *
z2 r2 cos2 u2 + sin2 u2
r1 cos1u1 - u22 + j sin1u1 - u2 2
= *
r2 1
∠1u1 - u22
r1
=
r2
So when dividing complex numbers in polar form we divide their moduli and sub-
tract their arguments.
Key point If z1 = r1 ∠u1 and z2 = r2 ∠u2 then
z1 r1
z1z2 = r1r2 ∠(u1 + u2), = ∠(u1 - u2)
z2 r2
Example 2.10
If z1 = 5∠1p6 2 and z2 = 4∠1- p4 2 find (a) z1z2, (b) .
z1
z2
Solution
(a) To multiply the two complex numbers we multiply their moduli and add their
arguments. Therefore
z1z2 = 20∠ c + a - bd
p p
6 4
= 20∠ a - b
p
12
(b) To divide the two complex numbers we divide their moduli and subtract their
arguments. Therefore
= ∠ c - a - bd
z1 5 p p
z2 4 6 4
5 5p
= ∠
4 12
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2.5 Multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar form 479 11
Example 2.11
z2
For z1 and z2 in Example 2.10 find .
z1
Solution
∠ a- - b = ∠ a - b
z2 4 p p 4 5p
=
z1 5 4 6 5 12
Let us consider the important and special case of multiplication and division by the
imaginary number j.
In polar form
p
j = 1∠
2
If z = r∠u, then
jz = a 1∠ b (r∠u)
p
2
= r∠ au + b
p
2
Thus multiplying by j has left the modulus of z unchanged but increased the argu-
ment by p2 . This represents an anticlockwise rotation by p2 on the Argand diagram.
If z = r∠u, then
z r∠u
=
j 1∠ p2
= r∠ au - b
p
2
Thus dividing by j has left the modulus unchanged but reduced the argument by p2 .
This represents a clockwise rotation by p2 on the Argand diagram.
Key point Multiplying a complex number by j causes an anticlockwise rotation by p2 on the Argand
diagram.
Dividing a complex number by j causes a clockwise rotation by p2 on the Argand
diagram.
These results are very important in electrical engineering applications of complex
numbers, in particular phasors, which are described in Block 6.
As a further special case of the multiplication rule consider what happens when
both z1 and z2 are equal. Suppose z = r∠u. Then it follows that z2 = r2 ∠2u. For
example, if
z = 5∠ , then z2 = 25∠ a b
p 2p
3 3
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 480
11 480 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Even more generally, we can state:
Key point If z = r∠ u then zn = rn ∠ nu.
This is a form of De Moivre’s theorem, which is studied in detail in Block 4.
Exercises
1 If z1 = 5∠20°, z2 = 3∠35° find (a) z1z2, 5 Consider the complex number z = r∠u. By
z1 z2 multiplying this by 1∠a show that the result is
(b) , (c) .
z2 z1 a rotation of z through an angle a about the
origin.
2 If z = 3 - j find z4 expressing your answer in
polar form. 6 Simplify
2p 2 p 2
3 If z = 1 + j find z10. a4∠ a b b a 3∠ a b b
3 6
4 If z = -1 - j13 find z5. p
5∠
4
Solutions to exercises
5 3 2p
1 (a) 15 ∠55° (b) ∠ -15° (c) ∠15° 4 25 ∠ = -16 + 16 23j
3 5 3
2 100∠ -73.72° 144 17p
6 ∠
5p p 5 12
3 25 ∠ = 25 ∠
2 2
2.6 Locus of a point
A locus is the path traced out by a moving point. Consider the complex number
z = x + 3j, where x can vary. Note that the imaginary part of the complex number
is fixed with a value of 3. If we plot z on an Argand diagram, for various values of
x, we see that the plotted points lie on a straight line parallel to the x axis as shown
in Figure 2.15. As x increases from - q to q the point represented by z = x + 3j
traces out this line from left to right.
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2.6 Locus of a point 481 11
Figure 2.15
The locus of
y
z = x + 3j is a
horizontal line.
When z is expressed in polar form, z = r(cos u + j sin u), we can trace out a
locus as either r or u varies. Consider the following examples.
Example 2.12
Given z = 3(cos u + j sin u) draw the locus of z as u varies from
(a) -p to p
(b) 0 to p
(c) 0 to -p/2.
Solution
Consider z = 3(cos u + j sin u) from which we see that the modulus of z is fixed
at 3. Recall that the modulus is the distance of z from the origin. Therefore, as the
argument, u, varies, an arc of a circle radius 3 is traced out.
(a) As u varies from -p to p a circle, radius 3, is traced out as shown in Figure
2.16. Note that the circle is traversed in an anticlockwise direction as u varies
from -p to p.
Figure 2.16
Locus of
y
z = 3(cos u + j sin u)
as u varies from - p
to p.
–3 3 x
(b) When u = 0, then z is at point A (see Figure 2.17). When u = p then z is at B.
A semicircle is traced out as u varies from 0 to p.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 10/16/18 7:17 AM Page 482
11 482 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Figure 2.17
Locus of
y
z = 3(cos u + j sin u)
as u varies from 0 to p.
B A
–3 3 x
(c) See Figure 2.18. When u = 0, z is positioned at A; when u = - p2 then z is at C.
The arc in Figure 2.18 is traced out as u varies from 0 to - p2 .
Figure 2.18
Locus of
y
z = 3(cos u + j sin u)
as u varies from 0 to
- p2 .
A
3 x
–3 C
Example 2.13
Draw the locus of z = r1cos30° + j sin30°2 for 0 … r … 2.
Solution
In this example the argument is fixed at 30º and the modulus varies from 0 to 2. The
locus is shown in Figure 2.19.
Figure 2.19
Locus of
y
z = r1cos30° + j sin30°2
for 0 … r … 2.
D
2
o
30
O x
When r = 0 then z is at the origin. When r = 2, z is positioned at D. The locus is
the straight line OD. The length of the line is 2. It is inclined at 30º to the positive
real axis.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 483
2.6 Locus of a point 483 11
Example 2.14
Find the locus of z where
arg3z - 11 + j24 = arg1z2
Solution
Recall that if z1 and z2 are complex numbers with arguments u1 and u2 then
arg1z12 - arg1z22 = u1 - u2 = arg ¢
z1
≤
z2
So, from arg3z - 11 + j24 = arg1z2 we have
arg3z - 11 + j24- arg1z2 = 0
z - 11 + j2
arg a b = 0
z
z - 11 + j2
and so the argument of a b is 0.
z
Let z = x + jy. Then,
z - 11 + j2 x + jy - 11 + j2
=
z x + jy
1x - 12 + (y - 1)j
=
x + jy
1x - 12 + (y - 1)j 1x - jy2
1x - jy2
=
x + jy
1x - 12x - (x - 1)yj + (y - 1)xj + (y - 1)y
=
x2 + y2
Given that the argument of this number is 0, as shown above, then the number is real;
that is, the imaginary part is 0. So, from -1x - 12y + 1y - 12x = 0, we have
-1x - 12y + 1y - 12x = 0
y - x = 0
y = x
The locus is the straight line y = x.
Exercises
1 Sketch the locus of 2 We wish to find the locus of z where
(a) z = 4 + jy - 2 … y … 3 ƒ z - 12 + 3 j2 ƒ = 2
(b) z = a + ja 0 … a … 1 (a) By writing z = x + jy show that
(c) z = 1/21cos u + j sin u2 p/4 … u … p/2 1x - 222 + 1y - 322 = 4
(d) z = r1cos 70° + j sin 70°2 1 … r … 3 (b) Hence state the locus of z.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/26/18 10:00 AM Page 484
11 484 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
3 Find the locus of z given 4 Find the locus of z given
ƒz - 1ƒ = ƒz + jƒ arg1z - 12 = arg1z + j2
Solutions
1 (a) Straight line, parallel to y axis, passing (d) Straight line inclined at 70º to real axis.
through x = 4. Line goes from y = - 2 to Line starts at distance 1 from origin and
y = 3. ends at distance 3 from origin.
(b) Straight line through origin at 45º to real
2 (b) Circle centre (2, 3), radius 2.
axis. Length of line is 22.
(c) Arc of circle, centre origin, radius 0.5. Arc 3 Locus is y = - x. Note that the locus is the
begins when u = p/4 and ends when perpendicular bisector of the line joining (1, 0)
u = p/2. and 10, -12.
4 y = x - 1.
2.7 Aeronautical engineering – Joukowski transformation
When designing the wing of an aircraft, it is important to understand and be able to
model the air flow around it. The air flow around the wing is crucial in determining
the forces on the wing which lead to the aircraft becoming airborne. To carry out this
modelling the cross-sectional shape of the wing must be fully understood. A typical
cross-section, known as an aerofoil, is shown in Figure 2.20.
Figure 2.20
Typical cross- y
section of an
aerofoil.
x
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 485
2.7 Aeronautical engineering – Joukowski transformation 485 11
Mathematically the aerofoil shape is complicated, making accurate modelling
difficult. However, it is possible to begin with a circle. The equation of the circle is
then subject to a transformation, which results in the typical aerofoil shape as
shown in Figure 2.20. A circle is mathematically much easier to describe than a typ-
ical aerofoil shape. When modelling air flow around the aerofoil, engineers begin
by modelling air flow around a circle, and then apply a transformation to model air
flow around an aerofoil.
An important and well-studied transformation is the Joukowski transformation.
Consider Example 2.15.
Example 2.15 Aeronautical Engineering – Joukowski transformation
(1)
We begin with a typical complex number, j, in the x–h plane, that is
j = x + jh
A transformation to the x–y plane is given by
1
z = x + jy = j +
j
Note that z is a complex number in the complex x–y plane. This transformation is
known as the Joukowski transformation. Then
1
z = x + jy = j +
j
1
= x + jh +
x + jh
x - jh
1x + jh2 1x - jh2
= x + jh +
x - jh
= x + jh +
x2 + h2
= ax + b + j ah - b
x h
2 2
x + h x + h2
2
Equating real and imaginary parts we have
x h
x = x + 2 2
, y = h - (1)
x + h x + h2
2
So for any values x and h we can calculate the corresponding values of x and y. As
a special case, suppose the locus of j is the circumference of a unit circle centre the
origin (see Figure 2.21). Then x2 + h2 = 1. Using polar coordinates we may write
x = cos u, h = sin u -180° … u 6 180°
As the value of u varies from -180° to 180° then j traces out the circumference of
the unit circle in the x–h plane.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/15/18 3:41 PM Page 486
11 486 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Figure 2.21
The Joukowski η y
transformation of a
unit circle, centre
the origin, is a 1
straight line
segment on the
real axis. θ
O 1 χ –2 O 2 x
Using x2 + h2 = 1 we deduce, from equation (1), that
x = 2x = 2 cos u, y = 0
So x varies from -2 (when u = -180°) to 2 (when u = 0°) and back to -2 (when
u = 180°). The variable y is identically zero. So, the result of applying the
Joukowski transform to the unit circle is a line on the real axis, from x = -2 to
x = 2 (see Figure 2.21). Clearly, this is not a realistic model for the cross-section of
an aircraft wing. The example serves to illustrate the transformation of a circle in the
complex x–h plane to a straight line segment in the complex x–y plane.
Example 2.16 Aeronautical Engineering – Joukowski transformation
(2)
Find the Joukowski transformation of a circle, centre the origin, radius 2.
Solution
Consider a circle, centre the origin, radius 2 in the complex x–h plane (see Figure
2.22). Then for any complex number on the circle we have
x2 + h2 = 4
Using polar coordinates we have
x = 2 cos u, h = 2 sin u -180° … u 6 180°
Then using equation (1) from Example 2.15 we have
x 5x h 3h
x = x + = = 2.5 cos u, y = h - = = 1.5sin u
4 4 4 4
Rearranging we have
x 2 y 2
a b + a b = cos2u + sin2u = 1
2.5 1.5
This is the equation of an ellipse and so the locus of z is an ellipse as shown in
Figure 2.22.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/15/18 3:41 PM Page 487
2.7 Aeronautical engineering – Joukowski transformation 487 11
Figure 2.22
The Joukowski
η y
transformation of a 2
circle radius 2, 1.5
centre the origin, is
an ellipse.
θ 2.5
O 2 χ O x
An ellipse is still not a realistic cross-section of an aircraft wing. So, consider
Example 2.17.
Example 2.17 Aeronautical Engineering – Joukowski transformation
(3) 1 3 325
Consider a circle with centre - + j and radius in the complex x–h plane.
2 4 4
Then the equation of the circle is
1 2 3 2
ax + b + ah - b =
45
2 4 16
This circle is transformed using the Joukowski transformation
1
z = x + jy = j +
j
From Example 2.15 we know that the shape in the x–y plane is given by
x h
x = x + 2 2
, y = h -
x + h x + h2
2
For each point on the circle, values of x and h can be determined, and the corre-
sponding values of x and y calculated. The points (x, h) lie on the given circle and so
we can introduce polar coordinates:
1 3
x = - + r cos u, h = + r sin u
2 4
325
where r is the radius of the circle, given as , and u varies from -180° to 180°.
4
Thus x and y can be expressed in terms of u and their values calculated as u varies. A
computer/spreadsheet calculation can be performed to do this. The result is shown in
Figure 2.23. It is known as a Joukowski aerofoil.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/15/18 3:41 PM Page 488
11 488 Block 2 The Argand diagram and polar form of a complex number
Figure 2.23 η y
Joukowski aerofoil
formed by transforming
1 3
a circle centre - + j
2 4
3
325
and radius . 4
4
2
1 O χ O x
2
So when trying to model the flow of air around a wing, whose cross-section is that
of a Joukowski aerofoil, it is easier to model the flow of air around a circle, and then
transform this from the x–h plane to the x–y plane.
End of block exercises
1 Plot each of the following complex numbers 6 Find the real and imaginary parts of each of
on an Argand diagram: the following complex numbers:
(a) 3 - 3j (b) -4 - 7j (c) -5 (d) 4j
(a) 2 ∠70° (b) 4∠p (c) 8∠ a - b
p
2 If z = 3 + 8j find |z| and arg(z). 2
(d) 2 ∠2.306
3 If z = -3 - 6j find |z| and arg(z). 7 Simplify
p 4 p 2
4 Suppose z1 = 3 + 2j and z2 = 4 + 5j. a3∠ a b b a 5∠ a b b
(a) Find |z1||z2| and |z1z2|. Deduce that these 2 6
p 3
a 2∠ b
are equal.
ƒ z1 ƒ 4
(b) Find ` ` and
z1
. Deduce that these are
z2 ƒ z2 ƒ 8 Find (a) arg 5, (b) arg - 5, (c) arg(1 + j).
equal.
5 Find the modulus of the complex number
cos u + j sin u.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 489
2.7 Aeronautical engineering – Joukowski transformation 489 11
Solutions to exercises
2 273, 69.4° 6 (a) 0.684, 1.879 (b) -4, 0 (c) 0, -8
(d) -1.341, 1.483
3 245, -116.6°
213 2025
∠-
5p
4 (a) 213241 = 2533 (b) 7
8 12
241 p
5 1 8 (a) 0 (b) p (c)
4
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:27 PM Page 490
The exponential form of a complex number
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
In addition to the cartesian and polar forms of a complex number there is a third form
in which a complex number may be written – the exponential form. In this block we
explain the exponential form.
3.2 Some useful power series expansions and Euler’s relations
To derive the exponential form we shall need to refer to the power series expansions
of cos x, sin x and ex. Provided x is measured in radians, the functions cos x and sin x
can be expressed in the following forms, known as power series:
x2 x4
cos x = 1 - + -Á
2! 4!
x3 x5
sin x = x - + -Á
3! 5!
Example 3.1
Write down the power series expansions for cos u and sin u.
Solution
Simply replace x with u in the given expansions:
u2 u4 Á
cos u = 1 - + -
2! 4!
u3 u5 Á
sin u = u - + -
3! 5!
We shall also make use of the power series expansion for ex. The exponential func-
tion has a power series expansion given by
x2 x3 x4 x5
ex = 1 + x + + + + +Á
2! 3! 4! 5!
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:28 PM Page 491
3.2 Some useful power series expansions and Euler’s relations 491 11
Suppose we allow x to be an imaginary number in the expansion of ex and write
x = ju. We find
j2u2 j3u3 j4u4 j5u5
eju = 1 + ju + + + + + Á
2! 3! 4! 5!
u2 u3 u4 u5
= 1 + ju - -j + + j - Á
2! 3! 4! 5!
since j2 = -1, j3 = -j, etc. If we now rearrange this to separate the real and imagin-
ary parts we can write
u2 u4 u3 u5
eju = 1 - + - Á + jau - + - Áb
2! 4! 3! 5!
The two power series on the right we recognise, from Example 3.1, as cos u and
sin u, so that we have the following important result, known as Euler’s relation:
eju = cos u + j sin u
It is straightforward, and left as an exercise, to show that
e-ju = cos u - j sin u
Key point Euler’s relations
eju = cos u + j sin u, e-ju = cos u - j sin u
Example 3.2
Use Euler’s relations to express cos u and sin u in terms of eju and e-ju.
Solution
Writing down Euler’s relations we have
eju = cos u + j sin u
e-ju = cos u - j sin u
First adding, and then subtracting, these two identities gives
eju + e-ju = 2 cos u
eju - e-ju = 2j sin u
Rearrange your results to obtain
eju + e-ju
cos u =
2
eju - e-ju
sin u =
2j
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11 492 Block 3 The exponential form of a complex number
The results obtained in Example 3.2 are important:
Key point eju + e-ju eju - e-ju
cos u = , sin u =
2 2j
Exercises
1 Express each of the following in terms of 3 Express sin vt in terms of exponential
trigonometrical functions: functions.
(a) eja (b) ejvt (c) e-jvt
ejv - e-jv
Show that 3 a b =
where a, v and t are real. 6 sin v
4 .
jv v
2 Express cos vt in terms of exponential functions.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) cos a + j sin a (b) cos vt + j sin vt ejvt - e-jvt
3
(c) cos vt - j sin vt 2j
ejvt + e-jvt
2
2
3.3 The exponential form of a complex number
Using the polar form, recall that a complex number with modulus r and argument u
may be written as
z = r (cos u + j sin u)
It follows immediately from Euler’s relations that we can also write this complex
number in exponential form as z = reju. Further, since the complex conjugate of
cos u + j sin u is cos u - j sin u, the conjugate may be written z = re-ju.
Key point Exponential form of a complex number
z = r (cos u + j sin u) = reju
z = r (cos u - j sin u) = re-ju
When using this form you should ensure that all angles are measured in radians and
not degrees.
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3.3 The exponential form of a complex number 493 11
Example 3.3
State the modulus and argument of the following complex numbers: (a) z = 4ejp>6,
(b) z = 0.01e0.02j, (c) 3e-jp>2.
Solution
p
(a) The modulus and argument of 4e jp>6 are 4 and 6 respectively.
(b) The modulus and argument of 0.01e0.02j are 0.01 and 0.02 respectively.
p
(c) The modulus and argument of 3e-jp>2 are 3 and - 2 respectively.
Example 3.4
Express the number z = 3 + 3j in exponential form.
Solution
To express a number in exponential form we must first find its modulus and argu-
ment. The modulus of 3 + 3j is 232 + 32 = 118 or 312. The complex number
lies in the first quadrant of the Argand diagram and so its argument u is given by
u = tan-11332 = p4 . Thus
z = 3 + 3j
= 118 e jp>4
Example 3.5
Find the real and imaginary parts of z = ejvt where v and t are real numbers.
Solution
Using the first of Euler’s relations we can write
e jvt = cos vt + j sin vt
Write down the real and imaginary parts:
cos vt, sin vt
Example 3.6 Control Engineering – Stability of a system
In control theory it is often useful to work with complex numbers in the form
z = est
where s is the complex number s + jv, and where t, v and s are real. The quantity
v is a frequency.
(a) Find the real and imaginary parts of z.
(b) Find |z|.
Solution
(a) Writing s = s + jv we have
z = est
= e(s + jv)t
= est + jvt
Using the first law of indices we can write this as
z = este jvt
= est(cos vt + j sin vt)
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11 494 Block 3 The exponential form of a complex number
Now because s and t are real, so too is est. Thus the real part of z is est cos vt
and the imaginary part of z is est sin vt.
(b) Recall that the modulus of reju is r. Hence the modulus of z = estejvt is est, that is
|z| = est
If s 7 0 then est increases as time, t, increases and the system is said to be
unstable. If s 6 0, then est decreases with t and the system is said to be stable.
Exercises
1 State the modulus and argument of each of the 5 Show that ƒ e-ju ƒ = 1.
following complex numbers:
(a) 4e0.2j (b) 3e2pj>3 (c) e2pj (d) 0.35e-0.2j 6 Write down the complex conjugate of eju.
(e) 0.35e-0.2
7 Express z = -1 + 2j in the form reju.
2 Express each of the following in the form reju:
(a) 3∠ a b (b) 12 ∠ a b
p p 8 Show that the real and imaginary parts of e(a + bj)t
3 4 are respectively eat cos bt and eat sin bt.
(c) 3∠ a b (d) 5 ∠0 (e) 17∠ a b
-p p
9 Express each of the following in exponential
4 2 form:
(a) -5 (b) (1 + j) (1 - 2j) (c) (1 + 8j)11
3 Express each of the following in the form a + bj:
(a) 13ejp>3 (b) 13e-jp>3 (c) 4e2pj (1 + 2j)3
(d)
1 - j
4 Show that ƒ eju ƒ = 1.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 4, 0.2 radians (b) 3, 2p
3 radians 6 e-ju
(c) 1, 2p radians (d) 0.35, -0 .2 radians
(e) 0 .35e-0.2, 0 radians 7 25e2.03j
2 (a) 3ejp>3 (b) 22ejp>4 (c) 3e-jp>4 (d) 5e0 = 5 9 (a) 5epj (b) 210e-0.32j (c) 6511>2e-2.94j
(e) 17ejp>2 (d) 7 .91e-2.18j
3 (a) 6 .5 + 11.3j (b) 6 .5 - 11.3j (c) 4
End of block exercises
1 Show the following complex numbers on an 3 Find the real and imaginary parts of
Argand diagram: (a) ej -1 (b) 4ea + jb (c) e-jp>6 (d) e0.1 (e) je0.1
(a) 5ejp>3 (b) 7e2pj (c) 4epj (d) ejp>4
eju - e-ju
2 Find the real and imaginary parts of the 4 Show that tan u = -ja b.
eju + e-ju
following:
(a) 4ejp>3 (b) 5e-j2p>3 (c) ejp>2 (d) e-jp>2
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3.3 The exponential form of a complex number 495 11
5 If z1 = 4ejp>4 and z2 = 5e-jp>6 find 7 If a and b are real, and
z1 (a + jb)ejp>3 + 12e-jp>4 = 5 + j
(a) z1z2 (b) (c) z1z1 (d) z1 + z2
z2 find a and b.
6 Given z = 6ej0.23 express z3 in exponential and
polar forms.
Solutions to exercises
4 13 5 5 13 4 j5p>12
2 (a) 2, = 3.464 (b) - , - 5 (a) 20ejp>12 (b) e (c) 16
2 2 2 5
(c) 0, 1 (d) 0, -1 (d) 7.158 + 0.328j
3 (a) e-1 cos 1, e-1 sin 1 (b) 4ea cos b, 4ea sin b 6 63e0.69j, 63(cos 0.69 + j sin 0.69)
13 -1 7 a = 13 + 2, b = 1 - 213
(c) , (d) e0.1, 0, (e) 0, e0.1
2 2
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De Moivre’s theorem
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
De Moivre’s theorem is one of the most important results in the theory of complex
numbers. It can be used to find powers of complex numbers, and to prove trigono-
metrical identities. In this block we introduce and illustrate the use of the theorem. In
Block 5 we show how the theorem can be used to solve equations. To understand this
block it is essential that you are aware that a complex number can be written in polar
form as z = r(cos u + j sin u) or more compactly as z = r∠u.
4.2 De Moivre’s theorem
We state and use the theorem here. The proof is left as an exercise (see question 4
in the exercises). The theorem involves raising the complex number cos u + j sin u
to the power n.
Key point De Moivre’s theorem
(cos u + j sin u)n = cos nu + j sin nu
Note that by using the theorem an expression involving powers of trigonometrical
functions can be converted into one involving trigonometrical functions of multiple
angles. This is useful in proving trigonometrical identities, as we shall see.
The theorem is valid when n is an integer and enables us to write, for example,
(cos u + j sin u)2 as cos 2u + j sin 2u
It is also valid if n is a fraction and in such a case can be used to find roots of
complex numbers. Examples of this can be found in Block 5.
Example 4.1
Use De Moivre’s theorem to write (cos u + j sin u)3 in an alternative form.
Solution
Use the theorem with n = 3:
(cos u + j sin u)3 = cos 3u + j sin 3u
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4.2 De Moivre’s theorem 497 11
Example 4.2
Use De Moivre’s theorem to write (cos u + j sin u)5 in an alternative form.
Solution
Use the theorem with n = 5:
(cos u + j sin u)5 = cos 5u + j sin 5u
We can use De Moivre’s theorem to obtain powers of a complex number very easily.
Consider the following example.
Example 4.3
If z = r(cos u + j sin u) write down expressions for (a) z2 and (b) z3, and use
De Moivre’s theorem to write your results in an alternative form.
Solution
(a) z2 = r2(cos u + j sin u)2
which, using De Moivre’s theorem, can be written as
r2(cos 2u + j sin 2u)
(b) z3 = r3(cos u + j sin u)3
which, using De Moivre’s theorem, can be written as
r3(cos 3u + j sin 3u)
If we use the abbreviated form r∠u the previous example can be written much more
concisely:
Key point If z = r∠u then
zn = rn ∠nu
for example
z2 = r2 ∠2u, z3 = r3 ∠3u, and so on
Example 4.4
p
(a) If z = 3∠ write down z5.
4
(b) Express your answer in the form r(cos u + j sin u) and its cartesian form.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:28 PM Page 498
11 498 Block 4 De Moivre’s theorem
Solution
p
(a) If z = 3∠ then z5 =
4
35 ∠ a5 * b = 243∠
p 5p
4 4
b = -171.8 - 171.8j
5p 5p 5p
(b) 243∠ = 243acos + j sin
4 4 4
Example 4.5
+ j sin b find z2.
p p
If z = 7acos
4 4
Solution
Using De Moivre’s theorem with n = 2 we can write
p 2
z2 = 72 acos + j sin b
p
4 4
b
2p 2p
= 49acos + j sin
4 4
= 49acos + j sin b
p p
2 2
= 49j
p p
since cos = 0 and sin = 1.
2 2
Example 4.6
(a) Express z = 2 + 5j in polar form.
(b) Hence find (2 + 5j)12, leaving your answer in polar form.
Solution
(a) The modulus of 2 + 5j is 222 + 52 = 229. The number lies in the first quad-
rant of an Argand diagram and so its argument u is given by u = tan-1 52 = 1.190.
Thus z = 2 + 5j = 229 ∠1.190.
(b) Using De Moivre’s theorem we have
1229∠1.190212 = 1229212 ∠12 * 1.190
= 296 ∠14.283
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4.2 De Moivre’s theorem 499 11
Example 4.7
If z = cos u + j sin u use De Moivre’s theorem with n = -1 to obtain an expression
1
for .
z
Solution
With n = -1 we have
z-1 = (cos u + j sin u)-1
= cos(-u) + j sin(-u)
= cos u - j sin u
The last line follows since cos u is an even function and sin u is an odd function.
1
Thus = cos u - j sin u.
z
Exercises
p
1 If z = 4 ∠ find z6 in polar form. (b) By raising the exponential form to the
6 power n, and using one of the laws of
indices, deduce De Moivre’s theorem.
2 Express z = 2 + 2j in polar form and hence
find z8, leaving your answer in polar form. 5 Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that if
Deduce that (2 + 2j)8 = 4096. z = cos u + j sin u then
(a) zn = cos nu + j sin nu
3 Express z = -3 + 2j in polar form and hence (b) z-n = cos nu - j sin nu
find z6, converting your answer into cartesian Deduce that
form.
1
zn + = 2 cos nu
4 Consider the complex number zn
z = cos u + j sin u. and
(a) Write down the exponential form of this 1
number. zn - = 2j sin nu
zn
Solutions to exercises
1 46 ∠p 3 113∠2.554, 133 ∠15.322, -2035 + 827j
p 4 (a) z = eju (b) zn = (eju)n = ejnu
2 18∠ , 84 ∠2p
4
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11 500 Block 4 De Moivre’s theorem
4.3 Using De Moivre’s theorem to prove trigonometrical identities
One of the applications of the theorem is to prove various trigonometrical identities.
Consider the following example.
Example 4.8
Use De Moivre’s theorem to prove that
(a) sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u
(b) cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u
Solution
(a) Using De Moivre’s theorem with n = 2 we obtain
(cos u + j sin u)2 = cos 2u + j sin 2u
Expanding the left-hand side we can write
cos2 u + 2j sin u cos u - sin2 u = cos 2u + j sin 2u
Equating the imaginary parts on both sides gives the required expression for
sin 2u:
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u
(b) Equate the real parts in part (a) to obtain an identity for cos 2u:
cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u
Example 4.9
Express sin 3u as powers of sin u.
Solution
Consider De Moivre’s theorem with n = 3:
(cos u + j sin u)3 = cos 3u + j sin 3u
Expand the expression on the left-hand side:
cos3 u + 3j cos2 u sin u
- 3 cos u sin2 u - j sin3 u
Compare this result with the right-hand side and equate the imaginary parts:
sin 3u = 3 cos2 u sin u - sin3 u
Finally, noting that cos 2 u = 1 - sin2 u, you should verify that
sin 3u = 3 sin u - 4 sin3 u
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4.3 Using De Moivre’s theorem to prove trigonometrical identities 501 11
In the two previous examples you saw how to convert trigonometrical functions
of multiple angles into powers of trigonometrical functions. In the previous set of
exercises it was shown (question 5) that if z = cos u + j sin u then
1 1
zn + = 2 cos nu and zn - = 2j sin nu
zn zn
These results allow us to obtain a further range of trigonometrical identities. In par-
ticular they allow us to convert powers of trigonometrical functions into expressions
involving trigonometrical functions of multiple angles.
Key point If z = cos u + j sin u then
1 1
zn + n = 2 cos nu and zn - = 2j sin nu
z zn
Example 4.10
If z = cos u + j sin u use the previous Key point to write down expressions for
1 1 1 1
(a) z + (b) z2 + (c) z - (d) z2 -
z z2 z z2
Solution
1
(a) z + = 2 cos u
z
1
(b) z2 + = 2 cos 2u
z2
1
(c) z - = 2j sin u
z
1
(d) z2 - = 2j sin 2u
z2
Example 4.11
Show that cos2 u = 12 cos 2u + 12 .
Solution
1
Starting with 2 cos u = z + and squaring both sides we obtain
z
1 2
4 cos2 u = a z + b
z
1
= z2 + 2 +
z2
= a z2 + b + 2
1
by rearranging
z2
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11 502 Block 4 De Moivre’s theorem
1
But z2 + = 2 cos 2u and so
z2
4 cos2 u = 2 cos 2u + 2
from which
1 1
cos2 u = 2 cos 2u + 2
as required.
Example 4.12
1 1 1
By squaring the result 2j sin u = z - prove the identity sin2 u = 2 - 2 cos 2u.
z
Solution
1
Consider 2j sin u = z - .
z
Squaring the left-hand side gives -4 sin2 u. Now square the right-hand side.
1 2
az - b =
1
z2 - 2 +
z z2
Rearrange this and express it in terms of cos 2u using the previous Key point.
az2 + b - 2 = 2 cos 2u - 2
1 1
z2 - 2 + =
z2 z2
Finally we have
-4 sin2 u = 2 cos 2u - 2
1 1
from which sin2 u = 2 - 2 cos 2u as required.
Exercises
1 Show that cos 4u = 8 cos4 u - 8 cos2 u + 1. 3 Use your answers from questions 1 and 2 to
deduce that
2 Show that
4 tan u - 4 tan3 u
sin 4u = 4 cos3 u sin u - 4 cos u sin3 u tan 4u =
1 - 6 tan2 u + tan4 u
4 Show that cos3 u = 14(cos 3u + 3 cos u).
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4.3 Using De Moivre’s theorem to prove trigonometrical identities 503 11
End of block exercises
1 Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that 2 Show that
cos 5u = 16 cos5 u - 20 cos3 u + 5 cos u
sin4 u = 18(cos 4u - 4 cos 2u + 3)
and obtain a similar expression for sin 5u in
powers of sin u.
Solutions to exercises
1 sin 5u = 16 sin5 u - 20 sin3 u + 5 sin u
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Solving equations and finding roots
BLOCK 5
of complex numbers
5.1 Introduction
By using complex numbers, solutions can be obtained to a wide range of equations.
There is no single appropriate method for tackling these and so experience and prac-
tice are essential. Sometimes it is convenient to work in cartesian form, but on other
occasions solutions are easier to obtain in polar form. You should be aware that a
polynomial equation of degree n possesses n roots, but some of these can be repeated,
or equal, roots. So, when solving a quadratic equation we shall be looking for two
roots, when solving a cubic equation we shall be looking for three roots, and so on.
5.2 Solving equations
Example 5.1
Solve the equation z3 + 5z = 0.
Solution
This is a polynomial equation of degree 3. We seek three solutions. The equation can
be factorised:
z3 + 5z = z(z2 + 5) = 0
so that one solution is z = 0, and others can be obtained by solving z2 + 5 = 0.
From z2 + 5 = 0 we have
z2 = -5
z = ; 2 -5
= ; 25j
Thus the solutions of the given equation are z = 0 and z = ; 25j.
Example 5.2
Solve the equation z2 + 2z + 2 = 0.
Solution
This is simply a quadratic equation. Apply the formula
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
z =
2a
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5.2 Solving equations 505 11
-2 ; 24 - 4(1)(2)
=
2
-2 ; 2-4
=
2
= z = -1 ; j
Often it is more convenient to work in polar form, and so before attempting to
solve any more equations it will be useful to review how the polar form of a com-
plex number is obtained. Consider the number 4, illustrated in Figure 5.1(a). Its
modulus is 4 and its argument is 0. However, it is important to note that if we
increase the argument by 360°, or 2p, we remain at the same location on the
Argand diagram as shown in Figure 5.1(b). Indeed we can increase the argument
by further multiples of 360° and still represent the same complex number, as
shown in Figure 5.1(c).
720°, 4π
360°, 2π
4 4 4
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.1
The argument of a complex number takes many values.
Thus in polar form we can write 4 as 4 ∠0, 4∠2p, 4∠4p, and so on. We can
generalise this as 4∠2kp where k = 0, 1, 2, Á . In the examples that follow you
should bear this in mind when converting complex numbers to polar form.
Example 5.3
Express the number z = 2 + j in polar form, and include the general form for the
argument.
Solution
The complex number z = 2 + j is shown in Figure 5.2. Its modulus is
ƒ z ƒ = 222 + 12 = 25. Its argument is tan-1 12 = 0.464. However, adding on
multiples of 2p results in the same complex number, so we can write
arg(z) = 0.464 + 2kp. Finally the polar form is z = 25∠(0.464 + 2kp).
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11 506 Block 5 Solving equations and finding roots of complex numbers
Figure 5.2
1 z2j
5
θ
1 2
θ tan1 ( 12 ) 0.464
arg(z) 0.464 2kπ
Example 5.4
Solve the equation z3 - 4 = 0.
Solution
This is a polynomial equation of degree 3. We look for three solutions. Note that this
equation can be written as z3 = 4. We shall show that by working in polar form it is
straightforward to obtain the solutions. You should also note that the equation is
equivalent to z = 41>3 so we are finding the cube roots of 4.
As z is a complex number, we can write it in polar form as z = r∠u. When we
have succeeded in finding r and u, we shall know z and will have solved the problem.
Consider, first, the left-hand side of
z3 = 4
If z = r∠u then write down an expression for z3:
z3 = r3 ∠3u
Now express the right-hand side in polar form including the general term for the
argument.
4 = 4∠2kp, k = 0, 1, 2, Á
Therefore, working entirely in polar form, the equation becomes
r3 ∠3u = 4∠2kp
Equating moduli on both sides gives r3 = 4 so that r = 41>3, the real cube root of 4
since r is real.
Equating arguments,
2kp
3u = 2kp so that u = , k = 0, 1, 2, Á
3
Taking k = 0, 1, 2 in turn gives the three solutions
2p 4p
z = 41>3 ∠0, z = 41>3 ∠ , z = 41>3 ∠
3 3
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5.2 Solving equations 507 11
Figure 5.3
The solutions of
z3 - 4 = 0. 41/32π/3
41/30
41/34π/3
These solutions are illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Note that if k is increased beyond 2, we find the solutions already obtained.
If necessary these solutions can be expressed in cartesian form. Do this for your-
self now:
3
41>3 ∠0 = 41>3 or 24
23
41>3 a-
2p 1
41>3 ∠ = + jb
3 2 2
23
41>3 a-
4p 1
41>3 ∠ = - jb
3 2 2
Example 5.5
Solve the equation z3 + 2 = 0.
Solution
Note that this equation can be written z3 = -2. Again we work in polar form.
Consider, first, the left-hand side of
z3 = -2
If z = r∠u then z3 = r3 ∠3u.
Now express the right-hand side in polar form. The complex number z = -2 is
shown in Figure 5.4 to help you do this.
Figure 5.4
The complex
number z = -2.
z ⫽ ⫺2
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11 508 Block 5 Solving equations and finding roots of complex numbers
-2 = 2∠(p + 2kp) where k = 0, 1, 2, Á
Therefore, working entirely in polar form the equation becomes
r3 ∠3u = 2∠(p + 2kp)
Equate moduli on both sides to find r.
r = 21>3, the real cube root of 2
Equate arguments, to find u:
p 2kp
u = + , k = 0, 1, 2, Á
3 3
Taking k = 0, 1, 2 in turn gives the three solutions
p 5p
z = 21>3 ∠ , 21>3 ∠p, 21>3 ∠
3 3
These solutions are illustrated in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5
21/3π/3
21/3π
21/35π/3
Note that if k is increased beyond 2, we find the solutions already obtained.
If necessary these solutions can be expressed in cartesian form. Do this for your-
self now:
23
21>3 a
p 1
21>3 ∠ = + jb
3 2 2
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5.2 Solving equations 509 11
3
21>3 ∠p = -21>3 or - 2 2
23
21>3 a
5p 1
21>3 ∠ = - jb
3 2 2
Example 5.6
Solve the equation z6 - 2z3 - 8 = 0.
Solution
By careful inspection note that this equation can be factorised as
z6 - 2z3 - 8 = (z3 - 4)(z3 + 2)
= 0
(If you cannot spot this directly, try making a substitution, w = z3, and obtain a quad-
ratic equation in w.) Thus z3 - 4 = 0 or z3 + 2 = 0. We have already solved each
of these separately in Examples 5.4 and 5.5. Thus the six solutions are those
obtained in these examples.
Example 5.7
Solve the equation z2 = 2 + j.
Solution
In general the unknown z will be a complex number and so z = r∠u. Then
z2 = r2 ∠2u. Now consider the right-hand side of the given equation, 2 + j. This
has been expressed in polar form in Example 5.3. Therefore
r2 ∠2u = 51>2 ∠(0.464 + 2kp)
Comparing moduli on both sides we see that
r2 = 51>2 so that r = 51>4
Also, comparing arguments,
2u = 0.464 + 2kp
from which
0.464 + 2kp
u =
2
= 0.232 + kp, k = 0, 1, 2, Á
The two solutions we seek are obtained by letting k = 0 and then k = 1. Increasing
k further will reproduce solutions already found.
When k = 0, u = 0.232.
When k = 1, u = 0.232 + p.
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11 510 Block 5 Solving equations and finding roots of complex numbers
Hence the two solutions are
51>4(cos 0.232 + j sin 0.232) and 51>4[cos(0.232 + p) + j sin(0.232 + p)]
These solutions are shown in the Argand diagram in Figure 5.6. If necessary they can
be converted to cartesian form as 1.46 + 0.34j and -1.46 - 0.34j.
Figure 5.6
The two solutions
of z2 = 2 + j.
0.232 π 51/4
0.232
The techniques used in the previous examples can be used to find roots of com-
plex numbers. Suppose we wanted to find the cube roots of j, that is j1>3. Writing
z = j1>3 and cubing both sides we obtain
z3 = j
So finding the cube roots of j is equivalent to solving the equation z3 = j. This can be
done using the technique of Examples 5.4, 5.5 or 5.7.
Exercises
1 Solve the equation -z2 + 3z - 4 = 0. 3 Solve the following equations converting your
solutions to cartesian form:
2 Solve each of the following equations leaving (a) z3 = -1 (b) z3 = 1 (c) z3 - 6j = 0
your answers in polar form:
(a) z2 = 1 + j (b) z2 = 1 - j
(c) z3 = -2 + 3j
Solutions to exercises
3 27 1 23 1 23
1 z = ; j 3 (a) z = -1, z = + j, z = - j
2 2 2 2 2 2
p 9p 1 23
2 (a) 21>4 ∠ , 21>4 ∠ (b) z = 1, z = - ; j
8 8 2 2
p 7p 23
(c) -61>3j, 61>3 a + j b,
(b) 21>4 ∠ - , 21>4 ∠ 1
8 8 2 2
(c) 131>6 ∠0.720, 131>6 ∠2.814, 131>6 ∠4.908 23
61>3 a - + j b
1
2 2
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5.2 Solving equations 511 11
End of block exercises
1 Find the three cube roots of -8. 5 Solve the equation z4 + 25 = 0 showing each
solution on an Argand diagram.
2 Find the three cube roots of 8.
6 Find the cube roots of 13 + j.
(-3 + j)4
3 Find the cube roots of z = . 7 Find the cube roots of 13 - j.
(2 - j)2
4 Find all complex numbers which satisfy
z5 + 4z = 0 and express your answers in
cartesian form.
Solutions to exercises
1 -2, 1 ; 13j 110 110 110 110
5 z = ; j, z = - ; j
2 2 2 2
2 2, -1 ; 13j 6 z = 1.241 + 0.219j, z = -0.431 - 1.184j,
z = -0.810 + 0.965j
3 z = 2.695 - 0.325j, z = -1.066 + 2.496j,
z = -1.629 - 2.172j 7 z = 1.241 - 0.219j, z = -0.431 + 1.184j,
z = -0.810 - 0.965j
4 z = 0, 1 ; j, -1 ; j
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Phasors
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
One of the most important applications of complex numbers in engineering is in
the study of alternating current (a.c.) circuits. The phase relationships between dif-
ferent components in a circuit can be expressed using complex numbers. A phasor is
a quantity that contains information about the peak voltage or peak current in a
component together with its phase.
6.2 Phase relationships in LCR circuits
The voltage in an a.c. circuit can be expressed in the form
v(t) = V sin(vt + f)
where V is the peak voltage, v is the angular frequency, f is the phase relative to
some reference voltage and t is time. Recall that v = 2pf where f is the frequency.
Similarly a current can be expressed as i(t) = I sin(vt + f) where I is the peak
current.
Resistor
Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance R. Let vR(t) be the voltage across
the resistor. The current, i(t), through the resistor is in phase with this voltage. This
means that both the voltage and current are zero at the same time and peak at the
same time. This fact is illustrated in the graphs of i(t) and vR(t) in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1
In a circuit
containing a
vR(t)
resistor, R, the
current and voltage t
are in phase. i(t)
T 2π
ω
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6.2 Phase relationships in LCR circuits 513 11
The current is related to the voltage by Ohm’s law, which states that vR = Ri. For
example, if i(t) = I sin vt, then vR = IR sin vt.
Inductor
Consider a circuit containing an inductor having inductance L. Experiment shows
that the voltage across the inductor, vL, leads the current by a phase of p2 . If
i(t) = I sin vt, then it can be shown that
b
p
vL = vLI sinavt +
2
This means that the voltage peaks earlier than the current, as illustrated in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 vL(t), i(t)
In a circuit
containing an vL(t)
inductor, the
voltage leads the
current by a phase 2π t
ω
of p2 . i(t)
Capacitor
In a circuit containing a capacitor having capacitance C, experiment shows that the
voltage across the capacitor, vC, lags behind the current by a phase of p2 . It can be
shown that if i(t) = I sin vt, then
sinavt - b
I p
vC =
vC 2
This means that the voltage peaks after the current, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 vC(t), i(t)
In a circuit
containing a vC (t)
capacitor, the
voltage lags behind
the current by a 2π
t
phase of p2 . ω i(t)
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11 514 Block 6 Phasors
6.3 Phasors
Consider the waveform in Figure 6.4(a), which might represent a voltage, V1 sin vt, in an
2p
a.c. circuit. The time it takes to complete one cycle, that is the period, is .
v
Figure 6.4
B
Points on a B
waveform and V1
equivalent points V1
on a rotating arm. C θ ωt
t
A E C A, E
D
T 2ωπ D
(a) (b)
An alternative representation of the same physical situation is shown in Figure 6.4(b).
It shows an arm rotating anticlockwise. The length of the arm is V1 and it rotates at v
radians per second.
Moving at an angular velocity of v radians per second means that it completes
1
1 radian inseconds
v
2p
2p radians in seconds
v
2p
So it completes a full revolution in T = seconds. The time it takes to complete a
v
revolution is the same as the time it takes for one cycle of the waveform to be com-
pleted in Figure 6.4(a). There is an obvious correspondence between points on the
sine wave and positions of the arm. Points A, B, C, D and E illustrate this. For any
value of t on the waveform, the angle of the arm is vt. Such a rotating arm is called a
phasor.
If we have a second waveform, such as V2 sin(vt + p2 ), which leads the first by
a phase of p2 , then its rotating arm will lead that of V1 sin vt by p2 , as shown in
Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 V2, V1
Phasor 2 leads
phasor 1 by p2 . V2 V2
V1 V1
2π
t
ω
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6.3 Phasors 515 11
Similarly, if we have a third waveform, such as V3 sin(vt - p2 ), which lags behind
the first by a phase of p2 , then its rotating arm will lag that of V1 sin vt by p2 as shown
in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 V1, V3
Phasor 3 lags
V3
phasor 1 by p2 .
V1 V1
2π
t
ω
V3
Because these phasors have a length and an angle measured from the positive
direction of the x axis they can be represented by complex numbers. We think of the
phasor
' diagram as an Argand diagram. We write a typical phasor in polar form as
V = V∠f , where the ' is used to distinguish the complex quantity,
' with magnitude
V and phase f, from the peak value V. Alternatively we can write V in cartesian form
by stating its real and imaginary parts.
In Block 2 we showed that when a complex number is multiplied by j this has the
effect of rotating that number anticlockwise by p2 on an Argand diagram.
So, if we want to represent a phase lead of p2 we multiply the corresponding
phasor by j.
Similarly, dividing a complex number by j has the effect of rotating that number
clockwise by p2 on an Argand diagram. So, if we want to represent a phase lag of p2
we divide the corresponding phasor by j.
Note that
= a b#a b
1 1 -j
j j -j
-j
=
1
= -j
So dividing by j is equivalent to multiplying by -j.'
If the current through a circuit '
is represented
' by I the voltage across a resistor will
be given, from Ohm’s law, by VR = RI . The voltage across an inductor will be
' ' ' j '
V L = jvL I and that across a capacitor will be VC = - I . Notice the way that
vC
multiplication by j achieves the required phase differences for the inductor and
capacitor.
In general we write
R for a resistor
V = I Z where Z = μ jvL
' ' for an inductor
j
- for a capacitor
vC
The quantity Z is called the complex impedance.
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11 516 Block 6 Phasors
Key point Complex impedances
R for a resistor
V = I Z where Z = μ
' ' jvL for an inductor
j
- for a capacitor
vC
More generally, the complex impedance is written in cartesian form as Z = R + jX
where R is the resistance and X is called the reactance. The argument of Z gives the
phase of the voltage relative to the current. The complex impedance is very impor-
tant because it can be used in the same way that resistance, R, is used in'Ohm’s
' law,
which is clear from inspecting the two forms V = IR (Ohm’s law) and V = I Z.
When k circuit elements are placed in series their total impedance, Z, is found by
adding the individual impedances, Zk, that is
Z = a Zk
When the elements are in parallel
1 1
= a
Z Zk
Example 6.1 Electrical Engineering – A series LCR circuit
For the series LCR circuit shown in Figure 6.7 the total impedance is the sum of the
individual impedances.
j
Z = R + jvL -
vC
The voltage phasor is
' '
V = IZ
' ' j '
= I R + jvL I - I
vC
Figure 6.7
A series LCR
circuit. L C R
i
V
~
Example 6.2 Electrical Engineering – A series RC circuit
The circuit shown in Figure 6.8 consists of an alternating voltage source, a resistor R
and a capacitor C in series. Suppose a voltage of 8 mV is applied with a frequency of
106 Hz to the circuit in which R is 12 Æ and C = 100 pF.
(a) Find the angular frequency v.
(b) State the supply voltage in phasor form, taking its phase to be zero. This will be
the reference phasor.
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6.3 Phasors 517 11
Figure 6.8
A series RC
circuit. C R
V
~
(c) Find the complex impedance
' for this circuit.
(d) Find the current phasor I for the circuit.
(e) Find the voltage across each component.
Solution
(a) The angular frequency'v = 2pf = 2p * 106 = 6.2832 * 106.
(b) The voltage phasor is V = 8 * 10-3 ∠0.
(c) The complex impedance is the sum of the individual impedances:
j
Z = R -
vC
j
= 12 -
6.2832 * 106 * 10-10
= 12 - 1591.55j
'
' ' ' V 8 * 10-3
(d) Since V I Z it follows that I =
= = .
Z 12 - 1591.55j
Simplify this:
' -8 -6
I = 3.7897 * 10 + 5.0263 * 10 j
(e) Since the current is the same through each component, we have
' '
VR = IR
'
= 12 I
= 4.5477 * 10-7 + 6.0316 * 10-5j
and
' j '
VC = - I
vC
= 8.000 * 10-3 - 6.0316 * 10-5j
' '
In polar form V R = 6.0317 * 10-5 ∠(1.5633) and VC = 0.008∠(-0.0075).
We see from the polar form that the voltage across the resistor leads the voltage
p
across the capacitor by 1.5633 + 0.0075
' 'L 2 radians,
' as expected. It is easy to
check from the cartesian forms that VR + VC = V .
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/28/18 8:45 PM Page 518
11 518 Block 6 Phasors
End of block exercises
(b) From the result of part (a) deduce that the
1 The impedance of a component is
impedance has minimum magnitude when
Z = 12 - 12j. State (a) the resistance, (b) the
reactance, (c) the phase of the voltage relative 1
to the current. v =
A (LC)
2 The admittance is the reciprocal of the (c) Deduce that this minimum value is R.
impedance. Find the admittance of the
component in question 1. 4 A capacitor and resistor are placed in parallel.
Show that the complex impedance of this
3 The impedance of an LCR circuit is combination is given by
1 1
= + jvC
Z = R + j avL - b
1 Z R
vC Find an expression for Z.
(a) Find ƒ Z ƒ .
Solutions to exercises
p R
1 (a) 12 (b) - 12 (c) - 4 Z =
4 1 + jvCR
2 0.0417 + 0.0417j
R2 + avL - b
1 2
3 (a)
A vC
End of chapter exercises
1 Find the modulus and argument of (a) -j, 6 Sketch an Argand diagram and upon it mark
(b) -3, (c) 1 + j, (d) cos u + j sin u. the poles of the rational function
2 Represent the following numbers on an Argand 3(s - 3)
diagram: G(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 1 + 3j)(s + 1 - 3j)
(a) 13 (b) j2 (c) - 4 + 2j (d) p + pj
7 Use De Moivre’s theorem to simplify
3 If z1 = 5 + 3j and z2 = 3 + 2j find z1z2 (a) (cos 3u + j sin 3u)(cos 4u + j sin 4u)
z1 cos 8u + j sin 8u
and . (b)
z2 cos 2u - j sin 2u
4 Find the modulus and argument of -1 + j. 8 Express (cos u + j sin u)9 in the form
cos nu + j sin nu.
5 Express 2 + 3j in exponential form. Write
down its complex conjugate. 9 Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that
cos 3u = 4 cos3 u - 3 cos u.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 9/25/18 12:28 PM Page 519
End of chapter exercises 519 11
10 Solve the equation z2 = 4j expressing your 19 Find the real and imaginary parts of
solutions in cartesian form and using surds.
1
3
11 Find 22 + 2j. 1 + jv
12 Find the fifth roots of j. 1
20 Find the modulus and argument of .
1 + jv
13 Solve the equation z4 + 1 = j23.
1 1
14 Show that 21 Find + .
1 + jv 2 + jv
32 sin6u = 10 - 15 cos 2u
+ 6 cos 4u - cos 6u 22 Electrical Engineering. The impedance, Z, of
a component is given by Z = 7 + 5j. The
15 Let z1 = r1(cos u1 + j sin u1) and let admittance, Y, is given by
z2 = r2(cos u2 + j sin u2).
Use trigonometrical identities to prove that 1
Y =
Z
z1z2 = r1r2[cos(u1 + u2) + j sin(u1 + u2)]
Find Y in cartesian form.
and
23 Electrical Engineering. A resistor of
z1 r1 resistance, R, and an inductor of inductance,
= [cos(u1 - u2) + j sin(u1 - u2)] L, are connected in series. If R = 9 and
z2 r2
L = 2j find
16 The hyperbolic functions cosh x and sinh x are (a) the total impedance, Z
defined as (b) the admittance.
ex + e-x ex - e-x 24 Electrical Engineering. A resistor of
cosh x = , sinh x = resistance, R, and an inductor of inductance,
2 2 L, are connected in parallel. If R = 9 and
L = 2j find
Use these definitions and Euler’s relations to (a) the total impedance, Z
prove (a) cosh jx = cos x, (b) sinh jx = j sin x, (b) the admittance.
(c) cos jx = cosh x, (d) sin jx = j sinh x.
17 Writing z = reju and using the laws of
logarithms show that ln z = ln r + ju. Hence
interpret ln(2 + 2j).
18 In each case, draw an Argand diagram and
shade the region that satisfies
(a) Re(z) 7 0 (b) Re(z) … -2
(c) Im(z) 6 3 (d) Im(z) Ú -3
where Re(z) stands for the real part of z, and
Im(z) stands for imaginary part of z.
M11_CROF5939_04_SE_C11.QXD 11/28/18 8:45 PM Page 520
11 520 Block 6 Phasors
Solutions to exercises
p p p
1 (a) 1, - (b) 3, p (c) 12, (d) 1, u 17 ln( 28) + j
2 4 4
21 1 1
3 9 + 19j, - j 19 real part =
13 13 1 + v2
3p v
4 12, imaginary part -
4 1 + v2
5 213e0.983j. The conjugate is 213e-0.983j. 21 modulus
1
, argument tan-1(-v)
11 + v2
7 (a) cos 7u + j sin 7u (b) cos 10u + j sin 10u
3 + 2jv
21
8 cos 9u + j sin 9u 2 + 3jv - v2
10 z = ; 22(1 + j) 7 - 5j
22
74
81>6 ∠ a b, k = 0, 1, 2
p 2 kp
11 + 9 - 2j
12 3
23 (a) 9 + 2j (b)
85
1∠ a b, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
p 2 kp
12 +
10 5 36 + 162j 1 j
24 (a) (b) -
85 9 2
21>4 ∠ a b, k = 0, 1, 2, 3
p kp
13 +
6 2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 10/3/18 5:51 PM Page 521
Chapter 12
Matrices and determinants
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or expressions. The plural
of matrix is matrices. This chapter deals with the addition, subtraction
and multiplication of matrices. Unlike numbers, the processes of
addition, subtraction and multiplication can be applied to matrices
only under specific conditions. Division of matrices is not defined.
However, the inverse of a matrix may be found under certain
conditions. The inverse matrix and its calculation are explained in
Block 4.
Determinants are introduced in Block 3. A determinant is a number
that is calculated from the elements of a matrix and is used in finding
the inverse matrix.
The chapter closes with the application of matrices to computer
graphics. Multiplication by a matrix can be interpreted as a
transformation of a figure.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 522
Chapter 12 contents
Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Block 2 Multiplication of matrices
Block 3 Determinants
Block 4 The inverse of a matrix
Block 5 Computer graphics
End of chapter exercises
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 523
Introduction to matrices
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or expressions usually enclosed in brack-
ets. For example,
a b, a b, a b
3 1 9 a b 3 - l 4
0 -6 2 g d 7 6 - l
are all matrices. Note that the plural of matrix is matrices.
We often denote a matrix by a capital letter, for example
4 1
B = a b
1 0 -1 3
A = £ 3 6 ≥,
6 1 4 2
-1 0
The size of a matrix is given by the number of rows and the number of columns. The
matrix A has three rows and two columns and so is described as a 3 * 2 matrix. We
say that A is a ‘three by two matrix’. Matrix B has two rows and four columns and so
is a 2 * 4 matrix. Notice that the number of rows is always stated first. An n * m
matrix has n rows and m columns.
The individual numbers or expressions in a matrix are called the elements and are
usually denoted by a small letter. For example, for A, the element in row 1, column 2
is denoted by a12, the element in row 3, column 1 is denoted by a31, and so on. So
a11 = 4, a12 = 1, a21 = 3, a22 = 6, a31 = - 1, a32 = 0
Example 1.1
Given
C = a b
3 0 4 x
l 1 z -1
state (a) c13, (b) c21, (c) c22.
Solution
(a) c13 is the element in row 1, column 3, and so c13 = 4.
(b) c21 is the element in row 2, column 1, and so c21 = l.
(c) c22 is the element in row 2, column 2, and so c22 = 1.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 524
12 524 Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Example 1.2 Matrices and digital image processing
A digital image is an image that is represented by an array of numbers. Consider, as
a very simple example, the mathematical representation of the symbol p. Very
crudely we can picture the symbol as in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1
A simple digital
representation
of p.
We could represent this image of p by a 3 * 5 matrix such as
1 1 1 1 1
B = £0 1 0 1 0≥
0 1 0 1 0
Note that we have divided the image into a number of areas, or fields, in this case 15
of them. We have then assigned a number to each field: 1 if the field is to be shaded,
and 0 otherwise.
Images such as black and white photographs can be ‘digitised’ in the same way.
The image is divided into m * n fields, where in practice m and n are large integers.
Each field is assigned a number that represents the intensity of the image in that area.
Often a 64-point grey scale is used so that a range of grey levels can be represented
ranging from white at one extreme to black at the other. A digital image is then rep-
resented by an m * n matrix, B say, whose elements are numbers in the range 1–64.
In image processing the matrix B is often referred to as b[m, n].
Exercises
1 The matrix, H, is defined by (a) State the size of H.
(b) State h11, h21, h32.
2 1
H = £ a 0≥ 2 State the number of elements in an n * m
-3 b matrix.
Solution to exercises
1 (a) 3 * 2 (b) 2, a, b 2 nm
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 525
1.2 Some special matrices 525 12
1.2 Some special matrices
There are a number of matrices that you will use frequently and which have special
names. These are now described.
A square matrix has the same number of columns as rows. Both D and E are
square matrices where
1 -1 3
D = a b,
3 1
E = £ 0 l 3≥
4 2
-1 y 7
The main diagonal of a square matrix is the diagonal running from ‘top left’ to ‘bot-
tom right’. The main diagonal of D contains the elements 3 and 2. In general, if A is
an n * n matrix, the main diagonal contains the elements a11, a22, a33, . . . , ann.
An identity matrix is a square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros
everywhere else. Identity matrices are usually denoted by I, with a subscript to
denote its size. The 2 * 2 identity matrix is I2 where
I2 = a b
1 0
0 1
the 3 * 3 identity matrix is I3 where
1 0 0
I3 = £ 0 1 0≥
0 0 1
and so on.
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by writing rows as columns. The transpose
of A is denoted AT. For example, if
A = a b
6 1 -3 0
9 2 3 7
then the transpose of A, AT, is given by
6 9
1 2
AT = § ¥
-3 3
0 7
Example 1.3
Given
1 -2 4
B = £3 1 0≥
7 5 9
state the transpose of B.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 526
12 526 Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Solution
The transpose is
1 3 7
£ -2 1 5≥
4 0 9
Exercises
1 State the transpose of C where 2 State the transpose of I3.
9 3
C = £1 -2 ≥
a 4
Solutions to exercises
CT = a b
9 1 a 2 I3
1
3 -2 4
1.3 Addition and subtraction of matrices
Matrices of the same size may be added to and subtracted from one another. To do
this, the corresponding elements are added or subtracted.
Example 1.4
Given
A = a b, B = a b, C = a b
3 1 -1 2 6 1 -1 0
0 -2 4 10 -3 6 3 2
find, if possible,
(a) A + B (b) B - C (c) B - A (d) A + C
Solution
A + B = a b + a b
3 1 -1 2 6 1
(a)
0 -2 4 10 -3 6
= a b
3 + 2 1 + 6 -1 + 1
0 + 10 -2 - 3 4 + 6
= a b
5 7 0
10 -5 10
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 527
1.3 Addition and subtraction of matrices 527 12
(b) B is a 2 * 3 matrix; C is a 2 * 2 matrix. Since B and C have different sizes
then B - C cannot be calculated.
B - A = a b - a b
2 6 1 3 1 -1
(c)
10 -3 6 0 -2 4
= a b
2 - 3 6 - 1 1 - (-1)
10 - 0 -3 - (-2) 6 - 4
= a b
-1 5 2
10 -1 2
(d) A and C have different sizes and so A + C is not defined.
Example 1.5
7 2 -1 0
If C = £ -2 1 ≥ and D = £ 3 4≥
4 3 9 1
calculate
(a) C + D (b) CT + DT (c) (C + D)T
Solution
7 2 -1 0
(a) C + D = £ -2 1≥ + £ 3 4≥
4 3 9 1
6 2
= £1 5≥
13 4
(b) CT + DT = a b + a b
7 -2 4 -1 3 9
2 1 3 0 4 1
a b
6 1 13
=
2 5 4
(c) C + D has been found in (a).
a b
6 1 13
(C + D)T =
2 5 4
Note that (C + D)T = CT + DT.
Example 1.5 illustrates a general rule for matrices.
Key point The transpose of the sum of two matrices is the same as the sum of the individual
matrices transposed:
(A + B)T = AT + BT
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 528
12 528 Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Exercises
1 Given find
(a) R + S (b) S - R (c) R + RT
R = a b, S = a b
4 1 -3 2
(d) (R - S)T (e) (ST)T
6 2 7 -4
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b (b) a b (e) a b
1 3 -7 1 -3 2
1
13 -2 1 -6 7 -4
(c) a b (d) a b
8 7 7 -1
7 4 -1 6
1.4 Multiplication of a matrix by a number
Any matrix can be multiplied by a number. To do this, each element of the matrix is
multiplied by the number.
Example 1.6
If
A = a b
3 1 -1
0 -2 4
find
1
(a) 2A (b) A (c) -A
2
Solution
2A = 2 a b
3 1 -1
(a)
0 -2 4
= a b
2 * 3 2 * 1 2 * (-1)
2 * 0 2 * (-2) 2 * 4
= a b
6 2 -2
0 -4 8
A = a b
1 1 3 1 -1
(b)
2 2 0 -2 4
= a b
1.5 0.5 -0.5
0 -1 2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 529
1.4 Multiplication of a matrix by a number 529 12
(c) -A = (-1) A
= (-1) a b
3 1 -1
0 -2 4
= a b
-3 -1 1
0 2 -4
Example 1.7
If
A = a b and B = a b
3 1 -1 2 6 1
0 -2 4 10 -3 6
find
1 1
(a) 2A + 3B (b) A - 2B (c) A + B
2 2
Solution
(a) 2A + 3B = a b + a b
6 2 -2 6 18 3
0 -4 8 30 -9 18
a b
12 20 1
=
30 -13 26
(b) A - 2B = a b - a b
3 1 -1 4 12 2
0 -2 4 20 -6 12
a b
-1 -11 -3
=
-20 4 -8
a b
1 1 1 2.5 3.5 0
(c) A + B = (A + B) =
2 2 2 5 -2.5 5
Example 1.8
Given
A = a b
3 1 4
2 9 6
and k is a constant find
(a) AT (b) kAT (c) (kA)T
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 530
12 530 Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Solution
3 2
(a) AT = £1 9≥
4 6
3 2
(b) kAT = k £ 1 9≥
4 6
3k 2k
= £k 9k ≥
4k 6k
3k k 4k
(c) kA = ¢ ≤
2k 9k 6k
Hence
3k 2k
(kA)T
= £k 9k ≥
4k 6k
Example 1.8 illustrates a general rule:
Key point (kA)T = kAT
1.5 Using software for matrix calculations
The software packages Maple and Matlab, in common with many similar packages,
are designed to compute not just with single numbers but with entire sequences of
numbers at the same time. Data can be entered in the form of multi-dimensional
objects called arrays. Matrices are a particular form of array and so Maple and Mat-
lab are well suited to performing matrix calculations.
In Maple a matrix can be entered in a variety of ways and you should consult the
on-line help for full details. For example, the matrices C and D from Example 1.5
can be entered, row by row, as
> C:= Matrix([[7,2], [-2,1], [4,3]]);
7 2
C: = C -2 1S
4 3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 531
1.5 Using software for matrix calculations 531 12
> local D:
> D:= Matrix([[-1,0], [3,4], [9,1]]);
-1 0
D: = C 3 4S
9 1
Thereafter the operations of addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication can be
performed in an intuitive way: C + D, C - D, k * C (note the * needed for scalar mul-
tiplication). The multiplication of matrices will be considered in the next block.
Numerous additional operations are available by loading further packages. For
example, the package LinearAlgebra is loaded using the command
with(LinearAlgebra);
and contains the function Transpose() for finding the transpose of a matrix. You
should experiment with the package to which you have access. The creation of
matrix D serves to illustrate a further point: in computer software some symbols are
‘reserved’ so that they can be used by the software itself. This is the case with the
symbol ‘D’ which is reserved for a differentiation command (see Chapter 20). To
overcome this limitation and still use the symbol ‘D’ it is here declared as a ‘local’
variable.
In Matlab the matrices C and D can be created as follows:
>> C = [7 2; -2 1; 4 3]
>> D = [-1 0; 3 4; 9 1]
Then, as with Maple, addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication can be per-
formed. The multiplication of matrices will be considered in the next block. Note the
different ways in which matrices are created in Maple and Matlab. This serves to
illustrate that reference to the on-line help regarding specific syntax is essential.
Exercises
1 Given 3 Given
A = a b, B = a b
2 1 4 -1
-2 3
A = a b,
3 -2 -2 6 1 2 3
B = £ 0 4 ≥
find 4 5 -1
7 -1
(a) 3A (b) 2B (c) 4A + 3B (d) B - 2A
(e) 2AT (f) (2A)T calculate
(a) A + BT (b) B - 2AT
2 Given
A = a b
6 1
3 7
state
(a) A - 2I2 (b) A - lI2 where l is a constant.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 532
12 532 Block 1 Introduction to matrices
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b (b) a b (a) a b (b) a b
6 3 8 -2 4 1 6 - l 1
1 2
9 -6 -4 12 3 5 3 7 - l
(c) a b (d) a b
20 1 0 -3 -4 -5
(a) a b (b) £ -4
-1 2 10
6 10 -8 10 3 -6 ≥
7 9 -2
1 1
End
(e) a b (f) a b
4 6 4 6
2 -4 2 -4
End of block exercises
Questions 1–13 refer to matrices A, B and C where
4 1 -1 3
B = a b,
1 2 3
A = £9 -1 ≥, C = £ 0 4≥
4 5 -1
2 0 1 6
1 State the size of A. 11 Calculate A + 2BT.
2 State the size of B. 12 Calculate B - 3CT.
3 State a32, b13, c22. 2C + 5BT
13 Calculate .
3
4 Calculate 5A.
14 If D is an n * m matrix, state the size of
5 Calculate -2C. (a) DT, (b) (DT)T.
1 15 If
6 Calculate C.
2
3 1 4
7 State A . T
T = £ -1 2 6≥
7 3 0
8 State CT.
state
9 Calculate A + 2C. (a) T - 2I
(b) T - lI where l is a constant.
10 Calculate 3C - 4A.
Solutions to exercises
1 3 * 2 20 5
4 £ 45 -5 ≥
2 2 * 3
10 0
3 0, 3, 4
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 533
1.5 Using software for matrix calculations 533 12
2 -6 6 9
5 £ 0 -8 ≥ 11 £ 13 9 ≥
-2 -12 8 -2
a b
4 2 0
- 12 3
2 12
± 0 2≤
-5 -7 -19
6
1
2 3 1 26
3
10
13 £3 11 ≥
a b
4 9 2 17 7
7 3 3
1 -1 0
14 (a) m * n (b) n * m
a b
-1 0 1
8
3 4 6 1 1 4
2 7 15 (a) £ -1 0 6 ≥
9 £9 7≥ 7 3 -2
4 12
3 - l 1 4
-19 5 (b) £ -1 2 - l 6 ≥
10 £ -36 16 ≥ 7 3 -l
-5 18
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 534
Multiplication of matrices
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
In Block 1 we saw how a matrix can be multiplied by a number. In this section we
look at how one matrix can be multiplied by another matrix. We also specify the
conditions under which such a multiplication can take place.
2.2 Conditions needed for two matrices to be multiplied together
Let A and B be two matrices. Then under certain conditions the product AB can be
found. The way in which such a product is calculated is explained in the next
section; for this section we focus on the conditions needed for the product to exist.
To decide whether the product AB exists we look at the size of each matrix.
Suppose A is an n * m matrix and B is a p * q matrix. For the product AB to exist
it must be that m = p: that is, the number of columns in A must be the same as the
number of rows in B.
Key point For the product AB to exist, the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows
of B.
When m = p the product AB can be calculated. The result is another matrix whose
size is n * q.
Key point A B = C
()* ()* ()*
n * m p * q n * q
()*
m = p
If the number of columns in A differs from the number of rows in B then the product
AB cannot be found. We say AB does not exist.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 535
2.2 Conditions needed for two matrices to be multiplied together 535 12
The product AB is distinct from the product BA. For example, if A is a 3 * 2
matrix and B is a 2 * 4 matrix then the number of columns in A equals the number
of rows in B, that is 2, and so AB can be found. It is a 3 * 4 matrix:
A B = C
()* ()* ()*
3 * 2 2 * 4 3 * 4
However, let us now consider BA. The number of columns in B is four; the number
of rows of A is three and so the product BA cannot be found. Hence the order of the
product is crucial, and we say that matrix multiplication is, in general, not commu-
tative. In the product AB we say A premultiplies B. Alternatively we can say that B
postmultiplies A.
Products involving three or more matrices are possible. If P, Q and R are three
matrices then to calculate PQR we first calculate PQ, and then postmultiply the
result by R, that is PQR is treated as (PQ)R. Alternatively we can calculate QR and
premultiply the result by P, that is we may treat PQR as P(QR). The final result in
both cases is the same. This means that matrix multiplication is associative.
Finally we note that the product AA is written as A2, AAA is written as A3, and
so on.
Exercises
Questions 1–3 refer to matrices P, Q and R where
2 State the size of each of the following:
P is a 3 * 2 matrix, Q is a 3 * 3 matrix and R is (a) PT (b) QT (c) RT (d) RT PT (e) PT QT
a 2 * 3 matrix.
3 State the size of the following products. If a
1 State the size of the following products if they product cannot be found then state this.
can be found. If they cannot be found then (a) PQR (b) PRQ (c) QPR (d) RQP
state this.
(a) PQ (b) PR (c) QR (d) RQ (e) P2 4 If A is a matrix, state conditions on A for A2
(f) Q2 (g) RP to exist.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) cannot be found (b) 3 * 3 (c) cannot be 3 (a) cannot be found (b) 3 * 3 (c) 3 * 3
found (d) 2 * 3 (e) cannot be found (d) 2 * 2
(f) 3 * 3 (g) 2 * 2
4 A must be a square matrix for A2 to exist
2 (a) 2 * 3 (b) 3 * 3 (c) 3 * 2 (d) 3 * 3
(e) 2 * 3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 536
12 536 Block 2 Multiplication of matrices
2.3 How to multiply two matrices
Section 2.2 stated the conditions needed for a product of matrices to exist. In this
section we look at how the product is actually calculated. The method is illustrated in
Example 2.1.
Example 2.1
Given
1 -1
A = a b and B = £ 2
3 1 4
0≥
5 2 -2
-6 4
calculate the product AB.
Solution
We note that A is a 2 * 3 matrix, B is a 3 * 2 matrix and so the product AB exists.
The result is a 2 * 2 matrix, say C.
AB = C = a b
c11 c12
c21 c22
To find c11, that is the element in row 1, column 1, we use row 1 from A and column
1 from B. The elements in this row and column are multiplied and added thus:
c11 = 3(1) + 1(2) + 4(-6)
= 3 + 2 - 24
= -19
The element c12 is in row 1, column 2 of C. It is calculated from row 1 of A and
column 2 of B.
c12 = 3(-1) + 1(0) + 4(4)
= 13
The element c21 is in row 2, column 1 of C. It is calculated from row 2 of A and
column 1 of B.
c21 = 5(1) + 2(2) - 2(-6)
= 21
The element c22 is in row 2, column 2 of C. It is calculated from row 2 of A and
column 2 of B.
c22 = 5(-1) + 2(0) - 2(4)
= -13
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 537
2.3 How to multiply two matrices 537 12
Hence
1 -1
AB = a b £ 2
3 1 4
0≥
5 2 -2
-6 4
= a b
-19 13
21 -13
Example 2.1 illustrates the following important point regarding matrix multiplication.
Key point If AB = C then the element cij is found from row i of A and column j of B.
Check the working to the following example.
Example 2.2
Given
A = a b and B = a b
9 -1 4 3 2
2 3 1 2 -1
calculate AB.
Solution
Note that A has two columns, B has two rows and so the product AB can be found.
The result is a 2 * 3 matrix, C.
AB = a b a b
9 -1 4 3 2
2 3 1 2 -1
= C = a b
c11 c12 c13
c21 c22 c23
Now
c11 = 9(4) - 1(1)
= 35
c12 = 9(3) - 1(2) = 25
c13 = 9(2) - 1(-1)
= 19
c21 = 2(4) + 3(1) = 11
c22 = 2(3) + 3(2)
= 12
c23 = 2(2) + 3(-1) = 1
Hence
a b a b = a b
9 -1 4 3 2 35 25 19
2 3 1 2 -1 11 12 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 538
12 538 Block 2 Multiplication of matrices
Recall the identity matrix, I, given by
1 0 0
I2 = a b,
P0 Q
1 0
I3 = 1 0
0 1
0 0 1
and so on. If no subscript is given then the size of the identity matrix is taken as that
for which any stated product exists.
Example 2.3
Given
A = a b
3 -2
10 7
calculate
(a) AI (b) IA
Solution
Since A has two columns the required identity matrix is I2:
(a) AI = a b a b
3 -2 1 0
10 7 0 1
a b
3 -2
=
10 7
(b) IA = a ba b
1 0 3 -2
0 1 10 7
a b
3 -2
=
10 7
Example 2.3 illustrates a general point. For any square matrix A:
Key point When a square matrix is post- or premultiplied by an identity matrix of the appropriate
size the matrix is unchanged.
AI = IA = A
Example 2.4
Given
a b a b = a b
4 -1 x -13
6 5 y 13
find x and y.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:10 AM Page 539
2.3 How to multiply two matrices 539 12
Solution
Multiplying out the matrices on the left-hand side of the equation yields
a b a b = a b
4 -1 x 4x - y
6 5 y 6x + 5y
Hence
4x - y = -13
6x + 5y = 13
Solving these equations simultaneously for x and y yields x = -2, y = 5.
Example 2.5
Given
1 2
P Q
A = -1 3
2 1
find
(a) AT
(b) AAT
(c) ATA
Solution
(a) Recall that AT denotes the transpose of A.
a b
1 -1 2
AT =
2 3 1
1 2
P Q 2
3 a b
T 1 -1 2
(b) AA = -1
3 1
2 1
5 5 4
P Q
= 5 10 1
4 1 5
1 2
1 P Q
(c) A A = a b -1
T 1 -1 2
3
2 3
2 1
a b
6 1
=
1 14
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 540
12 540 Block 2 Multiplication of matrices
The computing packages Maple and Matlab have built-in commands for matrix mul-
tiplication. For full details you should refer to the on-line help.
Example 2.6
Using software, repeat the calculations in Example 2.2.
Solution
Maple
The matrices A and B are loaded as follows:
> A:=Matrix ([[9,-1], [2,3]]);
> B:=Matrix ([[4,3,2], [1,2,-1]]);
In Maple, the command for the ‘usual’ matrix multiplication is a dot .. Thus
> A.B;
yields
c d
35 25 19
11 12 1
Note, however, that other types of multiplication are possible. ‘Element-by-element’
multiplication is performed on matrices of the same size using the command * ~ as in
> E:=Matrix([[2, 4], [-1, 9]]);
c d
2 4
-1 9
> F:=Matrix([[4,3], [2, -1]]);
c d
4 3
2 -1
> E*~F;
yielding
c d
8 12
-2 -9
Matlab
This example further highlights the differences between packages and the care that must
be taken regarding correct syntax. In Matlab the command for matrix multiplication is *.
>> A=[9 -1; 2 3]
A =
9 -1
2 3
>> B = [4 3 2; 1 2 -1]
B =
4 3 2
1 2 -1
>> A*B
ans =
35 25 19
11 12 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 541
2.3 How to multiply two matrices 541 12
Exercises
Questions 1–8 refer to matrices A, B and C where
-2 1
P Q
A = a b, B = a b,
3 1 1 4 0
C = 4 -1
-1 2 2 7 -1
0 3
Calculate the following products.
1 AB 5 AAT
2 A2 6 BCA
3 BC 7 ABC
4 CA 8 BT ACT
Solutions to exercises
a b a b
5 19 -1 10 -1
1 5
3 10 -2 -1 5
a b a b
8 5 45 8
2 6
-5 3 80 8
a b a b
14 -3 66 -17
3 7
24 -8 34 -13
-7 0 3 -1 15
P Q P Q
4 13 2 8 8 2 54
-3 6 -4 6 -6
End of block exercises
Questions 1–6 refer to matrices A, B, C and D where
P Q
C = a b, D = a b
3 6 1 2 3
A = (2 -1 7), B = 2 ,
-3 1 4 5 6
0
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 542
12 542 Block 2 Multiplication of matrices
1 State the size of each of the following products. 4 Calculate all the products in question 1 that
If a product does not exist then state this. exist.
(a) AB (b) BA (c) CD (d) DC (e) DB
(f) BD (g) A2 (h) C2 5 Calculate all the products in question 2 that
exist.
2 State the size of each of the following products.
If a product does not exist then state this. 6 Calculate all the products in question 3 that
(a) AAT (b) DT B (c) DT C (d) ADT exist.
(e) (ADT)T
3 State the size of each of the following products.
If a product does not exist then state this.
(a) CDB (b) C2 D (c) DBA (d) DT CD
(e) ADT C
Questions 7–9 refer to matrices A, B, C, D and E. These are given by
4 -1
P Q
D = a b, E = a b
5 -2 3
A = 1 0 , B = (2 1), C = (3 1 -1),
1 0 -1
-2 2
7 State the size of each of the following products 13 Given
if they exist. If a product does not exist then
state this.
A = a b, B = a b
4 -2 1 3 4
(a) DE (b) CA (c) DB (d) CA (e) AE
1 3 -1 2 0
8 State the size of each of the following products
if they exist. If a product does not exist then calculate (a) AB (b) (AB)T (c) BTAT. What do
state this. you observe from (b) and (c)?
(a) AT A (b) AAT (c) CAD (d) BDE (e) CAB
14 This question asks you to show that
9 Calculate (AB)T = BTAT. A is an n * m matrix and B is
(a) AD (b) ET D (c) CAE an m * p matrix given by
10 If a11 a12 Á a1m
A = ± ≤
a21 a22 Á a2m
a b a b = a b
3 1 x 9
4 2 y 14 o o ∞ o
an1 an2 Á anm
calculate x and y.
11 Given b11 b12 Á b1p
B = ± ≤
b21 b22 Á b2p
a b a b = a b
5 2 x 19
o o ∞ o
-3 4 y -27 bm1 bm2 Á bmp
find x and y.
(a) State an expression for the (i, j)th element
12 P is an n * m matrix. Show that the products of AB, that is the element in the ith row
PPT and PTP can always be found. State the and jth column.
size of each product.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 543
2.3 How to multiply two matrices 543 12
(b) State an expression for the (i, j)th element (e) State an expression for the (i, j)th element
of (AB)T. of BTAT.
(c) State the ith row of BT. (f) Hence show that (AB)T = BTAT.
(d) State the jth column of AT.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 1 * 1 (b) 3 * 3 (c) 2 * 3 (d) does not 7 (a) 2 * 1 (b) 1 * 2 (c) does not exist
exist (e) 2 * 1 (f) does not exist (g) does not (d) 1 * 2 (e) 3 * 1
exist (h) 2 * 2
8 (a) 2 * 2 (b) 3 * 3 (c) 1 * 2 (d) 1 * 1
2 (a) 1 * 1 (b) does not exist (c) 3 * 2 (e) does not exist
(d) 1 * 2 (e) 2 * 1
19 -8
P Q
3 (a) 2 * 1 (b) 2 * 3 (c) 2 * 3 (d) 3 * 3 9 (a) 5 -2 (b) (14 - 6) (c) (50)
(e) 1 * 2 -8 4
18 -9 63 10 x = 2, y = 3
P Q
4 (a) (16) (b) 4 -2 14
0 0 0 11 x = 5, y = -3
12 PPT is an n * n matrix; PTP is an m * m
(c) a b (e) a b
27 36 45 13
1 -1 -3 46 matrix.
6 -2
P Q
(a) a b (b) 8
6 8 16
(h) a b
-9 24 13 9
-12 -17 -2 9 4
16 4
6 -2
P Q
-9 10
P Q
5 (a) (54) (c) -9 17 (d) (21 45) (c) 8 9
-9 24 16 4
Conclude that (AB)T = BTAT.
(e) a b
21 m m
45 14 (a) a aikbkj (b) a ajkbki
k=1 k=1
(a) a b (b) a b
315 87 102 117 (c) (b1i b2i Á bmi) (d) (aj1 aj2 Á ajm)
6
7 -80 -109 -138 m
(e) a ajkbki
(c) a b
26 -13 91
k=1
92 -46 322
(f) From (b) and (e), the (i, j)th elements of
31 32 33 (AB)T and BTAT are identical. Since this is
P Q
(d) 59 67 75 (e) (-72 171) true for all values of i and j then the two
87 102 117 matrices are equal.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 544
Determinants
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
We have seen how to add and subtract matrices in Block 1. Block 2 dealt with the
multiplication of one matrix by another. Division of one matrix by another is not
defined. However, for some matrices it is possible to calculate an inverse matrix. In
some ways, use of the inverse matrix takes the place of division. To calculate an
inverse matrix requires knowledge of determinants, and it is this topic that is
addressed first. All square matrices possess a determinant. We begin with the sim-
plest square matrices: 2 * 2 matrices.
3.2 Determinant of a 2 ⫻ 2 matrix
Consider the 2 * 2 matrix A where
A = a b
a b
c d
Then the determinant of A is ad - bc. The determinant of A is denoted by
` `
a b
det(A), ƒAƒ or
c d
When you have evaluated the determinant of a matrix you will see that the result is
no longer a matrix, but a single number or expression.
Key point If
A = a b
a b
c d
then det (A) = ad - bc. Det(A) may also be written as
` `
a b
ƒ A ƒ or
c d
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 545
3.2 Determinant of a 2 ⫻ 2 matrix 545 12
Example 3.1
Given
A = a b
3 6
-1 1
calculate the determinant of (a) A, (b) AT.
Solution
(a) ƒ A ƒ = 3(1) - 6(-1)
= 9
Note that the value of the determinant is the single number, 9.
AT = a b
3 -1
(b)
6 1
Hence
ƒ AT ƒ = 3(1) - (-1) 6 = 9
Example 3.2
If A is a 2 * 2 matrix show that det(A) = det(AT).
Solution
Let
A = a b
a b
c d
Then ƒ A ƒ = ad - bc.
Now
a b
a c
AT =
b d
and so
ƒ AT ƒ = ad - bc
Hence ƒ A ƒ = ƒ AT ƒ : that is, the determinant of a matrix and the determinant of its
transpose are the same.
Example 3.3
Calculate the determinant of
a b
4 2
6 3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 546
12 546 Block 3 Determinants
Solution
` ` =
4 2
4(3) - 2(6) = 0
6 3
A matrix that has a zero determinant is called singular.
Example 3.4 Control Engineering – Stability of a system
Many engineering systems can be modelled by a set of simultaneous equations.
From these equations, a state matrix, A, can be formed which encapsulates crucial
information about the system.
The stability of a system is determined by the poles of the system. The system
poles, s, are determined from the equation
ƒ A - sI ƒ = 0
where I is the identity matrix.
Given the state matrix is
A = a b
3 -2
-1 5
determine the system poles.
Solution
The system poles are found from
ƒ A - sI ƒ = 0
Given
A = a b I = a b
3 -2 1 0
and
-1 5 0 1
then we have
A - sI = a b - sa b = a b
3 -2 1 0 3 - s -2
-1 5 0 1 -1 5 - s
So
ƒ A - sI ƒ = ` `
3 - s -2
-1 5 - s
= (3 - s)(5 - s) - 2
= s2 - 8s + 13
The system poles are solutions of s2 - 8s + 13 = 0. Using the quadratic formula,
values of s are obtained:
s = 2.268, 5.732
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 547
3.2 Determinant of a 2 ⫻ 2 matrix 547 12
A system where s 6 0, or the Re (s) 6 0 in the case of complex poles, is said to be
stable. If s 7 0, or Re (s) 7 0, then the system is unstable. Hence the system in
Example 3.4 is unstable.
Exercises
1 Calculate the determinant of each of the 4 Under what conditions is the matrix
following matrices.
F = a b
x 3
(a) a b (b) a b
8 3 6 10 2x y
-3 5 -3 -5
singular?
(c) a b (d) a b
x 3 3 - l 2
y 4 8 1 - l 5 Find values of l for
(e) a b a b
-l 2 7 - l 2
1 1 - l 12 5 - l
2 Calculate the determinant of each of the to be singular.
following matrices.
6 Find
(a) a b (b) a b
3 6 -2 1
` `
2 9 1 4 cos u sin u
-sin u cos u
(c) a b (d) a b
-1 -1 12 20
4 -3 6 10 7 Find ƒ I ƒ where I is a 2 * 2 identity matrix.
(e) a b (f) a b
1 0 3 - l 4 8 Control Engineering. Determine the system
3 l 6 2 - l poles of the following state matrices. In each
case state whether the system is stable or
3 Find conditions on a, b and c for unstable.
a b
a b
(a) a b (b) a b
-4 5 -1 -2
0 c -5 3 5 4
to be singular.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 49 (b) 0 (c) 4x - 3y (d) l2 - 4l - 13 5 1, 11
(e) l2 - l - 2
6 cos2 u + sin2 u = 1, using a trigonometrical
identity to simplify.
2 (a) 15 (b) -9 (c) 7 (d) 0 (e) l
(f) l2 - 5l - 18 7 1
-1; 2 -51
3 Either a or c is 0. 8 (a) s = . System is stable.
2
4 F is singular if x = 0 or y = 6. 3; 2-15
(b) s = . System is unstable.
2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 548
12 548 Block 3 Determinants
3.3 Minors and cofactors of a 3 ⫻ 3 matrix
Before we can calculate the determinant of a 3 * 3 matrix it is necessary to intro-
duce the minor of an element and the cofactor of an element. Consider a 3 * 3
matrix A where
a11 a12 a13
A = £ a21 a22 a23 ≥
a31 a32 a33
If we choose an element of A, say aij, and cross out its row and column, that is the
ith row and the jth column, we are left with a 2 * 2 matrix. The determinant of this
2 * 2 matrix is called the minor of aij.
Example 3.5
Given
3 -1 6
A = £9 -5 2≥
0 4 7
calculate the minor of (a) 3, (b) 9, (c) 2.
Solution
(a) The element 3 occurs in row 1, column 1, that is a11 = 3. Deleting row 1 and
column 1 leaves
a b
-5 2
4 7
The determinant of this 2 * 2 matrix is (-5)7 - 2(4) = -43. The minor of
3 is -43.
(b) The element 9 occurs in row 2, column 1. Deleting these leaves
a b
-1 6
4 7
The determinant of this 2 * 2 matrix is
(-1)7 - 6(4) = -31
The minor of 9 is -31.
(c) The element 2 occurs in row 2, column 3. Deleting these leaves
a b
3 -1
0 4
whose determinant is 12. The minor of 2 is 12.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 549
3.3 Minors and cofactors of a 3 ⫻ 3 matrix 549 12
Closely related to the minor of an element is the cofactor of an element. The cofac-
tor of aij is given as
cofactor of aij = (-1)i + j * minor of aij
The term (-1)i + j is either 1 or -1 depending upon the position of the element. The
following grid of + and - is an easy way to visualise this. The + and - signs
are known as the place signs of the elements. If the place sign is + then the cofactor
and minor are identical; if the place sign is - then the cofactor is - (minor).
+ - +
£ - + - ≥
+ - +
Example 3.6
The matrix A is given as
3 -1 6
P Q
A = 9 -5 2
0 4 7
Calculate the cofactor of (a) 3, (b) 9, (c) 2.
Solution
(a) The minor of 3 is -43. Since the place sign is + then the cofactor of 3 is also
-43.
(b) The minor of 9 is -31. The place sign is - and so the cofactor is 31.
(c) The minor of 2 is 12. The place sign is - and so the cofactor is -12.
Exercises
1 The matrix D is given by 2 The matrix G is defined by
7 -8 3 2 - l 3 6
D = £9 2 -2 ≥ G = £ 9 -l 4 ≥
1 -3 0 -1 0 1 - l
(a) Calculate the minor of (i) 7, (ii) -8, (iii) 3, (a) Calculate the minor of (i) 2 - l, (ii) 3,
(iv) 9. (iii) 6.
(b) Calculate the cofactor of (i) 2, (ii) -2, (b) Calculate the cofactor of (i) 9, (ii) -l
(iii) 1, (iv) -3, (v) 0. (iii) 4.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) (i) -6 (ii) 2 (iii) -29 (iv) 9 2 (a) (i) l2 - l (ii) 13 - 9l (iii) -l
(b) (i) -3 (ii) 13 (iii) 10 (iv) 41 (v) 86 (b) (i) 3l - 3 (ii) l2 - 3l + 8 (iii) -3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 550
12 550 Block 3 Determinants
3.4 Determinant of a 3 ⫻ 3 matrix
Consider a general 3 * 3 matrix, A.
a11 a12 a13
A = £ a21 a22 a23 ≥
a31 a32 a33
The determinant of A is found using
ƒ A ƒ = a11 * (its cofactor) + a12 * (its cofactor) + a13 * (its cofactor)
Calculation of the determinant using this expression is known as expanding along
the first row.
Key point ƒ A ƒ = a11 * (its cofactor) + a12 * (its cofactor) + a13 * (its cofactor)
Example 3.7
Calculate ƒ A ƒ where
3 -1 6
A = £9 -5 2≥
0 4 7
Solution
We have a11 = 3, a12 = -1 and a13 = 6. The cofactors of these elements are
required. The cofactor of 3 is -43 as found in Example 3.6.
` ` = 63
9 2
The minor of -1 is
0 7
The place sign of -1 is -
and so the cofactor is -63
The minor of 6 is
` ` = 36
9 -5
0 4
The place sign is + and so the cofactor is 36. Hence
ƒ A ƒ = 3(-43) + (-1)(-63) + 6(36)
= 150
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 551
3.4 Determinant of a 3 ⫻ 3 matrix 551 12
The determinant of a matrix can also be found by expanding along any row or col-
umn. For example, we could calculate ƒ A ƒ by expanding along the second row thus:
ƒ A ƒ = a21 * (its cofactor) + a22 * (its cofactor) + a23 * (its cofactor)
or expanding along the third column thus:
ƒ A ƒ = a13 * (its cofactor) + a23 * (its cofactor) + a33 * (its cofactor)
Example 3.8
The matrix A is defined in Example 3.5 as
3 -1 6
A = £9 -5 2≥
0 4 7
Evaluate det (A) by
(a) expanding along the third row
(b) expanding along the second column.
Solution
(a) By expanding along the third row we have
ƒ A ƒ = a31 * (its cofactor) + a32 * (its cofactor) + a33 * (its cofactor)
Now a31 = 0, a32 = 4, a33 = 7.
The minor of a31 is
` ` = 28
-1 6
-5 2
The cofactor is also 28.
` ` = -48
3 6
The minor of a32 is
9 2
The cofactor is 48
The minor of a33 is
` ` = -6
3 -1
9 -5
The cofactor is -6. Hence
ƒ A ƒ = 0(28) + 4(48) + 7(-6)
= 150
(b) We now expand along the second column.
The elements are
a12 = -1, a22 = -5, a32 = 4
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 552
12 552 Block 3 Determinants
` ` = 63
9 2
The minor of a12 is
0 7
The cofactor is -63.
The minor of a22 is
` ` = 21
3 6
0 7
The cofactor is 21.
` ` = -48
3 6
The minor of a32 is
9 2
The cofactor is 48
Hence
ƒ A ƒ = (-1)(-63) + (-5)(21) + 4(48)
= 150
Exercises
1 The matrix H is defined by 5 3 6
6 -2 4 (b) £ 10 11 1 ≥
H = £3 -1 7 ≥ -6 8 -7
9 8 -3
6 6 3
Evaluate ƒ H ƒ by expanding (c) £ -1 9 7≥
(a) along the first row 11 21 13
(b) along the third row
(c) along the second column.
3 -6 9
2 The matrix K is defined by (d) £ 4 6 -6 ≥
5 18 -21
17 9 -4
K = £0 11 3 ≥ 1 3 6
0 0 -6 (e) £ 6 3 1≥
3 1 6
Calculate ƒ K ƒ .
3 Calculate the determinant of each of the 4 Find det(B) by expanding along the second
following matrices: column, where
-1 6 1 1 0 3
(a) £ -3 9 2≥ B = £ 22 -1 17 ≥
6 3 0 -3 0 19
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 553
3.5 Determinant of a 4 ⫻ 4 matrix 553 12
Solutions to exercises
1 -330 in each case 3 (a) 15 (b) 643 (c) 0 (d) 0 (e) -100
2 -1122 4 -28
3.5 Determinant of a 4 ⫻ 4 matrix
The determinant of a 4 * 4 matrix is found in a similar way to that for a 3 * 3
matrix. We can expand along any row or column. The minor of an element is the
determinant of the 3 * 3 matrix left after deleting the row and column containing
the element. The cofactor is then found by multiplying by either 1 or -1 depending
upon the place sign.
The place signs for a 4 * 4 matrix are as follows:
+ - + -
± ≤
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
Expanding along the first row of a 4 * 4 matrix, A, for example, would give
ƒ A ƒ = a11 * (its cofactor) + a12 * (its cofactor)
+ a13 * (its cofactor) + a14 * (its cofactor)
Example 3.9
Find ƒ A ƒ by expanding along the first row where
3 -2 4 1
A = ± ≤
6 2 0 3
9 1 1 -1
4 2 -2 5
Solution
We have a11 = 3, a12 = -2, a13 = 4, a14 = 1. The cofactors of these elements are
found by deleting the appropriate rows and columns.
The minor of a11 is
2 0 3
†1 1 -1 † = -6
2 -2 5
The cofactor is -6.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 554
12 554 Block 3 Determinants
The minor of a12 is
6 0 3
†9 1 -1 † = -48
4 -2 5
The cofactor is 48.
The minor of a13 is
6 2 3
†9 1 -1 † = -14
4 2 5
The cofactor is -14.
The minor of a14 is
6 2 0
†9 1 1 † = 20
4 2 -2
The cofactor is -20.
Hence
ƒ A ƒ = 3(-6) + (-2)48 + 4(-14) + 1(-20)
= -190
The sensible choice of row or column can save work.
Example 3.10
Calculate ƒ T ƒ where
13 2 1 -9
T = ± ≤
4 7 0 6
-1 11 -2 3
4 -2 0 6
Solution
Expansion along the third column is efficient as it contains two zeros. The cofactors
of these zero elements need not be calculated. We have t13 = 1 and t33 = -2.
T = t13 * (its cofactor) + t33 * (its cofactor)
4 7 6 13 2 -9
= † -1 11 3 † + (-2) † 4 7 6 †
4 -2 6 4 -2 6
= 162 - 2 (1026) = -1890
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 555
3.6 Properties of determinants 555 12
Exercises
1 Calculate the determinant of each of the 9 3 5 -2
following matrices by expanding along an
(d) ± ≤
0 -1 6 7
appropriate row or column.
0 4 9 11
6 3 -2 1 -2 -6 3 5
(a) ± ≤
4 0 -2 0
1 1 7 4 2 Calculate ƒ A ƒ where
6 3 0 2
a 17 6 3
A = ± ≤
0 b 14 7
3 17 7 2
0 0 g 13
(b) ± ≤
-1 6 0 -3
0 0 0 d
9 6 0 5
5 -3 0 4
2 -1 0 6
(c) ± ≤
6 -5 2 1
0 3 2 0
1 2 4 5
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2 (b) 462 (c) -278 (d) -54 2 abgd
3.6 Properties of determinants
There are a number of properties of determinants that can be used to simplify their
evaluation. Some of these properties are given now.
Property 1
Key point Suppose A is an n * n matrix and k a scalar. Suppose the matrix B is obtained by
multiplying a single row or column of A by k. Then
det(B) = k det(A)
If the matrix A is multiplied by k, that is every element in the matrix is multiplied by k,
then we obtain
det(kA) = kn det(A)
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 556
12 556 Block 3 Determinants
Example 3.11
Suppose
A = a b
5 7
-2 3
Obtain B from A by multiplying the second column of A by 4.
(a) Write down B.
(b) Find det(B).
(c) Find det(A).
(d) Verify that det(B) = 4 det(A) as in Property 1.
Solution
a b
5 28
(a) B =
-2 12
(b) ƒ B ƒ = 116
(c) ƒ A ƒ = 29
(d) It follows that det(B) = 4 det(A).
Example 3.12
Suppose
A = a b
1 3
2 -7
(a) Write down 5A.
(b) Find det(A).
(c) Find det(5A).
(d) Verify Property 1, that is det(5A) = 52 det(A).
Solution
a b
5 15
(a) 5A =
10 -35
(b) det(A) = -13
(c) det(5A) = (5)(-35) - (15)(10) = -325
(d) Then, since -325 = 25 * -13, it follows that det(5A) = 52 * det(A).
Example 3.13
Find det(B) given
6 -2 12
B = £ 27 -15 6≥
0 4 7
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 557
3.6 Properties of determinants 557 12
and given that the determinant of
3 -1 6
A = £9 -5 2≥
0 4 7
is 150.
Solution
By careful inspection of B note that it is obtained from A by multiplying the first row
by 2 and the second row by 3. Hence
det(B) = 2 * 3 * det(A) = 6 * 150 = 900
Property 2
Key point If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows or two columns then
det(B) = -det(A)
In other words, interchanging two rows or two columns changes the sign of the
determinant. Carrying out two interchanges introduces two sign changes and hence
leaves the determinant unchanged.
Example 3.14
Given
3 -1 6
A = £9 -5 2≥
0 4 7
and ƒ A ƒ = 150, find the determinant of each of the following matrices.
0 4 7 9 -5 2 -5 9 2
(a) £ 9 -5 2≥ (b) £ 0 4 7≥ (c) £ -1 3 6≥
3 -1 6 3 -1 6 4 0 7
Solution
(a) By interchanging the first row and second row of ƒ A ƒ we obtain
0 4 7
†9 -5 2 † = -150
3 -1 6
(b) Interchanging the first row and second row of the determinant in (a) we obtain
9 -5 2
†0 4 7 † = 150
3 -1 6
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 558
12 558 Block 3 Determinants
(c) We begin with ƒ A ƒ . Interchanging the first column and second column we obtain
-1 3 6
† -5 9 2 † = -150
4 0 7
We now interchange the first row and second row to produce
-5 9 2
† -1 3 6 † = 150
4 0 7
Property 3
Key point Adding or subtracting a multiple of one row (or column) to another row (or column)
leaves the determinant unchanged.
Example 3.15
Evaluate
3 -1 6
†9 -5 2†
0 4 7
Solution
We use Property 3 repeatedly to simplify the determinant.
3 -1 6 3 -1 6
†9 -5 2† = †0 -2 -16 † (subtracting 3 * first row from second row)
0 4 7 0 4 7
3 0 6
= †0 -16 † aadding of first column to second columnb
1
-2
3
0 4 7
3 0 0
= †0 -2 -16 † (subtracting 2 * first column from third column)
0 4 7
3 0 0
= †0 -2 -16 † (adding 2 * second row to third row)
0 0 -25
= 150 (by expanding along first row)
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 559
3.6 Properties of determinants 559 12
Property 4
Key point If A and B are two square matrices such that AB exists then
det(AB) = det(A) det(B)
Example 3.16
Given
A = a b, B = a b
3 2 -1 3
1 4 0 2
verify det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
Solution
ƒ A ƒ = 12 - 2 = 10, ƒ B ƒ = -2, ƒ A ƒ ƒ B ƒ = -20
Now
AB = a b,
-3 13
ƒ AB ƒ = -33 + 13 = -20
-1 11
Hence det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
Property 5
Key point If two rows or two columns of a matrix are equal, the determinant of the matrix is zero.
Example 3.17
Find the determinant of the matrix
4 -5 2
A = £4 -5 2≥
1 2 1
Solution
Note that the first two rows are the same. It is easy to check that ƒ A ƒ = 0.
Exercises
1 Use the properties of determinants to simplify 113 92 58
the following determinants and then evaluate (c) † 175 144 90 †
them.
64 53 33
5 20 9 28 12 35
(a) † 3 15 † (b) † 24 31 †
176 152 101
(d) † 229 133 †
31 10
195
1 24 12 15 6 20
109 95 62
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 560
12 560 Block 3 Determinants
-19 -15 -12 19 25 16 -30
(e) † -21 -14 †
(b) ∞ ∞
-17 7 9 6 -8
-23 -19 -15 -11 -15 -10 22
21 25 12 -15
2 Determine the value of:
3 Verify det(GH) = det(G) det(H) where
29 39 -3 11
(a) ∞ ∞
5 3 3 4
G = a b and H = a b
-3 1 2 4
24 36 -6 7 2 5 -1 3
30 59 -2 1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 9 (b) 2 (c) 8 (d) 28 (e) 8 2 (a) 0 (b) 4
Computer and calculator exercises
Many computer algebra packages will calculate the determinant of a matrix. For example, in Maple, with the
LinearAlgebra package loaded, with(LinearAlgebra), the command Determinant(A)
will find |A|. The Matlab function det() does likewise. Use the software to which you have access to do the
following exercises.
1 Calculate the determinant of 1 2 5 8 3
3 8 1 -2 6
7 4 11 6
(b) • 4 7 5 -1 0μ
3 1 7 -2
(a) § ¥ -11 11 3 6 7
4 4 5 9
-1 6 9 4 3
3 2 1 8
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0 (b) 28118
End of block exercises
(c) a b (d) a b
1 Find the determinant of each of the following -1 0 3 4
matrices: 2 3 -1 -2
(a) a b (b) a b
6 11 -1 6
(e) a b
-7 -1
2 4 3 9
-2 -3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 561
3.6 Properties of determinants 561 12
2 Find the determinant of each of the following 6 7 10 1
matrices: 11 5 14 2
(b) § ¥
(a) a b (b) a b
3 - l 4 -l 3 12 9 21 3
2 1 - l 1 2 - l 7 2 11 2
(c) a b
7 - l 2
7 If
3 2 - l
A = a b and B = 3A
3 8
(d) a b
-1 - l 1 2 6
6 4 - l
(a) find ƒ A ƒ , (b) find ƒ B ƒ ,
(e) a b
4 - l 2
-1 7 - l (c) verify det(B) = 32 det(A).
3 Calculate the values of l for which each 8 Given
matrix in question 2 is singular.
A = a b, B = a b
-4 2 6 -1
1 3 5 3
4 Given
9 6 -1 verify (a) det(A2) = [det(A)]2,
(b) det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
A = £ 3 5 7 ≥
-3 2 -5 9 Calculate the determinant of each of the
following matrices:
calculate (a) the minor of 9, (b) the cofactor of 6,
(a) a b (b) a b
(c) the minor of 3, (d) the cofactor of -5, 11 6 300 170
(e) det(A). -3 -1 150 85
(c) a b
2x 2y
5 Calculate the determinant of each of the
-x y
following matrices:
10 Calculate the following determinants:
3 1 -6 9 1 1
1 2 3 17 1 -23
(a) £ 4 2 0 ≥ (b) £ 4 2 3≥
5 6 -1 1 6 9
(a) † 1 3 2 † (b) † l 0 6 †
-2 3 1 0 0 l - 1
5 1 6 1 1 1
11 Given
(c) £ 9 3 2≥ (d) £ 2 2 3≥
1 -1 10 5 6 8 3 -2 1
H = £ 6 -1 5≥
17 -19 31 -3 0 9
(e) £ 18 21 30 ≥
14 20 32 calculate (a) the minor of -2,
(b) the cofactor of 0.
6 Calculate the determinant of
12 Calculate the values of l for which the matrix
5 2 6 3 A is singular given
3 9 12 1
(a) § ¥
A = a b
5 - l -1
-3 1 4 1
6 -2 - l
4 1 5 3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 562
12 562 Block 3 Determinants
13 Calculate ƒ A ƒ where 15 Control Engineering. A system has a state
matrix, A, given by
6 19 -36 0
A = a b
-5 2
0 4 1 0
A = § ¥ -11 -2
0 2 1 0
Find the system poles and hence determine
17 -21 32 2
whether the system is stable or unstable.
14 Without explicitly evaluating the determinant
find ƒ A ƒ if
-1 3 -1
A = £ 7 8 7 ≥
-15 1 -15
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2 (b) -27 (c) -3 (d) -2 (e) 19 7 (a) 2 (b) 18
2 (a) l2 - 4l - 5 (b) l2 - 2l - 3 9 (a) 7 (b) 0 (c) 2xy + 2xy = 4xy
(c) l2 - 9l + 8 (d) l2 - 3l - 10
(e) l2 - 11l + 30 10 (a) 14 (b) l(1 - l)
3 (a) -1, 5 (b) -1, 3 (c) 1, 8 (d) -2, 5 11 (a) 69 (b) -9
(e) 5, 6
12 -1, 4
4 (a) -39 (b) -6 (c) -28 (d) 27 (e) -408
13 24
5 (a) -86 (b) -11 (c) 0 (d) -1 (e) 6234
14 0 since two columns are identical.
6 (a) 10 (b) -9 -7 ; 2 -79
15 Poles are s = . System is
2
stable.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 563
The inverse of a matrix
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
This block examines the idea of an inverse matrix. Division of one matrix by another
is not defined: use of an inverse matrix is the nearest equivalent of ‘matrix division’.
4.2 Definition
Let A be an n * n matrix. Recall that In is the n * n identity matrix. Suppose that B
is an n * n matrix such that
AB = BA = In
We say that B is the inverse of A. We often write A - 1 to denote the inverse of A. It is
1
important to realise that in this context A - 1 does not mean . Division by a matrix is
A
not defined. In what follows we shall write the identity matrix as I, rather than In. Its
size should be obvious from the context.
Key point Multiplying a square matrix A by its inverse A - 1, if this exists, yields the identity
matrix I.
A A-1 = A-1 A = I
Example 4.1
Given A = a b
3 4
2 3
show that
B = a b
3 -4
-2 3
is the inverse of A.
Solution
We calculate AB and BA.
AB = a ba b
3 4 3 -4
2 3 -2 3
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 564
12 564 Block 4 The inverse of a matrix
= a b
1 0
0 1
= I
BA = a ba b
3 -4 3 4
-2 3 2 3
= a b
1 0
0 1
= I
Hence AB = BA = I and so B is the inverse of A. Note also that A is the inverse of B.
The term ‘inverse’ can only be applied to square matrices. It is meaningless to talk
about the inverse of a 2 * 3 or 3 * 7 matrix, for example. However, even though a
matrix is square this is no guarantee that its inverse matrix exists. If the determinant
of A is 0, that is A is singular, then A does not have an inverse. If the determinant is
non-zero, then the inverse can be found.
Key point If ƒ A ƒ = 0, A does not have an inverse.
If ƒ A ƒ Z 0, A does have an inverse.
4.3 Finding the inverse of a 2 ⫻ 2 matrix
Suppose A is a 2 * 2 matrix and ƒ A ƒ Z 0. Then the inverse of A can be found. If
A = a b
a b
c d
then recall ƒ A ƒ = ad - bc. Now A-1 is given by
a b
1 d -b
A-1 =
ƒAƒ -c a
Key point If
A = a b
a b
c d
then
a b
1 d -b
A-1 =
ƒAƒ -c a
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 565
4.3 Finding the inverse of a 2 ⫻ 2 matrix 565 12
Example 4.2
Find A-1, if it exists, when A is given by
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b (d) a b
3 4 -1 4 1 0 3 -6
2 6 1 0 0 1 -6 12
Solution
(a) Here a = 3, b = 4, c = 2, d = 6 and ƒ A ƒ = 10. Then
a b
1 6 -4
A-1 =
10 -2 3
= a b
0.6 -0.4
-0.2 0.3
It is useful to check that AA-1 = A-1A = I.
(b) Here a = ,b = ,c = ,d = -1, 4, 1, 0
and
ƒAƒ = -4
Hence we have
a b
1 0 -4
A-1 =
-4 -1 -1
a b
0 1
=
0.25 0.25
(c) Here a = 1, b = 0, c = 0, d = 1 and ƒ A ƒ = 1. We have
A-1 = a b
1 0
0 1
Hence the identity matrix is its own inverse.
(d) Here ƒ A ƒ = 0. Hence the matrix is singular and does not have an inverse.
Example 4.3
Find the inverse of
B = a b
3 -2
4 -2
Solution
Here the values of a, b, c and d are given by 3, -2, 4, -2
The determinant of B is found.
ƒBƒ = 2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 566
12 566 Block 4 The inverse of a matrix
The inverse, B-1, may now be stated.
a b
-1 1
B-1 =
-2 1.5
Exercises
1 State the condition under which a square 2 Find the inverse of the following matrices. If
matrix does not have an inverse. an inverse does not exist, state this.
(a) a b (b) a b
6 1 -4 -1
4 3 3 5
(c) a b (d) a b
x -y 4 8
y x 5 10
Solutions to exercises
a b a b
1 If the determinant is zero, then the inverse 1 3 -1 1 -5 -1
does not exist.
2 (a) (b)
14 -4 6 17 3 4
a b
1 x y
(c) 2 2
(d) no inverse
x + y -y x
4.4 Finding the inverse of a matrix – the general case
We wish to find the inverse of A, an n * n matrix. We have already noted that, if
ƒ A ƒ = 0, then the inverse of A does not exist. Suppose ƒ A ƒ Z 0. To find A-1 we
proceed thus:
1 Find the transpose of A, by interchanging the rows and columns of A.
2 Replace each element of AT by its cofactor. The resulting matrix is known as the
adjoint of A, written adj(A).
3 The inverse of A is given by
Key point adj(A)
A-1 =
ƒAƒ
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 567
4.4 Finding the inverse of a matrix – the general case 567 12
Example 4.4
Find the inverse of
3 1 0
A = £5 2 -1 ≥
1 4 -2
Solution
We find the transpose, AT, by interchanging rows and columns.
3 5 1
AT
= £1 2 4 ≥
0 -1 -2
Each element of AT is replaced by its cofactor to yield the adjoint of A.
0 2 -1
adj(A) = £ 9 -6 3 ≥
18 -11 1
Calculating the determinant of A gives ƒ A ƒ = 9 and so
adj(A)
A-1 =
ƒAƒ
0 2 -1
1
= £9 -6 3 ≥
9
18 -11 1
Example 4.5
Find the inverse of
4 -2 1
H = £9 6 0≥
3 -4 5
Solution
The transpose, HT, is found.
4 9 3
H = T
£ -2 6 -4 ≥
1 0 5
The adjoint of H is obtained by replacing each element of HT by its cofactor.
30 6 -6
adj(H) = £ -45 17 9 ≥
-54 10 42
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 568
12 568 Block 4 The inverse of a matrix
The determinant of H is found.
ƒHƒ = 156
Finally
adj (H)
H-1 =
ƒHƒ
30 6 -6
1
= £ -45 17 9 ≥
156
-54 10 42
Exercises
1 Calculate, where possible, the inverse of
3 -1 7 1 2 -4 -2 0 3
(a) £ 2 0 1 ≥ (b) £ -1 3 6 ≥ (c) £ 4 4 -1 ≥
5 -2 6 1 12 0 3 1 6
Solutions to exercises
-2 8 1 -25 -3 12
1 1
1 (a) £ 7 17 -11 ≥ (b) no inverse (c) £ 27 21 -10 ≥
15 74
4 -1 -2 8 -2 8
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Many computer algebra packages will calculate the inverse of a square matrix. For example, in
Maple, with the LinearAlgebra package loaded, with(LinearAlgebra), the command
MatrixInverse(A) will find A-1 when this exists. If the matrix A is singular, so no inverse exists,
this will be indicated. The Matlab function inv(A) does likewise. Use a package to which you have
access to find the inverse of each of the following matrices.
4 3 -2 2 6 1 0 3 2
3 -1 0 4 1 4 -1 2 -3
(a) § ¥
6 5 -3 0 (d) • 0 1 -6 6 5 μ
1 1 2 1 0 3 2 1 -1
5 1 -5 3 4
-3 10 9 4
6 0 1 0
(b) § ¥ -6 2 0 3 9
3 2 -1 1
5 1 6 -1 4
5 2 3 1
(e) • 7 3 4 -2 3μ
1 2 4 6 6 5 5 5 1
-1 -1 5 0 3 -2 -1 3 4
(c) § ¥
9 7 2 3
14 8 6 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 569
4.4 Finding the inverse of a matrix – the general case 569 12
Solutions to exercises
-55 27 38 2
1 51 -30 -22 18
1 (a) § ¥
91 -25 4 9 34
54 -5 -34 3
0 8 2 -2
1 22 86 5 -93
(b) § ¥
44 0 -4 -12 12
-44 -200 16 204
101 -192 -262 180
1 -181 272 447 -255
(c) § ¥
455 -16 107 37 -15
130 -130 -130 65
188 69 -146 -141 105
-370 -90 -134 708 462
1
(d) • 226 -201 26 261 -231 μ
1722
456 204 342 -342 -588
-202 -468 -8 582 336
-640 -760 1348 68 1172
850 -2550 2460 810 -1410
1
(e) • -210 3310 -2468 462 -1102 μ
13400
-50 150 -1800 1450 950
890 10 952 -618 778
End of block exercises
1 Check that 2 Explain why the matrix
x2
a b a b
2 6 x
-1 4 xy y
is the inverse of has no inverse.
2 3 3 Calculate, if possible, the inverse of each of
- the following matrices:
7 7
§ ¥
1 1
(a) a b (b) a b
4 2 6 10
14 7
8 5 1 -2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 570
12 570 Block 4 The inverse of a matrix
is the inverse of
(c) a b (d) a b
1 2 5 -5
2 1 3
a b
-6 2 -1
-5 3
(e) a b (f) a b
10 -20 0.4 2
-2 4 0.9 3 state the values of x and y.
10 Calculate the inverse of each of the following
(g) a b
-0.5 -1.5
matrices:
-2 -1
1 4 3 1 2 3
4 Find the inverse of (a) £ 5 6 -4 ≥ (b) £ -4 6 1≥
2 0 1 0 0 3
a b
x x
x 2x -3 -1 2
given x Z 0. (c) £ 4 7 1≥
5 0 3
5 A is a square matrix. State a condition that
ensures A does not have an inverse. 1 1 -3 0
4 6 1 3
(d) § ¥
6 Find, if possible, the inverse of each of the 9 -2 0 4
following 2 * 2 matrices: 5 6 3 1
(a) a b (b) a b
3 -6 5 2
0 1 4 -1
5 0 6 10
2 7 3 5
(e) § ¥
6 3 0
(c) a b (d) a b
1 1 9 3 -1
-2 -2 -2 1 1 2 4 7
(e) a b
-3 1 11 Find, if possible, the inverse of each of the
2 -4 following matrices:
5 2 -1 -4 3 0
7 Calculate the inverse of each of the following (a) £ 6 3 1 ≥ (b) £ -1 1 2≥
matrices. If it is not possible to calculate the 5 9 6 4 0 1
inverse then state this clearly.
9 6 -9 4 2 -3
(a) a b (b) a b
5 6 -6 0
(c) £ 7 3 1 ≥ (d) £ 6 0 5 ≥
2 3 3 -1
-6 4 8 2 4 -11
(c) a b
4 -2 4 -3 6
-3 1.5 (e) £ 10 9 14 ≥
3 -6 0
8 Calculate the values of l for which
a b
2 - l 4 12 Find, if possible, the inverse of each of the
1.5 1 - l following matrices:
(a) a b (b) a b
has no inverse. l 3 3 x
l 5 x x2
9 If
2
(d) P Q
a b
3 x -2
(c) a b
a bc l
5 y
ab b2c 4 l
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 571
4.4 Finding the inverse of a matrix – the general case 571 12
Solutions to exercises
2 The determinant of the matrix is zero: hence -21 -3 15
no inverse exists. 1
(c) £ 7 19 -11 ≥
126
35 5 17
(a) a b (b) a b
1.25 -0.5 1 2 10
3
-2 1 22 1 -6 64 -90 44 94
1 44 45 29
a b (d) a b
1 -1 2 1 6 -5 -41
(c) (d) § ¥
3 2 -1 15 3 -5 570 -154 -15 1 41
-122 225 23 -197
a b
1 -30 20
(e) no inverse (f)
6 9 -4 42 -105 177 81
1 -15 193 -41 -140
a b
1 2 -3 (e) § ¥
(g) 933 207 -51 6 66
5 -4 1
-120 -11 -17 124
a b
1 2 -1
4
x -1 1 -9 21 -5
1
11 (a) £ 31 -35 11 ≥
5 ƒAƒ = 0 56
-39 35 -3
1 6
a b (b) a b
1 0 6 1 10 -2 -3
6 (a) 1
30 -5 3 38 -6 5 (b) £ 9 -4 8 ≥
23
-4 12 -1
a b
1 1 -3
(c) no inverse (d) -20 84 -33
15 2 9 1
(c) £ 62 -18 72 ≥
606
a b
1 4 1 -46 72 15
(e) -
10 2 3
(d) no inverse
a b (b) a b
1 3 -6 1 -1 0 36 96
7 (a) 1
-84
3 -2 5 6 -3 -6 (e) £ -42 18 -4 ≥
(c) no inverse 312
87 -15 -66
8 -1, 4
1 x2
a b (b) 2 a b
1 5 -3 -x
12 (a)
9 x = 1, y = 2 2l -l l 2x -x 3
4 34 1 l 2
-6 (c) no inverse (d)
10 (a)
1
£ 13 5 -19 ≥ 10 £ 2≥
82 -4
12 -8 14 l
18 -6 -16
1
(b) £ 12 3 -13 ≥
42
0 0 14
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 572
Computer graphics
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
Many engineering components can now be represented on a computer screen.
Modelling components in this way allows calculations of stresses, bending
moments, pressure and so forth to be performed before the component is actually
manufactured. Hence potential weaknesses and problem areas can be identified at
the design stage. Fundamental to representing components is the ability to define
points, lines and shapes, for example triangles and rectangles. Points, lines and
shapes can be represented by matrices.
Once a component has been drawn it may be necessary to transform it. Transfor-
mation includes scaling, translation, shearing, rotation and reflection. Transforma-
tions are brought about by the use of matrices.
5.2 Representation of points using matrices
A point in two dimensions is represented by its coordinates, x and y. These values
may be written as a 1 * 2 matrix, for example (3 -2), or as a 2 * 1 matrix, for
example a b . Such matrices are sometimes referred to as position matrices or
3
-2
position vectors. In this block we use 2 * 1 matrices to represent points.
A line can be determined by its two end-points. Hence the matrix
a b
1 3
2 7
represents the line joining the points a b and a b . Similarly a triangle is defined
1 3
2 7
by three points. Figure 5.1 illustrates a triangle.
The triangle can be ‘stored’ as a 2 * 3 matrix, T, where
T = a b
2 5 3
3 6 -1
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5.2 Representation of points using matrices 573 12
Figure 5.1 yy
A triangle is (5, 6)
defined by three 6
points. 5
4
(2, 3)
3
2
1
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 xx
⫺11 (3, ⫺1)
1)
⫺22
Example 5.1
Write matrices that represent the quadrilaterals shown in Figure 5.2(a), (b).
Figure 5.2 y y
5 (0, 0) (3, 0)
4
(3, 4) 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
(1, 3) 1
3
2
2
3 (5, 3)
1
4
3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x 5
1 (3, 5)
(2, 2) 2 (6, 2)
3
(a) (b)
Solution
Each quadrilateral is defined by four points.
(a) The quadrilateral can be stored as
Q = a b
-1 3 6 -2
3 4 -2 -2
Note that other matrices would also be suitable, for example
a b a b
3 6 -1 -2 -2 3 -1 6
and
4 -2 3 -2 -2 4 3 -2
also describe the quadrilateral.
a b
0 3 5 -3
(b) A possible matrix is
0 0 -3 -5
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12 574 Block 5 Computer graphics
5.3 Matrices as transformations
Figures on a computer screen need to be transformed. Transformation includes scaling,
translation, rotation, reflection and shearing. Mathematically, each transformation
can be represented by a matrix, called a transformation matrix. Since every figure
is made up of points we first examine the effect of a transformation matrix on a single
point.
Consider the point X = a b and a transformation matrix, T, given by
x
y
T = a b
a b
c d
The matrix T premultiplies the point X. Let the result of this calculation be X*.
TX = a b a b
a b x
c d y
= a b
ax + by
cx + dy
= X*
We can think of the point a b as having been transformed into the point
x
y
a b
ax + by
cx + dy
by the matrix T.
Example 5.2
The point a b is transformed by the matrix a b.
-1 1 2
3 -1 4
Determine the position of the transformed point.
Solution
We calculate
a b a b = a b
1 2 -1 5
-1 4 3 13
The point a b is transformed to a b .
-1 5
3 13
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5.4 Transformation of lines 575 12
Exercises
The point a b is transformed by the matrix The point a b is transformed by the matrix
3 5
1 2
-4 -1
a b a b
2 0 -1 3
3 1 4 2
Find the position of the transformed point. Find the position of the transformed point.
Solutions to exercises
a b a b
6 -8
1 2
5 18
5.4 Transformation of lines
Consider a straight line and a transformation matrix, T, whose elements are constants.
If T is applied to every point on the straight line the transformed points form a new
straight line; in other words, the transformation of a straight line is another straight
line provided the elements of T are constant. Thus to find the transformation of a
straight line we need only find the transformation of the end-points of the line and
then join these. This is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 y y
The transformation
of a straight line is Straight Transformation
another straight line matrix Straight
line. line
O x O x
Example 5.3
A straight line joins the points a b and a b . It is transformed by the matrix
2 4
-3 2
T = a b
1 2
-1 3
Describe the transformed line.
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12 576 Block 5 Computer graphics
Solution
The end-points a b and a b are transformed.
2 4
-3 2
a b a b = a b
1 2 2 -4
-1 3 -3 -11
a b a b = a b
1 2 4 8
-1 3 2 2
The transformed line joins a b and a b .
-4 8
-11 2
5.5 Scaling
Consider a rectangle with vertices at a b , a b, a b and a b and a transformation
0 0 1 1
matrix 0 1 1 0
T = a b
4 0
0 1
The points a b, a b, a b and a b are transformed by T to a b, a b , a b
0 0 1 1 0 0 4
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
and a b respectively. This is illustrated in Figure 5.4.
4
0
Figure 5.4 y y
An example of
horizontal scaling.
(0, 1) (1, 1) (0, 1) (4, 1)
O (1, 0) x O (4, 0) x
Clearly T has the effect of increasing the horizontal lengths by a factor of 4; the
vertical lengths remain unchanged.
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5.5 Scaling 577 12
In general, scaling is brought about by a diagonal matrix. The first row determines
the horizontal scaling; the second row determines the vertical scaling. The matrix
a b
a 0
0 b
scales the horizontal lengths by a factor of a and the vertical lengths by a factor of b .
For horizontal expansion a must be greater than 1; for horizontal compression
we require a to be less than 1. Similar comments apply to vertical expansion and
compression.
Example 5.4
The zoom facilities of a graphing package expand both horizontal and vertical
lengths by a factor of 2.5. Determine the transformation matrix to do this.
Solution
A diagonal matrix is needed for scaling. Since both horizontal and vertical lengths
are scaled by a factor of 2.5 the required matrix is
a b
2.5 0
0 2.5
Exercises
1 Write down the transformation matrix that (c) scales horizontal distances by a factor of
(a) scales horizontal distances by a factor of 4 0.7 and vertical distances by a factor of 1.2
and leaves vertical distances unchanged (d) leaves horizontal distances unchanged and
(b) scales horizontal distances by a factor of 3 trebles vertical distances.
and vertical distances by a factor of 7
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b (b) a b
4 0 3 0
1
0 1 0 7
(c) a b (d) a b
0.7 0 1 0
0 1.2 0 3
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12 578 Block 5 Computer graphics
5.6 Rotation
Rotation is an important and commonly used transformation. Components can be
‘viewed’ from different angles using packages with a rotation facility. By conven-
tion, anticlockwise movement is considered to be positive. Figure 5.5 illustrates the
line from the origin to the point a b being rotated through an angle u. We say the
x
y
point a b has been rotated about the origin to the new position a b.
x x*
y y*
Figure 5.5 y
The point a b is
x
(x*, y*)
y
rotated anticlock-
wise through an
(x, y)
angle u to a b .
x*
y* θ
O x
Key point The transformation matrix, T, that rotates a point anticlockwise about the origin by an
angle u is given by
T = a b
cos u -sin u
sin u cos u
Example 5.5
The point a b is rotated anticlockwise about the origin through 40°. Calculate the
2
6
position of the new point.
Solution
The transformation matrix is
T = a b
cos 40° -sin 40°
sin 40° cos 40°
and hence the new point is given by
a ba b = a b
cos 40° -sin 40° 2 2 cos 40° - 6 sin 40°
sin 40° cos 40° 6 2 sin 40° + 6 cos 40°
= a b
-2.3246
5.8818
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5.6 Rotation 579 12
Example 5.6
A triangle is defined by the matrix
a b
1 2 3
1 5 1
It is rotated clockwise about the origin through 120°. Determine the resulting triangle.
Solution
Clockwise angles are considered to be negative and so the transformation matrix, T, is
T = a b
cos(-120°) -sin(-120°)
sin(-120°) cos(-120°)
= a b
-0.5 0.866
-0.866 -0.5
The transformed triangle is then given by
a b a b = a b
-0.5 0.866 1 2 3 0.366 3.330 -0.634
-0.866 -0.5 1 5 1 -1.366 -4.232 -3.098
The transformed triangle is defined by the points a b, a b and
0.366 3.330
-1.366 -4.232
a b.
-0.634
-3.098
Example 5.7
The line joining a b and a b is rotated through 90° anticlockwise about the
-1 3
4 1
origin. Determine the new line.
Solution
The transformation matrix, T, is
a b = a b
cos 90° -sin 90° 0 -1
T =
sin 90° cos 90° 1 0
The original end-points of the line are a b and a b .
-1 3
4 1
Thus the line is defined by the matrix
a b
-1 3
4 1
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12 580 Block 5 Computer graphics
The transformed end-points are thus
a b a b = a b
0 -1 -1 3 -4 -1
1 0 4 1 -1 3
The transformed line joins the points a b and a b .
-4 -1
-1 3
Exercises
The point a b is rotated 30° anticlockwise
1 State a matrix that rotates points anticlockwise 4
3
about the origin by 45°. -3
about the origin. State the coordinates of the
2 State a matrix that rotates points clockwise new point.
about the origin by 200°.
The point a b is rotated 75° clockwise about
-1
4
2
the origin. State the coordinates of the new point.
Solutions to exercises
a b a b
0.7071 -0.7071 4.9641
1 3
0.7071 0.7071 -0.5981
a b a b
-0.9397 -0.3420 1.6730
2 4
0.3420 -0.9397 1.4836
5.7 Reflection
We now consider transformation matrices that effect reflection in the x axis, y axis,
the line y = x and the line y = -x.
Reflection in the x axis
Figure 5.6 illustrates the line AB reflected in the x axis to produce the line A*〉*.
Consider the coordinates of A and A*. If the coordinates of A are, say, a b , then the
3
2
coordinates of A* will be (3, -2). Clearly, on reflection the x coordinate remains
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5.7 Reflection 581 12
unchanged and the y coordinate changes sign. The transformation matrix to effect
this is
T = a b
1 0
0 -1
Figure 5.6 y
The line AB is
reflected in the x
axis to produce
A*〉*. A
B
O x
B*
A*
Key point Reflection in the x axis is brought about by
T = a b
1 0
0 -1
Reflection in the y axis
Figure 5.7 illustrates reflection of the line AB in the y axis. Again, considering the
coordinates of A and A¿ , we see that on reflection the x coordinate changes sign and
Figure 5.7 y
The line AB is
reflected in the
y axis to produce A' A
A⬘B⬘. B
B'
O x
the y coordinate remains unchanged. The transformation matrix is
T = a b
-1 0
0 1
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12 582 Block 5 Computer graphics
Key point Reflection in the y axis is brought about by
T = a b
-1 0
0 1
Reflection in the line y = x
Figure 5.8 y
AB is reflected in
the line y = x to yx
B
produce A B .
A
A
B
O
x
Figure 5.8 illustrates reflection about the line y = x. In effect, the x and y coordinates
are interchanged. The required transformation matrix is
T = a b
0 1
1 0
Key point Reflection in y = x is brought about by
T = a b
0 1
1 0
Reflection in the line y = -x
Figure 5.9 illustrates reflection in y = -x. Here the x and y coordinates are inter-
changed and also changed in sign. The transformation matrix is
T = a b
0 -1
-1 0
Key point Reflection in y = -x is brought about by
T = a b
0 -1
-1 0
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5.7 Reflection 583 12
Figure 5.9 y
y x
AB is reflected in
y = -x to produce
N BN .
A
A
B
O x
B̂
Example 5.8
The point Aa b is reflected in the y axis and then the resulting point is reflected in
3
2
the line y = -x. Calculate the coordinates of the final point.
Solution
Reflection in the y axis is effected by the matrix
a b
-1 0
0 1
Hence when Aa b is reflected in the y axis the resulting point is given by
3
2
a b a b = a b
-1 0 3 -3
0 1 2 2
Reflection in y = -x is effected by
a b
0 -1
-1 0
and so the final point is given by
a b a b = a b
0 -1 -3 -2
-1 0 2 3
The final point is a b.
-2
3
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12 584 Block 5 Computer graphics
Exercises
The point a b is reflected in the line y = -x. The point a b is reflected in the x axis. The
3 a
1 3
5 b
State the coordinates of the resulting point. resulting point is then reflected in the line
y = -x. State the coordinates of the final
The point a b is reflected in the y axis and
-1 point.
2
4
the resulting point is then reflected in the line
y = x. State the coordinates of the final point.
Solutions to exercises
a b a b
-5 b
1 3
-3 -a
a b
4
2
1
5.8 Shearing
A shear is a distortion. Figure 5.10 illustrates an x direction shear of a square, and
Figure 5.11 illustrates a y direction shear.
Figure 5.10 y y
An x direction
shear.
O x O x
Figure 5.11 y y
A y direction
shear.
O x O x
A shear can be represented by a transformation matrix,
a b
a b
c d
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5.8 Shearing 585 12
The off-diagonal terms, b and c, determine the kind of shear produced. The element
b produces a shear in the x direction whereas c produces a shear in the y direction.
As mentioned in Section 5.5, the elements a and b are scale factors for the x and
y directions.
Example 5.9
A unit square with vertices at a b , a b , a b and a b is sheared by
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
T = a b
1 0
3 1
(a) Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the figure after shearing.
(b) Sketch both figures.
Solution
(a) The unit square can be represented by
a b
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
Shearing produces
a b a b = a b
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
3 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 4
The resulting figure has vertices at a b , a b , a b and a b .
0 0 1 1
0 1 3 4
(b) See Figure 5.12(a), (b).
Figure 5.12 y
(a) The original
4
unit square;
(b) the figure after y 3
shearing. 2
1 1
O 1 x O 1 x
(a) (b)
Exercises
a b
1 State the effect of the transformation matrix 1 0
4 1
a b
1 2
0 1 Describe the transformed figure.
The line joining a b and a b is transformed
1 3
2
2 7
by the shearing matrix
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12 586 Block 5 Computer graphics
Solutions to exercises
Line joins a b and a b .
1 A shear by a factor of 2 in the x direction. 1 3
2
6 19
5.9 Translation
A translation is a movement in a specific direction by a specific amount. Figure 5.13
illustrates a translation of the line AB to A*〉*.
Figure 5.13 y
AB is translated to A* (4, 7)
A*〉*.
B* (5, 5)
A
(1, 3)
B (2, 1)
O x
In computer graphics many figures need to be translated, for example a piston
moving within a cylinder.
Consider the coordinates of A and B in Figure 5.13. The point 〈 a b is translated
1
3
to the point 〈* a b . The translation has the effect of adding 3 to the x coordinate
4
7
and adding 4 to the y coordinate. Note that the same change is encountered when B
is translated to 〉*.
Denoting the x translation by tx and the y translation by ty we see that if a point
a b is translated to a b then
x x*
y y*
x* = x + tx
(1)
y* = y + ty
Note that tx and/or ty may be negative.
Mathematically, translations are different from the other transformations. The previ-
ous transformations could all be represented by matrix multiplication. Equations (1)
suggest that translations are represented by matrix addition.
To enable translation to be represented by matrix multiplication we introduce
homogeneous coordinates. If the coordinates of a point are a b then the homo-
x
geneous coordinates of that point are y
P Q
y
1
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5.9 Translation 587 12
The purpose of the extra ‘1’ is to increase the order of the transformation matrix
from 2 * 2 to 3 * 3. We now introduce a translation matrix, T, where
1 0 tx
P Q
T = 0 1 ty
0 0 1
Applying T to
P Q
X = y
1
we have
1 0 tx x
P Q P Q
TX = 0 1 ty y
0 0 1 1
x + tx
P Q
= y + ty
1
The homogeneous coordinates
x + tx
P Q
y + ty
1
represent the point
a b
x + tx
y + ty
Thus by introducing homogeneous coordinates translation can be represented by
matrix multiplication.
Example 5.10
Determine the translation matrix for the translation depicted in Figure 5.13 above.
Solution
Here tx = 3 and ty = 4 and so
1 0 3
P Q
T = 0 1 4
0 0 1
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12 588 Block 5 Computer graphics
Example 5.11
The translation matrix
1 0 -1
P Q
T = 0 1 2
0 0 1
is applied to a b . Calculate the position of the translated point.
4
-6
Solution
We can proceed in one of two ways. By examining T we see that tx = -1 and ty = 2.
Hence
x* = x + tx
= 4 - 1
= 3
y* = y + ty
= -6 + 2
= -4
The translated point is a b.
3
-4
Alternatively we can introduce homogeneous coordinates
P Q
-6
1
Then
1 0 -1 4 3
P Q P Q P Q
0 1 2 -6 = -4
0 0 1 1 1
Hence the translated point is a b.
3
-4
Exercises
A point is translated from a b to a b . State
1 4 3 State the effect of the translation matrix
1
6 8
the corresponding translation matrix. 1 0 4
P Q
0 1 -3
A point is translated from a b to a b .
-3 -6
2 0 0 1
-1 0
State the corresponding translation matrix. 4 The line AB is translated 3 units in the x
direction with no movement in the y direction.
State the corresponding translation matrix.
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5.10 Composite transformations 589 12
Solutions to exercises
1 0 3 3 Translation of 4 units in the x direction and
P Q
1 0 1 2 3 units in the negative y direction.
0 0 1
1 0 3
P Q
1 0 -3 4 0 1 0
P Q
2 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1
5.10 Composite transformations
We have represented each transformation by a matrix multiplication. Often not one
but several transformations are required, and this leads to a product of matrices. Care
must be taken in ensuring that the correct order of multiplication is carried out.
Recall that if A and B are two matrices then AB and BA are usually not equal.
A sequence of transformations is called a composite transformation. Before we
can proceed and examine composite transformations we must examine the transfor-
mation matrices. The translation matrix is 3 * 3; all other transformation matrices
are 2 * 2. Multiplication of a 3 * 3 matrix with a 2 * 2 matrix is not defined. To
overcome this, all the 2 * 2 matrices are extended so as to become 3 * 3 matrices
and homogeneous coordinates are employed.
Consider any 2 * 2 transformation matrix
a b
a b
c d
and coordinates a b . The matrix is extended to become
x
y
a b 0
P Q
T = c d 0
0 0 1
and homogeneous coordinates
P Q
y
1
are used. Note that
a ba b = a b
a b x ax + by
c d y cx + dy
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12 590 Block 5 Computer graphics
and
a b 0 x ax + by
P Q P Q P Q
c d 0 y = cx + dy
0 0 1 1 1
Transforming a point using the extended matrix and homogeneous coordinates has
exactly the same effect as using the 2 * 2 matrix on the coordinates a b . However,
x
y
all transformation matrices are now 3 * 3 and so composite transformations, in the
form of matrix products, can be calculated.
Example 5.12
The point a b is reflected in the line y ⫽ x and then rotated anticlockwise about the
4
1
origin by 70°.
(a) Calculate the composite transformation matrix.
(b) Calculate the final position of the point.
Solution
(a) Reflection about the line y = x is represented by Tref where
0 1 0
P Q
Tref = 1 0 0
0 0 1
Rotation about the origin by 70° is represented by Trot where
cos 70° -sin 70° 0
P Q
Trot = sin 70° cos 70° 0
0 0 1
Hence the composite transformation is given by
cos 70° -sin 70° 0 0 1 0
P QP Q
Trot Tref = sin 70° cos 70° 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
-sin 70° cos 70° 0
P Q
= cos 70° sin 70° 0
0 0 1
(b) The homogeneous coordinates of the point are
P Q
1
1
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5.10 Composite transformations 591 12
The transformed point is then
-sin 70° cos 70° 0 4 -4 sin 70° + cos 70°
P QP Q P Q
cos 70° sin 70° 0 1 = 4 cos 70° + sin 70°
0 0 1 1 1
-3.417
P Q
= 2.308
1
The transformed point is a b.
-3.417
2.308
Example 5.13
Determine a transformation matrix that rotates a point 30° anticlockwise about the
point a b .
1
2
Solution
The rotation matrices so far encountered have all represented rotation about the
origin. Hence to represent rotation about a b we require three transformations
1
2
(Figure 5.14):
1 translation of a b to the origin, Ttrans
1
2
2 rotation of 30° anticlockwise, Trot
3 translation from the origin back to a b , Tret.
1
2
Figure 5.14 y
Rotation about
a b requires
1 (x, y)
2
three basic 30°
transformations.
(x*, y*)
2 (1, 2)
30°
1
O 1 x
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12 592 Block 5 Computer graphics
The required transformation matrices are
1 0 -1
P Q
Ttrans = 0 1 -2
0 0 1
0.8660 -0.5 0
P Q
Trot = 0.5 0.8660 0
0 0 1
1 0 1
P Q
Tret = 0 1 2
0 0 1
The composite transformation is then
1 0 1 0.8660 -0.5 0 1 0 -1
P Q P Q P Q
Tret Trot Ttrans = 0 1 2 0.5 0.8660 0 0 1 -2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0.8660 -0.5 1.1340
P Q
= 0.5 0.8660 -0.232
0 0 1
Exercises
1 Determine a matrix that shears vertically by 2 Determine a matrix that rotates a figure anti-
clockwise through 40° about the point a b .
a factor of 2 and then rotates anticlockwise 1
about the origin by 30°. 0
Solutions to exercises
-0.1340 -0.5 0 0.7660 -0.6428 0.2340
P Q P Q
1 2.2321 0.8660 0 2 0.6428 0.7660 -0.6428
0 0 1 0 0 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 593
5.10 Composite transformations 593 12
End of block exercises
1 Write matrices that represent the figures shown
in Figure 5.15(a), (b), (c).
(2, 4)
y
y
(3, 2) (2, 2)
(1, 1)
x x
(3, 0.75) (4, 1)
(1, 2)
(a) (b)
(1, 2) (3, 2)
(3, 1)
(1, 1)
(2, 0) x
(c)
Figure 5.15
2 Draw the figures represented by each of the 5 The zoom facility of a computer graphics
following matrices: package has the following options:
(a) double horizontal lengths only
(a) a b (b) a b
2 -1 1 3 5
(b) double vertical lengths only
0 1 2 4 6 (c) double both horizontal and vertical lengths
(c) a b
-1 2 -4 3 (d) halve both horizontal and vertical lengths.
3 4 1 0 Write down the transformation matrix for each
option.
The line joining a b and a b is
1 -2
3
The point a b is rotated anticlockwise
7 1 -1
6
transformed by the matrix 6
about the origin through 70°. Calculate the
a b
3 2 coordinates of the resulting point.
-1 1
The point a b is rotated clockwise about
Describe the transformed line. 3
7
-2
The triangle with vertices at a b , a b and
-1 2 the origin through 40°. By applying a suitable
4 rotation matrix, determine the coordinates of
1 1
a b is transformed by the matrix
3 the resulting point.
4
8 A triangle defined by
a b
2 1
1 -2
Describe the transformed triangle.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 594
12 594 Block 5 Computer graphics
a b The triangle with vertices at a b , a b and
3 2 -1 0 0
14
1 7 6 0 1
a b is sheared by
1
is rotated clockwise about the origin through 0
90°. Calculate the matrix that defines the
a b
1 2
transformed triangle. 0 1
9 Show that for any transformation matrix, R, Sketch the resulting triangle.
that represents a rotation
15 State a matrix that will translate a figure 4
RT = R-1 units in the x direction and 5 units in the y
direction.
That is, the transpose of a rotation matrix is
equal to its inverse.
A line joins a b and a b . It is translated
4 5
16
10 A rotation matrix, R, represents an -2 9
anticlockwise rotation about the origin through using the translation matrix
an angle u.
1 0 3
P Q
(a) State the rotation matrix, S, that represents
a clockwise rotation through an angle u. 0 1 -1
(b) Calculate R-1. (Hint: see question 9.) 0 0 1
(c) What do you conclude from (a) and (b)? Describe the translated line.
A line joins a b and a b .
1 -2 17 Determine a single transformation matrix that
11
4 3 will first reflect a figure in the y axis and then
(a) The line is reflected about y = x. Describe translate it 2 units in the x direction and -3
the resulting line. units in the y direction.
(b) The line found in (a) is then reflected in
the x axis. Describe the resulting line. 18 Determine a single transformation matrix that
will first scale a figure by a factor of 2 in the
12 Determine a matrix that increases horizontal horizontal and 0.5 in the vertical, and then
lengths by a factor of 5, leaving vertical rotate it clockwise about the origin through 90°.
lengths unchanged.
19 Find a matrix that will rotate a figure anti-
The line joining a b and a b is reflected in
-1 4
clockwise through 45° about the point a b .
13 -2
1 2
1
the line y ⫽ ⫺x. Determine the new line.
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b
-1 3 1 2 See Figure 5.16.
1
1 2 -2 (a)
y
(b) a b
-3 -2 2 4
-0.75 4 2 -1
(1, 1)
(c) a b
1 3 3 2 1
(2, 0) x
2 2 1 0 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 595
End of chapter exercises 595 12
(a) a b
(b) cos u sin u
10
y -sin u cos u
(b) a b
6 cos u sin u
(5, 6)
4 -sin u cos u
(3, 4)
2
(1, 2) (c) The inverse of R represents a clockwise
1 2 3 4 5 6 x rotation through u.
(a) The line joins a b and a b.
4 3
(c) 11
1 -2
y
(b) The line joins a b and a b .
(2, 4) 4 3
(1, 3) -1 2
a b
5 0
12
(4, 1) 0 1
The new line joins a b and a b .
-1 -2
(3, 0) x 13
1 -4
Figure 5.16
1 0 4
P Q
15 0 1 5
The transformed line joins a b and a b .
17 -4
3 0 0 1
6 3
The line joins a b and a b .
7 8
16
4 The transformed triangle has vertices at -3 8
0 2
a b, a b and a b .
5 10 -1
P Q
-1
-3 0 -5 17 0 1 -3
0 0 1
(a) a b (b) a b
2 0 1 0
5
0 1 0 2
0 0.5 0
(c) a b (d) a b P Q
2 0 0.5 0 18 -2 0 0
0 2 0 0.5 0 0 1
a b
-5.9802
6 0.7071 -0.7071 0.1213
P Q
1.1124
19 0.7071 0.7071 1.7071
a b
1.0126 0 0 1
7
-3.4605
a b
1 7 6
8
-3 -2 1
End of chapter exercises
find (a) A + B, (b) A - B, (c) B - A, (d) 3A,
1 If
1
(e) B, (f) 2A - 4B.
2
A = a b B = a b
4 -2 9 3
and
1 -3 -2 1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 11/28/18 7:38 PM Page 596
12 596 Block 5 Computer graphics
2 Given 10 State conditions under which a square matrix
does not possess an inverse.
A = a b
2 1 3
and
-1 4 0 11 Given
B = a b
-1 2 4
A = a b
3 1 4
-4 1 3 and
B 0 2 -1
calculate (a) 4A, (b) - B, (c) B - 2A, (d) ,
4 9 -6
P Q
(e) A + 3B, (f) aA + bB where a and b are
constants. B = 3 1
2 0
3 Give an example of (a) a 2 * 4, (b) a 4 * 2
matrix. calculate (a) AT, (b) BT, (c) A + BT,
(d) AT + B, (e) 2A, (f) (2A)T, (g) 2(AT).
4 Calculate the number of elements in (a) a 3 * 4,
(b) a 7 * 2, (c) a 3 * n , (d) an m * n matrix. 12 Given
5 Calculate the determinant of each of the
A = a b, B = a b
3 1 -3
following matrices: and
1 2 1
(a) a b (b) a b
3 1 -1 3 C = (-2 3)
4 2 2 1
calculate, if possible, (a) AB, (b) BA, (c) AC,
(c) a b (d) a b
0 1 1 0 (d) CA, (e) BC, (f) CB.
1 0 0 1
13 Given
(e) a b (f) a b
3 2 a b
x x b a 4 2
P Q
6 Find the inverse of each of the following A = (1 3 -2), B = 1 3
matrices: -1 0
(a) a b (b) a b C = a b
-1 4 6 -4 1 -1 0
5 6 2 3 4 1 2
(c) a b (d) a b
-3 5 1 -7 -2
calculate, if possible, (a) B + C, (b) B + CT,
0 1 2 4 3 (c) AB, (d) BA, (e) ACT, (f) (AC)T, (g) BC,
7 Calculate the determinant of each of the (h) CB.
following matrices:
The straight line joining a b and a b is
-6 1
14
1 2 1 -1 3 2 2 -4
P Q P Q
(a) 0 1 1 (b) 2 1 0 rotated 50° anticlockwise about the origin.
Determine the transformed line.
1 -1 0 1 3 0
The point a b is reflected in the line y = x
2
3 -2 -1 2 2 1 15
P Q P Q
-3
(c) 4 1 0 (d) 1 2 2 and then the resulting point is rotated 30°
3 2 -1 2 1 2 anticlockwise about the origin. Determine the
coordinates of the final point.
8 Calculate the inverse of each of the matrices in
question 5.
A unit square has vertices at a b , a b, a b
0 0 1
16
9 Calculate the inverse of each of the matrices in 0 1 0
and a b . It is subject to a shear, and this results
1
question 7.
1
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 597
End of chapter exercises 597 12
in a figure with vertices at a b , a b, a b C = a b
0 2 1 4 7
0 1 3 0 -2
and a b . Determine a transformation that
3
4 0 -7 -9
P Q
effects this shear. D = 7 0 8
9 -8 0
17 The transformation matrix
3 4 1
P Q
1 0 4 E = 4 1 0
P Q
T = 0 1 0.5 1 0 7
0 0 1
(b) Show that if A is a 2 * 2 or 3 * 3
is applied to the line joining a b and a b .
0 3
skew-symmetric matrix then its diagonal
1 -1 elements must all be zero.
Determine the transformed line.
22 (a) A non-singular matrix A is said to be
The point a b is rotated 90° anticlockwise
-1 orthogonal if its transpose is equal to its
18
2 inverse: that is, AT = A-1. Given that
about the origin and then translated 2 units in
the x direction and 3 units in the y direction.
A = a b
cos u sin u
Calculate -sin u cos u
(a) the composite transformation matrix
(b) the coordinates of the transformed point. is an orthogonal matrix, write down its
inverse, and check your answer by
19 The leading diagonal of a square matrix, A, is evaluating A A-1.
the diagonal running from the top left to the (b) Show that
bottom right. The sum of the elements on the
leading diagonal is called the trace of A. 3 4
(a) Find the trace of -
5 5
§ ¥
A = a b
1 2 4 3
5 -3 5 5
(b) Find the trace of
is an orthogonal matrix.
4 1 3
P Q
A = 2 7 1 23 If
0 0 12
A = a b
0 1
(c) For an arbitrary 2 * 2 and 3 * 3 matrix -3 -2
A, show that trace(A) = trace(AT).
(a) write down the matrix sI - A, where s is a
20 Evaluate constant and I is the 2 * 2 identity matrix
(b) find (sI - A)-1.
1 4 2 1
24 Control Engineering. The state matrix of an
∞ ∞
3 0 1 9
0 -1 1 1 engineering system is given by
2 1 0 1
A = a b
-2 -1
21 (a) A square matrix A is said to be symmetric 16 5
if A = AT, and skew symmetric if
Calculate the values of the system poles.
A = -AT. State which, if any, of the
Determine whether the system is stable or
following matrices are symmetric and
unstable.
which are skew symmetric.
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 11/28/18 7:39 PM Page 598
12 598 Block 5 Computer graphics
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b (d) a b
13 1 -5 -5 0 1 1 0
1
-1 -2 3 -4 1 0 0 1
(c) a b (d) a b
5 5 12 -6 2
1 -
a b
-3 4 3 -9 x 1 a -b
(e) § ¥ (f) 2
3 a - b2 - b a
-1
(e) a b (f) a b
4.5 1.5 - 28 -16 x
-1 0.5 10 -10
1 -1 1
2 P Q
(a) a b (b) a b
8 4 12 1 -2 -4 1
2 9 (a) 1 -1 -1
-4 16 0 4 -1 -3
-1 3 1
(c) a b
-5 0 -2
-2 -7 3 0 6 -2
10 P Q
1
(b) 0 -2 4
(d) a b
- 0.25 0.5 1 5 6 -7
-1 0.25 0.75
1 4 -1
16 P Q
1
(e) a b
-1 7 15 (c) -4 0 4
- 13 7 9 -5 12 -11
(f) a b
2a - b a + 2b 3a + 4b 2 -3 2
5 P Q
1
- a - 4b 4a + b 3b (d) 2 2 -3
-3 2 2
1 1
10 If the determinant is zero, then the matrix has
(a) a b (b) §
1 2 3 4 2 2
3 ¥ no inverse.
1 -1 0 1 3 -1
4 3
3 0
P Q
(b) a b
9 3 2
11 (a) 1 2
4 (a) 12 (b) 14 (c) 3n (d) mn -6 1 0
4 -1
5 (a) 2 (b) - 7 (c) - 1 (d) 1 (e) x (f) a2 - b 2
12 -6
P Q
(c) a b (d) 4
12 4 6
a b (b) a b
1 -6 4 1 3 4 3
6 (a) -6 3 -1
26 5 1 26 - 2 6 6 -1
a b (d) a b
1 -1 5 2 -3 -2 6 0
(c)
P Q
(e) a b (f) 2
3 0 3 13 4 7 6 2 8
4
0 4 -2
8 -2
7 (a) 2 (b) 10 (c) -16 (d) 5
6 0
(a) a b (b) a b P Q
1 -0.5 1 -1 3 (g) 2 4
8
-2 1.5 7 2 1 8 -2
M12_CROF5939_04_SE_C12.QXD 9/22/18 8:11 AM Page 599
End of chapter exercises 599 12
(a) not possible (b) a b (c) a b The transformed line joins the points a b
0 -6 9 4
12 17
7 -2 3 1.5
and a b.
7
(d) -3 (e) not possible (f) (4 9) -0.5
5 6 0 -1 2
P Q
3 (b) a b
P Q
0
13 (a) not possible (b) 0 4 18 (a) 1 0
2
-1 2 0 0 1
(c) (9 11) (d) not possible (e) (-2 3) 19 (a) -2 (b) 23
12 -2 4 20 70
P Q
(f) not possible (g) 13 2 6
21 D is skew symmetric, E is symmetric and C is
-1 1 0 neither.
(h) a b
3 -1
A-1 = a b
cos u -sin u
15 11 22
sin u cos u
Line joins a b to a b.
-5.3888 3.7070
(a) a b
14 s -1
-3.3107 -1.8051 23
3 s + 2
a b a b
-3.5981 1 s + 2 1
15 (b)
0.2321 2
s + 2s + 3 -3 s
3 ; 2-15
a b
1 2 24 Poles are s = . System is unstable.
16 2
3 1
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 10/3/18 6:46 PM Page 600
Chapter 13
Using matrices and determinants to solve
equations
This chapter looks at some of the ways in which matrices and
determinants can be used to solve linear simultaneous equations.
Block 1 introduces Cramer’s rule, which expresses the solution to
simultaneous equations as a ratio of two determinants. The next block
shows how simultaneous equations may be written in matrix form.
Once in this form an inverse matrix method can be used to solve them.
Block 3 explains the method of Gaussian elimination. When the
simultaneous equations have been written as a matrix, the rows of the
matrix are systematically manipulated to yield the solution. The block
includes an explanation of the way in which the manipulation is carried
out.
Matrices are sometimes used in calculations that model vibrating
objects, and in particular those vibrating because of forces in stretched
and compressed springs. In such applications engineers are interested
in the possible frequencies of vibration. These frequencies are related
to what are known as the eigenvalues of a matrix. The eigenvectors
represent the various modes of vibration. Block 4 will explain how the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix are calculated. As they are
usually studied in terms of linear systems, they are included here. In
many practical applications, approximate solutions of linear equations
are obtained using what are called numerical methods. These are
introduced in Block 5.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 601
The final block focuses on the application of matrices to the analysis of
electrical networks. Engineers often need to know the currents in the
various branches of a circuit. The idea of branch currents is introduced.
A set of simultaneous equations can be formed that models these
branch currents, and which can be solved using matrix methods.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 602
Chapter 13 contents
Block 1 Cramer’s rule
Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations
Block 3 Gaussian elimination
Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Block 5 Iterative techniques
Block 6 Electrical networks
End of chapter exercises
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 603
Cramer’s rule
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In Chapter 12 we introduced determinants. In this block we study Cramer’s rule,
which uses determinants to solve a set of simultaneous linear equations. Such equa-
tions are often referred to as a system of linear equations.
1.2 Cramer’s rule
Consider a system of two linear simultaneous equations in the two unknowns x
and y.
a1x + b1y = k1
a2x + b2y = k2
Here a1, b1, k1, a2, b2 and k2 are known constants and we wish to find the values of x
and y.
Cramer’s rule is a method of obtaining the solution of equations like these as the
ratio of two determinants.
Key point Cramer’s rule states
` ` ` `
k1 b1 a1 k1
k2 b2 a2 k2
x = , y =
` ` ` `
a1 b1 a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2
Note that the denominator is the same in each case. The denominator is simply the
determinant made up of the coefficients of x and y. If the denominator is zero then
Cramer’s rule cannot be applied. In such a case, either a unique solution to the
system does not exist or there is no solution.
Note how the numerator of each fraction is formed. To form the numerator for the
x fraction we replace the column of as in
` `
a1 b1
a2 b2
by a column of ks. Similarly the numerator for the y fraction is formed by replacing
the column of bs by a column of ks.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 604
13 604 Block 1 Cramer’s rule
Example 1.1 Electrical Engineering – Currents in a circuit
The currents i1 and i2 in a simple circuit are connected by the equations
i1 + i2 = 3
2i1 + 3i2 = 7
Calculate i1 and i2 using Cramer’s rule.
Solution
Using Cramer’s rule we have
` `
3 1
` `
7 3 2 1 1 3
i1 = = = 2, i2 = = = 1
` ` ` `
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 7
2 3 2 3
The currents in the circuit are i1 = 2, i2 = 1.
Cramer’s rule may be extended to systems of linear equations with more than two
unknowns. Consider the following linear system with three unknowns, x, y and z.
a1x + b1y + c1z = k1
a2x + b2y + c2z = k2
a3x + b3y + c3z = k3
Then Cramer’s rule states
Key point k1 b1 c1 a1 k1 c1 a1 b1 k1
† k2 b2 c2 † † a2 k2 c2 † † a2 b2 k2 †
k3 b3 c3 a3 k3 c3 a3 b3 k3
x = , y = , z =
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
† a2 b2 c2 † † a2 b2 c2 † † a2 b2 c2 †
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
Note again that, in all three cases, the denominators are the same. The numerators
are formed by replacing a column of as, bs or cs by a column of ks.
Example 1.2 Electrical Engineering – Circuit voltages
The voltages v1, v2 and v3 in an electric circuit are connected by the system
v1 + 2v2 + v3 = 2
2v1 - v2 - 2v3 = 5
2v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 = 7
Use Cramer’s rule to determine the three voltages.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 605
1.2 Cramer’s rule 605 13
Solution
Using Cramer’s rule we have
2 2 1
†5 -1 -2 † , -39
7 2 3
v1 = =
1 2 1 -13
†2 -1 -2 †
2 2 3
⫽3
1 2 1
†2 5 -2 †
2 7 3
v2 =
-13
13
= = -1
-13
1 2 2
†2 -1 5†
2 2 7
v3 =
-13
-13
= = 1
-13
The voltages are v1 = 3, v2 = -1 and v3 = 1.
Cramer’s rule can be extended to four and more unknowns in an obvious way, but the
determinants become too large to make this a sensible approach. Gaussian elimina-
tion, described in Block 3, is a practical alternative.
Exercises
1 Solve the following systems of two linear (c) 2i1 + i2 = 9.3
equations using Cramer’s rule: 3i1 - 2i2 = 5.9
(a) 2x + y = 10 (d) 3v1 - v2 = 6.6
3x - 2y = 1 2v1 - 3v2 = -1.9
(b) -u1 - u2 = 1 (e) a - 3b = 0.5
2u1 + u2 = 1 b + 2a = -3.9
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 606
13 606 Block 1 Cramer’s rule
(c) i1 + i2 - i3 = 1
2 Solve the following systems of three linear
3i1 - i2 + 2i3 = 7
equations using Cramer’s rule:
-i1 + 2i2 - i3 = -0.5
(a) 2x - y - 2z = 1
(d) 2v1 - v2 + v3 = 5.9
x + y + 3z = 6
-2x + 3z = -1 v1 + 12 v2 - v3 = 0.7
(b) b - 2g = -6 -3v1 + 2v3 = -3.1
a + 3b + g = 2 (e) u1 + u2 + 4u3 = 0
3a + 2g = 3 2u1 - u2 + u3 = 5.4
u1 + 2u2 - u3 = 9.2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 3, y = 4 2 (a) x = 2, y = 1, z = 1
(b) u1 = 2, u2 = -3 (b) a = -1, b = 0, g = 3
(c) i1 = 3.5, i2 = 2.3 (c) i1 = 1.5, i2 = 1.5, i3 = 2
(d) v1 = 3.1, v2 = 2.7 (d) v1 = 2.3, v2 = 0.6, v3 = 1.9
(e) a = -1.6, b = -0.7 (e) u1 = 4.3, u2 = 1.7, u3 = -1.5
End of block exercises
1 Electrical Engineering. Voltages v1 and v2 in 3 Explain why Cramer’s rule cannot be applied
a circuit are related by the system of equations to the following system of equations:
3v1 + 2v2 = 6 3x - 2y = 10
-4v1 + 10v2 = -27 y - 1.5x = -5
Calculate v1 and v2 using Cramer’s rule.
4 Mechanical Engineering. The magnitudes of
forces f and g in a mechanical system are
2 Electrical Engineering. The currents i1, i2 and
connected by the equations
i3 of a circuit are related by
3f + 5g - 16.1 = 0
2i1 + i2 - i3 = 8
2f - g - 3.8 = 0
i1 - i2 + i3 = -5
3i1 + 2i2 = 9 Use Cramer’s rule to determine the magnitudes
of f and g.
Use Cramer’s rule to evaluate the three
currents.
Solutions to exercises
1 v1 = 3, v2 = -1.5 4 f = 2.7, g = 1.6
2 i1 = 1, i2 = 3, i3 = -3
3 The matrix
a b
3 -2
-1.5 1
has a zero determinant.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 607
Using the inverse matrix to solve
BLOCK 2
simultaneous equations
2.1 Introduction
Block 1 dealt with Cramer’s rule for solving a system of linear equations. The solu-
tions were given in terms of determinants. This block shows how an inverse matrix
can be used to solve a system of linear simultaneous equations. You will need to be
familiar with the techniques for finding the inverses of 2 * 2 and 3 * 3 matrices as
described in Chapter 12, Block 4.
2.2 Writing equations in matrix form
Consider the simultaneous equations
7x + 2y = 12
3x + y = 5
Recalling how matrices are multiplied we note that the product
a b a b
7 2 x
3 1 y
is equivalent to
a b
7x + 2y
3x + y
Hence we can write the simultaneous equations as
a b a b = a b
7 2 x 12
3 1 y 5
This is the matrix form of the simultaneous equations.
Writing
A = a b, X = a b, B = a b
7 2 x 12
3 1 y 5
we have the standard form
AX = B
Note that the elements of A come from the coefficients of x and y and that the
elements of B come from the right-hand sides of the equations.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 608
13 608 Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations
Example 2.1
Write the following system of equations in the standard matrix form AX = B.
2x + y - z = 4
x - y + 3z = -2
2x + 2y - 3z = 9
Solution
The elements of A are the coefficients of x, y and z. Hence
2 1 -1
A = £1 -1 3 ≥
2 2 -3
and
x 4
X = £ y ≥, B = £ -2 ≥
z 9
Hence in matrix form the equations are written as
2 1 -1 x 4
£1 -1 3 ≥ £ y ≥ = £ -2 ≥
2 2 -3 z 9
Example 2.2
Express the following system in the form AX = B.
-x + 3y + 4z = 7
y - 4x = 7
y + 3x - z = -9
Solution
The equations are rewritten so that the variables x, y and z appear in the same order.
-x + 3y + 4z = 7
-4x + y + 0z = 7
3x + y - z = -9
Then
-1 3 4
A = £ -4 1 0≥
3 1 -1
x 7
X = £ y ≥, B = £ 7 ≥
z -9
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 609
2.3 Solving equations using the inverse matrix method 609 13
In matrix form the equations are
-1 3 4 x 7
£ -4 1 0 ≥ £y≥ = £ 7 ≥
3 1 -1 z -9
Exercises
1 Write the following simultaneous equations in (c) 2x - y + 3z = 0
matrix form: 3x + 4y + z = 1
(a) 3x - 4y = 9 -2x + 3z = -2
x + 2y = 6
(b) a - b = 0.5
3a + 7b = 11.6
Solutions to exercises
(a) a ba b = a b
3 -4 x 9 2 -1 3 x 0
1
1 2 y 6 (c) £ 3 4 1≥ £y≥ = £ 1 ≥
(b) a ba b = a b
1 -1 a 0.5 -2 0 3 z -2
3 7 b 11.6
2.3 Solving equations using the inverse matrix method
Consider a system of equations written in matrix form, that is
AX = B
where A is a square matrix. Note that A and B are matrices with numerical elements.
We wish to find an expression for the unknowns, that is the elements of X. To achieve
this we premultiply both sides of the equation by the inverse of A, if it exists, to
obtain
A-1 AX = A-1B (1)
The left-hand side can be simplified by noting that multiplying a matrix by its
inverse gives the identity matrix, that is A-1 A = I. Hence
A-1 AX = (A-1 A) X
= IX
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 610
13 610 Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations
Multiplying a matrix by the identity matrix has no effect and so IX = X. So the left-
hand side of equation (1) simplifies to
A-1 AX = IX
= X
and so, from (1),
X = A-1 B
Key point Given AX = B, then X = A-1 B if A-1 exists.
Example 2.3
Solve
7x + 2y = 12
3x + y = 5
using the inverse matrix method.
Solution
Writing the equations in matrix form, AX = B, gives
a b a b = a b
7 2 x 12
3 1 y 5
Here
A = a b, B = a b, X = a b
7 2 12 x
3 1 5 y
We calculate A-1.
A-1 = a b
1 -2
-3 7
Hence
X = A-1 B
= a b a b
1 -2 12
-3 7 5
= a b
2
-1
We have
X = a b
x
y
= a b
2
-1
that is x = 2, y = -1.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 611
2.3 Solving equations using the inverse matrix method 611 13
Example 2.4 Electrical Engineering – Circuit currents
The currents i1 and i2 in a circuit are connected by the equations
2i1 + i2 = 8.6
3i1 - i2 = 9.4
Use the inverse matrix method to find the values of i1 and i2.
Solution
We have AX = B where
B = a b and X = a 1 b a b
8.6 i 2 1
A = ,
9.4 i2 3 -1
We calculate A-1.
1 1
5 5
A -1
= £3 ≥
5 - 25
So
X = A-1 B
1 1
≥a b
5 5 8.6
= £3
5 - 25 9.4
a b
3.6
=
1.4
So i1 = 3.6 and i2 = 1.4.
Example 2.5 Mechanical Engineering – Forces in a pulley system
Forces f1, f2 and f3 in a simple pulley system satisfy the equations
-f1 + 3f2 + 4f3 = 7
f2 - 4f1 = 7
f2 + 3f1 - f3 = -9
Solve the system for f1, f2 and f3 .
Solution
The equations are written in matrix form:
-1 3 4 f1 7
£ -4 1 0 ≥ £ f2 ≥ = £ 7 ≥
3 1 -1 f3 -9
Writing
-1 3 4
A = £ -4 1 0≥
3 1 -1
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 612
13 612 Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations
we then calculate A-1 as
1 -7 4
1
A -1
= £4 11 16 ≥
39
7 -10 -11
Hence
f1 1 -7 4 7
1
£ f2 ≥ = £4 11 16 ≥ £ 7 ≥
39
f3 7 -10 -11 -9
-2
= £ -1 ≥
2
So f1 = -2, f2 = -1, f3 = 2.
Exercises
1 Solve the following systems of linear solve the following system of equations:
equations using the inverse matrix method: 2x - y - z = 7
(a) 3x - y = 4 x + 2y - 2z = 13
x + 2y = 13 2x + 3y + z = 9
(b) 2a - b = -11
1
2a + b = 1 4 Given that the inverse of
(c) v1 - 2v2 = -3.5 1 -1 2
3v1 + 5v2 = 17
£4 3 -1 ≥
(d) 2 i1 + i2 = 3.5
-i1 + 2i2 = 3.5 3 -1 4
(e) p - 2q = -0.7 is
2p - q = -1.1
11 2 -5
2 State conditions under which the inverse 1
£ -19 -2 9≥
matrix method will fail to find a set of 4
solutions. -13 -2 7
solve the system of linear equations
3 Given that the inverse of
4x + 3y - z = 3
2 -1 -1 3x - y + 4z = 10
£1 2 -2 ≥ x - y + 2y = 4
2 3 1 5 Electrical Engineering. Resistances r1,
r2 and r3 in a circuit are connected by the
is
equations
8 -2 4 r1 - 2r2 + r3 = -0.9
1 2r1 - r2 + r3 = 0.8
£ -5 4 3≥
22 r1 - 2r2 - r3 = -2.3
-1 -8 5
Use the inverse matrix method to calculate r1,
r2 and r3.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 613
2.3 Solving equations using the inverse matrix method 613 13
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 3, y = 5 3 x = 3, y = 2, z = -3
(b) a = -4, b = 3
(c) v1 = 1.5, v2 = 2.5 4 x = 0, y = 2, z = 3
(d) i1 = 0.7, i2 = 2.1
(e) p = -0.5, q = 0.1 5 r1 = 0.6, r2 = 1.1, r3 = 0.7
2 Given AX = B, the method will fail if ƒ A ƒ = 0;
that is, if A-1 does not exist.
Computer and calculator exercises
(b) 2a + 4b - g = -2
1 Using a computer algebra package to calculate
a + 2b + 3g = 20
the relevant inverse matrix and perform the
a + b = 0.5
matrix multiplication, solve the following
systems using the inverse matrix method: (c) i1 + i2 + i3 - i4 = 2
(a) 2x - y + z = -7 i1 - i2 + i3 + i4 = 6
x + 2y + 12 z = 19 -i1 + i2 + i3 - i4 = 0
4x + 3z = 0 -i1 + i2 - i3 + 4i4 = 14
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 3, y = 9, z = -4
(b) a = -1, b = 1.5, g = 6
(c) i1 = 1, i2 = 2, i3 = 3, i4 = 4
End of block exercises
1 Use the inverse matrix method to solve 3 Given that the inverse of
(a) 4x - 3y = 6
1 -1 3
-2x + y = -4
£ 2 1 1≥
(b) a + 2b = 2 -3 1 4
3a - 4b = -9
is
2 Explain why the inverse matrix method cannot
be applied to the following system: 3 7 -4
1
£ -11 13 5≥
3x - y = 7 29
5 2 3
-6x + 2y = -14
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 614
13 614 Block 2 Using the inverse matrix to solve simultaneous equations
solve the following systems: (c) 3x - 3y + 9z = 30
(a) x - y + 3z = 3 -3x + y + 4z = 20
2x + y + z = 7 4x + 2y + 2z = 6
-3x + y + 4z = 0
(b) 2x + y + z = -1
-3x + y + 4z = -7
x - y + 3z = -7
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 3, y = 2 3 (a) x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
(b) a = -1, b = 1.5 (b) x = 0, y = 1, z = -2
(c) x = -1, y = 1, z = 4
2 The matrix
a b
3 -1
-6 2
has no inverse.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 615
Gaussian elimination
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Gaussian elimination is a systematic way of simplifying a system of equations so
that a solution can easily be found. Rather than work with the actual equations, a
matrix, whose elements capture all the properties of the equations, is used.
Manipulation of the matrix is carried out by performing a sequence of elementary
row operations. These operations eventually bring the matrix into a form known as
echelon form. Once in this form, the solution to the original equations is easily
found.
3.2 The augmented matrix
Consider the system of linear equations
2x + 3y = 16
x - y = -2
This system may be represented in the matrix form
a b
2 3 16
1 -1 -2
This is an example of an augmented matrix. Note that the elements of the
augmented matrix comprise the coefficients of x and y and also the right-hand sides
of the equations.
Example 3.1
State the augmented matrix for the system
3x - y + 2z = 7
4x + y = 6
x + 2y - z = 2
Solution
The augmented matrix is
3 -1 2 7
£4 1 0 6≥
1 2 -1 2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 616
13 616 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
Exercises
(c) 7x - y - z = 3
1 Write the augmented matrix for each of the
3x + 2y + z = 4
following systems of equations:
5x + 2y + 3z = 20
(a) 2x - y = 8
x + 2y = 14 (d) x - y + z = 2
5x + y + 2z = 7
(b) 3x + 2y = 4
4x - 2y - z = -1
5x + 2y = 0
(e) x - 2y + z = 0
(c) x - 3y = 10
-4x + y = 10
2x + y = -1
2y - 7z = 3
(d) x - y = 4
6x + 3y = 1.5
(e) 3x + 4y = 50
-5x + 2y = -1
2 Write the augmented matrix for each of the
following systems of equations:
(a) x + y + z = 4
3x - 2y + 4z = 25
2x + 3y + 2z = 6
(b) x - 12y + 3z = 1
3x + 2y + z = -5
5x + 2z = -8
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b (b) a b
2 -1 8 3 2 4 7 -1 -1 3
1
1 2 14 5 2 0 (c) £ 3 2 1 4≥
5 2 3 20
(c) a b (d) a b
1 -3 10 1 -1 4
2 1 -1 6 3 1.5 1 -1 1 2
(d) £ 5 1 2 7 ≥
(e) a b
3 4 50
-5 2 -1 4 -2 -1 -1
1 -2 1 0
1 1 1 4
(e) £ -4 1 0 10 ≥
2 (a) £ 3 -2 4 25 ≥
0 2 -7 3
2 3 2 6
1
1 - 3 1
2
(b) § 3 2 1 -5 ¥
5 0 2 -8
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 617
3.3 Types of solutions to systems of linear equations 617 13
3.3 Types of solutions to systems of linear equations
When a system of linear equations is solved, there are three possible outcomes.
Key point A system of linear equations may have
1 a unique solution
2 an infinite number of solutions
3 no solution.
These three possible outcomes were studied in Block 4 of Chapter 7. In this section we
revisit these three possibilities and note the form of the augmented matrix in each case.
Case 1
For example, consider the system
x + 3y = 7
0x + y = 2
This system has a unique solution, x = 1, y = 2. The corresponding augmented
matrix is
a b
1 3 7
0 1 2
Case 2
Consider the system
x + 3y = 7
0x + 0y = 0
There is really only one equation here because the second states that 0 = 0. There are
an infinite number of solutions of the first equation. For example, x = 7 and y = 0;
x = 10 and y = -1. In general, whatever the value of y, the equation is satisfied if
x = 7 - 3y. We write this as follows: letting y = t, say, then x = 7 - 3t. This is
true for any value of t we choose, so t is called a free variable. The corresponding
augmented matrix is
a b
1 3 7
0 0 0
Case 3
Finally consider the system
x + 3y = 7
0x + 0y = 2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 618
13 618 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
The second equation seems to state that 0 = 2. This is nonsense. There are no
solutions and the augmented matrix is
a b
1 3 7
0 0 2
It is worthwhile rereading Block 4 in Chapter 7 before continuing.
Example 3.2
A system has augmented matrix
a b
1 -4 13
0 1 -3
State the solution of the system.
Solution
The second row of the augmented matrix is equivalent to the equation
0x + 1y = -3
that is
y = -3
The first row of the matrix is equivalent to the equation
x - 4y = 13
Substituting in y = -3 we can obtain x.
x - 4(-3) = 13
x + 12 = 13
x = 1
The system has a unique solution x = 1, y = -3.
In Example 3.2 the value of y was found and substituted back into the remaining
equation so that x could be found. This technique is known as back substitution.
Example 3.3
A system has augmented matrix
a b
1 3 -6
0 0 4
Solve the system.
Solution
The second row of the augmented matrix corresponds to the equation
0x + 0y = 4
This equation has no solution and so the system has no solution.
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3.3 Types of solutions to systems of linear equations 619 13
Example 3.4
A system has augmented matrix
a b
1 3 17
0 0 0
Solve the system.
Solution
The second row of the matrix is equivalent to the equation
0x + 0y = 0
This equation is satisfied for any value of x and y. The first row is equivalent to
x + 3y = 17
This has an infinite number of solutions: x = 17 - 3t, y = t.
Example 3.5
A system has augmented matrix
1 2 -3 11
£0 1 -4 7≥
0 0 1 -1
Solve the system.
Solution
From the third row, the equation is
0x + 0y + 1z = -1
that is
z = -1
From the second row, the corresponding equation is
y - 4z = 7
Substituting in z = -1 the equation can be solved for y.
y - 4(-1) = 7
y + 4 = 7
y = 3
The equation corresponding to the first row is
1x + 2y - 3z = 11
By substituting in the values already obtained for y and z, we can determine x.
x = 2
The system has a unique solution: x = 2, y = 3, z = -1.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 620
13 620 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
Exercises
1 Solve the systems whose augmented matrices 1 -2 -1 5
are (e) £ 0 1 3 1≥
0 0 1 1
(a) a b
1 2 18
0 1 7 1 3 4 2
(f) £ 0 1 6≥
(b) a b
1 -2 10 -2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(c) a b (g) a b
1 5 6 1 3 6 25
0 1 0 0 0 1 3
(d) a b
1 5 6
0 0 1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = 4, y = 7 (b) x = 2t + 10, y = t (f) x = -10t - 16, y = 2t + 6, z = t
(c) x = 6, y = 0 (d) no solution (g) x = 7 - 3t, y = t, z = 3
(e) x = 2, y = -2, z = 1
3.4 Row-echelon form of an augmented matrix
We now introduce the row-echelon form of an augmented matrix. The matrices
given in Examples 3.4 and 3.5 are in row-echelon form. When a matrix is in row-
echelon form it is then easy to determine the solution of the system.
Key point For a matrix to be in row-echelon form:
1 Any rows that consist entirely of zeros are the last rows of the matrix.
2 For a row that is not all zeros, the first non-zero element is a one. We call this
a leading 1.
3 As you move down the rows of the matrix, the leading 1s move progressively to
the right.
Example 3.6
Determine which of the following matrices are in row-echelon form:
(a) a b
1 2 5
0 1 7
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 621
3.4 Row-echelon form of an augmented matrix 621 13
0 1 3 6
(b) £ 1 4 -1 3≥
0 0 0 0
(c) a b
0 0 1 6
0 0 0 0
1 6 9 4
(d) £ 0 1 -3 6≥
0 0 1 5
Solution
(a) This is in row-echelon form. Note that the leading 1 in the second row is further
to the right than the leading 1 in the first row.
(b) This is not in row-echelon form since the leading 1 in the first row is further to
the right than the leading 1 in the second row.
(c) This is in row-echelon form.
(d) This is in row-echelon form.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by row-echelon form. 1 -1 3 7
(d) £ 0 0 0 0≥
2 Determine which of the following matrices are 0 1 5 6
in row-echelon form:
1 0 0 2
(a) a b
1 4 3 9
0 1 -3 6 (e) £ 0 0 1 -1 ≥
0 1 0 3
(b) a b
1 -1 0
0 1 0
1 2 5 6
(c) £ 1 0 3 6≥
0 0 1 4
Solutions to exercises
2 (a) row-echelon form
(b) row-echelon form
(c) not row-echelon form
(d) not row-echelon form
(e) not row-echelon form
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 622
13 622 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
3.5 Elementary row operations
Given any augmented matrix we would like to be able to transform it into row-
echelon form as the solution of the system can then easily be found. The way we
effect this transformation is by using elementary row operations.
We define three elementary operations that we can apply to the equations of the
system.
Key point The elementary operations that change a system but leave the solution unaltered are as
follows:
1 Change the order of the equations.
2 Multiply or divide an equation by a non-zero constant.
3 Add, or subtract, a multiple of one equation to, or from, another equation.
When applied to a system, elementary row operations may change the equations but
the solution to the resulting system remains unchanged. We apply elementary row
operations to a simple system to illustrate this.
Consider the system of linear equations
2x + 5y = 12 (1)
x + y = 3 (2)
The system has solution x = 1, y = 2.
If we interchange the order of the equations, the system becomes
x + y = 3
2x + 5y = 12
The solution to the system is obviously still x = 1, y = 2.
To illustrate the second of the elementary operations consider multiplying
equation (1) by, say, 6 and dividing equation (2) by, say, 5. The system is then
12x + 30y = 72
x y 3
+ =
5 5 5
You can check that this system still has solution x = 1, y = 2.
Finally, to illustrate the third elementary operation, we add 3 times equation (1) to
equation (2). The system becomes
2x + 5y = 12
7x + 16y = 39
Check that this resulting system has solution x = 1, y = 2.
Thus elementary operations may change the system, but they do not change the
solutions of a system.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 623
3.5 Elementary row operations 623 13
We have been writing a system in the form of an augmented matrix, where each
row of the matrix corresponds to an equation of the system. Thus we can apply ele-
mentary operations to the rows of an augmented matrix rather than the equations of
the system. When elementary operations are applied to the rows of a matrix they are
called elementary row operations.
Example 3.7
(a) Write down the augmented matrix of the system
2x + 5y = 12
x + y = 3
(b) Carry out the following elementary row operations, each time applying the
operation to the most recent augmented matrix:
(i) interchange the rows
(ii) subtract 2 * the first row from the second row
(iii) divide the second row by 3.
(c) Hence solve the system.
Solution
(a) The augmented matrix is
a b
2 5 12
1 1 3
(b) (i) The rows are interchanged. The augmented matrix becomes
a b
1 1 3
2 5 12
(ii) We now use the augmented matrix in (b) (i). Subtracting 2 * the first row
from the second row results in
a b
1 1 3
0 3 6
(iii) We now use the augmented matrix in (b) (ii). Dividing the second row
by 3 gives
a b
1 1 3
0 1 2
(c) Note that the matrix is now in row-echelon form. From the second row we see
that y = 2. From the first row we have
1x + 1y = 3
Substituting y = 2 into this equation we obtain x = 1. Thus the solution to the
original system is x = 1, y = 2.
The method of solution of Example 3.7 is thus
1 Write down the augmented matrix.
2 Apply elementary row operations to obtain row-echelon form.
3 Solve the system.
This method is known as Gaussian elimination.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 624
13 624 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
Example 3.8
Use Gaussian elimination to solve
3x - y = 1
2x + 3y = 19
Solution
The augmented matrix is
a b
3 -1 1
2 3 19
We now apply a series of elementary row operations to transform the augmented
matrix into row-echelon form.
Subtract the second row from the first row.
a b
1 -4 -18
2 3 19
Subtract 2 ⫻ the first row from the second row.
a b
1 -4 -18
0 11 55
Divide the second row by 11.
a b
1 -4 -18
0 1 5
The matrix is now in row-echelon form. From the second row we see that y = 5. The
first row corresponds to the equation
1x - 4y = -18
Substituting y = 5 into this equation allows x to be found.
2
The solution to the system is x = 2, y = 5.
Example 3.9
Use Gaussian elimination to solve
2x + y + 2z = 8
x - 3y + 3z = -4
4x + 2y - z = 1
Solution
The augmented matrix is
2 1 2 8
£1 -3 3 -4 ≥
4 2 -1 1
We apply a series of elementary row operations to transform the matrix into row-
echelon form.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 625
3.5 Elementary row operations 625 13
Interchange the first row and second row.
1 -3 3 -4
£2 1 2 8≥
4 2 -1 1
Subtract 2 * the first row from the second row, subtract 4 * the first row from the
third row. This produces
1 -3 3 - 4
£0 7 -4 16 ≥
0 14 -13 17
Subtract 2 * the second row from the third row to get
1 -3 3 -4
£0 7 -4 16 ≥
0 0 -5 -15
Divide the second row by 7, divide the third row by -5.
1 -3 3 -4
4 16
§0 1 - ¥
7 7
0 0 1 3
The matrix is now in row-echelon form. From the third row we see that
z = 3
The second row is equivalent to the equation
4 16
1y - z =
7 7
Substituting z = 3 and solving for y yields
y = 4
The first row is equivalent to the equation
1x - 3y + 3z = -4
Substituting in the values for y and z and solving for x yields
x = -1
The solution to the system is x = -1, y = 4, z = 3.
Exercises
1 Use Gaussian elimination to solve the systems 2 Use Gaussian elimination to solve the systems
of linear equations given in question 1 of of linear equations given in question 2 of
Section 3.2. Section 3.2.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 626
13 626 Block 3 Gaussian elimination
3 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 5 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
2x + y = 8 x + 2y + z = 6
3x + 1.5y = 12 3x - 4y + 2z = 1
7x - 6y + 5z = 8
4 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
6x - 8y = 10
-3x + 4y = 4
Solutions to exercises
t
1 (a) x = 6, y = 4 (b) x = -2, y = 5 3 x = 4 - ,y = t
(c) x = 1, y = -3 (d) x = 1.5, y = -2.5 2
(e) x = 4, y = 9.5 4 no solution
2 (a) x = 3, y = -2, z = 3 13 - 4t 17 - t
(b) x = -2, y = 0, z = 1 5 x = ,y = ,z = t
5 10
(c) x = 1, y = -3, z = 7
1 1
(d) x = 2, y = 2, z = 2
(e) x = -3, y = -2, z = -1
End of block exercises
1 State the augmented matrix of each of the 1 3 1 0 -4
following systems of equations: 0 0 1 0 2
(a) 3a - b = 4 (c) § ¥
0 0 0 1 -1
2b + 3g = -7
0 0 0 0 0
a - b + g = 11
(b) a + b = 3 3 Use Gaussian elimination to solve each of the
2a - b = 0 following systems of equations:
5a + 3b = 11 (a) x - 2y = -15
y + 2x = 15
2 Determine which of the following matrices are
in echelon form: (b) 3x + 4y = 14
-2x + y = -24
1 1 1 0 1
4 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
(a) £ 0 0 0 1 3≥
2x - y + z = -2
0 0 0 0 0
x + 2y + 3z = -1
2x + 2y - z = 8
1 0 1 0 3
(b) £ 0 1 4 3 6≥
0 0 0 0 0
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 627
3.5 Elementary row operations 627 13
5 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 8 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
2x + y = 10 2x + y - z = -3
x + 0.5y = 5 3x + 2y + z = 6
x + y + 2z = 8
6 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
3x + y = -3 9 Use Gaussian elimination to solve
4x + 17y = -4 2x + y - z = -3
3x + 2y + z = 6
7 Use Gaussian elimination to solve x + y + 2z = 9
2x - 3y = 12
6x - 9y = 24
Solutions to exercises
3 -1 0 4 4 x = 1, y = 2, z = -2
1 (a) £ 0 2 3 -7 ≥
1 -1 1 11 t
5 x = 5 - ,y = t
2
1 1 3
(b) £ 2 -1 0≥ 6 x = -1, y = 0
5 3 11
7 no solution
2 (a) echelon form (b) echelon form
(c) echelon form 8 no solution
3 (a) x = 3, y = 9 (b) x = 10, y = -4 9 x = 3t - 12, y = 21 - 5t, z = t
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 628
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
In this block we consider the meaning and calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Although such calculations may at first sight appear abstract, eigenvalues have
important applications in the area of vibration analysis. Familiarity with the evalu-
ation of determinants and the solution of simultaneous equations by Gaussian elimi-
nation is essential.
4.2 Trivial and non-trivial solutions
Before we can discuss eigenvalues some preliminary results about determinants are
required. These are now developed.
Consider the simultaneous equations
ax + by = 0
cx + dy = 0
where a, b, c and d are constants. Clearly x = 0, y = 0 is a solution of these equa-
tions. We call this the trivial solution. Let us explore the relationship that must exist
between a, b, c and d so that the system has non-trivial solutions. These are solu-
tions other than x = 0, y = 0. For definiteness we consider two cases with values of
a, b, c and d given.
Case 1:
5x - 3y = 0
10x - 2y = 0
Case 2:
5x - 3y = 0
10x - 6y = 0
Solving Case 1, for example, by Gaussian elimination leads to x = 0, y = 0 as the
only possible solution. Thus the only solution is the trivial solution.
Looking at Case 2 we see that the second equation is simply twice the first equation.
This means that the second equation can be deduced from the first equation. In
essence, there is only one equation to work with. So we consider the solution of
5x - 3y = 0
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 629
4.2 Trivial and non-trivial solutions 629 13
Rearranging we have
5
y = x
3
As long as the y value is 53 of the x value the equation is satisfied. Hence, for example,
x = 1, y = 53 ; x = 2, y = 10 25
3 ; x = -5, y = - 3 are all solutions. In general, the
5
solutions have the form x = t, y = 3t for any value of t. Thus there are an infinite
number of non-trivial solutions.
We now return to the system
ax + by = 0
cx + dy = 0
As seen, depending upon the values of a, b, c and d the system has either only the
trivial solution or an infinity of non-trivial solutions. For there to be an infinity of
solutions the second equation must be a multiple of the first. When this is the case
then c is a multiple of a and d is the same multiple of b: that is,
c = aa, d = ab for some value of a
In this case, consider the quantity ad - bc:
ad - bc = a(ab) - b(aa)
= aab - aab
= 0
Hence the condition for non-trivial solutions to exist is that ad - bc = 0. Writing
the system in matrix form gives
a ba b = a b
a b x 0
c d y 0
or
AX = 0
where
A = a b, X = a b 0 = a b
a b x 0
and
c d y 0
We note that ad - bc is the determinant of A, so non-trivial solutions exist when the
determinant of A is zero, that is when A is a singular matrix.
In summary
Key points Consider the system
AX = 0
• If ƒ A ƒ = 0 the system has non-trivial solutions.
• If ƒ A ƒ Z 0 the system has only the trivial solution.
This Key point holds true for a square matrix of any size.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 630
13 630 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Example 4.1
Decide which system has non-trivial solutions.
(a) 4x - y = 0 (b) x + 2y = 0
2x - 3y = 0 3x + 6y = 0
Solution
(a) We write the system as
a b a b = a b
4 -1 x 0
2 -3 y 0
Let
A = a b
4 -1
2 -3
Then
det(A) = 4(-3) - (-1)(2) = -10
Since the determinant of A is non-zero the system has only the trivial solution.
(b) We write the system as
a ba b = a b
1 2 x 0
3 6 y 0
Then
A = a b
1 2
3 6
and |A| = 6 - 6 = 0. Since the determinant of A is zero the system has
non-trivial solutions.
Example 4.2
Determine which system has non-trivial solutions.
(a) 3x - y + z = 0
x + 2y + 2z = 0
4x + y + 3z = 0
(b) 3x - y + z = 0
x + 2y + 2z = 0
5x - y + 3z = 0
Solution
(a) We have
AX = 0
where
3 -1 1 x
P Q P Q
A = 1 2 2 and X = y
4 1 3 z
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 631
4.2 Trivial and non-trivial solutions 631 13
Evaluate the determinant of A:
ƒAƒ = 0
Since |A| = 0 the system has non-trivial solutions.
(b) Here
3 -1 1
P5 Q
A = 1 2 2
-1 3
Evaluate the determinant of A:
ƒAƒ = 6
Since |A| Z 0 the system has only the trivial solution.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the trivial solution of 3 Determine which of the following systems
a system of linear equations and what is meant have non-trivial solutions:
by a non-trivial solution. (a) x + 2y - z = 0
3x + y + 2z = 0
2 Determine which of the following systems x + y = 0
have non-trivial solutions: (b) 2x - 3y - 2z = 0
(a) x - 2y = 0 3x + y - 3z = 0
3x - 6y = 0 x - 7y - z = 0
(b) 3x + y = 0 (c) x + 2y + 3z = 0
9x + 2y = 0 4x - 3y - z = 0
(c) 4x - 3y = 0 6x + y + 3z = 0
-4x + 3y = 0 (d) x + 3z = 0
(d) 6x - 2y = 0 x - y = 0
2x - 23 y = 0 y + 2z = 0
(e) y = 2x
x = 3y
Solutions to exercises
2 (a), (c) and (d) have non-trivial solutions. 3 (a) and (b) have non-trivial solutions.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 632
13 632 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
4.3 Eigenvalues
We shall explain the meaning of the term eigenvalue by means of an example.
Consider the system
2x + y = lx
3x + 4y = ly
where l is some unknown constant. Clearly these equations have the trivial solution
x = 0, y = 0. The equations may be written in matrix form as
a b a b = la b
2 1 x x
3 4 y y
or, using the usual notation,
AX = lX
We now seek values of l so that the system has non-trivial solutions. Although it is
tempting to write (A - l)X = 0 this would be incorrect since A - l is not defined;
A is a matrix and l is a constant. Hence to progress we need to write the right-hand
side in a slightly different way. To help us do this we use the 2 * 2 identity matrix, I.
Now la b may be expressed as
x
y
ba b
1 0 x
la
0 1 y
since multiplying a b by the identity matrix leaves it unaltered. So lX may be
x
y
written as lIX. Hence we have
AX = lIX
which can be written as
AX - lIX = 0
(A - lI)X = 0
Note that the expression (A - lI) is defined since both A and lI are square matrices
of the same size.
We have seen in Section 4.2 that for AX = 0 to have non-trivial solutions then
|A| = 0. Hence for
(A - lI)X = 0
to have non-trivial solutions then
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 633
4.3 Eigenvalues 633 13
Now
A - lI = a b - la b
2 1 1 0
3 4 0 1
= a b - a b
2 1 l 0
3 4 0 l
= a b
2 - l 1
3 4 - l
So the condition ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0 gives
` ` = 0
2 - l 1
3 4 - l
It follows that
(2 - l)(4 - l) - 3 = 0
l2 - 6l + 5 = 0
(l - 1)(l - 5) = 0
so that
l = 1 or 5
These are the values of l that cause the system AX = lX to have non-trivial
solutions. They are called eigenvalues.
The equation
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
which when written out explicitly is the quadratic equation in l, is called the
characteristic equation.
Example 4.3
Find values of l for which
x + 4y = lx
2x + 3y = ly
has non-trivial solutions.
Solution
We write the system as
AX = lX
where
A = a b, X = a b
1 4 x
2 3 y
To have non-trivial solutions we require
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 634
13 634 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Now
A - lI = a b - la b
1 4 1 0
2 3 0 1
= a b - a b
1 4 l 0
2 3 0 l
= a b
1 - l 4
2 3 - l
Hence
ƒ A - lI ƒ = (1 - l)(3 - l) - 8
= l2 - 4l - 5
To have non-trivial solutions we require
l2 - 4l - 5 = 0
(l + 1)(l - 5) = 0
which yields
l = -1 or l = 5
The given system has non-trivial solutions when l = -1 and l = 5. These are the
eigenvalues.
If A is a 2 * 2 matrix, the characteristic equation will be a polynomial of degree 2,
that is a quadratic equation in l, leading to two eigenvalues. If A is a 3 * 3 matrix,
the characteristic equation will be a polynomial of degree 3, that is a cubic, leading to
three eigenvalues. In general an n * n matrix gives rise to a characteristic equation of
degree n and hence to n eigenvalues.
Key point The characteristic equation of a square matrix A is given by
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
Solutions of this equation are the eigenvalues of A. These are the values of l for which
AX = lX has non-trivial solutions.
Example 4.4
Determine the characteristic equation and eigenvalues, l, in the system
a b a b = la b
3 1 x x
-1 5 y y
Solution
In this example the equations have been written in matrix form with
A = a b
3 1
-1 5
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 635
4.3 Eigenvalues 635 13
The characteristic equation is given by
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
`a b - la b` = 0
3 1 1 0
-1 5 0 1
` ` = 0
3 - l 1
-1 5 - l
(3 - l)(5 - l) + 1 = 0
l2 - 8l + 16 = 0
The characteristic equation is l2 - 8l + 16 = 0. Solving the characteristic
equation gives
l2 - 8l + 16 = 0
(l - 4)(l - 4) = 0
l = 4 (twice)
There is one repeated eigenvalue: l = 4.
Example 4.5
Find the eigenvalues l in the system
a b a b = la b
4 1 x x
3 2 y y
Solution
We form the characteristic equation, |A - lI| = 0. Now
a b
4 - l 1
A - lI =
3 2 - l
Then
ƒ A - lI ƒ = l2 - 6l + 5
Solving the characteristic equation l2 - 6l + 5 = 0 gives
l = 1, 5
There are two eigenvalues, l = 1 and l = 5.
The process of finding the characteristic equation and eigenvalues of a matrix has
been illustrated using 2 * 2 matrices. This same process can be applied to a square
matrix of any size.
Example 4.6
Find (a) the characteristic equation and (b) the eigenvalues of A where
1 2 0
P Q
A = -1 -1 1
3 2 -2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 636
13 636 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Solution
(a) We need to calculate |A - lI|. Now
1 - l 2 0
P 3 Q
A - lI = -1 -1 - l 1
2 -2 - l
and
1 - l 2 0
† -1 † = (1 - l) ` 2 ` - 2` `
-1 - l 1 -1 1
-1 - l 1
-2 - l 3 -2 - l
3 2 -2 - l
= (1 - l)[(-1 - l)(-2 - l) - 2] - 2[-1(-2 - l) - 3]
Upon simplification this reduces to -l3 - 2l2 + l + 2. Hence
ƒ A - lI ƒ = 0
yields
-l3 - 2l2 + l + 2 = 0
which may be written as
l3 + 2l2 - l - 2 = 0
The characteristic equation is l3 + 2l2 - l - 2 = 0.
(b) We solve the characteristic equation to find the eigenvalues. This cubic can be
factorised using the technique described in Chapter 7, Block 3, to give
(l + 2)(l + 1)(l - 1)
and so the characteristic equation may be written as
(l + 2)(l + 1)(l - 1) = 0
from which
l = -2, -1, 1
The eigenvalues are l = -2, -1, 1.
Exercises
1 Calculate (i) the characteristic equation and 2 Calculate (i) the characteristic equation and
(ii) the eigenvalues of the system AX = lX (ii) the eigenvalues of the following 3 * 3
where A is given by matrices:
(a) a b (b) a b
5 6 -3 4 1 -1 2
P Q
2 1 -4 5 (a) -3 -2 3
2 1
(c) a b (d) a b
7 -2 1 3 -1
1 4 4 -1
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 637
4.4 Eigenvectors 637 13
1 0 -1 -2 6 2
P Q P Q
(b) 3 1 4 (d) 0 3 4
0 2 2 3 -3 5
2 1 2 3 -2 1
P Q P Q
(c) -1 1 -1 (e) 2 -4 3
8 3 0 16 -4 1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) (i) l2 - 6l - 7 = 0 (ii) l = -1, 7 (b) (i) l3 - 4l2 - 3l + 12 = 0
(b) (i) l2 - 2l + 1 = 0 (ii) l = 1 (twice) (ii) l = - 23, 23, 4
(c) (i) l2 - 11l + 30 = 0 (ii) l = 5, 6 (c) (i) l3 - 3l2 - 10l + 24 = 0
(ii) l = -3, 2, 4
(d) (i) l2 - 13 = 0 (ii) l = - 213, 213
(d) (i) l3 - 6l2 + 5l = 0 (ii) l = 0, 1, 5
2 (a) (i) -l3 + 7l + 6 = 0 (e) (i) l3 - 13l + 12 = 0 (ii) l = -4, 1, 3
(ii) l = -2, -1, 3
4.4 Eigenvectors
We have studied the system
AX = lX (1)
and determined the values of l for which non-trivial solutions exist. These values of
l are called eigenvalues of the system or, more simply, eigenvalues of A. For each
eigenvalue there is a non-trivial solution of the system. This solution is called an
eigenvector.
Example 4.7
Find the eigenvectors of
AX = lX
where
A = a b X = a b
4 1 x
and
3 2 y
Solution
We seek solutions of AX = lX that may be written as
(A - lI) X = 0
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13 638 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
The eigenvalues were found in Example 4.5 to be l = 1, 5.
First we consider l = 1. The system equation becomes
(A - lI) X = 0
(A - I) X = 0
ca b - a bda b = a b
4 1 1 0 x 0
3 2 0 1 y 0
a ba b = a b
3 1 x 0
3 1 y 0
Written as individual equations we have
3x + y = 0
3x + y = 0
Clearly there is only one equation, which is repeated. As long as y = -3x the equa-
tion is satisfied. Thus there are an infinite number of solutions such as x = 1,
y = -3; x = -5, y = 15; and so on. Generally we write
x = t, y = -3t
for any number t. Thus the eigenvector corresponding to l = 1 is
X = a b
x
y
= a b
t
-3t
= ta b
1
-3
Note that the eigenvector has been determined to within an arbitrary scalar, t. Thus
there is an infinity of solutions corresponding to l = 1.
We now consider l = 5 and seek solutions of the system equation
(A - lI) X = 0
ca b - 5a bda b = a b
4 1 1 0 x 0
3 2 0 1 y 0
a ba b = a b
-1 1 x 0
3 -3 y 0
Written as individual equations we have
-x + y = 0
3x - 3y = 0
We note that the second equation is simply a multiple of the first so that in essence
there is only one equation. Solving -x + y = 0 gives y = x for any x. So we write
x = t, y = t. Hence the eigenvector corresponding to l = 5 is
X = ta b
1
1
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4.4 Eigenvectors 639 13
Again the eigenvector has been determined to within an arbitrary scaling constant.
Sometimes the arbitrary scaling constants are not written down; it is understood
that they are there. In such a case we say the eigenvectors of the system are
X = a b and X = a b
1 1
-3 1
Example 4.8
Determine the eigenvectors of
a b a b = la b
3 1 x x
-1 5 y y
Solution
In Example 4.4 we found that there is only one eigenvalue, l = 4. We seek the solu-
tion of (A - lI) X = 0. Write down the equations that result from letting l = 4,
firstly in matrix form and then as a single equation.
a b a b = a b
-1 1 x 0
-1 1 y 0
-x + y = 0
Find the infinite number of solutions.
x = t, y = t
Hence there is one eigenvector:
X = ta b
1
1
The concept of eigenvectors is easily extended to matrices of higher order.
Example 4.9
Determine the eigenvectors of
1 2 0 x x
P QP Q P Q
-1 -1 1 y = l y
3 2 -2 z z
The eigenvalues were found in Example 4.6.
Solution
From Example 4.6 the eigenvalues are l = -2, -1, 1. We consider each eigenvalue
in turn.
l = -2
1 2 0 x x
P Q PzQ P Q
-1 -1 1 y = -2 y
3 2 -2 z
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 640
13 640 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
1 2 0 1 0 0 x 0
JP 3 Q P QKP Q P Q
-1 -1 1 + 2 0 1 0 y = 0
2 -2 0 0 1 z 0
3 2 0 x 0
P QP Q P Q
-1 1 1 y = 0
3 2 0 z 0
We note that the first and last rows are identical. So we have
3x + 2y = 0
-x + y + z = 0
Solving these equations gives
x = t, y = - 32 t, z = 52 t
Hence the corresponding eigenvector is
1
3
X = t -
• 2 μ
5
2
l = -1
We have
1 2 0 1 0 0 x 0
JP Q P QKP Q P Q
-1 -1 1 + 0 1 0 y = 0
3 2 -2 0 0 1 z 0
2 2 0 x 0
P QP Q P Q
-1 0 1 y = 0
3 2 -1 z 0
Thus we have
2x + 2y = 0
-x + z = 0
3x + 2y - z = 0
We note that the third equation can be derived from the first two equations: the first
equation minus the second produces the third. If you cannot spot this, the equations
should be solved by Gaussian elimination. In effect we have only two equations:
2x + 2y = 0
-x + z = 0
Solving these gives x = t, y = -t, z = t. The eigenvector is
1
P Q
X = t -1
1
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 641
4.4 Eigenvectors 641 13
l = 1
We have
1 2 0 1 0 0 x 0
JP Q P QKP Q P Q
-1 -1 1 - 0 1 0 y = 0
3 2 -2 0 0 1 z 0
0 2 0 x 0
P QP Q P Q
-1 -2 1 y = 0
3 2 -3 z 0
Thus we have
2y = 0
-x - 2y + z = 0
3x + 2y - 3z = 0
From the first equation, y = 0; putting y = 0 into the other equations yields
-x + z = 0
3x - 3z = 0
Here the second equation can be derived from the first by multiplying the first by -3.
Solving, we have x = t, z = t. So the eigenvector is
P Q
X = t 0
1
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are important in the analysis of vibrating systems and
consequently have a wide variety of applications in, for example, the aerospace and
motor industries. In Example 4.10 below we see how eigenvalues are related to the
possible angular frequencies of vibration. Further, the eigenvectors describe the pos-
sible patterns or modes of vibration.
Many computer algebra packages will calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a
square matrix A. For example, in Maple, with the LinearAlgebra package
loaded, with(LinearAlgebra), the command Eigenvalues(A) will return
a vector containing the eigenvalues of A. The command Eigenvectors(A) will
return a vector containing the eigenvalues and also a matrix containing the corre-
sponding eigenvectors.
The Matlab instruction [V, D] = eig(A) returns two matrices V and D. The
columns of V are the eigenvectors of A. The matrix D is diagonal with the eigenval-
ues of A on the diagonal.
Example 4.10 Mechanical Engineering Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
for vibrating systems
When a spring is extended beyond its natural length by a distance x, the resulting
tension, T, in the spring is given by T = kx where k is called the spring constant.
This constant depends upon the material properties of the spring and its natural
length.
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13 642 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Figure 4.1 shows two masses, m1 and m2, suspended from a fixed point and cou-
pled with two springs having spring constants k1 and k2. The diagram on the left
shows the masses at rest in their equilibrium positions. The diagram on the right
depicts an instant in which the masses are in motion. The displacements x1(t) and
x2(t) are measured from the equilibrium positions in the directions indicated.
Figure 4.1
Two masses
coupled with
springs, in static
equilibrium (left)
k1 = 12
and in motion
(right).
m1= 1
x1
k2 = 8
m2 = 1
Masses at rest x2
in equilibrium
Masses set in motion
Applying Newton’s second law of motion to each of the two masses in turn
leads to the following differential equations (see Chapters 20 and 22) that govern
their behaviour:
d2x1
-1k1 + k22x1 + k2x2 = m1 2
dt
d2x2
k2x1 - k2x2 = m2
dt2
These can be written in matrix form as
d2x1
-1k1 + k22
m1
a ba b = ± ≤
k2 x1 dt2
k2 -k2 x2 d2x2
m2
dt2
-1k1 + k22/m1
or more concisely as AX = B where A = a b, X = a b
k2/m1 x1
k2/m2 -k2/m2 x2
d2x1
and B = ± ≤ . Using knowledge of the solution of differential equations it can
dt2
d2x2
dt2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 643
4.4 Eigenvectors 643 13
be shown that the angular frequencies, v, with which the system can oscillate are
found from v2 = -l where l is an eigenvalue of A. The corresponding eigenvectors
are related to the possible modes of vibration.
Given that k1 = 12, k2 = 8 and m1 = m2 = 1, as indicated in Figure 4.1, we can
calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors using software as follows:
Maple
> with(LinearAlgebra):
A:=Matrix([[-20, 8], [8,-8]]);
Eigenvectors(A);
which yields the following output
A J c d
-20 8
8 -8
1
c d, c d
-24 -2 2
-4 1 1
showing that there are two eigenvalues l1 = -24 and l2 = -4 with corresponding
1
eigenvectors a b and a 2 b respectively.
-2
1 1
Matlab
Using the Matlab commands given above we find
>> A = [-20 8; 8 -8]
A = -20 8
8 -8
>> [V, D] =eig(A)
V = -0.8944 -0.4472
0.4472 -0.8944
D = -24 0
0 -4
You should compare the output here with that from Maple above and be able to explain
why the eigenvectors are apparently different.
From these results we can deduce that the system can oscillate at angular frequencies
v = 2 -l = 2 26 and 2.
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13 644 Block 4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Exercises
1 Calculate the eigenvectors of the matrices 2 Calculate the eigenvectors of the matrices
given in question 1 of the previous section. given in question 2 of the previous section.
Solutions to exercises
b, ta 1 b (b) ta b
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 (a) ta
P - 7 Q P 1 Q P 1.4 Q
1
-1 3 1 (c) t - 3 , t -2 , t -0.8
(c) ta b, ta 1 b
1 1 3
1 2 1 1 1
P - 1 Q P -0.3 Q P 0.5 Q
4
1 1 (d) t , t 0.6 , t 1
b, ta 213 - 1b
9
(d) ta
- 1 + 3213 3
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
P1 Q P 5 Q P1 Q P -6 2 Q P6Q P4Q
19
2 (a) t 5 , t 12 , t 0 (e) t , t 4 ,t 2
3
1 1 1
P 2.7321 Q P -0.7321 Q P -3 Q
(b) t -5.0981 , t 0.0981 , t -3
End of block exercises
1 Determine which of the following systems
2 Determine which of the following systems
have non-trivial solutions:
have non-trivial solutions:
(a) 2x - y = 0
(a) 3x - 2y + 2z = 0
3x - 1.5y = 0
x - y + z = 0
(b) 6x + 5y = 0
2x + 2y - z = 0
5x + 6y = 0
(b) x + 3y - z = 0
(c) -x - 4y = 0
4x - y + 2z = 0
2x + 8y = 0
6x + 5y = 0
(d) 7x - 3y = 0
(c) x + 2y - z = 0
1.4x - 0.6y = 0
x - 3z = 0
(e) -4x + 5y = 0
5x + 6y - 9z = 0
3x - 4y = 0
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 645
4.4 Eigenvectors 645 13
3 The matrix A is defined by
5 The matrix H is given by
A = a b
3 2
4 -1 1
P -4 Q
-3 -4
H = -2 4 0
(a) Determine the characteristic equation of A.
(b) Determine the eigenvalues of A. 3 1
(c) Determine the eigenvectors of A.
(d) Form a new matrix M whose columns are (a) Find the eigenvalues of H.
the two eigenvectors of A. M is called a (b) Determine the eigenvectors of H.
modal matrix. (c) Form a new matrix M whose columns are
(e) Show that M - 1AM is a diagonal matrix, D, the three eigenvectors of H. M is called a
with the eigenvalues of A on its leading modal matrix.
diagonal. D is called the spectral matrix (d) Show that M -1HM is a diagonal matrix, D,
corresponding to the modal matrix M. with the eigenvalues of H on its leading
diagonal. D is called the spectral matrix
4 (a) Show that the matrix corresponding to the modal matrix M.
A = a b
5 2
-2 1
has only one eigenvalue and determine it.
(b) Calculate the eigenvector of A.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a), (c) and (d) have non-trivial solutions. 4 (a) l = 3
(b) a b
1
2 (b) and (c) have non-trivial solutions.
-1
3 (a) l2 + l - 6 = 0 5 (a) l = 2, 3, 4
(b) l = -3, 2
1 1 0
P -1 Q P 1 Q P 1 Q
(c) a b a b
1 1
(b) 1 , 2 , 1
-3 -0.5
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 646
Iterative techniques
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
So far we have met a number of techniques used for solving systems of linear
equations – Cramer’s rule (Block 1), the inverse matrix method (Block 2) and
Gaussian elimination (Block 3) are three such methods.
We now examine two techniques that provide approximate solutions to linear sys-
tems. In these, an initial guess of the solution is repeatedly improved, generating a
sequence of approximate solutions. With repeated application of the method, under
certain conditions, the approximate solutions approach the exact solution. Such
methods are known as iterative methods. The two iterative methods we look at are
Jacobi’s method and the Gauss–Seidel method.
5.2 Jacobi’s method
We illustrate the method with examples.
Example 5.1
Solve
3x - 2y = 9
x + 4y = -11
using Jacobi’s iterative method.
Solution
We rewrite the equations so that x and y are the subjects. This yields
2
x = y + 3 (1)
3
x 11
y = - - (2)
4 4
We now guess a solution. In practice an educated guess may be possible if realistic
estimates of x and y are known. Suppose we guess x = 0, y = -4. To show this is
our initial guess and not the exact solution we write x0 = 0, y0 = -4.
We improve our initial guess by substituting x0 = 0, y0 = -4 into the right-hand
side of equations (1) and (2). The values of x and y so obtained are labelled x1 and y1.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 647
5.2 Jacobi’s method 647 13
Hence
2
x1 = y0 + 3
3
2
= (-4) + 3
3
= 0.3333
x0 11
y1 = - -
4 4
0 11
= - -
4 4
= -2.7500
At this stage we have made one application, or iteration, of Jacobi’s method. To
obtain the next approximate solution, x2, y2, we substitute x1 and y1 into the right-
hand side of equations (1) and (2). This produces
2
x2 = y + 3
3 1
2
= (-2.7500) + 3
3
= 1.1667
x1 11
y2 = - -
4 4
(0.3333) 11
= - -
4 4
= -2.8333
At this stage two iterations have been performed. We perform another iteration to
obtain x3 and y3.
2
x3 = y + 3
3 2
2
= (-2.8333) + 3
3
= 1.1111
x2 11
y3 = - -
4 4
(1.1667) 11
= - -
4 4
= -3.0417
Similarly
2
x4 = y + 3
3 3
2
= (-3.0417) + 3
3
= 0.9722
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13 648 Block 5 Iterative techniques
x3 11
y4 = - -
4 4
(1.1111) 11
= - -
4 4
= -3.0278
The iterations can be continued. Table 5.1 summarises the results of successive
iterations.
Table 5.1
Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 0.0000 -4.0000
1 0.3333 -2.7500
2 1.1667 -2.8333
3 1.1111 -3.0417
4 0.9722 -3.0278
5 0.9815 -2.9931
6 1.0046 -2.9954
7 1.0031 -3.0012
8 0.9992 -3.0008
9 0.9995 -2.9998
10 1.0001 -2.9999
11 1.0001 -3.0000
12 1.0000 -3.0000
The value of xn seems to converge to 1 as n increases; the value of yn seems to con-
verge to -3 as n increases. It is easy to verify that the exact solution of the given
equations is x = 1, y = -3. So Jacobi’s method has produced a sequence of
approximate solutions that has converged to the exact solution.
Example 5.2
Find an approximate solution to
4x + y = 12
-2x + 5y = 16
using Jacobi’s method. Perform five iterations and take x0 = 0, y0 = 3 as your
initial guess.
Solution
The equations are rearranged to make x and y the subjects.
x = -0.25y + 3
y = 0.4x + 3.2
The initial guess is x0 = 0, y0 = 3. Then
x1 = -0.25y0 + 3
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5.2 Jacobi’s method 649 13
= -0.25(3) + 3
= 2.25
y1 = 0.4x0 + 3.2 = 3.2
We now find x2 and y2.
x2 =
-0.25y1 + 3 = -0.25(3.2) + 3 = 2.2
y2 =
0.4x1 + 3.2 = 0.4(2.25) + 3.2 = 4.1
Continuing in this way we find
x3 = , y3 = 1.975, 4.08
x4 = , y4 = 1.98, 3.99
x5 = , y5 = 2.003, 3.99
If the iterations are continued then xn approaches 2 and yn approaches 4, the exact
solution.
Clearly, this sort of approach is simple to program, and iterative techniques are best
implemented on a computer. When writing a program a test is incorporated so that
after each iteration a check for convergence is made by comparing successive esti-
mates. The method may not converge, and, even if it does, convergence may be very
slow. Other methods with improved rates of convergence are available such as the
Gauss–Seidel method, which is covered in Section 5.3.
Exercises
1 Use five iterations of Jacobi’s method to find (c) -3x + y = 14
approximate solutions of each system of 2x - 7y = 16
equations: Take x0 = -4, y0 = -2.
(a) 3x - y = 17 (d) 4x + y = 19
2x - 5y = 20 -3x + 7y = 40
Take x0 = 3, y0 = 0. Take x0 = 1, y0 = 5.
(b) 2x + y = 11 (e) -3x + 2y = 37
x - 3y = -26 x + 5y = 50
Take x0 = 0, y0 = 7. Take x0 = -3, y0 = 9.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:43 AM Page 650
13 650 Block 5 Iterative techniques
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) Iteration no. (n) xn yn (d) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 3.0000 0.0000 0 1.0000 5.0000
1 5.6667 -2.8000 1 3.5000 6.1429
2 4.7333 -1.7333 2 3.2143 7.2143
3 5.0889 -2.1067 3 2.9464 7.0918
4 4.9644 -1.9644 4 2.9770 6.9770
5 5.0119 -2.0142 5 3.0057 6.9902
(b) Iteration no. (n) xn yn (e) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 0.0000 7.0000 0 -3.0000 9.0000
1 2.0000 8.6667 1 -6.3333 10.6000
2 1.1667 9.3333 2 -5.2667 11.2667
3 0.8333 9.0556 3 -4.8222 11.0533
4 0.9722 8.9444 4 -4.9644 10.9644
5 1.0278 8.9907 5 -5.0237 10.9929
(c) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 -4.0000 -2.0000
1 -5.3333 -3.4286
2 -5.8095 -3.8095
3 -5.9365 -3.9456
4 -5.9819 -3.9819
5 -5.9940 -3.9948
5.3 Gauss–Seidel method
The Gauss–Seidel method is very similar to Jacobi’s method. The difference comes
in the calculation of the y values. When calculating the y values the most recent x
value is used. Example 5.3 illustrates this.
Example 5.3
Use the Gauss–Seidel method to find an approximate solution to the system given in
Example 5.1. Perform five iterations and take x0 = 0, y0 = -4.
Solution
We arrange the equations so that x and y are the subjects:
2
x = y + 3
3
x
y = - - 2.75
4
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5.3 Gauss–Seidel method 651 13
We make an initial guess, say x0 = 0, y0 = -4. Now we calculate x1.
2
x1 = y + 3
3 0
2
= (-4) + 3
3
= 0.3333
Up to this point, the method is identical to Jacobi’s method.
When calculating y1 the most recent value of x, that is x1, is used.
x1
y1 = - - 2.75
4
(0.3333)
= - - 2.75
4
= -2.8333
This completes the first iteration. We are now ready to calculate x2 and y2.
2
x2 = y + 3
3 1
2
= (-2.8333) + 3
3
= 1.1111
When calculating y2 we use the most recent value of x, that is x2.
x2
y2 = - - 2.75
4
(1.1111)
= - - 2.75
4
= -3.0278
This completes the second iteration. The process is repeated.
2
x3 = y + 3
3 2
2
= (-3.0278) + 3
3
= 0.9815
x3
y3 = - - 2.75
4
(0.9815)
= - - 2.75
4
= -2.9954
Table 5.2 summarises some further iterations.
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13 652 Block 5 Iterative techniques
Table 5.2
Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 0.0000 -4.0000
1 0.3333 -2.8333
2 1.1111 -3.0278
3 0.9815 -2.9954
4 1.0031 -3.0008
5 0.9995 -2.9999
6 1.0001 -3.0000
Note that the Gauss–Seidel method converges more rapidly than Jacobi’s method
(see Table 5.1). This is because the Gauss–Seidel method uses the most recent value
of x in the calculation of the y values.
Example 5.4
Use the Gauss–Seidel method to find an approximate solution of
4x + 3y = 0.5
x - 2y = -9.5
Perform five iterations taking x0 = 0, y0 = 0.
Solution
The equations are rearranged to make x and y the subjects.
x = -0.75y + 0.125
y = 0.5x + 4.75
The initial guess is x0 = 0, y0 = 0. So
x1 = -0.75y0 + 0.125
= 0.125
y1 = 0.5x1 + 4.75 = 4.8125
and
x2 = -0.75y1 + 0.125 = -3.4844
y2 = 0.5x2 + 4.75 = 3.0078
Continuing in this way we find
x3 = , y3 = -2.1309, 3.6846
x4 = , y4 = -2.6384, 3.4308
x5 = , y5 = -2.4481, 3.5260
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5.3 Gauss–Seidel method 653 13
Unfortunately, as with all iterative methods, convergence is not guaranteed. How-
ever, it can be shown that, if the matrix of coefficients of the equations is diagonally
dominant (i.e. the modulus of each diagonal element is greater than the sum of the
moduli of the other elements in its row), then the Gauss–Seidel method will con-
verge. For further details you should consult a text on numerical methods.
Exercises
1 Find approximate solutions to the linear
systems in question 1 of Section 5.2 using five
iterations of the Gauss–Seidel method.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) Iteration no. (n) xn yn (d) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 3.0000 0.0000 0 1.0000 5.0000
1 5.6667 -1.7333 1 3.5000 7.2143
2 5.0889 -1.9644 2 2.9464 6.9770
3 5.0119 -1.9953 3 3.0057 7.0025
4 5.0016 -1.9994 4 2.9994 6.9997
5 5.0002 -1.9999 5 3.0000 7.0000
(b) Iteration no. (n) xn yn (e) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 0.0000 7.0000 0 -3.0000 9.0000
1 2.0000 9.3333 1 -6.3333 11.2667
2 0.8333 8.9444 2 -4.8222 10.9644
3 1.0278 9.0093 3 -5.0237 11.0047
4 0.9954 8.9985 4 -4.9668 10.9994
5 1.0008 9.0003 5 -5.0004 11.0001
(c) Iteration no. (n) xn yn
0 -4.0000 -2.0000
1 -5.3333 -3.8095
2 -5.9365 -3.9819
3 -5.9940 -3.9983
4 -5.9994 -3.9998
5 -5.9999 -4.0000
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13 654 Block 5 Iterative techniques
End of block exercises
1 Use five iterations of Jacobi’s method to find 3 Consider the system
approximate solutions of the following system:
4x + y + z = 6
-4x + y = 17 2x + 5y - z = 18
2x + 5y = 19 3x - y + 6z = -6
(a) Use three iterations of Jacobi’s method to
Take x0 = -1 and y0 = 3.
find an approximate solution to the given
system. Take x0 = 0, y0 = 2, z0 = 0.
2 Use five iterations of the Gauss–Seidel method
(b) Repeat (a) using the Gauss–Seidel method.
to find approximate solutions to the system
4x - 3y = 25
2x + 5y = -7
Take x0 = 2, y0 = -1.
Solutions to exercises
1 Iteration no. (n) xn yn 3 (a) Iteration no. (n) xn yn zn
0 -1.0000 3.0000 0 0.0000 2.0000 0.0000
1 -3.5000 4.2000 1 1.0000 3.6000 -0.6667
2 -3.2000 5.2000 2 0.7667 3.0667 -0.9000
3 -2.9500 5.0800 3 0.9583 3.1133 -0.8722
4 -2.9800 4.9800
5 -3.0050 4.9920
2 Iteration no. (n) xn yn (b) Iteration no. (n) xn yn zn
0 2.0000 -1.0000 0 0.0000 2.0000 0.0000
1 5.5000 -3.6000 1 1.0000 3.2000 -0.9667
2 3.5500 -2.8200 2 0.9417 3.0300 -0.9658
3 4.1350 -3.0540 3 0.9840 3.0133 -0.9898
4 3.9595 -2.9838
5 4.0122 -3.0049
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 655
Electrical networks
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
In this block we consider electrical networks comprising known resistors and known
voltage sources. We wish to determine the current in various parts of the network.
The network can be modelled by a set of simultaneous equations, which may be
solved by matrix methods. In order to formulate the simultaneous equations we
introduce the idea of a mesh current and a branch current.
6.2 Mesh and branch currents
Figure 6.1 shows an example of an electrical network.
Figure 6.1 A B
R1
An electrical
network with mesh
⫹
currents marked. E1
⫺ I1
F R2 C
R3
I2
E2
E ⫹ ⫺ D
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any smaller loops. Figure 6.1 contains two
meshes: ABCF and CDEF. Note, for example, that ABCDEF is not a mesh.
We introduce mesh currents, I1 and I2, as shown in Figure 6.1. Mesh currents are
usually denoted as running clockwise although in reality they may run anticlockwise.
Upon calculation this would be denoted by the current being negative.
The net current in a particular branch is called the branch current. The branch
currents are found by combining the mesh currents. For example, the current from C
to F is I1 - I2.
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13 656 Block 6 Electrical networks
The aim of analysing the network is to determine the mesh currents, I1 and I2.
Once these are known the branch currents can easily be found.
Extensive use is made of Kirchhoff’s voltage law, which states that the algebraic
sum of voltages around a mesh is zero: that is, the sum of the voltage drops equals
the sum of the voltage rises.
Example 6.1 Electrical Engineering – Mesh currents
Figure 6.1 shows a circuit with two meshes, ABCF and CDEF. The values of volt-
ages E1, E2 and resistances R1, R2 and R3 are known. The unknowns are the values of
the currents I1 and I2.
(a) By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each mesh formulate two equations in
the unknowns I1 and I2.
(b) Given E1 = 3, E2 = 6, R1 = 1, R2 = 4 and R3 = 2, find I1 and I2.
(c) Find the branch current running from F to C.
Solution
(a) Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a mesh
is zero: that is, the sum of the voltage drops equals the sum of the voltage rises.
Recall that the voltage drop, V volts, across a resistor of resistance R ohms
carrying I amps is given by V = IR.
Consider the mesh ABCF. Starting at A and working clockwise around the
mesh we equate voltage drops to voltage rises.
R1I1 + (I1 - I2)R2 = E1
This may be written as
I1(R1 + R2) - I2R2 = E1 (1)
Consider now the mesh CDEF. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law we obtain
(I2 - I1)R2 + I2R3 = E2
which is then written as
-I1R2 + I2(R2 + R3) = E2 (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are written in matrix form as
a b a 1b = a 1b
R1 + R2 -R2 I E
-R2 R2 + R3 I2 E2
(b) Substituting in the values of E1, E2, R1, R2 and R3 we get
a ba b = a b
5 -4 I1 3
-4 6 I2 6
These equations can be solved by any of the techniques described in this
chapter. You should verify that I1 = 3, I2 = 3.
(c) Consider the branch FC. The net current in FC is I2 - I1 = 0.
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6.2 Mesh and branch currents 657 13
Example 6.2 Electrical Engineering – Mesh currents
Determine the mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 in Figure 6.2 given E1 = 5, E2 = 15,
R1 = 3, R2 = 5, R3 = 1, R4 = 6 and R5 = 2.
Figure 6.2 A ⫺ E ⫹ B
1 R1
Electrical network
for Example 6.2.
I1
D
E R2 C
⫹
E2 R3 R4
⫺ I2 I3
R5
H G F
Solution
We use Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Recall that the voltage drop, V, across a resistor of
resistance R ohms carrying a current I amps is given by V = IR.
Consider the mesh ABCDE. For clarity this is shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 A ⫺ E ⫹ B
1 R1
Mesh ABCDE.
I1
D
E R2 C
I2 I3
Starting from A and working clockwise around the mesh we apply Kirchhoff’s
voltage law, equating the voltage rises to the voltage drops. We obtain
I1R1 + (I1 - I2)R2 = E1
This is rewritten as
I1(R1 + R2) - I2R2 = E1 (3)
Consider the mesh EDGH, as shown in Figure 6.4.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 658
13 658 Block 6 Electrical networks
Figure 6.4 I1
Mesh EDGH.
D
E R2
I3
⫹
E2 R3
⫺ I2
R5
H G
Starting at E and working clockwise we equate the voltage drops and the voltage
rises to obtain
(I2 - I1)R2 + (I2 - I3)R3 + I2R5 = E2
which is then rewritten as
-I1R2 + I2(R2 + R3 + R5) - I3R3 = E2 (4)
Finally we look at mesh DCFG, as shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 I1
Mesh DCFG.
D
C
R3 R4
I3
I2
G F
Starting at D and working clockwise we have
I3R4 + (I3 - I2)R3 = 0
which is written as
-I2R3 + I3(R3 + R4) = 0 (5)
The equations (3), (4) and (5) are written in matrix form as
R1 + R2 -R2 0 I1 E1
P Q P Q P Q
-R2 R2 + R3 + R5 -R3 I2 = E2
0 -R3 R3 + R4 I3 0
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6.2 Mesh and branch currents 659 13
Substituting in the given values we have
8 -5 0 I1 5
P Q P Q P Q
-5 8 -1 I2 = 15
0 -1 7 I3 0
The system may be solved using one of the methods explained in this chapter. We
find
I1 = 3.0189, I2 = 3.8302, I3 = 0.5472
Example 6.3 Electrical Engineering – Mesh currents
Figure 6.6 shows an electrical network with the mesh currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 marked
in meshes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 and the
voltage sources E1, E2, E3 and E4 are known.
Figure 6.6 A B ⫺ E ⫹ C
R1 1
Electrical network
for Example 6.3.
⫺
E2 R2
I1 ⫹ I2
D R4 R3 F
E
R5
I3 I4
⫹ E ⫺ ⫹ E ⫺
3 4
G H I
(a) Formulate a matrix equation for the unknowns I1, I2, I3 and I4.
(b) Given R1 = 3, R2 = 4, R3 = 1, R4 = 7, R5 = 4, E1 = 6, E2 = 10, E3 = 5
and E4 = 5, solve for I1, I2, I3 and I4.
(c) State the value of the current from E to H.
Solution
(a) We apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each of the meshes.
Mesh 1 (ABED)
We equate voltage drops to voltage rises.
(I1 - I3)R4 + I1R1 = E2
which is written as
= E2 I1(R1 + R4) - I3R4 (6)
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13 660 Block 6 Electrical networks
Mesh 2 (BCFE)
= E1 I2R2 + (I2 - I4)R3 + E2
which is written as
I2(R2 + R3) - I4R3 = E1 - E2 (7)
Mesh 3 (DEHG)
(I3 - I1)R4 + (I3 - I4)R5 = E3
which is written as
-I1R4 + I3(R4 + R5) - I4R5 = E3 (8)
Mesh 4 (EFIH)
= E4 (I4 - I3)R5 + (I4 - I2)R3
which is written as
-I2R3 - I3R5 + I4(R3 + R5) = E4 (9)
Equations (6), (7), (8) and (9) are written in matrix form as
R1 + R4 0 -R4 0 I1 E2
0 R2 + R3 0 -R3 I2 E1 - E2
§ ¥ § ¥ = § ¥
-R4 0 R4 + R5 -R5 I3 E3
0 -R3 -R5 R3 + R5 I4 E4
(b) Substituting in the given values, the matrix equation becomes
10 0 -7 0 I1 10
0 5 0 -1 I2 -4
§ ¥ § ¥ = § ¥
-7 0 11 -4 I3 5
0 -1 -4 5 I4 5
The system is solved to give
I1 = 4.9217, I2 = 0.3087, I3 = 5.6024, I4 = 5.5437
(c) The current running from E to H is
I3 - I4
I3 - I4 = 5.6024 - 5.5437
= 0.0587
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6.2 Mesh and branch currents 661 13
Exercises
⫺ E ⫹
1 Figure 6.7 shows a circuit with two meshes. 1
⫺ E ⫹ X ⫺ E ⫹ R1 R2
1 2
I1
R1 R2 ⫺ E ⫹ X
R3
2 Y
I1 I2
R4
Y I2 I3
Figure 6.7
E3
⫹ ⫺
(a) Formulate a matrix equation for I1 and I2. Figure 6.9
(b) Solve for I1 and I2 given E1 = 3, E2 = 7,
R1 = 6 and R2 = 10.
(c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
(b) Calculate the mesh currents given E1 = 5,
2 Figure 6.8 shows a circuit with three meshes. E2 = 4, E3 = 6, R1 = 5, R2 = 4, R3 = 2
and R4 = 7.
(c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
X 4 (a) Formulate a matrix equation for the mesh
R2
currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 as shown in
Figure 6.10.
⫺ ⫺
R1 E1 E2 R4
I1 ⫹ I2 ⫹ I3
R1 R2
R3
Y
⫹
Figure 6.8 E1 ⫹
⫺ E2
I1 ⫺ I2
Y
X R3
(a) Formulate a matrix equation for the mesh
currents I1, I2 and I3.
(b) Given E1 = 4, E2 = 5, R1 = 3, R2 = 1, ⫹
R3 = 2 and R4 = 6, find I1, I2 and I3. E3 R5
I3 ⫺ I4
(c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
3 (a) Formulate a matrix equation for the R4
mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 as shown in
Figure 6.9. Figure 6.10
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 662
13 662 Block 6 Electrical networks
(b) Calculate the mesh currents given E1 = 5, (a) Formulate a matrix equation for the mesh
E2 = 2, E3 = 10, R1 = 6, R2 = 7, currents I1, I2, I3 and I4.
R3 = 10, R4 = 1 and R5 = 6. (b) Given E1 = 5, E2 = 5, E3 = 6, E4 = 12,
(c) Calculate the current in the branch XY. R1 = 1, R2 = 4, R3 = 2, R4 = 1, R5 = 7
and R6 = 9, find the mesh currents.
5 Figure 6.11 shows a circuit with four meshes. (c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
⫺ E ⫹ X ⫺ E ⫹
1 2
R1 R2 R3
I1 I2
⫺ E ⫹ ⫺ E ⫹
3 4
Y
R4 R5 R6
I3 I4
Figure 6.11
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b a 1b
R1 + R2 -R2 I (b) I1 = 43, I2 = 13, I3 = - 56
1
-R2 R2 I2 (c) I2 - I3 = 7
6
= a b
E1 3 (a)
E2
R1 + R2 + R3 0 -R3 I1
(b) I1 = 53, I2 = 71
30 £ 0 R4 -R4 ≥ £ I2 ≥
(c) - 21 21
30 , that is a current of 30 from Y to X. -R3 -R4 R3 + R4 I3
R1 0 0 I1 E1 - E2
2 (a) £ 0 R2 + R3 0 ≥ £ I2 ≥ = £ E2 ≥
0 0 R4 I3 E3
(b) I1 = -1.2222, I2 = 6.7937, I3 = 6.2222
E1
(c) I3 - I1 = 5
= £ E2 - E1 ≥
-E2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 663
6.2 Mesh and branch currents 663 13
R1 0 0 0 I1 R1 + R2 -R2 0 0 I1
0 R2 + R3 0 -R3 I2 -R2 R2 + R3 0 0 I2
4 (a) § ¥§ ¥ 5 (a) § ¥§ ¥
0 0 R4 0 I3 0 0 R4 + R5 -R5 I3
0 -R3 0 R3 + R5 I4 0 0 -R5 R5 + R6 I4
E1 - E2 E1 - E3
E2 E2 - E4
= § ¥ = § ¥
-E3 E3
E3 E4
(b) I1 = 0.5000, I2 = 0.7674, (b) I1 = -2.4286, I2 = -2.7857,
I3 = -10.0000, I4 = 1.1047 I3 = 2.2785, I4 = 1.7468
(c) I3 - I1 = -10.5, that is a current of (c) I1 - I2 = 0.3571
10.5 from Y to X.
End of block exercises
X
1 Figure 6.12 shows an electric circuit with
mesh currents I1 and I2 marked.
(a) Determine a matrix equation for I1 ⫺ ⫺
and I2. E1 E2
(b) Solve for I1 and I2 given E1 = 12, R1 = 3 ⫹ ⫹
and R2 = 4.
(c) Calculate the current in branch XY. R1 I1 I2
R2 R3
Y
⫺
Figure 6.13
R1 E1 R2
I1 ⫹ I2
(b) Solve for I1 and I2 given E1 = 12, E2 = 6,
R1 = 4, R2 = 3 and R3 = 4.
Y
(c) Calculate the current in branch XY.
Figure 6.12
3 Figure 6.14 shows an electric circuit with
mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 marked.
(a) Determine a matrix equation for I1, I2
and I3.
2 Figure 6.13 shows an electric circuit with (b) Solve for I1, I2 and I3 given E1 = 6,
mesh currents I1 and I2 marked. E2 = 12, R1 = 2, R2 = 3, R3 = 2
(a) Determine a matrix equation for I1 and R4 = 1.
and I2. (c) Calculate the current in branch XY.
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 664
13 664 Block 6 Electrical networks
R1 R1
⫺
E2
I1 ⫹
⫹
⫹ E ⫺ X ⫹ E ⫺ E1
1 2 ⫺ I1 R2 I2
X
R3 R4 R5 Y
I2 I3
R2
Y
R3 R4
Figure 6.14 I3 I4
E3 E4
⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⫺
Figure 6.15
4 Figure 6.15 shows an electric circuit with
mesh currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 marked.
(a) Determine a matrix equation for I1, I2, I3
and I4.
(b) Solve for I1, I2, I3 and I4 given E1 = 6,
E2 = 12, E3 = 6, E4 = 10, R1 = 3,
R2 = 5, R3 = 4, R4 = 5 and R5 = 1.
(c) Calculate the current in branch XY.
Solutions to exercises
(a) a b a 1b = a 1 b
R1 0 I E (b) I1 = 9, I2 = - 42 72
11 , I3 = - 11
1
0 R2 I2 -E1 (c) I2 - I2 = 30
11
(b) I1 = 4, I2 = -3
(c) I1 - I2 = 7 R1 + R2 -R2 0 0 I1
-R2 R2 + R5 0 I2
(a) a b a 1b
R1 + R2 I -R5
2
-R2 4 (a) § ¥§ ¥
-R2 R2 + R3 I2 0 0 R3 + R4 -R4 I3
0 -R4 R4 + R5 I4
= a b
E1 -R5
E2 - E1 E1
(b) I1 = 1.65, I2 = -0.15 E2
(c) I1 - I2 = 1.8 = § ¥
E3
R1 0 0 I1 E4
3 (a) £ 0 R2 + R3 -R3 ≥ £ I2 ≥ (b) I1 = 5.5966, I2 = 7.7546, I3 = 4.3025,
0 -R3 R3 + R4 I3 I4 = 6.5445
(c) I4 - I2 = -1.2101, that is a current of
E1 + E2 1.2101 from Y to X.
= £ -E1 ≥
-E2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 665
End of chapter exercises 665 13
End of chapter exercises
(b) Calculate I1 and I2 given E1 = 5, E2 = 5,
1 Determine which of the following systems
R1 = 10, R2 = 6 and R3 = 5.
have a non-trivial solution:
(c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
(a) 2x + 3y = 0
4x + 6y = 0 4 Figure C13.2 illustrates an electrical network
(b) 9x - y = 0 with mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 shown.
x + 9y = 0 (a) Determine a matrix equation for I1, I2
(c) x - 3y = 0 and I3.
-3x + 9y = 0 (b) Calculate I1, I2 and I3 given E1 = 5,
x 2y E2 = 6, E3 = 12, R1 = 15, R2 = 5 and
(d) - = 0 R3 = 10.
2 3
3x - 4y = 0 (c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
(e) -x + 4y = 0 ⫺ E ⫹
2x - 6y = 0 1
2 Determine which of the following systems R1
have a non-trivial solution: I1 I2
(a) 2x - y + 3z = 0
X R2
Y ⫺ E ⫹
x + 2y - z = 0 2
5x + 5z = 0
(b) 3x + 2y - z = 0 R3
2x - 3y + 2z = 0 ⫺
7x - 4y + 3z = 0 E3
I3
⫹
(c) x + 4y + 3z = 0
9x - 10y - z = 0
6x - 3y + z = 0 Figure C13.2
(d) 3x - y - z = 0
x + y + 2z = 0 5 Figure C13.3 illustrates an electrical network
2x - 2y + 3z = 0 with mesh currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 shown.
(e) -x + 2y - 3z = 0 (a) Determine a matrix equation for I1, I2, I3
4x + z = 0 and I4.
11x + 2y = 0 (b) Calculate I1, I2, I3 and I4 given E1 = 6,
E2 = 12, R1 = R2 = 3 and
3 Figure C13.1 illustrates an electrical network R3 = R4 = R5 = 2.
with two mesh currents, I1 and I2, shown. (c) Calculate the current in the branch XY.
(a) Determine a matrix equation for I1 and I2.
R1 R2
X I1 I2
R1
⫺ ⫺ E ⫹ X ⫺ E ⫹ Y
⫹ E2
1 2
E1 ⫹
⫺ I1 R2 I2
R3 R4 R5
I3 I4
R3
Y
Figure C13.1 Figure C13.3
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 11/28/18 7:42 PM Page 666
13 666 Block 6 Electrical networks
6 Solve the following simultaneous equations is the inverse of
using Cramer’s rule:
(a) 2x - y = 5 3 -1 4 6
x + y = 1 1 2 -1 2
(b) 2x - y = 5 § ¥
2 -2 3 -2
- x + 3y = 0
(c) x + 3y = 1 5 0 4 1
2x - 5y = - 9
solve the following systems of equations:
7 Solve the following simultaneous equations (a) 3w - x + 4y + 6z = 19
using Cramer’s rule: w + 2x - y + 2z = 11
(a) i1 + 2i2 - i3 = 7 2w - 2x + 3y - 2z = - 11
5w + 4y + z = 2
i1 + i2 + 2i3 = 7
(b) 2a - 2b + 3g - 2d = 11
2i1 - i3 = 3
a + 2b - g + 2d = - 2
(b) 3a - b + c = 4
5a + 4g + d = 15
a - 2b + 3c = 2 3a - b + 4g + 6d = 1
a + b - 5c = 4
(c) a + 2b + g = 1
11 State which of the following matrices are in
2a + 3b + 2g = 2
echelon form:
a + 4b - g = - 3
(a) a b
1 0 1
8 Solve the following simultaneous equations 0 1 1
using the inverse matrix method:
(a) x + 2y = 11 1 1 1 0
2x - y = 7 (b) £ 0 0 0 1≥
(b) r1 + 2r2 = 13.5 0 0 0 0
3r1 + r2 = 23
(c) 2a + 3b = 5 1 2 3 1 4
b (c) £ 0 0 1 -1 0≥
a + = 0.5
2 0 0 0 1 2
9 Solve the following simultaneous equations 1 0 1 -3
using the inverse matrix method: (d) £ 0 0 0 0 ≥
(a) x + y - z = - 1 0 1 4 3
2x - y + 2z = 8
(e) a b
2x + 3y - z = - 3 0 0 1 2 0 -4
(b) 2I1 + I2 - I3 = 10 0 0 0 0 1 3
4I1 + 3I2 + 2I3 = 18
3I1 - 3I2 + 4I3 = 0.5 12 Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following
(c) r + s - t = 0.5 systems of equations:
- 2r - s + 2t = - 0.2 (a) 3i1 - 2i2 = 13
r - 4s - 2t = - 5 2i1 - 5i2 = 16
10 Given that (b) 4a - b = 4
a b
4 51 49 -28 + = 6
2 3
1 -9 -57 - 63 42 x
§ ¥ (c) - + 3y = 4
21 - 6 -66 - 63 42 2
4 9 7 -7 2x - 7y = - 11
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 9/25/18 8:44 AM Page 667
End of chapter exercises 667 13
13 Use Gaussian elimination to solve the 18 The matrix, A, is defined by
following sets of equations:
A = a b
(a) 2x - y - z = 3 3 7
5x + 7y + 3z = 10 -1 -5
-3x - y + 4z = -17
(a) Calculate the characteristic equation of A.
(b) 2a - b + g = 11 (b) Calculate the eigenvalues of A.
a (c) Calculate the eigenvectors of A.
+ b + 2g = 6
2
3b - 7g = -37 19 (a) Show that the matrix
(c) i1 + 2i2 - 3i3 = 2
a b
5 -1
-3i1 + 2i2 + i3 = 10 4 1
2i1 - 3i3 = -9
has only one eigenvalue.
14 Use Jacobi’s method to find the solution of (b) Find the eigenvector of the matrix.
-2x + y = 8.5 20 The matrix A is defined by
3x + 4y = 1
Take x0 = -2, y0 = 2 and perform five 3 2 -2
iterations. A = £0 -4 4≥
7 2 -2
15 Solve the equations in question 14 using the
Gauss–Seidel method; take x0 = -2, y0 = 2 (a) Calculate the eigenvalues of A.
and perform five iterations. (b) Calculate the eigenvectors of A.
16 Use Jacobi’s method to solve 21 The matrix B is defined by
4x - y = -9.4 -3 -1 0
3x + 5y = 7.9 B = £ 5 2 1≥
Take x0 = -1, y0 = 1.5 and perform five -5 5 -4
iterations.
(a) Calculate the eigenvalues of B.
17 Solve the equations of question 16 using the (b) Calculate the eigenvectors of B.
Gauss–Seidel method. Use the same initial
values and perform five iterations.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a), (c) and (d) have non-trivial solutions. R1 + R2 -R1 –R2 I1
4 (a) £ -R1 R1 0 ≥ £ I2 ≥
2 (a), (b) and (e) have non-trivial solutions. -R2 0 R2 + R3 I3
E1
(a) a b a 1b = a 1b
R1 + R2 -R2 I E
3 = £ -E2 ≥
-R2 R2 + R3 I2 E2
E2 + E3
(b) I1 = 0.6071, I2 = 0.7857
(b) I1 = 1.5, I2 = 1.1, I3 = 1.7
(c) 0.1786 from Y to X (c) 0.2
M13_CROF5939_04_SE_C13.QXD 11/28/18 7:42 PM Page 668
13 668 Block 6 Electrical networks
R1 0 0 0 I1 15 n xn yn
0 R2 0 0 I2
5 (a) § ¥§ ¥ 0 -2 2
0 0 R3 + R4 - R4 I3
1 - 3.25 2.6875
0 0 - R4 R4 + R5 I4 2 - 2.9063 2.4297
- E1 3 - 3.0352 2.5264
4 - 2.9868 2.4901
- E2
= § ¥ 5 - 3.0049 2.5037
E1
E2
(b) I1 = - 2, I2 = - 4, I3 = 4, I4 = 5 16 n xn yn
(c) 9
0 -1 1.5
6 (a) x = 2, y = - 1 1 - 1.975 2.18
(b) x = 3, y = 1 2 - 1.805 2.765
(c) x = - 2, y = 1 3 - 1.6588 2.663
4 - 1.6843 2.5753
7 (a) i1 = 2, i2 = 3, i3 = 1 5 - 1.7062 2.5906
(b) a = 1, b = - 2, c = - 1
The exact answer is x = - 1.7, y = 2.6.
(c) a = - 1, b = 0, g = 2
8 (a) x = 5, y = 3 17 n xn yn
(b) r1 = 6.5, r2 = 3.5
0 -1 1.5
(c) a = - 0.5, b = 2
1 - 1.975 2.765
2 - 1.6588 2.5753
9 (a) x = 2, y = - 2, z = 1
3 - 1.7062 2.6037
(b) I1 = 3.5, I2 = 2, I3 = - 1
4 - 1.6991 2.5994
(c) r = 1.2, s = 0.8, t = 1.5
5 - 1.7001 2.6001
10 (a) w = 2, x = - 1, y = - 3, z = 4
(b) a = 1, b = 2, g = 3, d = - 2 18 (a) l2 + 2l - 8 = 0
(b) -4, 2
11 (a), (b), (c) and (e) are in echelon form.
(c) a b, a b
-0.7071 0.9899
12 (a) i1 = 3, i2 = - 2 0.7071 -0.1414
(b) a = 4, b = 12
(c) x = - 2, y = 1 19 (a) l = 3
(b) a b
1
13 (a) x = 1, y = 2, z = - 3 2
(b) a = 2, b = - 3, g = 4
(c) i1 = 3, i2 = 7, i3 = 5 20 (a) -4, 0, 1
14 n xn yn -0.2747 0 0.1543
(b) £ 0.9615 ≥, £ 0.7071 ≥, £ 0.6172 ≥
0 -2 2
0 0.7071 0.7715
1 - 3.25 1.75
2 - 3.375 2.6875
21 (a) -4,-3, 2
3 - 2.9063 2.7813
4 - 2.8594 2.4297 -0.0902 -0.1961 0.1400
5 - 3.0351 2.3496
(b) £ -0.0902 ≥, £ 0 ≥, £ -0.7001 ≥
The exact answer is x = - 3, y = 2.5. 0.9919 0.9806 -0.7001
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 669
Chapter 14
Vectors
In many engineering applications the direction of a physical quantity is
of particular interest. Vectors are mathematical quantities that contain
information about direction as well as magnitude and so are
particularly suited to modelling physical situations where direction is
important.
Special rules and methods have been developed for handling vectors,
and these are described and developed in this chapter.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 670
Chapter 14 contents
Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
End of chapter exercises
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 671
Basic concepts of vectors
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In engineering, frequent reference is made to physical quantities, such as force,
speed and time. For example, we talk of the speed of a car, and the force in a com-
pressed spring. It is useful to separate physical quantities into two types. Quantities
of the first type are known as scalars. These can be fully described by a single
number known as the magnitude. An example of a scalar quantity is the mass of an
object, so we might state
‘the mass of the stone is 3 kg’
It is important to give the units in which the quantity is measured.
Quantities of the second type are those that require the specification of a
direction, in addition to a magnitude, before they are completely described.
These are known as vectors. An example of a vector quantity is the force applied
to an object to make it move. When the object shown in Figure 1.1 is moved by
applying a force to it we can achieve different effects by applying the force in
different directions.
Figure 1.1
Applying the force
in a different
direction will
achieve a different
effect.
In order to specify the force completely we must state the direction in which the
force acts. For example, we might state
‘a force of 5 newtons is applied vertically upwards’
Clearly this would achieve a different effect from applying the force horizontally to
the right. The direction in which the force acts is crucial.
Special methods have been developed for handling vectors in calculations, giving
rise to subjects known as vector algebra, vector geometry and vector calculus. Quan-
tities that are vectors must be manipulated according to certain rules, which are
described in this and subsequent blocks.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 672
14 672 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
Key point Vectors are quantities that are specified by giving both their magnitudes and directions,
and which are manipulated according to particular, and well-defined, rules.
There are many engineering applications in which vector and scalar quantities play
an important role. For example, speed, mass, work, voltage, energy are all scalars,
whereas force, acceleration, velocity, electromagnetic field strength are all vectors.
Furthermore, when computer software is written to control the position of a robot,
the position is described by vectors.
Sometimes confusion can arise because words used in general conversation
have specific technical meanings when used in engineering calculations. An ex-
ample of this ambiguity is the use of the words ‘speed’ and ‘velocity’. In everyday
conversation these words have the same meaning and can be used interchangeably.
However, in engineering and science they are not the same. Speed is a scalar quan-
tity described by giving a single number in appropriate units. So we can make
statements such as
‘the speed of the car is 40 kilometres per hour’
On the other hand velocity is a vector quantity and must be specified by giving a
direction as well. So, for example, we can state
‘the velocity of the aircraft is 200 metres per second due north’
In engineering calculations, the words ‘speed’ and ‘velocity’ should not be used
interchangeably. Similar problems arise from use of the words ‘mass’ and ‘weight’.
In engineering and science these are different. Mass is a scalar that describes the
amount of substance in an object. The unit of mass is the kilogram. Weight is a vec-
tor, the direction of which is vertically downwards. Weight arises through the action
of gravity. The unit of weight is the newton.
Displacement and distance are related quantities that can cause confusion.
Whereas distance is a scalar, displacement is ‘directed distance’: that is, distance
together with a specified direction. So, referring to Figure 1.2, if an object is moved
from point A to point B, we can state that the distance moved is 10 metres, but the
displacement is 10 metres in the direction from A to B.
Figure 1.2
Displacement
means directed
distance.
A B
10 m
You will meet many other quantities in the course of your studies, and it will be
helpful to know which are vectors and which are scalars. Some common quantities
and their type are listed in Table 1.1. The common units in which these are measured
are also shown.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 673
1.2 The mathematical description of vector quantities 673 14
Table 1.1
Some common Quantity Type SI unit
scalar and vector
Distance Scalar metre, m
quantities.
Area Scalar metres squared, m2
Mass Scalar kilogram, kg
Temperature Scalar kelvin, K
Pressure Scalar pascal, Pa
Work Scalar joule, J
Energy Scalar joule, J
Displacement Vector metre, m
Force Vector newton, N
Velocity Vector metres per second, m s - 1
Acceleration Vector metres per second per
second, m s - 2
Exercises
(d) the angular velocity of a flywheel, (e) the
1 State, or find out, which of the following are
relative velocity of two aircraft, (f) the work
scalars and which are vectors: (a) the volume
done by a force, (g) electrostatic potential,
of a petrol tank, (b) a length measured in
(h) the momentum of an atomic particle.
metres, (c) a length measured in miles,
Solutions to exercises
1 (a), (b), (c), (f), (g) are scalars; (d), (e) and
(h) are vectors.
1.2 The mathematical description of vector quantities
Because a vector has a direction as well as a magnitude we can represent a vector by
drawing a line. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector given
some appropriate scale, and the direction of the line represents the direction of the
vector. We call such a representation a directed line segment. The length of the line
is also referred to as the modulus of the vector.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 674
14 674 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
For example, Figure 1.3 shows a vector that might represent a velocity of
3 m s - 1 north-west. Note that the arrow on the vector indicates the direction
required.
Figure 1.3
A vector quantity
can be represented
by drawing a line
marked with an
arrow.
Scale: ⫽ 1 m s⫺1
More generally, Figure 1.4 shows an arbitrary vector quantity. It is important
when writing vectors to distinguish them from scalars, and so various notations are
:
used. In Figure 1.4 we can write the vector as AB where the arrow is used to empha-
sise that we mean the vector from A to B. In books and other printed work, vectors
are often indicated by using a bold typeface such as a. It is difficult when handwrit-
ing to reproduce the bold face and so it is conventional to underline vector quantities
:
and write a instead. So AB, a and a all represent the same vector in Figure 1.4. In
:
Figure 1.4 the point A is the tail of vector AB and point B is referred to as its head.
Figure 1.4 B B
Vectors can be Head
written in different AB
ways: a⫽a
: or
AB = a = a.
A Tail A
Example 1.1
Consider Figure 1.5, which shows an object being pulled by a force of 5 N at
an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Show how this force can be represented by a
vector.
Figure 1.5 5N
An object being
pulled by a force.
60°
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 675
1.2 The mathematical description of vector quantities 675 14
Solution
The force can be represented by drawing a line of length 5 units at an angle of 60° to
the horizontal, as shown in Figure 1.6. Note that we have labelled the force F. The
modulus of the force is 5 newtons. Whenever several forces are involved they can be
labelled F1, F2, and so on.
Figure 1.6
The force in
Figure 1.5 F
represented as a
vector.
Scale: = 1 unit
When we wish to refer to just the magnitude of a vector we write this using the
:
modulus sign as |AB|, or |a|, or |a|. Alternatively we write simply a.
Referring to Figure 1.6, we can write the magnitude of the force F as |F| or
simply F (not bold, and without the underline or modulus signs).
:
Key point The magnitude, or modulus, of a vector a = AB can be written as
:
ƒaƒ, ƒ a ƒ , or ƒ AB ƒ , or simply a
Equal vectors
In general two vectors are said to be equal vectors if they have the same magnitude
: :
and direction. So, in Figure 1.7 the vectors CD and AB are equal even though their
locations differ.
This is a useful and important property of vectors: a vector can be translated main-
taining the same direction and magnitude, without changing the vector itself.
Figure 1.7 B
Vectors can be
equal even when
their locations D
differ.
C
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14 676 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
There are exceptions to this property. For example, a vector is sometimes used to
represent the position of an object that might be located at a particular point in space.
Such a vector cannot be translated freely. Nevertheless most of the vectors we shall
meet can be translated, and as such are called free vectors.
Negative vectors
The vector -a is a vector in the opposite direction to a, but with the same magnitude
: :
as a, as shown in Figure 1.8. Geometrically, if a = AB then -a = BA.
Figure 1.8 B
The negative
vector -a has the a
opposite direction B
to a.
A
a BA
Exercises
1 An object is subject to two forces, one of 3 N 3 Vectors p and q are equal vectors. Draw a
vertically downwards, and one of 8 N diagram that might be used to represent
horizontally to the right. Draw a diagram p and q.
representing these two forces as vectors.
2 Draw a diagram showing an arbitrary vector F.
On the diagram show the vector -F.
Solutions to exercises
1 See Figure 1.9. 3 See Figure 1.11.
2 See Figure 1.10.
p
8N F
q
3N F
Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11
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1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors 677 14
1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors
Addition of vectors is carried out according to a rule known as the triangle law.
Figure 1.12
Two vectors
b
a and b.
a
Consider Figure 1.12. Suppose we wish to add b to a. To do this b is translated,
keeping its direction and length unchanged, until its tail coincides with the head of a.
Then the sum a + b is defined by the vector representing the third side of the com-
pleted triangle, that is c in Figure 1.13. Note from Figure 1.13 that we can write
c = a + b.
Figure 1.13 b
Addition of the
two vectors of
Figure 1.12 using a
the triangle law.
cab
Key point Vectors are added using the triangle law:
b b
a a
cab
Example 1.2
Redraw the diagram in Figure 1.14 to show the vector sum a + b.
Figure 1.14 a
b
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14 678 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
Solution
a
b
ab
It is possible, using the triangle law, to prove the following rules, which apply to any
three vectors a, b and c:
Key point a + b = b + a vector addition is commutative.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c vector addition is associative.
To see why it is appropriate to add vectors using the triangle law consider the follow-
ing examples.
Example 1.3 The route taken by an automated vehicle
An unmanned vehicle moves on tracks around a factory floor carrying components
from the store at A to workers at C, as shown in Figure 1.15.
Figure 1.15 C
: : : Workers
AB + BC = AC.
AC
BC
Store
A AB B
The vehicle may arrive at C either directly or via a second location at B. The
:
movement from A to B can be represented by a displacement vector AB. Similarly
:
movement from B to C can be represented by the displacement vector BC, and
: :
movement from A to C can be represented by AC. Since the head of vector AB touches
:
the tail of BC the triangle law can be applied immediately to find the combined effect
of the two displacements.
: : :
AB + BC = AC
Example 1.4 Mechanical Engineering – Resultant of two forces acting
upon a body
A force F1 of 2 N acts vertically downwards, and a force F2 of 3 N acts horizontally
to the right, upon the body shown in Figure 1.16. Both forces act through the same
point in the body.
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1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors 679 14
Figure 1.16 F2 3 N
The combined A
effect of forces F1 θ
and F2 is the
resultant R.
R
F1 2 N
B C
We can use vector addition to find the combined effect of the two forces, known as
the resultant force. Translating F1 until its tail touches the head of F2, we complete the
triangle as shown. The vector represented by the third side is the resultant, R. We write
R = F2 + F1
and say that R is the vector sum of F2 and F1. The resultant force acts at an angle of
u below the horizontal where tan u = 23, so that u = 33.7°, and has magnitude given
by Pythagoras’s theorem as 213 N.
Key point The resultant of two vectors a and b is their vector sum a + b.
Example 1.5 Mechanical Engineering – Resolving a force into two
perpendicular directions
In the previous example we saw that two forces acting upon a body can be replaced
by a single force which has the same effect. It is sometimes useful to consider a
single force as two forces acting at right angles to each other. Consider the force F in
Figure 1.17.
Figure 1.17 F sin θ
Force F has two
perpendicular
components. F
θ θ
F cos θ
This force can be replaced by two perpendicular forces as shown. It is a straight-
forward use of trigonometry to show that the horizontal force has magnitude F cos u.
The vertical force has magnitude F sin u. We say that F has been resolved into two
perpendicular components.
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14 680 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
For example, Figure 1.18 shows a force of 5 N acting at an angle of 30° to the
x axis. It can be resolved into two components, one directed along the x axis with
magnitude 5 cos 30° and one perpendicular to this of magnitude 5 sin 30°. Together,
these two components have the same effect as the original force.
Figure 1.18 y 5 sin 30°
5N 5N
30° 30°
5 cos 30°
Example 1.6
Consider the force shown in Figure 1.19. Resolve this force into two perpendicular
components, one horizontally to the right, and one vertically upwards.
Figure 1.19
15 N
40°
Solution
15 cos 40° = 11.49 N horiz., 15 sin 40° = 9.64 N vert.
Subtraction of one vector from another is performed by adding the corresponding
negative vector. That is, if we seek a - b we form a + (-b). This is shown
geometrically in Figure 1.20.
Figure 1.20
Subtraction of
a b
a vector is
performed by
adding a negative b a (b)
vector.
a
Example 1.7
: :
Figure 1.21 shows vectors p = OP and q = OQ. What is the geometrical signifi-
cance of the vector q - p?
Figure 1.21 P
Q
O q
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1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors 681 14
Solution
We know that q - p is interpreted as q + (-p).
Start by drawing in the vector -p. This is shown in Figure 1.22(a). It has been
drawn with its tail touching the head of q so that we can apply the triangle rule for
addition. Figure 1.22(b) shows the application of the triangle rule. Note that the
:
resultant q + (-p) is the same as the vector PQ. This result is very important.
Figure 1.22 P P
p p
Q Q
O q O q
p q (p) p
(a) (b)
: :
Key point Given two vectors p = OP and q = OQ (Figure 1.23) the vector from P to Q is given
by q - p.
Figure 1.23 P
Q
O q
Exercises
1 Vectors p and q represent two perpendicular positive y axis. The second has magnitude 4 N
: and acts in the direction of the negative x axis.
sides of a square ABCD with p = AB and
: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
q = BC. Find vector expressions that represent resultant force.
: :
the diagonals of the square AC and BD.
4 An object moves in the x–y plane with a
2 In the rectangle ABCD, side AB is represented velocity of 15 m s - 1 in a direction at 48°
by the vector p and side BC is represented by above the positive x axis. Resolve this velocity
the vector q. State the physical significance of into two components, one along the x axis and
the vectors p + q and p - q. one along the y axis.
5 Draw a right-angled triangle ABC with the
3 An object is positioned at the origin of a set
right angle at B. Label ∠ACB as u. Show that
of axes. Two forces act upon it. The first has
(a) BC = AC cos u
magnitude 9 N and acts in the direction of the
(b) AB = AC sin u
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14 682 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
Solutions to exercises
1 p + q, q - p 4 10.04 m s - 1 along the x axis, and 11.15 m s - 1
along the y axis
2 p + q is the diagonal AC, p - q is the
diagonal DB.
3 magnitude 297, at an angle 66° above the
negative x axis
1.4 Multiplying a vector by a scalar
If k is any positive scalar and a is a vector then ka is a vector in the same direction as
a but k times as long. If k is negative, ka is a vector in the opposite direction to a and
k times as long. The vector ka is said to be a scalar multiple of a. Consider the
vectors shown in Figure 1.24.
Figure 1.24
Multiplying a a a
vector by a scalar.
ka ka
if k is positive if k is negative
The vector 3a is three times as long as a and has the same direction. The vector 12 r
is in the same direction as r but is half as long. The vector - 4b is in the opposite
direction to b and four times as long.
For any scalars k and l, and any vectors a and b, the following rules hold:
Key point k(a + b) = ka + kb
(k + l)a = ka + la
k(l )a = (kl )a
Unit vectors
A vector that has a modulus of 1 is called a unit vector. Unit vectors will play an
important role when we come to study cartesian components in Block 2.
If a has modulus 3, say, then a unit vector in the direction of a is 13 a, as shown in
Figure 1.25.
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1.4 Multiplying a vector by a scalar 683 14
Figure 1.25 a
1
3a
More generally, to obtain a unit vector in the direction of any vector a we divide
by its modulus. A unit vector in the direction of a is given the ‘hat’ symbol aN .
a
Key point aN =
ƒaƒ
Exercises
1 Draw an arbitrary vector r. On your diagram 3 In triangle OAB the point P divides AB in the
draw 2r, 4r, ⫺r, -3r and 12 r. : :
ratio m:n. If OA = a and OB = b depict this
on a diagram and then find an expression for
2 In triangle OAB the point P is the midpoint :
OP in terms of a and b.
of AB.
: :
(a) If OA = a and OB = b depict this on a 4 Explain what is meant by a unit vector. Given
diagram. an arbitrary vector n, how is a unit vector
:
(b) Write down an expression for AB in terms having the same direction as n found?
of a and b.
:
(c) Write down an expression for AP in terms 5 If eN is a unit vector, how would you write a
of a and b.
: vector in the same direction as eN but having
(d) Find an expression for OP in terms of
modulus 8?
a and b.
Solutions to exercises
2 (b) b - a (c) 12(b - a) 4 Divide n by its modulus.
1 1 1
(d) a + 2 (b - a) = 2a + 2b
5 8eN
: m
3 OP = a + (b - a)
m + n
End of block exercises
1 Draw three arbitrary vectors a, b and c. By 2 Draw two arbitrary vectors a and b. By using
using the triangle law verify that vector the triangle law verify that vector addition is
addition is associative, that is commutative, that is
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) a + b = b + a
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14 684 Block 1 Basic concepts of vectors
3 A force of 13 N acts at an angle of 62° magnitude 7 N and acts in the negative x
above the x axis. Resolve this force into two direction. The second has magnitude 12 N and
components: one along the x axis and one acts in the y direction. Calculate the magnitude
along the y axis. and direction of the resultant force.
4 In the triangle ABC, M is the midpoint of BC 6 Draw two arbitrary vectors a and b. Verify that
and N is the midpoint of AC. Show that 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b
: :
NM = 12 AB.
(This is the first of the rules concerning scalar
multiplication given at the start of Section 1.4.)
5 A particle is positioned at the origin. Two
forces act on the particle. The first has
Solutions to exercises
3 6.10 N along the x axis, 11.48 N along the 5 13.9 N at 59.7° to the negative x axis
y axis
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Cartesian components of vectors
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
It is useful to be able to describe vectors with reference to various coordinate
systems, such as the x–y plane. So, in this block, we show how this is possible by
defining unit vectors in the directions of the x and y axes. Any other vector in the
x–y plane can be represented as a combination of these basis vectors. Such a
representation is called a cartesian form. You will learn how to calculate the
modulus of a vector given in cartesian form. Then, the idea is extended to three-
dimensional vectors. This is useful because most engineering problems arise in
three-dimensional situations.
2.2 Two-dimensional coordinate frames and the vectors i and j
The unit vectors i and j
Figure 2.1 shows a two-dimensional coordinate frame. Any point in the plane of the
figure can be defined in terms of its x and y coordinates.
Figure 2.1 y
A two-dimensional
coordinate frame.
P (x, y)
A unit vector pointing in the positive direction of the x axis is denoted by i. (Note
that it is common practice to write this particular unit vector without the ‘hat’ ^ .) It
follows that any vector in the direction of the x axis will be a multiple of i. Figure 2.2
shows vectors i, 2i, 5i and ⫺3i. In general a vector of length a in the direction of the
x axis will be ai.
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14 686 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Figure 2.2 y
All these vectors
are multiples of i. 3i
i
2i
5i
Similarly, a unit vector pointing in the positive direction of the y axis is denoted
by j. Any vector in the direction of the y axis will be a multiple of j. Figure 2.3
shows j, 4 j and ⫺2j. In general a vector of length b in the direction of the y axis
will be b j.
Figure 2.3 y
All these vectors
are multiples of j.
−2 j
j 4j
Key point i represents a unit vector in the direction of the positive x axis.
j represents a unit vector in the direction of the positive y axis.
Example 2.1
Draw the vectors 5i and 4j. Use your diagram and the triangle law of addition to add
these two vectors together to obtain the sum 5i + 4j.
Solution
First draw the vectors 5i and 4j.
4j
5i
By translating the vectors so that they lie head to tail, find the vector sum 5i + 4j.
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2.2 Two-dimensional coordinate frames and the vectors i and j 687 14
5i 4 j
4j
5i
We now generalise the situation in the previous example. Consider Figure 2.4, which
:
shows a vector r = AB.
Figure 2.4 y
: : :
AB = AC + CB B
by the triangle law.
r bj
A ai C
: :
We can regard r as being the resultant of the two vectors AC = ai and CB = bj.
From the triangle law of vector addition
: : :
r = AB = AC + CB = ai + bj
We conclude that any vector in the x–y plane can be expressed in the form
r = ai + bj. An alternative way of writing this vector is to use column vector
notation. We write
r = a b
a
b
A row vector would be written as (a, b), but care must be taken not to confuse this
form with cartesian coordinates.
Key point Any vector in the x–y plane can be written r = ai + bj or as
r = a b
a
b
The numbers a and b are called the i and j components of r.
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14 688 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors
Example 2.2
(a) Draw an x–y plane and show the vectors a = 2i + 3j and b = 5i + j.
(b) By translating one of the vectors apply the triangle law to show the sum a + b.
(c) Express the resultant in terms of i and j.
Solution
(a) Draw the x–y plane and the required vectors. They can be drawn from any point
in the plane.
y
4
2i 3 j
3
2
1 5i j
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
(b) Translate one of the vectors so that they lie head to tail, completing the third
side of the triangle to give the resultant a + b.
(c) By studying your diagram note that the resultant consists of the two components
7i horizontally, and 4j vertically. Hence write down an expression for a + b.
y
4
3
2 7i 4 j
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
a + b = 7i + 4j
Note that this result consists of the sum of the respective components of a and b.
That is,
(2i + 3j) + (5i + j) = 7i + 4 j
It is important to note from the last example that vectors in cartesian form can be added
by simply adding their respective i and j components.
Key point If a = axi + ay j and b = bxi + by j then
a + b = (ax + bx )i + (ay + by ) j
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2.2 Two-dimensional coordinate frames and the vectors i and j 689 14
Example 2.3
If a = 9i + 7j and b = 8i + 3j find
(a) a + b
(b) a - b
Solution
(a) Simply add the respective components:
a + b = 17i + 10j
(b) Simply subtract the respective components:
a - b = i + 4j
Example 2.4
If
r = a b s = a b
7 3
and
11 -5
find r + s.
Solution
The vectors are added by adding their respective components.
a b
10
6
It follows that to multiply any vector a by a scalar k, we multiply each component of
a by k.
Example 2.5
If a = 9i + 3j write down (a) 4a, (b) - 13 a.
Solution
(a) 4a = 36i + 12j
1
(b) - 3 a = -3i - j
Key point If a = axi + ay j then ka = kax i + kay j.
Position vectors
Now consider the special case when r represents the vector from the origin to the point
P(x, y) as shown in Figure 2.5. This vector is known as the position vector of P.
:
Key point The position vector of P(x, y) is r = OP = xi + yj.
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14 690 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Figure 2.5 y
r = xi + yj is the
position vector of
the point P with
coordinates (x, y ). y P (x, y)
r xi yj
O x x
Unlike most vectors, position vectors cannot be freely translated. Because they
indicate the position of a point they are fixed vectors in the sense that the tail of a
position vector is always located at the origin.
Example 2.6
State the position vectors of the points with coordinates (a) P(2, 4), (b) Q(-1, 5),
(c) R(-1, -7), (d) S(8, -4).
Solution
(a) The position vector of P is 2i + 4j. This could be written
a b
2
4
(b) The position vector of Q is -i + 5j.
(c) The position vector of R is -i - 7j.
(d) The position vector of S is 8i - 4j.
Example 2.7
Sketch the position vectors r1 = 3i + 4j, r2 = -2i + 5j and r3 = -3i - 2j.
Solution
The vectors are shown in Figure 2.6. Note that all position vectors start at the origin.
Figure 2.6 y
The position vectors (2, 5)
r1 = 3i + 4 j,
(3, 4)
r2 = -2i + 5j and
r3 = -3i - 2 j.
r2
r1
x
r3
(3, 2)
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2.2 Two-dimensional coordinate frames and the vectors i and j 691 14
Modulus
The modulus of any vector r is equal to its length. When r = xi + yj the modulus
can be obtained by Pythagoras’s theorem. Referring to Figure 2.5, if r is the position
vector of point P then the modulus is clearly the distance of P from the origin.
Key point If r = xi + yj then |r | = 2x2 + y2.
Example 2.8
Find the modulus of each of the vectors (a) r1 = 3i + 4j, (b) r2 = - 2i + 5j,
(c) r3 = 9i - 2j and (d) r4 = - 5i - 3j.
Solution
(a) The modulus of r1 = |3i + 4j| = 232 + 42 = 225 = 5.
(b) The modulus of r2 = |-2i + 5j| = 2(- 2)2 + 52 = 24 + 25 = 229.
(c) Similarly |r3| = 292 + (- 2)2 = 285.
(d) |r4| = 2(-5)2 + (- 3)2 = 225 + 9 = 234.
Example 2.9
Find the modulus of the vector
r = a b
7
-3
Solution
272 + (- 3)2 = 258
Example 2.10
Point A has coordinates (3, 5). Point B has coordinates (7, 8).
(a) Depict these points on a diagram and state their position vectors.
:
(b) Find an expression for AB.
:
(c) Find |AB|.
Solution
(a) Draw a diagram that shows points A and B.
y
B
8
(7, 8)
6 A (3, 5)
4 b
a
2
O 2 4 6 8 x
:
The position vector of A is then OA = a = 3i + 5j
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14 692 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
:
The position vector of B is OB = b = 7i + 8j
(b) Refer to your figure and use the triangle law to write
: : :
OA + AB = OB
so that
: : :
AB = OB - OA
= b - a
:
Hence write down an expression for AB in terms of the unit vectors i and j.
(7i + 8j) - (3i + 5j) = 4i + 3j
:
(c) The length of AB = |4i + 3j| =
242 + 32 = 225 = 5
Exercises
1 Explain the distinction between a position 5 Find the modulus of each of the following
vector and a more general or free vector. vectors:
(a) r = 7i + 3j (b) r = 17i (c) r = 2i - 3 j
2 What is meant by the symbols i and j? (d) r = -3 j (e) r = ai + bj (f) r = ai - bj
3 State the position vectors of the points with 6 Point P has coordinates (7, 8). Point Q has
coordinates (a) P(4, 7), (b) Q(-3, 5), coordinates (-2, 4).
(c) R(0, 3), (d) S(-1, 0). (a) Draw a sketch showing P and Q.
(b) State the position vectors of P and Q.
4 State the coordinates of the point P if its :
(c) Find an expression for PQ.
position vector is given as (a) 3i - 7j, :
(d) Find |PQ|.
(b) -4i, (c) -0.5i + 13j, (d) ai + bj.
Solutions to exercises
1 Free vectors can be translated keeping their 4 (a) (3, -7) (b) (-4, 0) (c) (-0.5, 13)
direction and length the same. Position vectors (d) (a, b)
must always start at the origin.
5 (a) 258 (b) 17 (c) 213 (d) 3
2 i is a unit vector in the direction of the positive (e) 2a2 + b2 (f) 2a2 + b2
x axis. j is a unit vector in the direction of the
positive y axis. 6 (b) p = 7i + 8j, q = -2i + 4j
: :
3 (a) 4i + 7j (b) -3i + 5j (c) 3j (d) -i (c) PQ = -9i - 4 j (d) |PQ| = 297
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2.3 The direction ratio and direction cosines 693 14
2.3 The direction ratio and direction cosines
Consider the point P(4, 5) and its position vector 4i + 5j as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 y
The direction
:
cosines of OP
are cos a and 5 P (4, 5)
cos b .
β
α
O 4 x
:
The direction ratio of the vector OP is defined to be 4:5. We can interpret this as
stating that to move in the direction of the line we must move 5 units in the y direc-
tion for every 4 units in the x direction.
:
The direction cosines of the vector OP are the cosines of the angles between the
vector and each of the positive axes. Specifically, referring to Figure 2.7 these are
direction cosines: cos a and cos b
:
Noting that the length of OP is 242 + 52 = 241 we can write
4 5
cos a = , cos b =
241 241
It is conventional to label the direction cosines as l and m so that
4 5
l = , m =
241 241
More generally we have the following result:
Key point For any vector r = ai + bj, its direction ratio is a:b. Its direction cosines are
a b
l = , m =
2a + b2 2
2a + b2
2
Example 2.11
Refer back to Example 2.10, in which point A has coordinates (3, 5), and point B has
coordinates (7, 8).
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14 694 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
:
(a) Find the direction ratio of the vector AB.
(b) Find its direction cosines, l and m.
(c) Show that l2 + m2 = 1.
Solution
:
From Example 2.10 we know that AB = 4i + 3j.
:
(a) The direction ratio of AB is therefore 4:3.
(b) The direction cosines are
4 4 3 3
l = = , m = =
24 + 3
2 2 5 24 + 3
2 2 5
4 2 3 2
(c) l2 + m2 = a b + a b
5 5
16 9
= +
25 25
25
=
25
= 1
The final result in the previous example is true in general:
Key point If l and m are the direction cosines of a line lying in the x–y plane, then
l2 + m2 = 1
Exercises
(c) Explain why the direction cosines are both
1 For the vectors in question 6 of the previous
negative.
section, find
:
(a) the direction ratio of the vector PQ
:
(b) the direction cosines of PQ.
Solutions to exercises
9 4
1 (a) - 9:- 4 (b) - ,- than 90° and hence each cosine is negative.
297 297 :
(Draw the vector PQ = - 9i - 4j to see
(c) The angle between the vector and the this.)
positive direction of both axes is greater
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 695
2.4 Three-dimensional coordinate frames 695 14
2.4 Three-dimensional coordinate frames
The real world is three-dimensional, and in order to solve many engineering prob-
lems it is necessary to develop expertise in the mathematics of three-dimensional
space. An important application of vectors is their use to locate points in three
dimensions. When two distinct points are known we can draw a line between them.
Three distinct points that do not lie on the same line form a plane. Vectors can be
used to describe points, lines and planes in three dimensions. These mathematical
foundations underpin much of the technology associated with computer graphics
and the control of robots. In this section we shall introduce the vector methods that
underlie these applications.
Figure 2.8 shows a three-dimensional coordinate frame. Note that the third dimen-
sion requires the addition of a third axis, the z axis. Although these three axes are
drawn in the plane of the paper you should remember that we are now thinking of
three-dimensional situations. Just as in two dimensions the x and y axes are perpen-
dicular, in three dimensions the x, y and z axes are perpendicular to each other. We
say they are mutually perpendicular. There is no reason why we could not
have chosen the z axis in the opposite sense to that shown in Figure 2.8. However, it
is conventional to choose the directions shown in Figure 2.8. Any point in the three
dimensions can be defined in terms of its x, y and z coordinates. Consider the point P
with coordinates (x, y, z) as shown. The vector from the origin to the point P is
:
known as the position vector of P, OP or r. To arrive at P from O we can think of mov-
ing x units in the x direction, y units in the y direction and z units in the z direction.
Figure 2.8 z
The position vector
of the point with
P (x, y, z)
coordinates
(x, y, z) is
r = xi + yj + zk. r
y
O
y
x
Q
Extending the concept of unit vectors in the direction of each of the axes, a unit
vector pointing in the positive direction of the z axis is denoted by k. Noting that
: :
OQ = xi + yj and that QP = zk we can state
:
r = OP
: :
= OQ + QP
= xi + yj + zk
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14 696 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
We conclude that the position vector of the point with coordinates (x, y, z) is
r = xi + yj + zk.
In column vector notation we would write
x
P Q
r = y
z
:
Key point The position vector of P(x, y, z) is r = OP = xi + yj + zk or, alternatively,
x
PzQ
r = y
Example 2.12
State the position vector of the point with coordinates (9, -8, 6).
Solution
The position vector is 9i - 8j + 6k
Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction are carried out in an obvious way.
Example 2.13
If
1 4
P Q P Q
r = 4 and s = -3
-2 2
find (a) r + s, (b) r - s.
Solution
(a)
5
P0Q
1
(b)
-3
P Q
7
-4
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2.4 Three-dimensional coordinate frames 697 14
Modulus
:
The modulus of the vector OP is equal to the distance OP, which can be obtained by
Pythagoras’s theorem.
Key point If r = xi + yj + zk then | r | = 2x2 + y2 + z2.
Example 2.14
Find the modulus of the vector r = 4i + 2j + 3k.
Solution
ƒrƒ =
242 + 22 + 32 = 216 + 4 + 9 = 229
Example 2.15
Points A, B and C have coordinates (-1, 1, 4), (8, 0, 2) and (5, -2, 11) respectively.
(a) Find the position vectors of A, B and C.
: :
(b) Find AB and BC.
: :
(c) Find ƒ AB ƒ and ƒ BC ƒ .
Solution
(a) Denoting the position vectors of A, B and C by a, b and c respectively, we find
a = -i + j + 4 k, b = 8i + 2 k, c = 5i - 2 j + 11k
: :
(b) AB = b - a = 9i - j - 2k, BC = c - b = -3i - 2j + 9k
:
(c) ƒ AB ƒ = 292 + (-1)2 + (-2)2 = 286,
:
ƒ BC ƒ = 2(-3)2 + (-2)2 + 92 = 294
Exercises
1 State the position vector of the point with 3 Points P, Q and R have coordinates
coordinates (4, -4, 3). (9, 1, 0), (8, -3, 5) and (5, 5, 7) respectively.
(a) Find the position vectors of P, Q and R.
2 Find the modulus of each of the following : :
(b) Find PQ and QR .
vectors: : :
(a) 7i + 2j + 3k (b) 7i - 2j + 3k (c) Find ƒ PQ ƒ and ƒ QR ƒ .
(c) 2j + 8k (d) -i - 2j + 3k
(e) ai + bj + ck 4 If a = 5i - 2j + 3k and b = 2i + j - 4k
write down b - a.
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14 698 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Solutions to exercises
:
1 4i - 4j + 3k (b) PQ = -i - 4j + 5k,
:
QR = -3i + 8j + 2k
2 (a) 262 (b) 262 (c) 268 (d) 214
(e) 2a2 + b2 + c2 : :
(c) ƒ PQ ƒ = 242, ƒ QR ƒ = 277
3 (a) p = 9i + j, q = 8i - 3j + 5k, 4 -3i + 3j - 7k
r = 5i + 5j + 7k
2.5 Direction ratios and direction cosines in three dimensions
The concepts of direction ratio and direction cosines extend naturally to three dimen-
sions. Consider Figure 2.9.
Consider point P with position vector
r = ai + bj + ck
Figure 2.9 z
The direction
:
cosines of OP are
P (a, b, c)
cos a, cos b and
cos g.
r
γ
α β
y
Its direction ratio is
a:b:c
This means that to move in the direction of the vector we must move b units in the y
direction and c units in the z direction for every a units in the x direction.
The direction cosines are the cosines of the angles between the vector and each of
the axes. It is conventional to label them as l, m and n, and they are given by
a b
l = cos a = , m = cos b = ,
2a + b + c
2 2 2
2a + b2 + c2
2
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2.5 Direction ratios and direction cosines in three dimensions 699 14
c
n = cos g =
2a + b2 + c2
2
In general we have the following result:
Key point For any vector r = ai + bj + ck, its direction ratio is a:b:c. Its direction cosines are
a b c
l = , m = , n =
2a 2 2
+ b + c 2
2a + b
2 2
+ c 2
2a
2
+ b2 + c2
and
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Example 2.16
(a) Calculate the direction ratio of r = 3i - 2j + k.
(b) Calculate its direction cosines.
Solution
(a) The direction ratio is 3:-2:1.
(b) The direction cosines are
3 3
l = =
23 + (-2) + 1
2 2 2
214
- 2 2
m = = -
23 + (-2) + 1
2 2 2
214
1 1
n = =
23 + (-2) + 1
2 2 2
214
Exercises
1 Points A and B have position vectors 2 Find the direction ratios, the direction cosines
:
a = -3i + 2j + 7k and b = 3i + 4j - 5k and the angles that the vector OP makes with
respectively. Find each of the axes when P is the point with
: coordinates (2, 4, 3).
(a) AB
:
(b) ƒ AB ƒ
: 3 A line is inclined at 60° to the x axis and 45°
(c) the direction ratios of AB to the y axis. Find its inclination to the z axis.
:
(d) the direction cosines of AB.
(e) Show that the sum of the squares of the
direction cosines equals 1.
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14 700 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
Solutions to exercises
2 4 3
1 (a) 6i + 2j - 12k (b) 2184 (c) 6:2:-12 2 2:4:3; , , ; 68.2°, 42.0°, 56.1°
229 229 229
6 2 -12
(d) , , 3 60° or 120°
2184 2184 2184
2.6 N-dimensional vectors
The vectors we have described so far have been either two- or three-dimensional.
However, there are some situations when it is desirable to generalise what we have
done to higher dimensions. No geometrical interpretation is then available. Never-
theless we can still refer to the components of a vector and the modulus of a vector.
Two examples of four-dimensional column vectors are
3 1
a = ± ≤ b = ± ≤
1 0
and
2 3
4 1
The modulus of a, which is generally referred to as its norm, is then defined as
ƒ a ƒ = 232 + 12 + 22 + 42
= 230
An n-dimensional vector will have n components.
Example 2.17 Electronic Engineering – Vector norms and digital
signal processing
Signals are quantities used to transmit information. If a signal changes, then this cor-
responds to information being conveyed. For example, the sequence of symbols
000000000000000000000
contains no information, whereas
000000000010000000000
contains information relating to a change occurring in the middle of the sequence.
Consider a signal such as that depicted in Figure 2.10, which corresponds to the
sequence of symbols 0, 0, 3, 5, 0.
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2.6 N-dimensional vectors 701 14
Figure 2.10
5
4
3
2
1
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
This sequence can also be represented by a vector: for example, we could write it
as the row vector
f = (0, 0, 3, 5, 0)
The norm of the signal is the modulus of the vector f, defined, by generalising the
two- and three-dimensional case, as
ƒ f ƒ = 202 + 02 + 32 + 52 + 02
= 234
More generally a vector, f, with N components can represent a signal of length N, that is
f = ( f0, f1, . . . , fN - 1)
and its norm is given by
N-1
f n2
A na
ƒfƒ =
=0
A related quantity is the power in a signal, which is given by
1 2 1 N-1 2
N na
ƒfƒ = fn
N =0
Therefore the power in the signal (0, 0, 3, 5, 0) is 345.
One of the main problems in signal processing is that of representing a large
amount of information by a smaller amount without significantly distorting the orig-
inal signal. Very often a signal, f, with a large information content is approximated by
f ¿ , which is a signal with a smaller information content. Then
ƒ f - f ¿ƒ
is a measure of the ‘distance’ or difference between the two signals and is therefore
a measure of the quality of the approximation.
End of block exercises
1 If find (a) 3p, (b) p - q, (c) -2q, (d) 3p - 2q.
3 7
P2Q P1Q
p = 1 and q = 9
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14 702 Block 2 Cartesian components of vectors
2 If 5 Find the norm of the row vector x = (2, 3, 6).
1 1 2
P Q P Q P Q
6 If
x1 = 2 , x2 = 0 , x3 = 2 1 3
3 1 4 1 2
show that x1 + x2 - x3 = 0 where 0 is the a = •0μ and b = •1μ
zero vector. 1 0
1 1
3 A triangle has vertices A, B and C with
coordinates (1, 3, 2), (-1, 5, 9) and (2, 7, 1) find the norm of a, the norm of b, and the
respectively. Calculate the vectors that norm of a - b.
represent the sides of the triangle.
4 Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector
i - j.
Solutions to exercises
9 1
-4 4 (i - j)
P6Q P 1 Q
1 (a) 3 (b) -8 22
5 7
-14 -5
2, 215, 27
P -2 Q P 4 Q
6
(c) -18 (d) -15
:
3 AB = -2i + 2j + 7k,
:
BC = 3i + 2j - 8k,
:
AC = i + 4j - k
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 703
The scalar product, or dot product
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Multiplication of two vectors is defined in two different ways. The first way is known
as the scalar product. When the scalar product of two vectors is calculated the result
is a scalar and not a vector. The second way is known as the vector product. When
this is calculated the result is a vector. These products are summarised in Table 3.1.
The ways in which these products are defined seem rather strange when first met, but
the reason for this lies in their applications. In this block we consider only the scalar
product.
Table 3.1
The two types Name Written as Result
of vector
Scalar product a # b Scalar
multiplication.
Vector product a * b Vector
3.2 Definition of the scalar product
Consider the two vectors a and b shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
Two vectors
separated by an
angle u. b
θ a
Note that the tails of the two vectors coincide and that the angle between the vectors
has been labelled u. Their scalar product, denoted a # b, is defined as
a # b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u
It is very important to use the dot in the formula. The dot is the symbol for the scalar
product, and is the reason why the scalar product is also known as the dot product.
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14 704 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
You should never use a * sign in this context because the * sign is reserved for the
vector product, which is quite different.
Key point Scalar product
a # b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u
We can remember this formula as: the length of the first vector times the length of
the second times the cosine of the angle in between them.
Example 3.1
Vectors a and b are shown in Figure 3.2. The vector a has modulus 6, the vector b has
modulus 7, and the angle between them is 60°. Calculate a # b.
Figure 3.2
When the tails of a
and b coincide the
angle between b
them is 60°.
60°
a
Solution
Identify the angle between the two vectors, and also their moduli. Then apply the
formula for the dot product.
a # b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u = (6)(7) cos 60° = 21
The scalar product of a and b is equal to 21. Note that when finding a scalar product
the result is always a scalar.
Example 3.2
Find i # i, where i is a unit vector in the direction of the positive x axis.
Solution
Because i is a unit vector its modulus is 1. The angle between any two parallel vec-
tors is zero. So the angle between i and itself is zero. Therefore
i # i = (1)(1) cos 0°
= 1 since cos 0° = 1
So the scalar product of i with itself equals 1. It is easy to verify that j # j = 1 and
k # k = 1.
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3.2 Definition of the scalar product 705 14
Example 3.3
Find i # j, where i and j are unit vectors in the directions of the x and y axes.
Solution
Because i and j are unit vectors they both have a modulus of 1. The angle between
the two vectors is 90° as shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 y
The angle between
the unit vectors i
and j is 90°.
Therefore
i # j = (1)(1) cos 90°
= 0 since cos 90° = 0
That is, i # j = 0.
More generally, the following results are easily verified:
Key point i # i = j # j = k # k = 1
i # j = i # k = j # k = 0
Exercises
1 Write down the definition of the scalar product 4 Two unit vectors are parallel. What can you
of two vectors and illustrate your definition deduce about their scalar product?
with a diagram.
5 Two vectors have modulus 10 and 12. The
2 Use the definition of the scalar product to angle between them is p3 . Find their scalar
show that, if two vectors are perpendicular, product.
their scalar product is zero.
3 Two vectors have moduli 7 and 13 respectively.
The angle between them is 45°. Evaluate their
scalar product.
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14 706 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
Solutions to exercises
3 64.35 5 60
4 It equals 1.
3.3 Some properties of the scalar product
The scalar product has a number of properties that are necessary for further
development.
Commutativity
If a # b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u then it follows that b # a = ƒ b ƒ ƒ a ƒ cos u. Since ƒ b ƒ , ƒ a ƒ and cos u
are numbers, and multiplication of numbers is commutative,
ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u = ƒ b ƒ ƒ a ƒ cos u
Clearly then a # b = b # a. Thus we can evaluate a scalar product in any order – the
operation is commutative.
Distributivity
For three vectors a, b and c
a # (b + c) = a # b + a # c
This means that the scalar product is distributive over addition.
Example 3.4
Simplify i # (i + j).
Solution
Using the distributivity property,
i # (i + j) = i # i + i # j
which simplifies to 1 + 0 = 1.
Multiplication by a scalar
For two vectors a and b, and a scalar k,
k(a # b) = (ka) # b
= a # (kb)
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3.3 Some properties of the scalar product 707 14
Example 3.5
Simplify i # 7i.
Solution
Using this rule, with k = 7, i # (7i) can be written 7(i # i). So
i # 7i = 7(i # i)
= 7(1) = 7
Example 3.6
Simplify (3i + 2j) # (7i + 4j).
Solution
Using the distributivity property we can write
(3i + 2j) # (7i + 4j) = (3i + 2j) # (7i) + (3i + 2j) # (4j)
This can be expanded further to give
3i # 7i + 2j # 7i + 3i # 4j + 2j # 4j
This simplifies to
(3)(7)i # i + (2)(7)j # i + (3)(4)i # j + (2)(4)j # j
Finally
(3i + 2j) # (7i + 4j) = 21 + 0 + 0 + 8
= 29
Exercises
1 If a and b are perpendicular, simplify
(a - 2b) # (3a + 5b)
Solutions to exercises
1 3a2 - 10b2
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14 708 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
3.4 A formula for finding the scalar product
We can use the previous results to obtain a formula for finding a scalar product when the
vectors are given in cartesian form. Suppose a = a1i + a2 j and b = b1i + b2 j. Then
a # b = (a1 i + a2 j) # (b1i + b2 j)
= a1 i # (b1i + b2 j) + a2 j # (b1 i + b2 j)
= a1b1 i # i + a1b2 i # j + a2b1 j # i + a2b2 j # j
Now, since i # i = j # j = 1, and i # j = j # i = 0, we can simplify this to give the
following formula:
Key point If a = a1i + a2 j and b = b1i + b2 j then
a # b = a1b1 + a2b2
Thus to find the scalar product of two vectors their i components are multiplied
together, their j components are multiplied together and the results are added.
Example 3.7
If a = 7i + 8j and b = 5i - 2j, find the scalar product a # b.
Solution
We use the previous Key point and multiply corresponding components together,
adding the results.
a # b = (7i + 8j) # (5i - 2j)
= (7)(5) + (8)(-2)
= 35 - 16
= 19
Note that the answer is a scalar.
Example 3.8
If p = 5i - 3j and q = 2i + j, find the scalar product p # q.
Solution
(5)(2) + (-3)(1) = 7
This result readily generalises to vectors in three dimensions as follows:
Key point If a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then
a # b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Example 3.9
If a = 5i + 3j - 2k and b = 8i - 9j + 11k, find a # b.
Solution
Corresponding components are multiplied together and the results are added.
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3.5 Using the scalar product to find the angle between two vectors 709 14
a # b =
(5)(8) + (3)(-9) + (-2)(11) = 40 - 27 - 22
= -9
Note again that the result is a scalar: there are no is, js or ks in the answer.
Example 3.10
If p = 4i - 3j + 7k and q = 6i - j + 2k, find p # q.
Solution
Corresponding components are multiplied together and the results are added.
41
Example 3.11
If r = 3i + 2j + 9k find r # r. Show that this is the same as ƒ r ƒ 2.
Solution
94
Exercises
1 If a = 2i - 5j and b = 3i + 2j find a # b 4 The work done by a force F in moving a body
and verify that a # b = b # a. through a displacement r is given by F # r.
A force F = 3i + 7k causes a body to move
2 If p = i + 8j + 7k and q = 3i - 2j + 5k, from the point with coordinates (1, 1, 2) to the
find p # q. point (7, 3, 5).
(a) Find the displacement, r, of the body.
3 Show that the vectors 12 i + j and 2i - j are (b) Find the work done by the force.
perpendicular.
Solutions to exercises
1 -4 4 (a) 6i + 2j + 3k (b) 39 units.
2 22
3.5 Using the scalar product to find the angle between two vectors
Using the scalar product we can find the angle between two vectors.
Example 3.12
Find the angle between the vectors a = 5i + 3j - 2k and b = 8i - 9j + 11k of
Example 3.9.
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14 710 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
Solution
Their scalar product has already been found to be -9. The modulus of a is
252 + 32 + (-2)2 = 238
The modulus of b is
282 + (-9)2 + 112 = 2266
Substituting these into the formula for the scalar product we find
a # b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ cos u
-9 = 238 2266 cos u
from which
-9
cos u =
238 2266
= -0.0895
so that
u = cos-1(-0.0895)
= 95.14°
In general, the angle between two vectors can be found from the following formula:
Key point a # b
cos u =
ƒaƒ ƒbƒ
Exercises
1 Find the angle between p = 3i - j and 2 Find the angle between the vectors i - j - k
q = -4i + 6j. and 2i + j + 2k.
Solutions to exercises
1 142.1° 2 101.1°
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3.6 Using the scalar product to find the component of a vector in the direction of another vector 711 14
3.6 Using the scalar product to find the component of a vector
in the direction of another vector
Consider Figure 3.4, which shows arbitrary vectors a and n. Let nN be a unit vector
in the direction of n.
Figure 3.4 P
OQ is the
component of a in a
the direction of n.
θ Q
O n̂ n
Projection of a onto n
Study the figure carefully and note that a line has been drawn from P to meet n at
right angles. The distance OQ is called the projection of a onto n, or alternatively
‘the component of a in the direction of n’. Simple trigonometry tells us that
length of projection OQ
cos u =
ƒaƒ
so that the length of the projection is ƒ a ƒ cos u.
Now by taking the scalar product of a with the unit vector nN we find
a # nN = ƒ a ƒ ƒ nN ƒ cos u
= ƒ a ƒ cos u since ƒ nN ƒ = 1
We conclude that a # nN is the length of the projection OQ.
Key point a # nN is the length of the projection of a onto n
alternatively
a # nN is the component of a in the direction of n
Example 3.13
Find the component of the vector a = 2i + 3j in the direction of the vector
n = i + 5j.
Solution
First we need a unit vector in the direction of n.
n
nN =
ƒnƒ
1
= (i + 5j)
226
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14 712 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
Then the component of a in the direction of n is
# # 1
a nN = (2i + 3j) (i + 5j)
226
1 #
= (2i + 3j) (i + 5j)
126
1
= (2 + 15)
226
17
=
226
= 3.334
This is illustrated in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 y
The projection of a n i 5j
onto n is 3.334.
Length
3.334
a 2i 3 j
O x
Example 3.14
Figure 3.6 shows a plane containing the point A with position vector a. The vector n
is a perpendicular, or normal, to the plane. Find an expression for the perpendicular
distance of the plane from the origin.
Figure 3.6
OB is the n
perpendicular n
distance of the B
plane from the
origin.
A
O a
Solution
From the figure note that the perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin,
which is OB, is the projection of a onto n. Thus the perpendicular distance of the
plane from the origin is a # nN .
Example 3.15 The scalar product and digital signal recognition
and identification
A problem arising in digital signal analysis is to attempt to compare a given but
unrecognised signal with a collection of known ones. Such recognition and identifi-
cation problems arise for example when astronomers interpret signals received from
outer space and attempt to identify the objects from which they originated, perhaps
stars or galaxies.
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3.6 Using the scalar product to find the component of a vector in the direction of another vector 713 14
If the unrecognised signal resembles one of the known ones sufficiently well it
may be possible to identify it. To quantify this resemblance we can make use of vec-
tor methods.
Suppose that the unrecognised digital signal is represented by the vector x as
shown in Figure 3.7 whereas the vectors e1, e2, . . . , eN represent known signals.
Usually these vectors are normalised, that is they are unit vectors. We seek the
particular unit vector that most closely resembles x. The ‘distance’ between the
unrecognised vector and any one of the known vectors, e say, is defined as
ƒx - eƒ
Figure 3.7
x
e2
e1
eN
We would like to choose the particular e for which this distance is minimal. First
consider the square of this distance ƒ x - e ƒ 2. Recall that, for any vector a, then
ƒ a ƒ 2 = a # a. So,
ƒ x - e ƒ 2 = (x - e) #
(x - e)
= x # x + e # e-e # x-x # e
= ƒ x ƒ 2 + 1 - 2x # e
since e is a unit vector and the scalar product is commutative. We see that the square
distance, and hence the distance between x and e, is minimal when x # e is maximal.
So, the unit vector most closely resembling x is the one having the largest scalar
product with x.
For example, suppose an unrecognised signal is represented by
x = (4, 3, 6)
while the known unit vectors are
1 1
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (1, 2, 1) and e3 = (2, 2,- 1)
26 3
Evaluating the three scalar products in turn we find
# # 16 # 8
x e1 = 4, x e2 = = 6.53, x e3 = = 2.67
26 3
We conclude that x most closely resembles e2.
Exercises
1 (a) What is the component of the vector (b) What is the component of 2i + 7j in the
2i + 7j in the direction of the vector i? direction of the vector j? Interpret your
results graphically.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 714
14 714 Block 3 The scalar product, or dot product
2 Find the component of the vector 1
2 £1≥
£1≥ 1
7
3 What is the projection of the vector 2i - j + k
in the direction of the vector onto the vector 3i - 2k?
Solutions to exercises
4
1 (a) 2 (b) 7. These are just the x and y 3
components. 113
10
2
13
End of block exercises
1 If a = 4i + 6j and b = 3i - 3j find a # b 7 If
and verify that a # b = b # a. x 3
r = £y≥ and a = £2≥
2 Find the angle between p = 2i + j and
q = 5i + 11j. z 5
find r # a.
3 If a and b are perpendicular, simplify
15a + 2b2 # 1a + 7b2. 8 Find the component of the vector 7i + 2j - k
in the direction of the vector i - j + 2k.
4 If a = 5i + 3j + 7k and b = i - 2j - 7k,
find a # b. 9 Write down an expression for the component
of a in the direction of b.
5 Show that the vectors 7i + 2j + k and
i - 4j + k are perpendicular. 10 A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all
sides have equal length. Use the scalar product
6 Find the angle between the vectors 2i + j - k to show that the diagonals of a rhombus
and 5i + j - 3k. intersect at 90°.
Solutions to exercises
1 -6 6 15°
7 3x + 2y + 5z
2 39°
3
3 5a2 + 14b2 8
16
4 -50 9 a # bN
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 715
The vector product, or cross product
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
In this block we describe how to find the vector product of two vectors. Like the
scalar product its definition may seem strange when first met but it is defined in this
way because of its many applications. When multiplying vectors using the vector
product the result is always a vector. To understand how this vector is formed it is
helpful to consider first the right-handed screw rule.
4.2 The right-handed screw rule
Consider the two vectors a and b shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
b
Two vectors
separated by an
angle u. θ
The two vectors lie in a plane; this plane is shaded in Figure 4.1. Figure 4.2 shows
the same two vectors and the plane in which they lie together with a unit vector,
denoted eN , which is perpendicular to this plane. Imagine turning a right-handed
screw in the sense from a towards b as shown. A right-handed screw is one that when
turned clockwise enters the material into which it is being screwed. You will see
from Figure 4.2 that the screw will advance in the direction of eN .
Figure 4.2
A right-handed
screw turned from
a towards b will ê
advance in the
b
direction of eN .
a
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 716
14 716 Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Example 4.1
If a right-handed screw is turned from b towards a, in which direction will it
advance? Show this on a diagram similar to Figure 4.2.
Solution
a
Direction in which
the screw will advance
We are now in a position to describe the vector product.
4.3 Definition of the vector product
The result of finding the vector product of two vectors a and b is a vector of modulus
ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ sin u in the direction of eN , where eN is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing a and b in a sense defined by the right-handed screw rule, as we imagine
turning the screwdriver from a towards b, as shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3
The vector a * b
is perpendicular ab Length |a| |b| sin θ
to the plane
containing a and b.
The symbol we shall use for the vector product is the times sign * , which is
why the vector product is also called the cross product. The quantity a * b is read as
a cross b.
Key point Vector product
a * b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ sin u eN
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 717
4.3 Definition of the vector product 717 14
Note that ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ sin u is the modulus of the vector product whereas eN gives the
direction.
Now study Figure 4.4, which is used to illustrate the calculation of b * a. In
particular note the direction of b * a arising through the application of the right-
handed screw rule.
Figure 4.4 b
Calculation of
b * a.
ba
We see that a * b is not equal to b * a because their directions are different. In
fact a * b = -b * a.
Example 4.2
If a and b are parallel, show that a * b = 0, the zero vector.
Solution
Use the definition: a * b = ƒ a ƒ ƒ b ƒ sin u eN . What is the angle u given that a and b are
parallel?
u = 0°
If a and b are parallel then the angle between them is zero. Consequently sin u = 0.
It follows that a * b = 0. Note that the result, 0, is the zero vector.
Note in particular the following important results:
Key point i * i = 0, j * j = 0, k * k = 0
Example 4.3
Show that i * j = k and find expressions for j * k and k * i.
Solution
Note that i and j are perpendicular so that the angle between them is 90°. So the
modulus of i * j is (1)(1) sin 90° = 1. The unit vector perpendicular to i and j in the
sense defined by the right-handed screw rule is k as shown in Figure 4.5. Therefore
i * j = k as required.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 718
14 718 Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Figure 4.5 z z z
The vector k is ijk jki kij
perpendicular to
both i and j. k k k
j j j
y y y
i i i
x x x
Similarly, by referring to Figure 4.5, you can verify that j * k = i and k * i = j.
Key point i * j = k, j * k = i, k * i = j
j * i = -k, k * j = -i, i * k = -j
Exercises
1 Write down the definition of the vector 3 Show that if a and b are parallel vectors then
product of two vectors p and q. Illustrate the their vector product is the zero vector.
definition with a diagram showing clearly the
direction of p * q.
2 Explain why, for arbitrary vectors, p * q is
not equal to q * p.
4.4 Some properties of the vector product
The vector product has a number of properties that are necessary for further
development.
Non-commutativity
We have already seen that a * b = -b * a.
Distributivity
For three vectors a, b and c
a * (b + c) = a * b + a * c
This means that the vector product is distributive over addition.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/28/18 7:56 AM Page 719
4.5 A formula for finding the vector product 719 14
Example 4.4
Simplify i * (i + j).
Solution
Using the distributivity property,
i * (i + j) = i * i + i * j
which simplifies to k.
Multiplication by a scalar
For two vectors a and b, and a scalar k,
k (a * b) = (ka) * b
= a * (kb)
Example 4.5
Simplify i * 5k.
Solution
Using this rule,
i * 5k = 5(i * k)
= 5( -j)
= - 5j
4.5 A formula for finding the vector product
We can use the properties of the vector product to develop a formula for finding the
vector product of two vectors given in cartesian form. Suppose a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k
and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k; then
a * b = (a1i + a2 j + a3 k) * (b1i + b2 j + b3 k)
= a1i * (b1i + b2 j + b3 k)
+ a2 j * (b1i + b2 j + b3 k)
+ a3 k * (b1i + b2 j + b3 k)
= a1b1(i * i) + a1b2(i * j) + a1b3(i * k)
+ a2b1( j * i) + a2b2( j * j) + a2b3( j * k)
+ a3b1(k * i) + a3b2(k * j) + a3b3(k * k)
Using the previous two Key points this expression simplifies to
a * b = (a2b3 - a3b2)i - (a1b3 - a3b1) j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 720
14 720 Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Key point If a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then
a * b = (a2b3 - a3b2)i - (a1b3 - a3b1) j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k
Example 4.6
Evaluate the vector product a * b if a = 3i - 2 j + 5k and b = 7i + 4 j - 8k.
Solution
Identifying a1 = 3, a2 = -2, a3 = 5, b1 = 7, b2 = 4, b3 = -8 we find
a * b = [(-2)(-8) - (5)(4)]i - [(3)(-8) - (5)(7)] j
+ [(3)(4) - (-2)(7)]k
= -4i + 59j + 26k
Example 4.7
Evaluate the vector product b * a where a and b are the vectors in Example 4.6.
Solution
4i - 59j - 26k
Example 4.8
Use the Key point to find the vector product of p = 3i + 5 j and q = 2i - j.
Solution
Note that in this example there are no k components so a3 and b3 are both zero.
Apply the formula:
p * q = -13k
Exercises
1 Find the vector product of p = -2i - 3 j and 3 Find ƒ r1 * r2 ƒ when r1 = 2i + 3 j and
q = 4i + 7j. r2 = -7i + 2 j.
2 (a) Find a * b when a = 13 j and
b = -7i + 2 j.
(b) Verify that a * b = -b * a.
Solutions to exercises
1 -2k 3 25
2 (a) 91k
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4.6 Using determinants to evaluate a vector product 721 14
4.6 Using determinants to evaluate a vector product
Evaluation of a vector product using the previous formula is very cumbersome. A
more convenient and easily remembered method is to use determinants.
The vector product of two vectors a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k
can be found by evaluating the determinant:
i j k
3
a * b = a1 a2 a3 3
b1 b2 b3
To find the i component of the vector product, imagine crossing out the row and col-
umn containing i and finding the determinant of what is left, that is
` ` = a2b3 - a3b2
a2 a3
b2 b3
The resulting number is the i component of the vector product. The j component is
found by crossing out the row and column containing j and evaluating
` ` = a1b3 - a3b1
a1 a3
b1 b3
and then changing the sign of the result. Finally the k component is found by cross-
ing out the row and column containing k and evaluating
` ` = a1b2 - a2b1
a1 a2
b1 b2
Key point If a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then
i j k
a * b = 3 a1 a2 a3 3
b1 b2 b3
= (a2b3 - a3b2)i - (a1b3 - a3b1)j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k
Example 4.9
Find the vector product of a = 3i - 4 j + 2k and b = 9i - 6j + 2k.
Solution
The two given vectors are represented in the determinant
i j k
33 -4 2 3
9 -6 2
Evaluating this determinant we obtain
a * b = [-8 - (-12)]i - (6 - 18) j + [-18 - (-36)]k
= 4i + 12 j + 18k
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 722
14 722 Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Example 4.10
Find the vector product of a = 7i + j + 2k and b = i + 3j - 2k.
Solution
i j k
3 3 = -8i + 16 j + 20k
Example 4.11 Mechanical Engineering – The moment of a force
Figure 4.6 shows a force F applied to an object causing the object to rotate around a
fixed axis. The force is applied at a point with position vector r. The moment of the
force about O is defined to be the vector MO given by
MO = r * F
Figure 4.6
The moment of a
force is found by
evaluating a vector
product. r
O
F
The magnitude of MO is a measure of the turning effect of the force.
(a) Calculate the moment about O of the force F = 2i + 3j + k newtons applied
at the point with position vector 3j.
(b) Calculate its magnitude.
Solution
(a)
i j k
MO = 3 0 3 0 3
2 3 1
= 3i - 6k
(b) The magnitude of this moment is 232 + (-6)2 = 245 N m.
Example 4.12 The area of a triangle
The area of the triangle shown in Figure 4.7 is given by the formula area =
1
2 bc sin A. Show that an equivalent formula is
1 : :
area = 2 ƒ AB * AC ƒ
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4.6 Using determinants to evaluate a vector product 723 14
Figure 4.7 B
The area of a c
triangle can be
found by A a
evaluating a vector
product. b
C
Solution
From the definition of the vector product
: : : :
ƒ AB * AC ƒ = ƒ AB ƒ ƒ AC ƒ sin A
: : : :
since A is the angle between AB and AC. Furthermore ƒ AB ƒ = c and ƒ AC ƒ = b.
Therefore
1
area = 2 bc sin A
1 : :
= 2 ƒ AB * AC ƒ
as required.
Example 4.13
Find the area of the triangle that has vertices at the following points: A(0, 7, 1),
B(1, 3, 2) and C(-2, 0, 3).
Solution
: :
To apply the result of Example 4.12 we need to find the vectors AB and AC.
We are given the coordinates of the vertices. Write down the position vectors of
these points.
: : :
OA = 7j + k, OB = i + 3j + 2k and OC = -2i + 3k
: :
Hence find vectors AB and AC.
: :
AB = i - 4j + k and AC = -2i - 7j + 2k
: :
Now find AB * AC and apply the formula of Example 4.12.
: : -i - 4j - 15k
AB * AC =
11
area = 2 22
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 724
14 724 Block 4 The vector product, or cross product
Exercises
Deduce that, in general, the vector product is
1 If p = 3i + 2 j - k and q = 5i - j - k find
not associative.
p * q.
8 A force of magnitude 3 units acts at the point
2 If a = 12i + 13 j and b = 7i + 3 j find a * b.
with coordinates (1, 2, 3). The force is applied
in the direction of the vector 3i - j + 4k. Find
3 If a = i + 2j + 3k and b = 4i + 3j + 2k
the moment of the force about O. What is the
find a * b. Show that a * b Z b * a.
moment of the force about the point with
coordinates (1, 2, 3)?
4 Points A, B and C have coordinates (9, 1, -2),
(3, 1, 3) and (1, 0, -1) respectively. Find the
: : 9 Find the area of the triangle with vertices at the
vector product AB * AC. points with coordinates (1, 2, 3), (4, -3, 2)
and (8, 1, 1).
5 Find a vector that is perpendicular to both
of the vectors a = i + 2j + 7k and 10 For the vectors a = i + 2j + 3k,
b = i + j - 2k. Hence find a unit vector that b = 2i - 2j - 5k and c = i - 3j - k,
is perpendicular to both a and b. evaluate
(a) (a # c)b - (b # c)a
6 Find a vector that is perpendicular to the plane (b) (a * b) * c
containing 6i + k and 2i + j. Deduce that (a # c)b - (b # c)a = (a * b) * c.
7 For the vectors a = 4i + 2j + k,
b = i - 2j + k and c = 3i - 3j + 4k,
evaluate a * (b * c) and (a * b) * c.
Solutions to exercises
1 -3i - 2j - 13k 6 -i + 2j + 6k
2 -55k 7 7i - 17j + 6k, -42i - 46j - 3k
3 -5i + 10j - 5k 1
8 (33i + 15j - 21k), 0
226
4 5i - 34j + 6k
1
9 2 21106
1
5 -11i + 9j - k, (-11i + 9j - k)
2203 10 -29i - 10j + k
Computer and calculator exercises
Scalar and vector products can be readily calculated define the vectors a = i - 2j + 3k and b = 2i - j + k
using software. For example, the Matlab instructions and then calculate their scalar and vector products,
yielding 7 and i + 5j + 3k, respectively. The
a=[1 -2 3]
following Maple commands achieve the same result:
b=[2 -1 1]
dot(a,b)
cross(a,b)
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 2:00 PM Page 725
4.6 Using determinants to evaluate a vector product 725 14
> with(LinearAlgebra);
a:= Vector[row]([1,-2,3]);
1 For the vectors a = i - 2j + 3k, b = 2i - j +
b:= Vector[row]([2,-1,1]);
k and c = 7i + 2j - 5k, use the software to
which you have access to find:
(a) the scalar triple product a – 1b * c2.
DotProduct(a,b);
CrossProduct(a,b);
(b) the vector triple product a * 1b * c2.
You should consult the on-line help for more details Verify Lagrange’s formula that states
a * 1b * c2 = b1a – c2 - c1a – b2
about these and other vector commands.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2, (b) -73i - 2j + 23k.
End of block exercises
1 Find the vector product of a = 2i + 4k and 5 For the vectors a = i - 2j + 3k,
b = i - 7k. b = - 3i + k and c = 2i + j + 4k, evaluate
a * (b * c) and (a * b) * c.
2 If a = 3i + 2j + k and b = - 4i + 6j + 2k
find a * b. Show that a * b Z b * a. 6 A force of magnitude 4 units acts at the point
with coordinates (4, 3, 2). The force is applied
3 Points A, B and C have coordinates (1, 3, 2), in the direction of the vector i - j. Find the
(4, 1, 3) and (0, 1, - 1) respectively. Find the moment of the force about O.
: :
vector product AB * AC .
7 Find the area of the triangle with vertices at the
4 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to the points with coordinates (4, -3, 2), (5, 0, 5)
plane containing i + 2k and 2i + j + 7k. and (1, 1, 1).
Solutions to exercises
1 18j 5 -36i + 12k, -34i - 4j + 18k
2 - 2i - 10j + 26k 6 422i + 422 j - 1422k
1
3 8i + 8j - 8k 7 2 2458
1
4 (- 2i - 3j + k)
214
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:56 PM Page 726
The vector equation of a line and a plane
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
Vectors are very convenient tools for analysing lines and planes in three dimensions.
In this block you will learn how to formulate the vector equation of a line and the
vector equation of a plane. Finding the equation of a plane relies heavily on an
understanding of the scalar product, which should be revised if necessary.
5.2 The vector equation of a line
You will recall that in two dimensions a straight line has an equation of the form
y = mx + c, such as y = 3x - 2. Values of x and y that satisfy this equation corre-
spond to points that lie on the line. Lines in three dimensions are conveniently
described using vectors. If we are given a point through which a line must pass, and
if we can find a vector in the direction of the line, then the line can be described
uniquely.
Consider the straight line APB shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 B
A straight line P
A
passing through
points A and B. r
a b
Points A and B are fixed and known points on the line, and have position vectors
a and b respectively. Point P is any other arbitrary and variable point on the line, and
: :
has position vector r. Note that AB and AP are parallel. It is possible to express the
position vector of the arbitrary point in terms of the vectors a and b in what is called
the vector equation of the line. We shall develop this equation in stages.
Example 5.1
Refer to Figure 5.1. Using the triangle law of vector addition it is possible to write an
:
expression for AB in terms of a and b. Do this now.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 727
5.2 The vector equation of a line 727 14
Solution
: :
a + AB = b so AB = b - a
Example 5.2
: :
Refer to Figure 5.1. Given AB and AP are parallel, write down a relationship
between these vectors.
Solution
: :
AP = kAB, for some scalar k
Using the triangle law of vector addition we can write
: : :
OP = OA + AP
so that
r = a + k(b - a)
This is the vector equation of the line.
Key point r = a + k(b - a)
is the vector equation of the line passing through the points with position vectors
a and b.
By varying the value of k we can move to any point on the line. For example, when
k = 0, r = a, point A
k = 1, r = b, point B
If k lies between 0 and 1, the point P lies on the line between A and B. If k is greater
than 1, the point P lies on the line beyond B. If k is less than 0, the point P lies on the
line beyond A on the opposite side.
Note that the vector b - a is a vector in the direction of the line.
Example 5.3
Write down the vector equation of the line that passes through the points A and B
with position vectors a = 3i + 2j and b = 7i + 5j respectively.
Solution
Note that
b - a = (7i + 5j) - (3i + 2j)
= 4i + 3j
The equation of the line is then
r = a + k(b - a)
= (3i + 2j) + k(4i + 3j)
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 728
14 728 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
Alternatively, using column vector notation we could write the equation of the
line as
r = a b + ka b
3 4
2 3
This gives the position vector of any point on the line. Note that if k = 0 then
r = a b
3
2
that is point A. If k = 1 then
r = a b + a b
3 4
2 3
= a b
7
5
which is point B. Any other value of k will give another point on the line. For
example, if k = 2 we find
r = a b
11
8
which is a point beyond B.
Example 5.4
Write down the vector equation of the line that passes through the points with pos-
ition vectors a = 5i - 2j + 3k and b = 2i + j - 4k.
Solution
Using column vector notation write down b - a.
2 5 -3
P Q P Q P Q
1 - -2 = 3
-4 3 -7
The equation of the line is then
5 -3
P Q P Q
r = a + k1b - a2 = -2 + k 3
3 -7
Example 5.5
On a diagram mark two points M and N. Sketch a straight line through the points M
and N, and show their respective position vectors m and n. On your sketch mark an
arbitrary point on the line, having position vector r. Write down the vector equation
of the line MN.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 729
5.2 The vector equation of a line 729 14
Solution
N
M P
m r
n
r = m + k(n - m)
On occasions it is useful to convert the vector form of the equation of a straight line
into cartesian form. Suppose we write
a1 b1 x
P Q P Q P Q
a = a2 , b = b2 and r = y
a3 b3 z
Then
r = a + k(b - a)
x a1 b1 - a1
P Q P Q P Q
y = a2 + k b2 - a2
z a3 b3 - a3
a1 + k(b1 - a1)
P 2 Q
= a + k(b2 - a2)
a3 + k(b3 - a3)
Equating the individual components we find
x - a1
x = a1 + k(b1 - a1), or equivalently k =
b1 - a1
y - a2
y = a2 + k(b2 - a2), or equivalently k =
b2 - a2
z - a3
z = a3 + k(b3 - a3), or equivalently k =
b3 - a3
Now, since each expression on the right is equal to k we can write
x - a1 y - a2 z - a3
= =
b1 - a1 b2 - a2 b3 - a3
This is the cartesian form of the equation of the straight line that passes through the
points with coordinates (a1, a2, a3) and (b1, b2, b3).
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 730
14 730 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
Key point x - a1
=
y - a2
=
z - a3
b1 - a1 b2 - a2 b3 - a3
is the cartesian form of the equation of the straight line that passes through the
points with coordinates (a1, a2, a3) and (b1, b2, b3).
Example 5.6
(a) Write down the cartesian form of the equation of the straight line that passes
through the two points (9, 3, -2) and (4, 5, -1).
(b) State the equivalent vector equation.
Solution
x-9 y-3 z - (-2)
(a) = =
4-9 5-3 -1 - (-2)
that is
x - 9 y - 3 z + 2
= =
-5 2 1
(b) The vector equation is
r = a + k(b - a)
9 4 9 9 -5
P Q JP Q P QK P Q P Q
= 3 + k 5 - 3 = 3 + k 2
-2 -1 -2 -2 1
Exercises
:
1 (a) Write down the vector AB joining the 4 Line I has equation
points A and B with coordinates (3, 2, 7)
and (-1, 2, 3) respectively. 2 1
P Q P Q
(b) Find the equation of the straight line r1 = 3 + k 2
through A and B. 5 4
Line II has equation
2 Write down the vector equation of the line
passing through the points with position -5 -6
P Q P Q
vectors r2 = 8 + l 7
1 0
p = 3i + 7j - 2k
Different values of k give different points on
q = -3i + 2j + 2k
line I. Similarly, different values of l give
different points on line II. If the two lines
Find also the cartesian equation of this line. intersect then r1 = r2 at the point of intersection.
If you can find values of k and l which satisfy
3 Find the vector equation of the line passing this condition then the two lines intersect. Show
through (9, 1, 2) and which is parallel to the the lines intersect by finding these values and
vector (1, 1, 1). hence find the point of intersection.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 731
5.3 The vector equation of a plane 731 14
Solutions to exercises
3 -4 9 1
1 (a) -4i - 4k (b) r = £ 2 ≥ + k £ 0 ≥ 3 r = £1≥ + k£1≥
7 -4 2 1
3 -6
2 r = £ 7 ≥ + k £ -5 ≥ ; 4 k = l = -1 and the point of intersection is
-2 4 (1, 1, 1).
x - 3 y - 7 z + 2
cartesian form = = .
-6 -5 4
5.3 The vector equation of a plane
Consider the plane shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 n
This plane passes
through A and is
perpendicular to n.
A
P
a
r
Suppose that A is a known point in the plane and has position vector a. Suppose
that P is any other arbitrary point in the plane with position vector r. Clearly the vec-
:
tor AP must lie in the plane. Note that
:
AP = r - a
Also shown in Figure 5.2 is a vector that is perpendicular to the plane and denoted by
:
n. Now, because AP and n are perpendicular their scalar product must equal zero,
that is
:
AP # n = 0
(r - a) # n = 0
or alternatively, by removing the brackets and rearranging,
r # n = a # n
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 732
14 732 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
This is the equation of the plane passing through the point with position vector a and
perpendicular to n.
Key point A plane passing through the point with position vector a and being perpendicular to the
vector n is given by
r #n = a#n
The previous result is valid whether or not n is a unit vector. However, if nN is a unit
vector then a # nN represents the perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane,
which we usually denote by d. This was shown in Block 3. Hence we can write
r # nN = d
This is the vector equation of a plane with unit normal nN and which is a perpendic-
ular distance d from O.
Key point A plane with unit normal nN and which is a perpendicular distance d from O is given by
r # nN = d
The cartesian form of these equations is obtained by letting r = xi + yj + zk and
evaluating the scalar product.
Example 5.7
(a) Find the vector equation of the plane that passes through the point with position
vector 3i + 2j + 5k and which is perpendicular to i + k.
(b) Find the cartesian equation of this plane.
Solution
In this example, a = 3i + 2j + 5k and the normal is n = i + k.
(a) Using the previous results we can write down the equation
r # n = a # n
r # (i + k) = (3i + 2j + 5k) # (i + k)
= 8
(b) Writing r as xi + yj + zk we have the cartesian form
(xi + yj + zk) # (i + k) = 8
so that
x + z = 8
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 733
5.4 Intersection of a line and plane 733 14
5.4 Intersection of a line and plane
Given the equations of a line and a plane we can calculate their point of intersection.
Example 5.8 illustrates the method.
Example 5.8
A line, L, passes through A(3, 3, 1) and B(4, 7, -1). A plane, ß , passes through
1
C(3, -1, 7). The normal to the plane has direction £ 0 ≥ . Find the point of intersec-
tion of L and ß. 2
Solution
Consider the line, L, first. We develop the equation of the line. The direction of the
line is
4 3 1
!
AB = b - a = £ 7 ≥ - £ 3 ≥ = £ 4 ≥
-1 1 -2
The line passes through A(3, 3, 1) and so the equation of the line, L, is
x 3 1
r = £y≥ = £3≥ + k£ 4 ≥
z 1 -2
The cartesian form of this equation is
x = 3 + k (1)
y = 3 + 4k (2)
z = 1 - 2k (3)
We now develop the equation of the plane. Noting the normal to the plane and the
coordinates of the point C we may write the vector equation of the plane as
x 1 3 1
£ y ≥ . £ 0 ≥ = £ -1 ≥ . £ 0 ≥ = 17
z 2 7 2
In cartesian form this is
x + 2z = 17 (4)
To find the point of intersection of the line and plane we solve equations (1) to (4)
simultaneously. Substituting (1) and (3) into (4) yields
(3 + k) + 2(1 - 2k) = 17
from which k = -4. Hence x = -1, y = -13, z = 9 is the point of intersection.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 734
14 734 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
5.5 Intersection of two planes
Two planes, which are not parallel, intersect in a line. The equations of the planes
(in cartesian form) are solved simultaneously to find the equation of the line of
intersection.
Example 5.9
The equations of two planes are given by
x - 2y - z = 0 (1)
x + 3y + 2z = 1 (2)
Find their line of intersection.
Solution
The system of equations given by (1) and (2) can be solved by Gaussian elimination
(see Chapter 13, Block 3). The augmented matrix is
a b
1 -2 -1 0
1 3 2 1
The row-echelon form of this augmented matrix is
a 1b
1 -2 -1 0
3
0 1 5 5
The second row states
3 1
y + z =
5 5
Let y = k, that is the free variable. Then
1 - 5k
z =
3
Using the first row we find
k + 1
x =
3
Writing the expressions for x, y and z in the form of a vector equation gives
1 1
x 3 3
r = £y≥ = £0≥ + k£ 1 ≥
1
z 3 - 53
This is the required vector equation of the line. By varying the value of k we can
move to any point on the line. It is worth noting that we can rewrite this in a slightly
simpler form. Note that when k = -1 then the equation of the line reduces to
x 0
r = £ y ≥ = £ -1 ≥
z 2
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 11/15/18 3:46 PM Page 735
5.6 Angle between a line and a plane 735 14
1
3
Hence (0, -1, 2) is a point on the line. We also note that the direction, £ 1 ≥ ,
- 53
1
is the same direction as £ 3 ≥ . So the equation of the line may be written as
-5
x 0 1
r = £ y ≥ = £ -1 ≥ + k £ 3 ≥
z 2 -5
5.6 Angle between a line and a plane
Figure 5.3 shows a plane with normal n. A line L intersects the plane at A. We
wish to calculate the acute angle between the line and the plane: this is denoted u
in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
Finding the angle
n
between a line, L,
and a plane.
α
θ
A
Given the equation of the plane we can determine the normal n. Knowing the
direction of the line we can use the scalar product to determine the acute angle
between the line, L, and the normal, n. This is denoted a in Figure 5.3. Observe that
u = 90° - a. Example 5.10 illustrates the method.
Example 5.10
A plane has cartesian equation
x + 2z = 17
A line has vector equation
3 6
r = £3≥ + k£ - 2≥
1 1
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 10/16/18 7:29 AM Page 736
14 736 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
(a) Determine the normal to the plane.
(b) Use the scalar product to calculate the acute angle between the line and the
normal to the plane.
(c) Hence determine the angle at which the line intersects the plane.
Solution
(a) We write the equation of the plane in vector form as
x 1
£ y ≥ . £ 0 ≥ = 17
z 2
1
From this vector form we see that the normal to the plane is £ 0 ≥ .
2
(b) We now find the scalar product of the normal to the plane and the direction of
the line.
1 6
£ 0 ≥ . £ -2 ≥ = 6 + 0 + 2 = 8
2 1
1 6
The modulus of £ 0 ≥ is 25; the modulus of £ -2 ≥ is 241. Hence, again
2 1
using the scalar product, we see
25241 cos a = 8
from which a = 56°.
(c) The angle between the line and the plane is then given by
u = 90° - 56° = 34°.
Key point Let a be the angle between a line and the normal to a plane. Then the angle, u, between
the line and plane is given by
u = 90° - a
Exercises
: :
1 Find the equation of a plane that is normal to (a) Write down AB and AC.
8i + 9j + k and which is a distance 1 from : :
(b) Find the vector product AB * AC.
the origin. : :
(c) Comment upon the direction of AB * AC
in relation to the plane through A, B and C.
2 Find the equation of a plane that passes (d) Find the vector and cartesian forms of the
through (8, 1, 0) and which is normal to the equation of the plane containing A, B and C.
vector i + 2j - 3k.
3 A plane passes through the points A, B and C
with coordinates (1, 0, 1), ( -2, 5, 0) and
(3, 1, 1) respectively.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 737
5.6 Angle between a line and a plane 737 14
Solutions to exercises
8 3 (a) -3i + 5j - k, 2i + j (b) i - 2j - 13k
1
1 r # £ 9 ≥ = 1, or (c) it is normal to the plane
2146 1
1
8x + 9y + z = 2146 (d) r # £ -2 ≥ = -12,
1 8 1 -13
2 r # £ 2 ≥ = £1≥ # £ 2 ≥ , that is x - 2y - 13z = -12
-3 0 -3
1
r # £ 2 ≥ = 10
-3
End of block exercises
:
1 (a) Write down the vector AB joining the 6 Find the equation of a plane that passes
points A and B with coordinates (-2, 1, 3) through the origin and which is normal to the
and (5, 2, 3) respectively. vector 5i + j - k.
(b) Find the equation of the straight line
7 What is the distance of the plane
through A and B.
3
2 Write down the vector equation of the line r # £2≥ = 5
passing through the points with position vectors 1
p = 5i + 3j - 2k from the origin?
q = 3i + 7j - k
8 (a) A plane ß is given by
Find the cartesian equation of this line.
1
3 Find the vector equation of the line passing r # £2≥ = 6
through (2, 1, 2) and which is parallel to the 1
vector (1, 2, 3).
Find the distance of this plane from the
4 Find the vector equation of the line passing origin.
through (2, 1, 2) and which is parallel to the (b) A second plane passes through the point
1 (3, 2, 1) and is parallel to the plane ß.
unit vector (1, 2, 3). Find its distance from the origin.
214 (c) Deduce the distance from the point
(3, 2, 1) to the plane ß.
5 Find the equation of a plane that passes
through (2, -3, 1) and which is normal to the 9 Write the plane 3x - 3y - z = 14 in vector
vector 3i - 3j - k. form.
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 738
14 738 Block 5 The vector equation of a line and a plane
Solutions to exercises
-2 7 3
1 (a) 7i + j (b) r = £ 1 ≥ + k £ 1 ≥ 5 r # £ -3 ≥ = 14
3 0 -1
5 -2 5
2 r = £ 3 ≥ + k £ 4 ≥; 6 r # £ 1 ≥ = 0
-2 1 -1
x - 5 y - 3 z + 2 5
= = 7
-2 4 1 214
6 8 2
2 1 8 (a) (b) (c)
26 26 26
3 r = £1≥ + k£2≥
2 3 3
9 r # £ -3 ≥ = 14
4 same as 3
-1
End of chapter exercises
1 Show on a diagram three arbitrary vectors p, q 7 If A has coordinates (-4, 2, 1) and B has
and r. Using the triangle law of addition verify coordinates (2, 0, 2) find the direction ratio of
the associativity rule :
the vector AB. Find its direction cosines l, m
p + (q + r) = (p + q) + r and n and verify that l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
2 A force of 23 newtons acts at an angle of 20° 8 Find the angle between the vectors 12i - j
below the horizontal. Resolve this force into and 2i + j + k.
two components, one vertical and one
horizontal. 9 Find the projection of the vector 6i + j + 5k
onto the vector i - j + 2k.
3 On a diagram show the arbitrary vectors p and
q. Then show the following: 10 Points A, B and C have position vectors
(a) p + q (b) p - q (c) q - p (9, 1, 1), (8, 1, 1) and (9, 0, 2). Find
(d) 4q (e) -2q (a) the equation of the plane containing A, B
and C
4 State the position vectors of the points with (b) the area of the triangle ABC.
coordinates (9, 1, -1) and (-4, 0, 4).
11 Find the equation of the plane with normal j
5 If A has coordinates (4, 3, 0) and B has that is a distance 2 from the origin.
: :
coordinates (-2, 1, 9) find AB and ƒ AB ƒ . 12 If a = 3i + j - 2k and b = 13i - j - k
find
6 Find the modulus of the vector
(a) a + b (b) b - 3a (c) ƒ b ƒ (d) aN
p = 2i - j + 5k (e) ƒ b - a ƒ
M14_CROF5939_04_SE_C14.QXD 9/25/18 12:57 PM Page 739
End of chapter exercises 739 14
13 Given that p = 2i + 2j and q = 7k find p # q Show that the vectors
and interpret this result geometrically. 2i - j + k, 3i - 4j + 5k, i + 2 j - 3k
are coplanar.
14 Find the work done by a force of magnitude
10 newtons acting in the direction of the vector 17 Given three vectors a, b and c, their triple
3i + j + 8k if it moves a particle from the vector product is defined to be (a * b) * c.
point (1, 1, 1) to the point (3, 1, 2). For the vectors a = 4i + 2 j + k,
b = 2i - j + 7k and c = 2i - 2 j + 3k
15 Given three vectors a, b and c, their triple verify that
scalar product is defined to be (a * b) # c. It (a * b) * c = (a # c)b - (b # c)a
can be shown that the modulus of this is the
volume of the parallelepiped formed by the
three vectors. Find the volume of the 18 Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose
parallelepiped formed by the three vectors edges are represented by the vectors
a = 3i + j - 2k, b = i + 2j - 2k and 12i + j + k, 2i and -2 j + k.
c = 2i + 5j + k.
19 If
16 If the triple scalar product (a * b) # c is equal
to zero, then 3 4 8
(i) a = 0, or b = 0, or c = 0 or a = £ 2 ≥, b = £3≥ and c = £1≥
(ii) two of the vectors are parallel, or 1 4 0
(iii) the three vectors lie in the same plane
(they are said to be coplanar). show that a # b * c = 32.
Solutions to exercises
2 21.6 N horiz., 7.9 N vert. downwards 11 y = 2
4 9i + j - k, -4i + 4k 12 (a) 16i - 3k (b) 4i - 4 j + 5k (c) 3 219
1
5 -6i - 2j + 9k, 11 (d) (3i + j - 2k) (e) 2105
214
6 230 13 0, vectors are perpendicular
140
6 2 1 14 = 16.3
7 6: -2:1, ,- , 274
241 241 241
15 29
8 38.8°
18 6
15
9
26
0
22
10 (a) r # £ 1 ≥ = 2 (b)
2
1
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 740
Chapter 15
Differentiation
Differentiation is one of the most important processes in engineering
mathematics. It is the study of the way in which functions change.
The function may represent pressure, stress, volume or some other
physical variable. For example, the pressure of a vessel may depend
upon temperature. As the temperature of the vessel increases, then so
does the pressure. Engineers often need to know the rate at which
such a variable changes.
Block 1 explains how to calculate the rate of change of a function, y(x),
across a range of values of the input variable, x. The rate of change of
y(x) at a single point is then developed. This requires the introduction
of the idea of taking limits, which is also important in Chapter 18 on
the applications of integration.
In practice, most people use a standard table to differentiate functions,
and how this is done is explained in Block 2. The chapter closes with a
study of repeated differentiation.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 741
Chapter 15 contents
Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
Block 2 Using a table of derivatives
Block 3 Higher derivatives
End of chapter exercises
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 742
Interpretation of a derivative
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Engineers are often interested in the rate at which some variable is changing. For
example, an engineer needs to know the rate at which the pressure in a vessel is
changing, the rate at which the voltage across a capacitor is changing, or the rate at
which the temperature is changing in a chemical reaction. Rapid rates of change of a
variable may indicate that a system is not operating normally and is approaching
critical values. Alarms may be triggered.
Rates of change may be positive, negative or zero. A positive rate of change means
that the variable is increasing; a negative rate of change means that the variable is
decreasing. A zero rate of change means that the variable is not changing.
Consider Figure 1.1, which illustrates a variable, y(x).
Figure 1.1 y
The function
y(x) changes at
different rates for
different values
of x.
x
⫺5 ⫺4 ⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 O 1 2 3 4 5
Between x = -5 and x = -3, y is increasing slowly. Across this interval the rate
of change of y is small and positive. Between x = -3 and x = 1, y is increas-
ing more rapidly; the rate of change of y is positive and fairly large. Between
x = 1 and x = 2, y is increasing very rapidly and so the rate of change is positive
and large. From x = 2 to x = 3, y decreases rapidly; the rate of change is large
and negative. From x = 3 to x = 5, y is constant and so the rate of change on this
interval is zero.
The technique for calculating rate of change is called differentiation. Often it is
not sufficient to describe a rate of change as, for example, ‘positive and large’ or
‘negative and quite small’. A precise value is needed. Use of differentiation provides
a precise value or expression for the rate of change of a function.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 743
1.2 Average rate of change across an interval 743 15
1.2 Average rate of change across an interval
We see from Figure 1.1 that a function can have different rates of change at different
points on its graph. We begin by defining and then calculating the average rate of
change of a function across an interval. Figure 1.2 shows a function, y(x), and values
x1, x2, y(x1) and y(x2).
Consider x increasing from x1 to x2. The change in x is x2 - x1. As x increases
from x1 to x2, then y increases from y(x1) to y(x2). The change in y is y(x2) - y(x1).
Then the average rate of change of y across the interval is
change in y y(x2) - y(x1)
=
change in x x2 - x1
BC
=
AC
BC
From Figure 1.2 we see that AC = tan u, which is also the gradient of the straight
line or chord AB. Hence we see that the average rate of change across an interval is
identical to the gradient of the chord across that interval.
Figure 1.2 y y(x)
Average rate B
of change ⫽ y(x2)
y(x2) - y(x1)
. y(x2) ⫺ y(x1)
x2 - x1
A θ
y(x1) C
x2 ⫺ x1
x
x1 x2
Key point change in y
average rate of change of y =
change in x
= gradient of chord
Example 1.1
Calculate the average rate of change of y = x2 across the interval
(a) x = 1 to x = 4
(b) x = -2 to x = 0
Solution
(a) Change in x = 4 - 1 = 3.
When x = 1, y = 12 = 1. When x = 4, y = 42 = 16. Hence the change in y
is 16 - 1 = 15. So
15
average rate of change across interval [1, 4] = 3
= 5
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 744
15 744 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
This means that across the interval [1, 4], on average the y value increases by 5
for every 1 unit increase in x.
(b) Change in x = 0 - (-2) = 2. We have y(-2) = 4 and y(0) = 0 so the
change in y is 0 - 4 = -4. Hence
-4
average rate of change =
2
= -2
On average, across the interval x = -2 to x = 0, y decreases by 2 units for
every 1 unit increase in x.
Example 1.2 Electrical Engineering – Voltage across a capacitor
The voltage, n(t), across a capacitor varies with time, t, according to
n(t) = 3 + 2e-t
Find the average rate of change of voltage as time varies
(a) from t = 0 to t = 2
(b) from t = 1 to t = 3
Solution
(a) Change in t = 2 - 0 = 2.
When t = 0, n = 3 + 2e0 = 5.
When t = 2, n = 3 + 2e - 2 = 3.2707
So
average rate of change of n(t) =
3.2707 - 5
= -0.8647
2
(b) Change in t = 3 - 1 = 2
n(1) = 3 + 2e-1
= 3.7358
n(3) = 3 + 2e - 3 = 3.0996
So
average rate of change of n(t) across [1, 3] =
3.0996 - 3.7358
= -0.3181
2
Across the interval from t = 1 to t = 3, the voltage is decreasing but at a slower
rate than across the interval from t = 0 to t = 2.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 745
1.3 Rate of change at a point 745 15
Exercises
1 Calculate the average rate of change of 5 Calculate the average rate of change of
y = x2 + 2x from x = 1 to x = 4. z(t) = 4 + 2t2 across (a) t = 1 to t = 3,
(b) t = -1 to t = 0.
2 Calculate the average rate of change of
h(t) = 2t2 - 2t + 1 from t = 0 to t = 2. 6 The temperature, T, of a vessel varies with
time, t, according to
3 Calculate the average rate of change of
i(t) = 50 sin t from t = 0 to t = p. 65
T(t) = 320 +
t2
4 Calculate the average rate of change of
1 Calculate the average rate of change of T from
r(x) = from x = -3 to x = -2. t = 2 to t = 4.
x + 1
Solutions to exercises
1 7 4 -0.5
2 2 5 (a) 8 (b) -2
3 0 6 -6.094
1.3 Rate of change at a point
As mentioned earlier, we often need to know the rate of change of a function at a
point, and not simply an average rate of change across an interval.
Refer again to Figure 1.2. Suppose we wish to find the rate of change of y at the
point A. The average rate of change across the interval from x = x1 to x = x2 is
given by the gradient of the chord AB. This provides an approximation to the rate of
change at A.
Suppose the chord AB is extended on both sides, as shown in Figure 1.3. As B is
moved closer to A, the gradient of the chord provides a better approximation to the
rate of change at A.
Ultimately B is made coincident with A and then the chord AB becomes a tangent
to the curve at A. The gradient of this tangent gives the rate of change of y at A:
Key point rate of change at a point = gradient of tangent to the curve at that point
Calculating the rate of change of a function at a point by measuring the gradient of
a tangent is usually not an accurate method. Consequently we develop an exact,
algebraic way of finding rates of change.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 746
15 746 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
Figure 1.3 y
The extended
chord ultimately
becomes the Extended chord AB
tangent at A. B
Tangent at A
x
x1 x2
Consider the function y(x) as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 y
As B approaches
A, dx : 0. y(x)
B
A
x
x x ⫹ δx
δx
Let A be a point on the curve with coordinates (x, y(x)). B is a point on the curve
near to A. The x coordinate of B is x + dx. The term dx is pronounced ‘delta x’. It
represents a small change in the x direction. The y coordinate of B is y(x + dx). We
calculate the gradient of the chord AB:
change in y
gradient of AB =
change in x
y(x + dx) - y(x)
=
x + dx - x
y(x + dx) - y(x)
=
dx
The change in y, that is y(x + dx) - y(x), is also written as dy. So
y(x + dx) - y(x)
gradient of AB =
dx
dy
=
dx
The gradient of AB gives the average rate of change of y(x) across the small interval
from x to x + dx. To calculate the rate of change of y(x) at A we require the gradient
of the tangent at A.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/28/18 9:08 AM Page 747
1.3 Rate of change at a point 747 15
Consider A as a fixed point and let B move along the curve towards A. At each
position of B we can calculate the gradient of the chord AB. As B gets closer to A,
the chord AB approximates more closely to the tangent at A. Also, as B approaches
A, the distance dx decreases. To find the gradient of the tangent at A we calculate the
gradient of the chord AB and let dx get smaller and smaller. We say dx tends to zero
and write this as dx : 0.
As B approaches A, the x difference between A and B gets smaller, that is dx : 0,
and likewise the y difference, dy, also gets smaller, so dy : 0. However, the gradient
dy
of AB, given by the ratio , approaches a definite value, called a limit. So we seek
dx
dy
the limit of as dx : 0. We write this as
dx
dy
lim
dx : 0 dx
Note that ‘limit’ has been shortened to ‘lim’.
In summary we have
Key point rate of change of y = gradient of tangent
dy
= lim
dx : 0 dx
Let us see this applied to an example.
Example 1.3
Find the rate of change of y(x) = x2.
Solution
Suppose A is the fixed point with coordinates (x, x2) as shown in Figure 1.5. B is a
point on the curve near to A with coordinates (x + dx, (x + dx)2). We calculate the
gradient of the chord AB.
Figure 1.5 y
The gradient of the y ⫽ x2
tangent at A is
approximated by
the gradient of the
chord AB. (x ⫹ δx)2 B
A
y ⫽ x2
x
x x ⫹ δx
δx
Change in x = dx
Change in y = dy
= (x + dx)2 - x2
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 748
15 748 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
= x2 + 2xdx + (dx)2 - x2
= 2x(dx) + (dx)2
dy
gradient of chord AB =
dx
2x(dx) + (dx)2
=
dx
= 2x + dx
This is the average rate of change of y(x) across the small interval from x to x + dx.
To obtain the gradient of the tangent at A, we let dx : 0.
gradient of tangent at A = lim (2x + dx)
dx : 0
= 2x
Hence the rate of change of x2 is 2x.
For example, if x = 3, then A is the point (3, 9) and the rate of change of y at this
point is 6. Similarly if x = -1, A is the point ( -1, 1) and the rate of change of
y is -2.
Exercises
1 Find the rate of change of y(x) = x2 + 1. 2 Find the rate of change of y(x) = x2 + 2x.
Calculate the rate of change of y when x is Calculate the rate of change of y when x is
(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) -2 (d) 0 (a) 6 (b) -5 (c) 0
Solutions to exercises
1 2x, (a) 12 (b) 6 (c) -4 (d) 0 2 2x + 2, (a) 14 (b) -8 (c) 2
1.4 Terminology and notation
The process of finding the rate of change of a given function is called differentiation.
The function is said to be differentiated. If y is a function of the independent variable
x, we say that y is differentiated with respect to (w.r.t.) x. The rate of change of a func-
tion is also known as the derivative of the function.
There is a notation for writing down the derivative of a function. If the function is
y(x), we denote the derivative of y by
dy
dx
pronounced ‘dee y by dee x’. Hence
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/28/18 9:24 AM Page 749
1.4 Terminology and notation 749 15
Key point dy dy
lim =
dx : 0 dx dx
Another notation for the derivative is simply y¿, pronounced y dash. Similarly if the
dz
function is z(t) we write the derivative as or z¿ . When the independent variable is t,
dt
dz
the derivative may also be denoted using the dot notation. Thus, for example, may
# dt
be written as z, pronounced ‘z dot’. Sometimes, instead of writing y, a function is
written in full: for example, to show the derivative of sin 5x we write
d(sin 5x)
dx
Example 1.4 Aeronautical Engineering – Banking of an aircraft
To make an aircraft travel on a circular horizontal path, the pilot must bank the air-
craft, as shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6
An aircraft must be
banked to
fly in a circle. α
Horizontal
The angle, a, is a measure of the extent of the banking. Why must the aircraft be
banked to bring about a circular motion? To answer the question we firstly consider
a much simplified model – a body travelling on an anti-clockwise circular path,
radius r, with constant speed v.
Consider the body as it moves along the arc from P to Q. The angle, u, is swept
out during this movement. Figure 1.7 illustrates this.
du
Then is the rate of change of u, measured in radians per second. It is usually
dt
denoted by v and is termed the angular velocity,
du
v = = angular velocity
dt
If the body has a constant speed then v likewise is constant. In 1 second the angle
swept out is v and the distance travelled by the body is v. From elementary mathe-
matics we know
arc length = radius * angle at centre 1in radians2
giving
v = rv
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:58 AM Page 750
15 750 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
Figure 1.7 y
Body moving on a
circular path with
constant speed.
O x
θ r
Q
P v
At P the instantaneous direction of travel of the body is that of the tangent. Simi-
larly at Q, the direction is that of the tangent at Q.
Figure 1.8 y
Instantaneous
direction of travel
is that of the
tangent.
O x
δθ
δθ
Q
P
Suppose P and Q are very close to each other. Figure 1.8 illustrates this. Then the
angle swept out is very small, labelled du in Figure 1.8. Let the small time, dt, be the
time of travel from P to Q. The arc length, PQ, is then vdt where
vdt = rdu
The component of the velocity at Q parallel to PO, that is directed towards the cen-
tre, is v sin du. So in time dt the velocity directed to the centre increased from 0 at P
to v sin du at Q. The (average) acceleration along the direction PO is then
v sin du
dt
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/28/18 9:25 AM Page 751
1.4 Terminology and notation 751 15
We now take the limit of this expression as du : 0 and dt : 0. Noting the small-
angle approximation for sin du (see page 969) then sin du may be replaced by du
and so in the limit we obtain
du
v
dt
du du
Thus the acceleration towards the centre is v . Now = v and so
dt dt
du
acceleration towards centre = v = vv
dt
v2
Using v = rv this may also be expressed as rv2 or . To effect this acceleration
r
there must be a force directed towards the centre.
We now return to the problem of why an aircraft needs to bank to fly in a circular
arc. When an aircraft is flying horizontally in a straight line the forces on the aircraft
are gravity, lift from the wings, L, thrust from the engines and drag from air resis-
tance. Drag and thrust are in the line of travel, although opposite in direction. Grav-
ity acts vertically downwards. Lift, L, acts at right angles to the wings. When the
aircraft is banked the lift force, L, can be resolved into two forces at right angles. If
the angle of banking is a then the component acting horizontally towards the centre
is L sin a. It is this force that maintains the aircraft on a circular path. Figure 1.9
illustrates the situation.
Figure 1.9 L
The lift force has a
component
directed to the α
centre of the circle.
raft
A irc
α
Note that as the aircraft banks, the vertical component, L cos a, is the force that
‘supports’ the aircraft. So as a increases, the lift force, L, must be increased so that
L cos a is sufficient to support the aircraft, that is
L cos a = mg
where m is the mass of the aircraft.
Example 1.5 Materials Engineering – Temperature gradients
as derivatives
Consider a section of a wall of a building, thickness h, as shown in Figure 1.10.
Suppose the interior temperature is T1 and the exterior temperature is T2 and we
shall assume that T1 7 T2 so that the interior is hotter. Clearly, heat will be lost as it
flows through the wall, the rate of loss being affected by the quality of the insula-
tion material in the wall, particularly its thermal conductivity. Suppose T1x2 is the
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 752
15 752 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
dT
temperature at any point x within the wall. Then is the rate of change of temper-
dx
ature with position x, that is the temperature gradient.
Figure 1.10
The temperature
gradient across a T
wall.
Interior T1 Exterior T2
T1
T2
h
O x O h x
In the accompanying graph of temperature we have shown a uniform rate of tem-
perature decrease from the interior to the exterior. The temperature gradient is then
T2 - T1
constant and equal to . Here, the temperature gradient will be negative
h
because the temperature falls as we move from the interior to the exterior. In other
situations the temperature gradient may not be constant; some possible temperature
dT
profiles are shown in Figure 1.11. Whatever the profile, is the rate of change of
dx
temperature. In Figure 1.11(a) the temperature is constant throughout the wall, and
dT dT
so = 0. In Figure 1.11(b) is negative, but is not constant. The temperature
dx dx
dT
does not fall at a uniform rate. Finally, in Figure 1.11(c) is positive; the tempera-
dx
ture is rising though not at a uniform rate.
Figure 1.11
Several possible
T T T
temperature
T2
profiles. T1,T2 T1 T1
T2
O h x O h xO h x
(a) (b) (c)
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 11/15/18 3:49 PM Page 753
1.4 Terminology and notation 753 15
Example 1.6 Materials Engineering – Fourier’s law of heat conduction
in one dimension
Fourier’s law is concerned with the rate at which heat is conducted through a medium.
It finds application in many diverse areas including the design of materials used in life-
critical situations such as nuclear power stations and spacecraft, and in chemical engi-
neering where heat transfer processes are important. It is used in the derivation of a
partial differential equation known as the heat equation (see Chapter 21), the solutions
of which determine the distribution of heat in materials.
Experience and intuition tell us that heat flows from a hot region to a cooler one,
that is in the opposite direction to a positive temperature gradient.
Consider the section of a body shown in Figure 1.12, in which there is a tempera-
dT
ture gradient .
dx
Figure 1.12
Heat energy
Cross sectional area, A
flows from hot to
cold.
T1 T2
Heat flow
x
dT
For heat to flow in the direction shown, T2 6 T1, that is 6 0. The amount
dx
of heat energy that will flow depends on several factors. If the temperature gradi-
ent is large, more energy will flow than if the gradient is small. A large cross-sec-
tional area, A, will enable more energy to flow than a small one. The rate of heat
flow also depends upon a property of the material itself, the thermal conductiv-
ity, k. Materials with large thermal conductivity (e.g. metals) will conduct heat
much more rapidly than, say, thermal insulators. Taken together, these factors
result in Fourier’s law of heat conduction:
dT
rate of heat transfer, Q = -kA
dx
Example 1.7 Materials Engineering – Heat flow through a window
A window has a cross-sectional area of 2 m2. The thermal conductivity of the window
glass is 0.3 (W/m–1/ºC–1). The internal and external temperatures are respectively 19 ºC
and 2 ºC and the window thickness is 5 mm = 0.005 m. Assume there is a uniform tem-
perature reduction throughout the width of the window.
(a) Calculate the temperature gradient.
(b) Use Fourier’s law to determine the rate of heat loss through the window.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 754
15 754 Block 1 Interpretation of a derivative
Solution dT 2-19
(a) The uniform temperature gradient is = = -3400.
dx 0.005
(b) The rate of heat loss is
= -0.3 * 2 * 1-34002 = 2040
dT
Q = -kA
dx
That is 2040 joules of energy are lost each second through the window.
Exercises
1 If x is a function of the independent variable t, 2 If f is a function of x, write down two ways in
write down two ways in which the derivative which the derivative can be written.
can be written.
Solutions to exercises
dx # df
1 or x 2 or f ¿
dt dx
End of block exercises
1 Calculate the average rate of change of Calculate the average rate of change of current
y = x3 - 1 from as t varies from 0 to 3.
(a) x = 1 to x = 3 dy
(b) x = 0 to x = 2 4 Explain the meaning of the expression .
(c) x = -2 to x = 2 dx
5 (a) Calculate the rate of change of
2 The pressure, P atmospheres, in a vessel varies y(x) = 5 - x2.
with temperature, T (degrees Celsius), (b) Calculate the rate of change of y when
according to x = -4.
P(T ) = 120 - 20e-T>20 dR
6 (a) Calculate when R(x) = 2x2.
dx
Calculate the average rate of change of dR
pressure as T varies from 10 °C to 100 °C. (b) Calculate when x = 0.5.
dx
3 The current, i(t), in a circuit decays
exponentially with time, t, according to the
equation
i(t) = 5 + 2e-t
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 13 (b) 4 (c) 4 5 (a) -2x (b) 8
2 0.13 6 (a) 4x (b) 2
3 -0.63
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 755
Using a table of derivatives
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Block 1 gave a brief introduction to the meaning of a derivative. A derivative is the
rate of change of a function. Geometrically we saw that this is given by the gradient
of a tangent. If we consider a typical function, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, it is clear
that the gradient of a tangent depends upon where the tangent is drawn. For example,
tangent A, drawn where x has a value x1, has a different gradient from tangent B,
drawn where x has a value x2. In other words, the gradient of the tangent is itself a
function of x. This was seen in Example 1.3 of Block 1, where the gradient was
found to be 2x.
Figure 2.1 y
The gradient of a
tangent varies
along the curve. Tangent at A
A Tangent at B
B
x
x1 x2
Rather than calculate the derivative of a function as explained in Block 1, it is
common practice to use a table of derivatives. This block shows how to use such a
table.
2.2 Table of derivatives
Table 2.1 lists some of the common functions used in engineering and their
corresponding derivatives.
Example 2.1
dy
Use Table 2.1 to find when y is given by
dx
(a) 3x (b) 3 (c) 3x2 (d) 4x7
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 756
15 756 Block 2 Using a table of derivatives
Table 2.1
Common functions and their derivatives.
Function Derivative
constant 0
x 1
kx k
xn nx n-1
kx n knx n-1
ex ex
ekx kekx
1
ln x
x
1
ln kx
x
sin x cos x
sin kx k cos kx
sin(kx + a) k cos(kx + a)
cos x - sin x
cos kx -k sin kx
cos(kx + a) -k sin(kx + a)
tan x sec2x
tan kx k sec2kx
tan(kx + a) k sec2(kx + a)
sinh x cosh x
sinh kx k cosh kx
cosh x sinh x
cosh kx k sinh kx
tanh x sech2 x
tanh kx k sech2 kx
1
sin-1 x
2 1 - x2
k
sin-1 kx
2 1 - k 2x 2
-1
cos-1 x
2 1 - x2
-k
cos-1 kx
2 1 - k 2x 2
1
tan-1 x
1 + x2
k
tan-1 kx
1 + k 2x 2
k, n and a are constants, and all angles are in radians.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 757
2.2 Table of derivatives 757 15
Solution
(a) We note that 3x is of the form kx where k = 3. Using Table 2.1 we then have
dy
= 3.
dx
dy
(b) Noting that 3 is a constant we see that = 0.
dx
(c) We see that 3x2 is of the form kxn, with k = 3 and n = 2. The derivative,
dy
knxn-1, is then 6x1, or more simply, 6x. So if y = 3x2, then = 6x.
dx
(d) We see that 4x7 is of the form kxn, with k = 4 and n = 7. Hence the derivative,
dy
, is given by 28x6.
dx
Example 2.2
dy 3 2
Find when y is (a) 2x, (b) 2 , (c) .
dx x x
Solution 1
(a) We write 2x as x2 , and use the result for xn with n = 12 . So
dy
= nxn-1
dx
1
= 12 x2 - 1
1
= 12 x- 2
1
This may be written as .
22x
3
(b) We write as 3x-2. Using the result of kxn we see that
x2
dy
= knxn-1
dx
= 3(-2)x - 2-1 = -6x-3
2
(c) We write as 2x-1. Then we see that
x
dy
= 2(-1)x - 1-1 = -2x-2
dx
Example 2.3
dz
Use Table 2.1 to find given z is (a) et, (b) e3t, (c) e-5t.
dt
Solution
Although Table 2.1 is written using x as the independent variable, it can be used for
any variable.
dy dz
(a) From Table 2.1, if y = ex, then = ex. Hence if z = et then = et.
dx dt
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 758
15 758 Block 2 Using a table of derivatives
(b) From Table 2.1 we see that when y = e3x then
dy
= 3e3x
dx
dz
Hence = 3e3t
dt
(c) Using the result for ekx in Table 2.1 we see that when z = e-5t,
dz
= -5e - 5t
dt
Example 2.4
dy x
Find the derivative, , when y is (a) sin 3x, (b) cos , (c) tan 2x.
dx 2
Solution
(a) Using the result for sin kx, and taking k = 3, we see that
dy
= 3 cos 3x
dx
(b) From the result for cos kx, and taking k = 12 , we see that
dy 1 x
= - sin
dx 2 2
(c) From the result for tan kx, we see that
dy
= 2 sec2 2x
dx
Exercises
1 Find the derivative of the following functions: 3 Find the derivative of each of the following
(a) 9x (b) 4x (c) 6x3 (d) -3x2 (e) ln 3t functions: 1
dz (a) sin 5x (b) cos 4t (c) tan 3r (d) e2v (e) 3t
2 Find when z is given by e
dt 4 Find the derivative of the following:
4 2x
(a) (b) 2t (c) 5t
3 -2
(d) - 32 t3>2 (a) cos (b) sin(-2x) (c) tan px (d) ex>2
t3 3
Solutions to exercises
1
1 (a) 9 (b) 4 (c) 18x2 (d) -6x (e) 3 (a) 5 cos 5x (b) -4 sin 4t (c) 3 sec2 3r
t (d) 2e2v (e) -3e-3t
2 (a) -12t-4 (b) 32 t1>2 (c) -10t-3 (d) - 94 t1>2 2 2x
4 (a) - sin (b) -2 cos(-2x) (c) p sec2 px
3 3
(d) 12 ex>2
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 759
2.3 Extending the table of derivatives 759 15
2.3 Extending the table of derivatives
We introduce two simple rules that enable us to extend the range of functions that we
can differentiate.
Key point The derivative of f (x) ; g(x) is
df dg
⫾
dx dx
This rule says that to find the derivative of the sum (difference) of two functions, we
simply calculate the sum (difference) of the derivatives of each function.
Key point The derivative of kf(x) is
df
k
dx
This rule tells us that if a function is multiplied by a constant, k, then the derivative is
likewise multiplied by the same constant, k.
Example 2.5
Find the derivative of each of the following functions:
(a) y = 6 sin 2x (b) y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2 (c) y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2 - 5e3x
Solution
(a) From Table 2.1, the derivative of sin 2x is 2 cos 2x. Hence the derivative of
6 sin 2x is 6(2 cos 2x), that is 12 cos 2x.
dy
y = 6 sin 2x, = 6(2 cos 2x)
dx
= 12 cos 2x
(b) The function comprises two parts: 6 sin 2x and 3x2. We have already differentiated
6 sin 2x in part (a), so we consider the derivative of 3x2. The derivative of x2 is 2x
and so the derivative of 3x2 is 3(2x), that is 6x. These derivatives are now summed.
dy
y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2, = 12 cos 2x + 6x
dx
(c) We differentiate each part of the function in turn.
y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2 - 5e3x
dy
= 6(2 cos 2x) + 3(2x) - 5(3e3x)
dx
= 12 cos 2x + 6x - 15e3x
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 760
15 760 Block 2 Using a table of derivatives
Example 2.6
dy
Find where y is defined by
dx
x6 x
(a) - 3e-2x (b) 4 cos + 9 - 9x3
2 2
Solution
x6 6x5
(a) The derivative of x6 is 6x5. Hence the derivative of is = 3x5
2 2
The derivative of e-2x is -2e - 2x
Hence the derivative of 3e-2x is
3(-2)e - 2x = -6e - 2x
So given
x6
y = - 3e-2x
2
then
dy
= 3x5 + 6e - 2x
dx
x
(b) The derivative of cos is
2
1 x
- sin
2 2
The derivative of 9 is zero. The derivative of 9x3 is
27x2
So given
x
y = 4 cos + 9 - 9x3
2
then
dy x
= -2 sin - 27x2
dx 2
Exercises
dy v
1 Find when y is given by (b) h(v) = 3 cos 2v - 6 sin
dx 2
(a) 4x + 8x3 (b) -3x4 + 2x1.5
6 2 n2
(c) m(n) = 4e2n + +
9 14 3 + 2x e2n 2
(c) 2 + - 3x (d) (e) (2 + 3x)2 e3t
x x 4 (d) H(t) = + 2 tan 2t
2
2 Find the derivative of each of the following (e) S(r) = (r 2 + 1)2 - 4e-2r
functions:
(a) z (t) = 5 sin t + sin 5t
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 761
2.4 Evaluating a derivative 761 15
3 Differentiate the following functions: u
(d) M(u) = 6 sin 2u - 2 cos + 2u2
(a) A(t) = (3 + et)2 4
1 (e) H(t) = 4 tan 3t + 3 sin 2t - 2 cos 4t
(b) B(s) = pe2s + + 2 sin ps
s
1 2
(c) V(r) = a1 + b + (r + 1)2
r
Solutions to exercises
1
1 (a) 24x5 + 24x2 (b) -12x3 + 3x0.5 3 (a) 6et + 2e2t (b) 2pe2s - + 2p cos ps
18 14 s2
(c) - 3 - 2 - 3 (d) 12 (e) 12 + 18x 2 2
x x (c) - 2
- + 2r + 2
v r r3
2 (a) 5 cos t + 5 cos 5t (b) -6 sin 2v - 3 cos 1 u
2 (d) 12 cos 2u + sin + 4u
2 4
3e3t (e) 12 sec2 3t + 6 cos 2t + 8 sin 4t
(c) 8e2n - 4e-2n + n (d) + 4 sec2 2t
2
(e) 4r3 + 4r + 8e-2r
2.4 Evaluating a derivative
Engineers may need to find the rate of change of a function at a particular point: that
is, find the derivative of a function at a specific point. We do this by finding the
derivative of the function, and then evaluating the derivative at the given value of x.
When evaluating, all angles are in radians. Consider a function, y(x). We use the
dy
notation (0.7) or y¿ (0.7) to denote the derivative of y evaluated at x = 0.7.
dx
Example 2.7
Find the value of the derivative of y = 3x2 where x = 4. Interpret your result.
Solution
dy
We have y = 3x2 and so = 6x. We now evaluate the derivative.
dx
dy
When x = 4, = 6(4) = 24, that is
dx
dy
(4) = 24
dx
The derivative is positive when x = 4 and so y is increasing at this point. Thus when
x = 4, y is increasing at a rate of 24 vertical units per horizontal unit.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 762
15 762 Block 2 Using a table of derivatives
Example 2.8 Electrical Engineering
Find the rate of change of current, i(t), given by
i(t) = 3e-t + 2 t Ú 0
when t = 0.7 seconds.
Solution
The rate of change of a function is the same as the derivative of the function, that
di
is .
dt
di
= -3e - t
dt
When t = 0.7
di
= -3e - 0.7 = -1.4898
dt
The derivative is negative and so we know that i(t) is decreasing when t = 0.7. Thus,
when t = 0.7, the current is decreasing at a rate of 1.49 A s-1.
Exercises
1 Calculate the derivative of y = 3x2 + ex when 3 Evaluate the rate of change of
x = 0.5. H(t) = 5 sin t - 3 cos 2t when (a) t = 0
(b) t = 1.3.
2 Calculate the rate of change of
p
i(t) = 4 sin 2t + 3t when (a) t = 3
(b) t = 0.6.
Solutions to exercises
1 4.6487 3 (a) 5 (b) 4.4305
2 (a) -1 (b) 5.8989
End of block exercises
dy x 1
1 Find when y is given by (d) 4 tan+
dx 2 2x
(a) 7x5 + 6x-2 + sin 2x 9 1
(e) 32x + + sin 6x + ln x
(b) 3 cos 4x - 6 sin 5x x 2
(c) e3x + e-3x + 2ex + 1
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 763
2.4 Evaluating a derivative 763 15
2 Find the rate of change of the following t t
(c) 6 sin + 3 cos
functions: 2 2
(a) et + e-t (b) 2 sin 3t + ln 2t (c) -3 cos x (d) 2 tan t - tan 2t
(d) 2r + 2r2 (e) 2e-0.5v + v3 4
(e) + 4 ln t
# t
3 Find x when x is given by
4
(a) 2t - 3t + 1 + 2 ln t 5 Find the derivative of the following:
(b) sin pt - 2 cos pt 2t2 + 1
(c) 3 tan 2t - et (d) e2t - e-2t + t (a) e2t(et + e - t ) (b)
t
(e) t3>2 - t2>3
(c) (2t + 1)(2t - 1)
4 Find the rate of change of each function when (d) sin2 2x + cos2 2x + sin 2x + cos 2x
t = 1.2:
e4t 1 sin x
(a) 3t2 - 2t3 (b) + 3e-t (e) x (f)
2 e cos x
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 35x4 - 12x-3 + 2 cos 2x 4 (a) -1.44 (b) 242.12 (c) 1.6290 (d) 11.5538
(b) -12 sin 4x - 30 cos 5x (e) 0.5556
(c) 3e3x - 3e - 3x + 2ex 1
x 1 5 (a) 3e3t + et (b) 2 - (c) 8t
(d) 2 sec2 - x-3>2 t2
2 2
3 9 1 (d) 2 cos 2x - 2 sin 2x (e) -e-x (f) sec2 x
(e) x-1>2 - 2 + 3 cos 6x +
2 x x
1
2 (a) et - e-t (b) 6 cos 3t + (c) 3 sin x
t
1
(d) r-1>2 + 4r (e) -e-0.5v + 3v2
2
2
3 (a) 8t3 - 3 + (b) p cos pt + 2p sin pt
t
(c) 6 sec2 2t - et (d) 2e2t + 2e-2t + 1
3 2
(e) t1>2 - t-1>3
2 3
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 764
Higher derivatives
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Block 2 showed how to calculate the derivative of a function using a table of derivatives.
dy
By differentiating the function, y(x), we obtain the derivative, .
dx
dy
The function, , is more correctly called the first derivative of y. By differentiating
dx
the first derivative, we obtain the second derivative; by differentiating the second
derivative we obtain the third derivative; and so on. The second and subsequent
derivatives are known as higher derivatives.
Example 3.1
Calculate the first, second and third derivatives of y = e2x + x4.
Solution dy
The first derivative is .
dx
dy
= 2e2x + 4x3
dx
To obtain the second derivative we differentiate the first derivative:
second derivative = 4e2x + 12x2
The third derivative is found by differentiating the second derivative:
third derivative = 8e2x + 24x
3.2 Notation
Just as there is a notation for the first derivative so there is a similar notation for
higher derivatives. dy
Consider the function, y(x). We know that the first derivative is denoted by or y¿.
dx
The second derivative is calculated by differentiating the first derivative, that is
a b
d dy
second derivative =
dx dx
d2y
So, the second derivative is denoted by 2 . This is often written more concisely
as y– . dx
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 765
3.2 Notation 765 15
d3y
The third derivative is denoted by or y‡ , and so on. So, referring to
Example 3.1 we could have written dx3
dy
= 2e2x + 4x3
dx
d2y
= 4e2x + 12x2
dx2
d3y
= 8e2x + 24x
dx3
Key point If y = y(x)
dy
first derivative =
dx
d2y
second derivative =
dx2
d3y
third derivative =
dx3
dx
Derivatives with respect to t are often indicated using a dot notation, so can be
# dt $
written as x. Similarly, a second derivative with respect to t can be written as x,
pronounced ‘x double dot’.
Example 3.2
d2y d3y
Calculate 2 and 3 given y = sin t + cos t.
dt dt
Solution
dy
= cos t - sin t
dt
d2y
= -sin t - cos t
dt2
d3y
= -cos t + sin t
dt 3
#
We could have used the dot notation and written y = cos t - sin t, and
$
y = -sin t - cos t.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 766
15 766 Block 3 Higher derivatives
We may need to evaluate higher derivatives at specific points. We use an obvious
notation. The second derivative of y(x), evaluated at, say, x = 2, is written as
d2 y
(2), or more simply as y–(2). The third derivative evaluated at x = -1 is written
dx2
d3y
as (-1) or y‡(-1).
dx3
Example 3.3
Given
y(x) = 2 sin x + 3x2
find (a) y¿(1), (b) y–(-1), (c) y‡(0).
Solution
We have
y = 2 sin x + 3x2
y¿ = 2 cos x + 6x
y¿¿ = -2 sin x + 6
y¿¿¿ = -2 cos x
(a) y¿(1) = 2 cos 1 + 6(1) = 7.0806
(b) y–(-1) = -2 sin(-1) + 6 = 7.6829
(c) y‡(0) = -2 cos 0 = -2
Maple and Matlab have built-in commands for finding derivatives of functions and
evaluating these at specific points. There are numerous ways of doing this and for
full details you should refer to the on-line help.
Example 3.4
Use software to find the first and second derivatives of the function f(t) = t2 sin 3t and
evaluate these when t = 5.
Solution
Maple
In Maple, the following commands define the function f(t). Calculate its first derivative
using the differentiation operator D, and evaluate this when t = 5.
> f:=t-> t^2*sin(3*t);
D(f)(t);
D(f)(5);
evalf(D(f)(5));
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 767
3.2 Notation 767 15
which results in the output
f := t : t2 sin(3t)
2t sin(3t) + 3t2 cos 3t (the first derivative of f(t), i.e. f¿(t))
10 sin(15) + 75 cos(15) (f¿(5))
- 50.4737
The last command expresses the result in decimal form. The kth derivative of f(t) with
respect to t can be found using the command (D@@k)(f)(t). Thus
> (D@@2)(f)(t);
evalf( ( D@@2)(f)(5) );
results in
2 sin(3t) + 12t cos(3t) - 9t2 sin(3t) (the second derivative of f(t), i.e. f¿ ¿(t))
- 190.5955 (f¿ ¿(5))
Matlab
Matlab can perform calculations on symbols, but it it is necessary to define symbolic vari-
ables using the command syms. Once f(t) is defined, it can be differentiated and evaluated
at the given point. The final commands below result in decimal approximations of the
derivatives (here vpa is a Matlab command for variable precision arithmetic).
>> syms f(t)
f(t) = t^2*sin(3*t)
y = diff(f(t))
z = diff(f(t),2)
subs(y,5)
subs(z,5)
pa(subs(y,5))
vpa(subs(z,5))
which results in
f(t) = t^2*sin(3*t)
y = 2*t*sin(3*t) + 3*t^2*cos(3*t)
z = 2*sin(3*t) + 12*t*cos(3*t) - 9*t^2*sin(3*t)
ans = 75*cos(15) + 10*sin(15)
ans = 60*cos(15) - 223*sin(15)
ans = -50.4737
ans =-190.5955
Compare this output with that from Maple. Observe also how careful attention needs to
be paid to ensure that the correct syntax is used.
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 768
15 768 Block 3 Higher derivatives
Exercises
d2y 3 Calculate y–(1) where y(t) is given by
1 Find where y(x) is defined by
dx2 (a) t (t2 + 1) (b) sin(-2t) (c) 2et + e2t
(a) 3x - e2x (b) sin 3x + cos x (c) 2x
2
1 t
(d) ex + e-x (e) 1 + x + x2 + ln x (d) (e) cos
t 2
d 3y
2 Find where y is given in question 1. 4 Calculate y‡(-1) of the functions given in
dx3 question 3.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 6 - 4e2x (b) -9 sin 3x - cos x 3 (a) 6 (b) 3.6372 (c) 34.9928 (d) 2
1 1 (e) -0.2194
(c) - x-3>2 (d) ex + e-x (e) 2 - 2
4 x
4 (a) 6 (b) -3.3292 (c) 1.8184 (d) -6
2x 3 (e) -0.0599
2 (a) -8e (b) -27 cos 3x + sin x (c) x-5>2
8
x -x 2
(d) e - e (e) 3
x
End of block exercises
1 Calculate y– where y is given by 4 Evaluate y‡(0) where y is given by
(a) cos 2t - sin 2t (b) e2x - ex (c) 2x6 - 3x7 (a) sin 3t + t3 (b) 2 cos t + cos 2t
9
(d) -x3 + 3x2 (e) 9 - e2x + 1
x (c) e-x(ex + 1) (d) 3 - 3t4 (e)
ex
2 Find the fourth derivative of the following
5 The function y(x) is defined by
functions:
(a) e3t (b) ekt, k constant (c) sin 2t (d) sin kt, y(x) = x4 - 3x3 + 3x2 + 1
k constant (e) cos kt, k constant
Calculate the values of x where y– = 0.
3 Show that y = ex + 2x satisfies the equation
y– - y¿ - y = -2 - 2x - ex
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 9/26/18 8:59 AM Page 769
End of chapter exercises 769 15
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) -4 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t (b) 4e2x - ex 4 (a) -21 (b) 0 (c) -1 (d) 0 (e) 0
(c) 60x4 - 126x5 (d) -6x + 6 (e) -18x-3
1
5 2, 1
3t 4 kt 4
2 (a) 81e (b) k e (c) 16 sin 2t (d) k sin kt
(e) k4 cos kt
End of chapter exercises
dy
1 Calculate where y is given by 8 Verify that
dx y = A sin kx + B cos kx, where A, B and
4
(a) 3x - 2x + ln x (b) sin 5x - 5 cos x k are constants is a solution of
(c) (x + 1)2 (d) e3x + 2e-2x + 1
5 y– + k2y = 0
(e) 5 + 5x + + 5 ln x
x
9 The function y(x) is given by y(x) = 1 - cos x.
2 Find the second derivatives of the functions in Find the values of x where (a) y¿ = 0,
question 1. (b) y– = 0.
3 Find y¿(1) of the functions in question 1. 10 The function y(x) is given by y(x) = x3 - 3x.
Calculate the intervals on which y is
4 Find y–(1) of the functions in question 1. (a) increasing, (b) decreasing.
5 Find the rate of change of the following 11 The function y(x) is given by
functions: y(x) = 2x3 - 9x2 + 1
3t3 - t2
(a) (b) ln 2x (c) (t + 2)(2t - 1) (a) Calculate the values of x for which y¿ = 0.
2t
(d) e3v(1 - ev) (e) 1x(1x - 1) (b) Calculate the value(s) of x for which
y– = 0.
6 Find the third and fourth derivatives of y given (c) State the interval(s) on which y is
the second derivative of y is increasing.
2 1 + x (d) State the interval(s) on which y is
(a) 3x (b) (c) 3 ln x2 decreasing.
e x2 (e) State the interval(s) on which y¿ is
cos2 x + cos x
(d) sin x + sin(-2x) (e) increasing.
cos x (f) State the interval(s) on which y¿ is
7 Differentiate (sin x + cos x)2. (Hint: use the decreasing.
trigonometrical identities in Table 5.1 of
Chapter 9, Block 5.)
M15_CROF5939_04_SE_C15.QXD 11/28/18 7:43 PM Page 770
15 770 Block 3 Higher derivatives
Solutions to exercises
1
1 (a) 12x3 - 2 + (b) 5 cos 5x + 5 sin x 6 (a) -6e-3x, 18e-3x
x
5 5 (b) -2x-3 - x-1, 6x-4 + x-2
(c) 2x + 2 (d) 3e3x - 4e-2x (e) 5 - 2 + 6 -6
x x (c) , 2 (d) cos x - 2 cos( -2x),
2 1 x x
2 (a) 36x - 2 (b) - 25 sin 5x + 5 cos x
x -sin x - 4 sin(-2x) (e) -sin x , -cos x
10 5
(c) 2 (d) 9e3x + 8e-2x (e) 3 - 2
x x 7 2 cos 2x
3 (a) 11 (b) 5.6257 (c) 4 (d) 59.7153 (e) 5
9 (a) ;np, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Á
p
4 (a) 35 (b) 26.6746 (c) 2 (d) 181.8525 (e) 5 (b) ; np, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Á
2
1
5 (a) 3t - 0.5 (b) (c) 4t + 3 (d) 3e3v - 4e4v 10 (a) ( - q, -1) and (1, q) (b) (-1, 1)
2x
1
(e) 1 - 11 (a) 0, 3 (b) 1.5 (c) ( - q , 0) and (3, q )
22x (d) (0, 3) (e) (1.5, q ) (f) (- q , 1.5)
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 10/3/18 8:06 PM Page 771
Chapter 16
Techniques and applications of
differentiation
This chapter continues the study of differentiation started in Chapter 15.
The table of derivatives in Chapter 15, although useful, is limited.
In this chapter several techniques for expanding the range of functions
we can differentiate are introduced.
Methods for differentiating products and quotients of functions are
explained in Block 1. Some functions can be differentiated when the
function is written in terms of a new variable. This gives rise to the
chain rule in Block 2.
Although we have focused on differentiating a function of x, say y(x),
it is not always possible to express y explicitly in terms of x. For
example, it is impossible to rearrange the equation ex ⫹ ey ⫽ x 2 ⫹ y 3
to obtain y by itself on the left-hand side. However, by using implicit
differentiation as explained in Block 3 it is still possible to find an
dy
expression for the derivative, .
dx
If a function is expressed parametrically the derivative is found by
differentiating parametrically. This is covered in Block 4. The final
technique, logarithmic differentiation, is useful for finding the
derivative of products of functions involving many factors, and this is
covered in Block 5.
Blocks 6 and 7 turn to some applications of differentiation. The
calculation of equations of tangents and normals is treated in Block 6.
Finally, the important topic of maximum and minimum values of a
function closes the chapter.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 772
Chapter 16 contents
Block 1 The product rule and the quotient rule
Block 2 The chain rule
Block 3 Implicit differentiation
Block 4 Parametric differentiation
Block 5 Logarithmic differentiation
Block 6 Tangents and normals
Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
End of chapter exercises
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 773
The product rule and the quotient rule
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Chapter 15 introduced the concept of differentiation and the use of a table of deriva-
tives. Clearly every possible function cannot be listed in a table. We need a set of rules,
used in conjunction with the table of derivatives, to extend the range of functions that
we can differentiate. The product rule and the quotient rule are two such rules.
1.2 The product rule
As its name tells us, the product rule helps us to differentiate a product of functions.
Consider the function y(x), where y(x) is the product of two functions, u(x) and v(x),
that is
y(x) = u(x)v(x)
For example, if y(x) = x2 sin x then u(x) = x2 and v(x) = sin x. The product rule
states:
Key point If
y(x) = u(x)v(x)
then
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
= u¿v + uv¿
Example 1.1
dy
Find where y = x2 sin x.
dx
Solution
We have
y = x2 sin x = uv
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:15 AM Page 774
16 774 Block 1 The product rule and the quotient rule
and so u = x2 and v = sin x. Hence
du dv
= 2x, = cos x
dx dx
Applying the product rule we have
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
= 2x(sin x) + x2(cos x)
= x(2 sin x + x cos x)
Example 1.2
Find y¿ where y = ex cos x.
Solution
We have
y = ex cos x = uv
So
u = , v = ex, cos x
and hence
du dv
= , = ex, -sin x
dx dx
Applying the product rule yields
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
= ex cos x + ex(- sin x)
= ex(cos x - sin x)
Example 1.3
d2y
Find 2 where y = x2 ln x.
dx
Solution
We have
y = x2 ln x = uv
so
u = x2, v = ln x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:22 AM Page 775
1.2 The product rule 775 16
Then
du dv 1
= 2x, =
dx dx x
Applying the product rule, we have
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
= 2x ln x + x
d2y dy d
To obtain 2
we differentiate . Hence we need to find (2x ln x + x). The
dx dx dx
d
derivative of x is simply 1 so let us examine (2x ln x).
dx
d
To find (2x ln x) we use the product rule, with u = 2x, v = ln x. Then
dx
du dv 1
= 2, =
dx dx x
and so
d du dv
(2x ln x) = v + u
dx dx dx
= 2 ln x + 2x a b
1
x
= 2 ln x + 2
Finally
d2y d
2
= (2x ln x + x)
dx dx
= 2 ln x + 3
Exercises
dy
1 Find where y is given by (c) (ex + e-2x)(3x2 - 2x) (d) 2xex
dx
(a) x cos x (b) xex (c) sin x cos 2x (d) x3e2x t2 + 1
(e)
(e) x4 sin 2x et
3 Find the second derivative of the functions in
2 Calculate y¿ where y is given by
question 1.
(a) (t 2 + 1) sin 4t (b) (3t + 7)e-2t
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 776
16 776 Block 1 The product rule and the quotient rule
Solutions to exercises
(d) ex a + x1>2 b
1 (a) cos x - x sin x (b) ex(1 + x) x-1>2
(c) cos x cos 2x - 2 sin x sin 2x 2
(d) x2e2x(3 + 2x) (e) 4x3 sin 2x + 2x4 cos 2x (e) -e-t(t2 - 2t + 1)
2 (a) 2t sin 4t + 4(t2 + 1)(cos 4t) 3 (a) -x cos x - 2 sin x (b) ex(x + 2)
(b) -e-2t(6t + 11) (c) -5 sin x cos 2x - 4 cos x sin 2x
(c) (ex - 2e-2x)(3x2 - 2x) (d) 2xe2x(2x2 + 6x + 3)
+ (ex + e-2x)(6x - 2), which may be written (e) 16x3 cos 2x - 4x2(x2 - 3) sin 2x
as ex(3x2 + 4x - 2) - e-2x(6x2 - 10x + 2)
1.3 The quotient rule
The quotient rule shows us how to differentiate a quotient of functions, for example
sin x t2 - 1 ez + z
, ,
x t2 + 1 cos z
The quotient rule may be stated thus:
Key point If
u(x)
y(x) =
v(x)
then
du dv
v - u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
vu¿ - uv¿
=
v2
Example 1.4
sin x
Find y¿ given y = .
x
Solution
We have
sin x u
y = =
x v
so
u = sin x, v = x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 777
1.3 The quotient rule 777 16
and so
du dv
= cos x, = 1
dx dx
Applying the quotient rule gives
dy vu¿ - uv¿
=
dx v2
x cos x - sin x (1)
=
x2
x cos x - sin x
=
x2
Example 1.5
t3
Find y¿ given y = .
t + 1
Solution
We have
t3 u
y = =
t + 1 v
and so
u = t3, v = t + 1, u¿ = 3t2, v¿ = 1
Applying the quotient rule gives
dy vu¿ - uv¿
=
dt v2
(t + 1)3t2 - t3(1)
=
(t + 1)2
which can be simplified to
dy t2(2t + 3)
=
dt (t + 1)2
Exercises
dy
1 Find where y is given by 2 Find y¿ when y is given by
dx t2 - 1 e2t + t sin 3t
x
e x cos x 1-x (a) (b) (c)
(a) (b) x (c) (d) 2
t + 1 t
e - 1 cos t + t
x e + 1 sin x 1 + x
ln x z + sin z 1 + x + x2
(e) (d) (e)
x2 z + cos z 1 + x3
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 778
16 778 Block 1 The product rule and the quotient rule
Solutions to exercises
ex(x - 1) ex + 1 - xex 3(cos t + t) cos 3t - sin 3t (-sin t + 1)
1 (a) (b) (c)
x2 x
(e + 1) 2 (cos t + t)2
-2 1 - 2 ln x (z + 1) cos z + (z - 1) sin z + 1
(c) - cosec2 x (d) 2
(e) (d)
(1 + x) x3 (cos z + z)2
4t
2 (a)
x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1
(e) - a b
(t2 + 1)2
(et - 1)(2e2t + 1) - (e2t + t)et (x3 + 1)2
(b)
(et - 1)2
End of block exercises
dH
1 Find the derivative of each of the following: 3 Find given
sin 2x x - 1 dt
(a) (x - 1) sin 2x (b) (c) H = e2tt2 sin t
x - 1 sin 2x
(d) e2x sin 3x (e) e-2x sin 3x dR
4 Find given
dt
2 Differentiate the following:
t3 - t2 3 cos x e2t sin t
(a) 2 (b) 3 sin 2x cos x (c) R =
t + 1 sin 2x t2
3r
e
(d) (e) (r + 1)(r + sin r)
e2r
Solutions to exercises
b
1 (a) 2(x - 1) cos 2x + sin 2x sin 2x sin x + 2 cos x cos 2x
(c) -3a
2(x - 1) cos 2x - sin 2x sin2 2x
(b) (d) er (e) (r + 1) cos r + sin r + 2r + 1
(x - 1)2
sin 2x - 2(x - 1) cos 2x 3 e2t3t2 cos t + 2t(t + 1) sin t4
(c) 2
sin 2x e2t[2t sin t + t cos t - 2 sin t]
4
(d) e2x(3 cos 3x + 2 sin 3x) t3
(e) e-2x(3 cos 3x - 2 sin 3x)
t(t3 + 3t - 2)
2 (a)
(t2 + 1)2
(b) 6 cos x cos 2x - 3 sin x sin 2x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 779
The chain rule
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
In Block 1 we saw how to differentiate products and quotients of functions. This
block introduces the chain rule, which allows us to differentiate an additional class
of functions.
2.2 The chain rule
Suppose y is a function of z, that is y = y(z), and that z is a function of x, that is
z = z(x). So
y = y(z) = y(z(x))
Hence y may be considered to be a function of x. For example, if y(z) = 2z2 + 3z
and z = cos 2x then
y = 2(cos 2x)2 + 3(cos 2x)
dy
Since y can be considered as a function of x, then may be found. The chain rule
dy dx
helps us to find . The chain rule states
dx
Key point If y = y(z) and z = z(x), then
dy dy dz
= *
dx dz dx
Example 2.1
dy
Given y = z4 and z = 3x + 6, find .
dx
Solution
We have
y = z4 = (3x + 6)4
dy
and we seek . Now
dx
y = z4, z = 3x + 6
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:23 AM Page 780
16 780 Block 2 The chain rule
and so
dy dz
= 4z3, = 3
dz dx
Using the chain rule we have
dy dy dz
=
dx dz dx
= 4z3(3)
= 12z3
= 12(3x + 6)3
Sometimes care must be taken to recognise the independent and dependent variables.
Example 2.2 uses the chain rule, but it may look unfamiliar.
Example 2.2
dz
Given z(y) = y3 and y(x) = 2x2 - x find .
dx
Solution
We have
dz
z(y) = y3 so = 3y2
dy
and
dy
y(x) = 2x2 - x so = 4x - 1
dx
The chain rule has the form
dz dz dy
=
dx dy dx
= 3y2(4x - 1)
= 3(2x2 - x)2 (4x - 1)
Example 2.3
dy
Given y = (x3 + x)7, find .
dx
Solution
We let z = x3 + x and so
y = (x3 + x)7 = z7
dy dz
Then = 7z6 and = 3x2 + 1. Applying the chain rule gives
dz dx
dy dy dz
=
dx dz dx
= (7z6)(3x2 + 1)
= 7(3x2 + 1)(x3 + x)6
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:27 AM Page 781
2.2 The chain rule 781 16
Example 2.4
dy
Given y = 2x2 + 1 find .
dx
Solution
Let z = x2 + 1 and then
y = 2x2 + 1 = 2z
Then
dy dz 1 -1>2
= , = z , 2x
dz dx 2
and applying the chain rule gives
dy dy dz
=
dx dz dx
1 -1>2
= z (2x)
2
x
=
1z
x
=
2x + 1
2
Example 2.5
dy
Find given y = ln(x2 + x + 1).
dx
Solution
Let z = x2 + x + 1 so that
y = ln(x2 + x + 1) = ln z
Then
dy dz 1
= , = , 2x + 1
dz dx z
So
dy dy dz
=
dx dz dx
2x + 1
=
z
2x + 1
= 2
x + x + 1
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 782
16 782 Block 2 The chain rule
We note that, in the final solution, the numerator is the derivative of the denominator.
In general:
Key point If y = ln f(x) then
dy f¿
=
dx f
Example 2.6
dy
Given y = ln(1 - x) find .
dx
Solution
Here f (x) = 1 - x and f ¿(x) = -1. So
dy -1
=
dx 1 - x
which may be simplified to
dy 1
=
dx x - 1
Example 2.7
dy
Given y = 5 ln (2t - 1) find .
dt
Solution
Here f (t) = 2t - 1 and so f ¿(t) = 2. Hence
b
dy 2
= 5a
dt 2t - 1
10
=
2t - 1
Example 2.8
dy
Given y = ln(ex + sin x) find .
dx
Solution
We have
y = ln(ex + sin x)
= ln f (x) where f (x) = ex + sin x
So
dy f¿ ex + cos x
= = x
dx f e + sin x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 783
2.2 The chain rule 783 16
Exercises
1 Differentiate each of the following functions: 3 Find the rate of change of y at the specified
(a) (x3 + 2)6 (b) 1sin x (c) (ex + 1)7 point:
(a) y = ln(3t2 + 5), t = 1
(d) (cos 2x)5 (e) ln(x + 1)
(b) y = sin(t2), t = 2
dy (c) y = cos(t3 + 1), t = 1
2 Find where y is given by
dt (d) y = (t3 - 1)2>3, t = 2
2 2
(a) e(3t ) (b) 3et (c) esin 2t (d) e2 sin t p
(e) y = 4ecos t, t =
(e) 2esin t 2
Solutions to exercises
cos x 2 2
1 (a) 18x2(x3 + 2)5 (b) 2 (a) 6te3t (b) 6tet (c) 2 cos 2tesin 2t
22sin x
x x 6
(d) 2 cos te2 sin t (e) 2 cos tesin t
(c) 7e (e + 1)
1 3 (a) 0.75 (b) -2.6146 (c) -2.7279
(d) -10 sin 2x cos4 2x (e)
x + 1 (d) 4.1821 (e) -4
End of block exercises
(d) y = 2 cos a b , x = 1
1 Use the chain rule to differentiate each of the 1
following functions: x
(a) y = (6x3 - x)4 (b) h = (t4 - 1)1>3 1
(e) y = , x = 0.5
(c) v = 29 - 2t (d) i = sin(y3) (3x2 + 1)4
(e) R = cos(1r)
4 Differentiate the following functions where a,
2 Find the derivative of each function: b and n are constants:
(a) Y(t) = 5esin 2t (b) m(p) = 3 ln(p4 + 2) (a) y = (at + b)n (b) y = eat + b
(c) H(r) = 5 sin(pr2 + 1) (c) y = sin(at + b)
(d) y = cos(at + b) (e) y = ln(at + b)
(d) x(t) = -3 cosa b (e) Q(s) =
1 1
t ln s
dy
3 Evaluate at the specified value of x.
dx
(a) y = 1x + sin x, x = 1
(b) y = sin (x2 + 1), x = 0.5
(c) y = e2 x, x = 1
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 784
16 784 Block 2 The chain rule
Solutions to exercises
sina b (e)
1 (a) 4(18x2 - 1)(6x3 - x)3 3 1 -1
(d) - 2
4t3(t4 - 1)-2>3 t t s(ln s)2
(b) 3 (a) 0.5675 (b) 0.3153
3
(c) 1.3591 (d) 1.6829
(c) -(9 - 2t)-1>2 (d) 3y2 cos(y3) (e) -0.7311
1
(e) - r-1>2 sin1r
2 4 (a) an(at + b)n-1 (b) aeat + b
12 p3 (c) a cos(at + b) (d) -a sin(at + b)
2 (a) 10 cos 2tesin 2t (b) a
p4 + 2 (e)
2
at + b
(c) 10pr cos(pr + 1)
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 785
Implicit differentiation
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
So far we have met many functions of the form y = f(x), for example y = x2 + 3,
y = sin 2x and y = e3x - 2x. Whenever y is equated to an expression involving
only x terms we say that y is expressed explicitly in terms of x.
Sometimes we have an equation connecting x and y but it is impossible to write it
in the form y = f (x). Examples of this include x2 - y3 + sin x - cos y = 1,
sin (x + y) + ex + e-y = x3 + y3. In these cases we say that y is expressed
implicitly in terms of x.
Whether y is expressed explicitly or implicitly in terms of x we can still differenti-
dy dy
ate to find the derivative . If y is expressed explicitly in terms of x then will also
dx dx
be expressed explicitly in terms of x. If y is expressed implicitly in terms of x then dy
will be expressed in terms of x and y. dx
3.2 Differentiating f (y ) with respect to x
dy
If y is expressed implicitly in terms of x and we wish to find , then we frequently
dx
d
need to differentiate a function of y with respect to x: that is, find (f(y)). To do this
dx
we use the chain rule. The examples illustrate the technique.
Example 3.1
d 3
Find (y ).
dx
Solution dz
We use the chain rule. Let z = y3 so that we wish to find . Using the chain rule
dx
(see Example 2.2 in Block 2)
dz dz dy
=
dx dy dx
Now
dz
z = y3 and so = 3y2
dy
Hence
dz dy
= 3y2
dx dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 786
16 786 Block 3 Implicit differentiation
Hence
d 3 dy
(y ) = 3y2
dx dx
The result of Example 3.1 can easily be extended to
Key point d n dy
(y ) = nyn - 1
dx dx
Example 3.2
d
Find (sin y).
dx
Solution dz
Let z = sin y so that we wish to find . We know from the chain rule that
dx
dz dz dy
=
dx dy dx
We have z = sin y so
dz
= cos y
dy
and
d dy
(sin y) = cos y
dx dx
Generalising the result of Example 3.2 we have
Key point d df dy
( f (y)) =
dx dy dx
Example 3.3
d
Find (ln y).
dt
Solution
We use the previous result with f (y) = ln y. Then
d df
(ln y) =
dt dt
df dy
=
dy dt
1 dy
=
y dt
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 787
3.3 Finding
dy
implicitly 787 16
dx
Exercises
1 Differentiate the following functions of y with 3 Differentiate the following functions of y with
respect to x: 1 respect to x:
(a) y2 (b) 3y4 (c) 2y2 - 3y + 1 (d) (a) (y + 3)4 (b) (y2 + 3)4
y
(e) 2y
2 Differentiate the following functions of y with
respect to x:
(a) sin 2y (b) 3 cos y - y (c) e2y
(d) 2 cos 3y (e) sin2y
Solutions to exercises
dy dy dy dy dy dy
1 (a) 2y (b) 12y3 (c) 4y - 3 (c) 2e2y (d) -6(sin 3y)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
1 dy 1 dy dy
(d) - 2 (e) (e) 2 sin y cos y
y dx 22y dx dx
dy dy dy dy dy
2 (a) 2(cos 2y) (b) -3(sin y) - 3 (a) 4(y + 3)3 (b) 8y(y2 + 3)3
dx dx dx dx dx
dy
3.3 Finding implicitly
dx
We illustrate the technique.
Example 3.4
dy
Find given y2 + x = x3 + 3y.
dx
Solution
We differentiate each term w.r.t. x.
d 2 dy d d 3 d dy
(y ) = 2y , (x) = 1, (x ) = 3x2, (3y) = 3
dx dx dx dx dx dx
So
dy dy
2y + 1 = 3x2 + 3
dx dx
Rearrangement yields
dy 3x2 - 1
=
dx 2y - 3
dy
Note that is given in terms of x and y.
dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 788
16 788 Block 3 Implicit differentiation
Example 3.5
Find y¿ given
x2y - 3xy3 = y2 + 7
Solution
We differentiate each term w.r.t. x.
To differentiate x2y we use the product rule.
d 2 dy
(x y) = 2xy + x2
dx dx
To differentiate 3xy3 we again use the product rule.
d dy
(3xy3) = 3y3 + 9xy2
dx dx
Finally we differentiate y2 + 7.
d 2 dy
(y + 7) = 2y
dx dx
Hence
dy dy dy
2xy + x2 - 3y3 - 9xy2 = 2y
dx dx dx
Rearrangement yields
dy 3y3 - 2xy
= 2
dx x - 9xy2 - 2y
Example 3.6
d2y
Find 2 if 5x + 3y2 = 7.
dx
Solution dy
First, we calculate . Differentiating each term of the equation w.r.t. x we find
dx
dy
5 + 6y = 0
dx
dy 5
so = -
dx 6y
d2y
a b so we must differentiate -
d dy 5
Now 2
means with respect to x, that is
dx dx dx 6y
a- b . Here we are differentiating a function of y w.r.t. x. Using the result
d 5
dx 6y
d df dy
(f(y)) =
dx dy dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:39 AM Page 789
3.3 Finding
dy
implicitly 789 16
dx
we have
a- b = a- b
d 5 d 5 dy
dx 6y dy 6y dx
5 dy
=
6y2 dx
a- b =
5 5 - 25
=
6y2 6y 36 y3
Exercises
dy dy
1 Find given 3 Find given
dx dx
(a) x + y2 = 1 (b) 3x - y3 = 10
2
(a) 2e + 3ey = 10y (b) e2x - e3y = x + 2y
x
(c) x2 + 2y2 + 3x - 7y = 9 (c) exey = x2y3 (d) e2x + 3y + 2x3 - y5 = 0
(d) x3 - y3 = x + y (e) 1x + 1y = 10 (e) 2ey-x = 3ex + y2
dx d2y
2 Find given 4 Find given
dt dx2
(a) 4 + sin x = t (b) 3 cos 2x - t2 = 20
x2 + y2 = 1
1
(c) tan x = (d) 4 sin t - cos 3x = cos t
t 5 Find y– given
2
(e) tan 2t - x = sin 2x sin x + cos y = 1
Solutions to exercises
x 1 2x + 3 6x2 + 2e2x + 3y 3ex + 2ey - x
1 (a) - (b) 2 (c) (d) (e)
y y 7 - 4y 5y4 - 3e2x + 3y 2ey - x - 2y
2 y
3x - 1 1
(d) 2 (e) - 4
3y + 1 Ax -
y3
1 t cos2 x
2 (a) (b) - (c) - 2 sin2 y sin x + cos2 x cos y
cos x 3 sin 2x t 5 -
sin3 y
- 4 cos t - sin t sec2 2t
(d) (e)
3 sin 3x x + cos 2x
2ex 2e2x - 1
3 (a) (b)
10 - 3ey 3e3y + 2
3 x y
2xy - e e
(c)
exey - 3x2y2
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 11:59 AM Page 790
16 790 Block 3 Implicit differentiation
End of block exercises
dx
1 In which of the following equations is y 4 Find given
expressed implicitly in terms of x? dt
x y (a) 2xt + x2 - xt2 = 0 (b) x2t2 - 3x2t = t3
(a) sin x + = 3 (b) sin y + = 3 (c) 4(x + t) (x - t) - 3xt = 0
y x
x2 t2
(c) x2 - y = 10 (d) x2y + y2x = 1y (d) 3
- + x + t = 1
x - y t x2
(e) = ex x + t 3x
x + y (e) - 2 = 0
dy x - 2t t
2 Find given
dx dy
5 Find :
(a) x3 - y4 = 1 dx
(b) 2x2 - 3y2 + 2x - 7y = 0 (a) ex + ey = x3 + y4 (b) x sin y = y cos x
(c) x3 - 2y4 = x (c) xey - 2yex = xy (d) (x + 2y)e-y = x2y
(d) 2x2 + y2 + 3x + 2y + 7 = 0 (e) sin 2x cos 3y - 2 sin y cos x = 0
(e) x3 - y3 + 3x2 - y = 0
6 Differentiate the following expressions w.r.t. x:
3 A circle, centre the origin, radius 5, has (a) (x + y)n (b) (x2 + y)n (c) (x2 + y2)n
equation
x2 + y2 = 25
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle
that passes through the point (3, 4).
Solutions to exercises
1 (b) and (d) 3x2 - ex y sin x + sin y
5 (a) (b)
3x2
4x + 2 3x - 12 ey - 4y3 cos x - x cos y
2 (a) (b) (c)
4y3 6y + 7 8y3 y - ey + 2yex 2xyey - 1
(c) y x (d)
4x + 3 3x2 + 6x
xe - 2e - x 2 - x - 2y - x2ey
(d) - (e) 2
2y + 2 3y + 1 2 cos 2x cos 3y + 2 sin y sin x
(e)
3 sin 2x sin 3y + 2 cos y cos x
- 3x + 25
3 y =
(a) n(x + y)n - 1 a 1 + b
4 dy
6
dx
2x(t - 1) 3t2 + 3x2 - 2x2t
4 (a) (b)
(b) n(x2 + y)n - 1 a 2x + b
dy
2t + 2x - t2 2xt2 - 6xt
dx
3x + 8t 3x5 + 2xt5 - x3t4
a 2x + 2y b
(c) (d) 4 dy
8x - 3t 2x t + 2t6 + x3t4 (c) n(x2 + y2)n - 1
dx
2xt + 3t2 + 6x
(e)
6x - t2 - 6t
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 791
Parametric differentiation
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
In some circumstances both x and y depend upon a third variable, usually denoted by
t. This third variable is referred to as a parameter. By eliminating t, y can be deter-
mined in terms of x. For example, if y = (3 + t)2 and x = 2t, then by eliminating t
we have
y = (3 + t)2
x 2
= a3 + b
2
dy
Hence we can consider y as a function of x and so the derivative can be found.
dx
In some cases, elimination of t is difficult or even impossible. As an example consider
y = et + sin t, x = t3 + ln t. Here it is impossible to obtain y in terms of x, but
dy
the derivative can still be found using the chain rule.
dx
Key point dy dy dt
=
dx dt dx
dy>dt
=
dx>dt
dy
Finding by this method is known as parametric differentiation.
dx
4.2 Some examples of parametric differentiation
Example 4.1
dy
Given y = (3 + t)2 and x = 2t find .
dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 792
16 792 Block 4 Parametric differentiation
Solution
We could eliminate t thus:
y = (3 + t)2
x 2
= a3 + b
2
x2
= 9 + 3x +
4
and then differentiate to obtain
dy x
= 3 +
dx 2
Alternatively, using parametric differentiation we have
dy dx
= 2(3 + t), = 2
dt dt
and so
dy dy>dt
=
dx dx>dt
2(3 + t)
=
2
= 3 + t
x
= 3 +
2
Example 4.2
dy
Find given y = sin t + t2, x = et + t.
dx
Solution dy
In this case elimination of t is impossible. To find we must use parametric
dx
differentiation.
dy dx
= cos t + 2t, = et + 1
dt dt
and so
dy dy>dt
=
dx dx>dt
cos t + 2t
=
et + 1
No further simplification is possible.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 793
4.2 Some examples of parametric differentiation 793 16
Example 4.3
dy
(a) Find given y = 2t - t3, x = sin t - cos t.
dx
dy
(b) Evaluate (t = 0).
dx
Solution
dy dx
(a) = , =
dt dt
2 - 3t2, cos t + sin t
dy dy>dt
=
dx dx>dt
2 - 3t2
=
cos t + sin t
dy 2 - 3(0)2
(b) (t = 0) =
dx cos 0 + sin 0
= 2
Exercises
dy dy
1 Use parametric differentiation to find given 2 Find given
dx dx
2
(a) x = 1 + t, y = 2 + 3t + t (a) x = sin(t2), y = t3 + 1
(b) x = sin t, y = cos t (c) x = t2, y = t3 (b) x = (1 + 2t)4, y = (3 - 5t)7
(d) x = et, y = et + t (c) x = 2 cos t, y = cos 2t
(e) x = 1t, y = 1 + ln t (d) x = esin t, y = 1 - t2
(e) x = ln(1 + 3t), y = 1 + 2t
Solutions to exercises
3t 3t -35(3 - 5t)6 sin 2t
1 (a) 3 + 2t (b) - tan t (c) (d) 1 + e-t 2 (a) (b) (c)
2 2
2 cos(t ) 8(1 + 2t) 3 sin t
2
(e) -2t 2(1 + 3t)
1t (d) (e)
cos tesin t 3
End of block exercises
1 Find y¿ given (c) x = 3 sin t, y = sin t + 3t
(a) x = 3 + 2t - t2, y = 1 + 5t - t3 (d) x = e2t, y = e-t + cos t
1 1 (e) x = tan 2t, y = e2t
(b) x = 1 + , y = t +
t t
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 794
16 794 Block 4 Parametric differentiation
dy 1 t
2 Find given (d) x = ,y =
dx 1 + 2t 1 + t
(a) x = 11 + 2t, y = (t2 + 1)4 (e) x = et sin t, y = e-t cos t
(b) x = sin(t2 + 1), y = cos(2t - 3)
(c) x = r sin t, y = r cos(t2), r constant
Solutions to exercises
5 - 3t2 cos t + 3 -sin(2t - 3)
1 (a) (b) 1 - t2 (c) 2 (a) 8t11 + 2t (t2 + 1)3 (b)
2 - 2t 3 cos t t cos(t2 + 1)
2
-(e-t + sin t) 2t sin(t ) (1 + 2t)2
(d) (e) e2t cos2 2t (c) - (d) - (e) -e-2t
2e2t cos t 2 (1 + t)2
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:01 PM Page 795
Logarithmic differentiation
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
The technique of logarithmic differentiation is useful when we need to differenti-
ate a cumbersome product. The method involves taking the natural logarithm of the
function to be differentiated.
5.2 Logarithmic differentiation
We gather together some important results that are commonly used in logarithmic
differentiation.
d 1 dy
1. (ln y) =
dx y dx
d 1 df
2. (ln f (x)) =
dx f dx
x
3. ln(e ) = x
4. ln(ef (x)) = f (x)
5. ln AB = ln A + ln B
A
6. ln = ln A - ln B
B
7. ln An = n ln A
The method of logarithmic differentiation is illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5.1
dy
Given y = t2(1 + t)3 find .
dt
Solution dy
We could use the product rule to find . However, we shall use logarithmic differ-
dt
entiation to illustrate the technique. Taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the
given equation and applying the laws of logarithms yields
ln y = ln(t2 (1 + t)3)
= ln t2 + ln(1 + t)3
= 2 ln t + 3 ln(1 + t)
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:03 PM Page 796
16 796 Block 5 Logarithmic differentiation
Now, both sides are differentiated w.r.t. t.
d d d
(ln y) = (2 ln t) + (3 ln(1 + t))
dt dt dt
= 2a b + 3a b
1 dy 1 1
y dt t 1 + t
= ya + b
dy 2 3
dt t 1 + t
= t2 (1 + t)3 a + b
2 3
t 1 + t
Example 5.2
Given that
y = (t + 1)7 (2t + 3)4 (2t - 1)5
dy
find .
dt
Solution
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides and applying the laws of logarithms yields
ln y = ln((t + 1)7 (2t + 3)4 (2t - 1)5)
= ln(t + 1)7 + ln(2t + 3)4 + ln(2t - 1)5
= 7 ln(t + 1) + 4 ln(2t + 3) + 5 ln(2t - 1)
We now differentiate both sides w.r.t. t.
d d d d
(ln y) = (7 ln(t + 1)) + (4 ln(2t + 3)) + (5 ln(2t - 1))
dt dt dt dt
1 dy 7 8 10
= + +
y dt t + 1 2t + 3 2t - 1
= ya b
dy 7 8 10
+ +
dt t + 1 2t + 3 2t - 1
= (t + 1)7 (2t + 3)4 (2t - 1)5 a b
dy 7 8 10
+ +
dt t + 1 2t + 3 2t - 1
Example 5.3
dy
Find given y = e2xx3(1 - x)4.
dx
Solution
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides and applying the laws of logarithms gives
ln y = ln(e2xx3(1 - x)4)
= ln e2x + ln x3 + ln(1 - x)4
= + + 2x, 3 ln x, 4 ln(1 - x)
Differentiating w.r.t. x gives
1 dy 3 4
= 2 + -
y dx x 1-x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 797
5.2 Logarithmic differentiation 797 16
and so
= y a2 + - b
dy 3 4
dx x 1 - x
= e2xx3 (1 - x)4 a2 + - b
dy 3 4
dx x 1 - x
Example 5.4
dz
Find given z(t) = 21 + t2 cos4 t.
dt
Solution
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives
ln z = ln(21 + t2 cos4 t)
= ln21 + t2 + ln cos4 t
1
= + ln(1 + t2) + 4 ln cos t
2
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. t gives
1 dz t 4 sin t
= -
z dt 1 + t2 cos t
So
b
dz t 4 sin t
= za 2
-
dt 1 + t cos t
= 21 + t2 cos4 t a
t
- 4 tan tb
1 + t2
Exercises
dy
1 Find where y is given by 3 Find the rate of change of
dx
(a) x5(3x + 7)9 (b) x8(5x - 1)6 q(t) = 2e-t>2 cos 2t
(c) (3x + 2)4 (9x - 5)7 when t = 1.
(d) (1 - 3x)4 (2 - 7x)6
(e) (5 + 2x)4 (5x + 2)3 4 Find the derivative of the following functions
using logarithmic differentiation:
2 Find the derivative of each of the following (a) a(t) = (1 + t2)3(1 - t2)4 sin3 t
functions:
(b) b(r) = e-r sin5 2r cos4 3r
(a) z(t) = e3t(2t - 5)3 (3t + 1)4
(b) h(t) = 3e-6tt7(t + 6)3 (c) K(p) = 6p 2sin p (cos 2p)1>3
(c) M(p) = -p4 sin5 p (1 + 1y)4 (6 + 7y)3
(d) N(y) =
(d) P(r) = 6(1 + r2)6 23 + r2 11 + y
(7 - x)3 6
(e) y(x) = (e) x(t) =
(3x2 + 1)2 (2 + t)3 (1 - t)4 cos3 t
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 798
16 798 Block 5 Logarithmic differentiation
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 7x4(3x + 7)8 (6x + 5) 3 -1.9537
(b) 2x7(5x - 1)5 (35x - 4)
(a) a a + 3 cot t b
6t 8t
4 -
(c) 33(3x + 2)3 (9x - 5)6 (9x + 2) 1 + t2 1 - t2
(d) 6(1 - 3x)3 (2 - 7x)5 (35x - 11)
(b) b(-1 + 10 cot 2r - 12 tan 3r)
(e) 7(2x + 5)3 (5x + 2)2 (10x + 13)
(c) K a + cot p - tan 2p b
1 1 2
2 (a) 3e3t(2t - 5)2 (3t + 1)3 (6t2 + t - 23) p 2 3
(b) -6t6e-6t(t + 6)2 (3t2 + 13t - 21)
(c) -5p4 sin4 p cos p - 4p3 sin5 p
P Q
2 21 1
6r(r2 + 1)5 (13r2 + 37) (d) N 1y + y + 6 + 7y - 2(1 + y)
(d)
2r2 + 3
3(x - 7)2 (x2 - 28x - 1)
(e) x a
-3 4
(e) + + 3 tan tb
(3x2 + 1)3 2 + t 1 - t
End of block exercises
dy
1 Find where y is given by 2 Find the derivative of each of the following
dx functions:
(a) x3(3x - 2)4 (5x - 1)6 2
(a) y(x) = 3e(x )x2 sin x
(b) 1x (x2 + 1)3 (x3 + 1)2 (3r2 + 2)3
(b) h(r) =
e2x sin3 x 4e-3x cos 3x 14 - r (9 + r2)
(c) (d) 2
x4 (2 - x)3 (1p + 2)2 e - p
(c) m(p) =
3 (1 + p2)2
(e)
e2x 1sin x (9 + x2) 2(t + e2t)4 2t2 - 2t3
(d) x(t) =
sin2 t
2
q - 2
(e) c(q) = eq
A 3q2 + 1
Solutions to exercises
b
3 12 30 2
1 (a) ya + + 2 (a) ya2x + + cot xb
x 3x - 2 5x - 1 x
6x2
b (b) h a b
1 6x 18r 1 2r
(b) ya + 2 + 3 2
+ -
2x x + 1 x + 1 3r + 2 2(4 - r) 9 + r2
(c) ya2 + 3 cot x - b b
4 1 4p
(c) ma - 2p -
x p + 21p 1 + p2
1 + 2e2t
b b + a b - 2 cot t d
3 1 - 3t
(d) ya -3 - 3 tan 3x + (d) xc4a 2t
2 - x t + e t - 2t2
b b
1 2x q 3q
(e) ya -2 - cot x - (e) ca1 + 2 - 2
2 9 + x2 q - 2 3q + 1
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 799
Tangents and normals
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
The derivative gives the rate at which the function is changing. An alternative, but
equally valid, interpretation of the derivative is that it represents the gradient of a tan-
gent to the curve. We use this fact when calculating the equation of a tangent to a
curve.
A normal is a line that is perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact.
Figure 6.1 illustrates a typical tangent and normal to y(x).
Figure 6.1 y
A tangent and Normal
normal to a curve,
y(x). Tangent Point of contact
x
O
6.2 Calculating the equation of a tangent
Recall that a tangent is a straight line that touches a curve in one point only. This
point is referred to as the point of contact. The derivative of a function can be inter-
preted as the gradient of a tangent to a curve.
When calculating the equation of a tangent we require its gradient and the coordi-
nates of one point. Usually the coordinates of the point of contact are used.
Example 6.1
Find the equation of the tangent to y = x2 at the point (2, 4).
Solution
Figure 6.2 illustrates the situation. The point of contact is (2, 4). To calculate the
dy
gradient of the tangent we find the derivative, .
dx
dy
y = x2 so = 2x
dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 800
16 800 Block 6 Tangents and normals
Figure 6.2 y y ⫽ x2
A tangent to
y ⫽ x2 at (2, 4).
Point of
contact Tangent
x
O 2
dy
When x = 2, = 4. Hence the gradient of the tangent is 4. We are now ready to
dx
calculate the equation of the tangent. The tangent is a straight line and so has an
equation of the form
y = mx + c
The gradient, m, is 4 and so
y = 4x + c
The point of contact, (2, 4), lies on the tangent, that is when x = 2, y = 4.
4 = 4(2) + c
c = -4
Hence the equation of the tangent is y = 4x - 4.
Example 6.2
Find the equation of the tangent to y = 2ex - x3 where x = 1.5.
Solution
When x = 1.5, y = 5.5884
Thus the point of contact is (1.5, 5.5884).
The gradient of the tangent is now found.
dy
= 2ex - 3x2
dx
When x = 1.5
dy
= 2e1.5 - 3(1.5)2 = 2.2134
dx
and so the gradient of the tangent is 2.2134. The equation of the tangent can now be
found. The equation has the form y = mx + c and using the gradient found we have
y = 2.2134x + c
Applying the point of contact given yields
5.5884 = 2.2134(1.5) + c
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 801
6.3 The Newton–Raphson method 801 16
from which
c = 2.2683
So the equation of the tangent is y = 2.2134x + 2.2683.
Exercises
1 Calculate the equation of the tangent to 4 (a) Calculate the equation of the tangent to
y = 3x2 - x + 9 where x = 2. y = e-x where x = 1.4.
(b) Calculate where the tangent cuts the x axis.
2 Calculate the equation of the tangent to (c) Calculate where the tangent cuts the y axis.
p
y = sin x where x = .
4 5 Calculate the equation of the tangents to
3 y = 9 - x2 at the points where y crosses the
3 The gradient of a tangent to y = x + x is 1.
x axis.
Calculate the equation of the tangent.
Solutions to exercises
1 y = 11x - 3 4 (a) y = -0.2466x + 0.5918
(b) (2.4, 0)
ax + 1 - b = 0.7071x + 0.1517
1 p
2 y = (c) (0, 0.5918)
12 4
3 y = x 5 y = 6x + 18, y = -6x + 18
6.3 The Newton–Raphson method
The Newton–Raphson method is a technique for generating a sequence of approxi-
mations to a solution, or root, of an equation f (x) = 0. The method uses differenti-
ation because it relies upon knowledge of the equations of tangents to the graph of
y = f (x). It is known as a numerical method because it produces a numerical
sequence of values that, under certain conditions, get closer and closer to the root.
We say that this sequence of values converges. A more detailed discussion of conver-
gence of sequences is given in Chapter 19.
Suppose we are interested in solving an equation that can be written in the form
f (x) = 0. For example, we may wish to solve equations such as
x4 - 3x - 2 = 0 or e-x - sin x = 0
This problem is equivalent to finding values of x for which the graph of y = f (x)
intersects the horizontal axis, as illustrated in Figure 6.3. When x has the particular
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 802
16 802 Block 6 Tangents and normals
values x1, x2 or x3 then y has the value of 0. In other words, f (x1) = 0, f (x2) = 0 and
f (x3) = 0, and so the roots of f (x) = 0 are x = x1, x = x2 and x = x3.
Figure 6.3 y = f(x)
Solutions of y
f(x) = 0
f (x) = 0 can be
located by finding
values of x where
the graph of x
x1 x2 x3
y = f (x) intersects
the x axis.
Figure 6.4 y = f(x)
The tangent drawn y
at P(x0, f (x0))
intersects the
x axis at x1. P
a
x1 x0 x
Suppose a root exists at some unknown value x = a as shown in Figure 6.4. Sup-
pose we know or make an estimate of the root, x = x0 say. We can draw a tangent to
the curve y = f (x) at the point P(x0, f (x0)), and use the value of x at the point where
the tangent cuts the x axis, x1 say, as a better estimate of the root.
First we obtain the equation of the tangent to y = f (x) at P(x0, f (x0)). It will
take the form y = mx + c. From Section 6.2 we know that its gradient, m, will
dy
equal evaluated at x0, which, in the context of the Newton–Raphson method,
dx
we write as f ¿(x0). So the equation becomes y = f ¿(x0)x + c. We now find the con-
stant c. The tangent passes through the point (x0, f (x0)), and so f (x0) = f¿(x0)x0 + c,
from which c = f(x0) - f ¿(x0)x0. Since x0 is a known value we can calculate
f(x0) - f ¿(x0)x0, and so c can be evaluated. Finally, the equation of the tangent is
y = f ¿(x0)x + f(x0) - f ¿(x0) x0
From Figure 6.4 we see that this tangent will cut the horizontal axis when y = 0 and
x = x1, that is when
0 = f ¿(x0)x1 + f(x0) - f ¿(x0)x0
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 803
6.3 The Newton–Raphson method 803 16
Rearranging this formula to make x1 the subject gives
f (x0)
x1 = x0 -
f ¿(x0)
Recall that x0 is our first approximation to the root. This formula enables us to calcu-
late a better estimate of the root, denoted by x1.
Example 6.3
Use the Newton–Raphson formula to find an improved estimate of a solution to the
equation x4 - 3x - 2 = 0 given that a first estimate is x0 = 1.5.
Solution
Here f(x) = x4 - 3x - 2 and so, differentiating,
f ¿(x) = 4x3 - 3
Then with a first estimate x0 the Newton–Raphson formula is
x40 - 3x0 - 2
x1 = x0 -
4x30 - 3
Substitution of x0 = 1.5 yields our new estimate x1:
x1 =
1.54 - 3(1.5) - 2
1.5 - = 1.636905
4(1.5)3 - 3
So 1.636905 is an improved estimate of the root.
In practice the formula is used repeatedly with each new estimate used to generate a
further improvement. This leads to the following general formula.
Key point If x = xn is an approximate root of f (x) = 0, then, under certain conditions, an
improved estimate is given by
f (xn)
xn + 1 = xn -
f ¿(xn)
Unfortunately the sequence of values produced does not always converge. For fur-
ther details concerning the conditions for convergence and the rate of convergence
consult a textbook on numerical methods for engineers.
The Newton–Raphson formula is easy to program in a loop structure. Exit from
the loop is usually conditional upon ƒ xn + 1 - xn ƒ being smaller than some prescribed
very small value. This condition shows that successive approximate roots are very
close to each other.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 804
16 804 Block 6 Tangents and normals
Example 6.4
Apply two more iterations of the Newton–Raphson method to the equation of
Example 6.3.
Solution
With x1 = 1.636905 we find
x2 =
1.6369054 - 3(1.636905) - 2
1.636905 - = 1.618425
4(1.636905)3 - 3
With x2 = 1.618425 we find
x3 =
1.6184254 - 3(1.618425) - 2
1.618425 - = 1.618034
4(1.618425)3 - 3
We see that the numbers generated by this method appear to be getting closer to
1.618. In this example the method has performed well when we note that the true
solution is 1.618034 (6 d.p.).
Exercises
1 Use the Newton–Raphson technique to find the (a) x2 - cos x = 0, x0 = 0.8
value of a root of the following equations (b) 3x3 - 5x2 + 7 = 0, x0 = -0.9
correct to two decimal places. An approximate (c) x3 = e-x, x0 = 0.82
root x0 is given in each case. (d) ex = sin 2x, x0 = -1.5
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.82 (b) -0.95 (c) 0.77 (d) -1.67
Computer and calculator exercise
Use a graphical calculator or computer package to x3 - 8x2 + 11x - 2 = 0 and use your estimates
plot a graph of f (x) = x3 - 8x2 + 11x - 2. Use together with the Newton–Raphson method to find
your graph to estimate roots of the equation improved estimates.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 805
6.4 Equation of a normal to a curve 805 16
Solution to exercise
x = 6.31, 1.48, 0.21
6.4 Equation of a normal to a curve
A normal is a line that is perpendicular to a tangent and passes through the point of
contact. (See Figure 6.1.)
It is useful to state an important result:
Key point If two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is -1.
Hence, if a tangent has gradient m1 and the normal has gradient m2, then
m1m2 = -1.
Example 6.5
Find the equation of the normal to y = x2 at the point (2, 4).
Solution
We have found from Example 6.1 that the gradient of the tangent at (2, 4) is 4. Hence
1
gradient of normal at (2, 4) =
-4
1
= -
4
Let the equation of the normal be y = mx + c. The gradient, m, has been found to
be - 14 and so
x
y = - + c
4
The point of contact, (2, 4), is on the normal so
2
4 = - + c
4
9
c =
2
Hence the equation of the normal is
x 9
y = - +
4 2
Example 6.6
Find the equation of the normal to y = 2x4 - 3 at (1, -1).
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:04 PM Page 806
16 806 Block 6 Tangents and normals
Solution
dy
We find .
dx
dy
= 8x3
dx
The tangent through (1, -1) has gradient
8
Hence the normal through (1, -1) has gradient
1
-
8
The equation of the normal is
y = mx + c
x
= - + c
8
The normal passes through (1, -1) and so
7
c = -
8
Hence the equation of the normal is
x 7
y = - -
8 8
Exercises
1 Calculate the equation of the normal to 2 Calculate the equation of the normal to
(a) y = 3x2 - x through (2, 10) (a) y = xex where x = 1
(b) y = 1x through (9, 3) (b) y = 2 sin 3x where x = p
1 (c) y = 2 ln x where x = 1
(c) y = through (0.5, 2)
x (d) y = (2x + 1)6 where x = 0
(d) y = 10 - x4 through (1, 9) ex + 1
(e) y = where x = 1
x3
through a1, b
x 1 x
(e) y = -
2 6 3
Solutions to exercises
x 112 x 15
1 (a) y = - + (c) y = +
11 11 4 8
(b) y = - 6x + 57 x + 35
(d) y =
4
(e) x = 1
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:08 PM Page 807
6.4 Equation of a normal to a curve 807 16
-x + 2e2 + 1 x
2 (a) y = (d) y = - + 1
2e 12
x - p (e) y = x + e
(b) y =
6
1 - x
(c) y =
2
End of block exercises
1 Calculate the equation of the tangent to (c) y = x2e-x where x = 1
(a) y = x2 + 2 at (1, 3) 2x + 1
(d) y = where x = 2
(b) y = 10 - 2x2 at (0, 10) x + 2
(c) y = 2x2 - x + 3 at (2, 9) x
(e) y = 2 where x = 1
(d) y = x3 + 1 at (- 1, 0) x + 1
(e) y = x3 + x2 + x - 1 at (1, 2)
6 Calculate the equation of the normal to
2 Calculate the equation of the normal to p
(a) y = cos(x - p) where x =
(a) y = x2 + 2x - 1 at (0, - 1) 2
(b) y = 6 - x2 at (3, -3) (b) y = x3 ln x where x = 1
(c) y = 3x2 - 2x + 11 at (1, 12) (c) y = 2x2 + 1 where x = 2
(d) y = 3x - x3 at (2, -2) ex
(d) y = where x = - 1
(e) y = 2x3 - 3x + 1 at (0, 1) x
(e) y = sin(x2) where x = 0.5
3 Calculate the equation of the tangent to
(a) y = 3 sin x - cos x where x = p 7 Use the Newton–Raphson technique to find the
(b) y = 2 ln x where x = e value of a root of the following equations
(c) y = 3ex + e-x where x = 0 correct to two decimal places. An approximate
root x0 is given in each case.
(d) y = x2 + e-2x where x = 0 p
(e) y = sin 2x + 3 cos 2x where x = (a) x5 - x3 + 2 = 0, x0 = - 1.5
4 (b) 2 sin x = sin 2x, x0 = 6.2
4 Calculate the equation of the normal to
(a) y = 2 sin x + x where x = 0 8 Apply the Newton–Raphson method to the
(b) y = 3e-x + ex where x = 1 solution of x - tan x = 0. Show that with an
(c) y = 3x + 2 ln x where x = 1 initial estimate of x0 = 4 the sequence of
(d) y = 4 cos x + sin x where x = p values generated by the method fails to
(e) y = 3 ln x + cos 2x where x = 0.5 converge, but with an initial estimate
x0 = 4.6 the method converges to the root
5 Calculate the equation of the tangent to x = 4.49 (2 d.p.).
(a) y = 1x + 1 where x = 3
(b) y = sin(2x + p) where x = 0
Solutions to exercises
x x 7
1 (a) y = 2x + 1 (b) y = 10 (c) y = 7x - 5 2 (a) y = - - 1 (b) y = -
(d) y = 3x + 3 (e) y = 6x - 4 2 6 2
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:09 PM Page 808
16 808 Block 6 Tangents and normals
49 - x x - 20 x + 5
(c) y = (d) y = 5 (a) y = (b) y = - 2x
4 9 4
x x 3x 7
(e) y = + 1 (c) y = (d) y = +
3 e 16 8
2 (e) y = 0.5
3 (a) y = - 3x + 3p + 1 (b) y = x
e p
6 (a) y = - x + (b) y = - x + 1
(c) y = 2x + 4 (d) y = - 2x + 1 2
3p - 15
(e) y = - 6x + + 1 (c) y = x + 215
2 2
x (d) y = 1.3591x + 0.9913
4 (a) y = - (b) y = - 0.6193x + 4.4412 (e) y = - 1.0321x + 0.7634
3
- x + 16
(c) y = (d) y = x - 4 - p 7 (a) x = - 1.35 (b) x = 6.28
5
(e) y = - 0.2316x - 1.4233
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 809
Maximum and minimum values of a function
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
The maximum and minimum values of a function are often very important. For
example, an engineer may need to know the value of the maximum power trans-
ferred from a voltage source to a load resistor. Maximum and minimum points
are located by examining the derivative of a function, rather than the function
itself.
Two tests are described that distinguish between maximum and minimum points.
Finally, we explain what is meant by a point of inflexion and how such a point is
located.
7.2 Maximum and minimum points
Consider Figures 7.1(a) and (b). The point A is a local maximum; the point B is a
local minimum. Note that A is not the highest point on the graph. However, in
the locality of A, A is the highest point. Use of the word ‘local’ stresses that A is a
maximum only in its locality. Similarly B is a minimum in its locality but is not the
lowest point on the entire graph.
Figure 7.1 y y
(a), (b) A is a local A
A
maximum, B is a
local minimum.
B B
x x
(a) (b)
When moving away from A along the function, both to the left and to the right, the
value of y decreases; when moving away from B along the function, the value of y
increases.
It is useful to be able to locate points such as A and B. This is done by referring to
the gradient of the function, rather than the function itself.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 810
16 810 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
7.3 Locating maximum and minimum points
Consider Figure 7.2, which shows the curve y(x), together with some tangents. The
dy
tangents at A and B are parallel to the x axis, that is = 0 at these points.
dx
Figure 7.2 y
A
At A and B,
dy
= 0.
dx B
We now consider Figure 7.1(b) again. At A and B it is impossible to draw tan-
dy
gents: that is, they do not exist. Hence at these points does not exist. In summary
we have dx
Key point dy dy
At maximum and minimum points, = 0 or does not exist.
dx dx
dy
So, maximum and minimum points are located by looking for points where = 0
dy dx
or does not exist.
dx
7.4 The first-derivative test
When given any function, y(x), we can limit our search for maximum and minimum
dy dy
points to those points where = 0 or does not exist. We also need to distinguish
dx dx
between a maximum point and a minimum point. To do this we consider y¿ on either
side of the point.
Immediately to the left of a maximum point, such as A in Figure 7.1, y¿ 7 0, that
is y is increasing. Immediately to the right of a maximum point, y¿ 6 0, that is y is
decreasing. Thus, in passing from left to right through a maximum point, y¿ changes
from positive to negative.
Now consider a minimum point, such as B in Figure 7.1. Immediately to the left of
such a point, y¿ 6 0, that is y is decreasing. Immediately to the right, y¿ 7 0, that is
y is increasing. So, in passing from left to right through a minimum point, y¿ changes
from negative to positive.
This information is contained in the first-derivative test.
Key point • The first-derivative test distinguishes between maximum and minimum points.
dy dy
• To the left of a maximum point, is positive; to the right is negative.
dx dx
dy dy
• To the left of a minimum point, is negative; to the right is positive.
dx dx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:50 AM Page 811
7.4 The first-derivative test 811 16
Example 7.1
Determine the position of any maximum and minimum points of the function
y = x2 + 1.
Solution
dy
By differentiation, = 2x. The function 2x exists for all values of x. So, we need
dx
only look for maximum and minimum points by solving y¿ = 0. So
y¿ = 0
2x = 0
so
x = 0
At this stage, we know that the only place a maximum or a minimum point can be
found is where x = 0. We now apply the first-derivative test.
To the left of x = 0, x is negative. So 2x is negative and hence y¿ is negative. To
the right of x = 0, x is positive and so y¿ is positive. Since y¿ changes from negative
to positive, there must be a minimum point at x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 1 so (0, 1) is a minimum point. Figure 7.3 illustrates this.
Figure 7.3 y
There is a
minimum point y ⫽ x2 ⫹ 1
at (0, 1).
(0, 1)
x
Example 7.2
Determine the position of any maximum and minimum points of the function
y = 2x - x2.
Solution
dy
We see that = 2 - 2x, which exists for all x. We look for maximum and minimum
dx
dy
points by solving = 0.
dx
dy
= 0
dx
2 - 2x = 0
2 = 2x
so
x = 1
Thus we examine the point where x = 1.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/28/18 10:31 AM Page 812
16 812 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
dy
We examine the sign of to the left and to the right of x = 1. To determine the
dx
sign of 2 - 2x to the left and to the right of x = 1 we can use one of two techniques.
We can sketch a graph of 2 - 2x and note the sign on both sides of x = 1. Another
method is to evaluate 2 - 2x just to the left of x = 1, say x = 0.9, and then evalu-
ate 2 - 2x just to the right of x = 1, say at x = 1.1. When x = 0.9, the value of
2 - 2x is 0.2; when x = 1.1 the value of 2 - 2x is - 0.2. Since y¿ changes from
positive to negative there must be a maximum at x = 1.
When x = 1, y = 1 and so (1, 1) is a maximum point. Figure 7.4 illustrates this.
Figure 7.4 y
Maximum point
There is a
maximum point
at (1, 1). 1 y ⫽ 2x ⫺ x 2
1 2 x
Example 7.3
Determine the position of any maximum and minimum points of the function
t3 t2
y = - - 2t + 3.
3 2
Solution
We have
dy
= t2 - t - 2
dt
dy dy
Clearly, exists for all values of t. Solving = 0 yields
dt dt
t2 - t - 2 = 0
(t - 2)(t + 1) = 0
t = - 1, 2
We need to investigate the two points where t = - 1 and t = 2.
t = -1
Consider a value just to the left of t = - 1, say t = - 1.1. Here
dy
= (- 1.1)2 - ( -1.1) - 2
dt
= 0.31
dy
So, at t = - 1.1, is positive.
dt
Just to the right of t = - 1, say at t = - 0.9,
dy
= (- 0.9)2 - ( -0.9) - 2
dt
= - 0.29
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 11/15/18 3:52 PM Page 813
7.4 The first-derivative test 813 16
dy
So, is negative. Since the derivative has changed from positive to negative there
dt
must be a maximum point at t = - 1.
When t = - 1, y = 25 6 and so 1-1, 6 2 is a maximum point.
25
t = -2
By considering values just to the left and right of t = 2 we see that immediately to
dy dy
the left of t = 2, is negative; immediately to the right, is positive. Hence at
dt dt
t = 2 there is a minimum point.
When t = 2, y = - 13 so 12, - 132 is a minimum point. Figure 7.5 illustrates a
graph of the function.
Figure 7.5 y 3 2
(−1, 25 ) y = t3 − t2 −2t+ 3
There is a 6
4
maximum point at
1-1, 256 2 and a 3
minimum point at
12, - 132. 2
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
t
O
(2, − 13 )
–1
Example 7.4
Determine the position of any maximum and minimum points of the function y = |t|.
Solution
Recall that
-t t 6 0
y = ƒtƒ = b
t t Ú 0
A graph of the modulus function is shown in Figure 8.7 of Chapter 6. Note that there is a cor-
dy
ner at t = 0. Hence the derivative, , does not exist at t = 0 and so this is a possible location
dt dy
of a maximum or minimum point. To the left of t = 0, is negative; to the right of
dy dt
t = 0, is positive and so there is a minimum at t = 0.
dt
Example 7.5
Locate the maximum and minimum points of each of the following functions:
(a) y = x2 - 6x + 5
(b) y = x3 - 3x
(c) y = x1>3
Solution
(a) Given y = x2 - 6x + 5
dy
= 2x - 6
dx
dy
Solving = 0 yields
dx
x = 3
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 814
16 814 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
Immediately to the left of x = 3,
dy
is negative
dx
Immediately to the right of x = 3,
dy
is positive
dx
Hence at x = 3, there is a minimum
When x = 3,
y = -4
Hence (3, -4) is a minimum point.
(b) Given y = x3 - 3x, here
y¿ = 3x2 - 3
Solving y¿ = 0 yields
x = -1, 1
Consider x = -1.
Immediately to the left of x = -1,
y¿ is positive
Immediately to the right of x = -1,
y¿ is negative
Hence at x = -1 there is a maximum
When x = -1,
y = 2
So ( -1, 2) is a maximum point.
We now consider x = 1.
Immediately to the left of x = 1,
y¿ is negative
Immediately to the right of x = 1,
y¿ is positive
Hence at x = 1 there is a minimum
When x = 1,
y = -2
So (1, -2) is a minimum point.
(c) Given y = x1>3 then by differentiation we have
dy x-2/3 1
= = 2/3
dx 3 3x
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 815
7.4 The first-derivative test 815 16
1
Note that at x = 0 the function does not exist so there is no derivative at
3x2>3
x = 0.
To the left of x = 0,
y¿ is positive
To the right of x = 0,
y¿ is positive
Since y¿ does not change sign we conclude there is neither a maximum nor a
minimum at x = 0.
Example 7.6 Electrical Engineering – Maximum power transfer
Consider the circuit of Figure 7.6 in which a non-ideal voltage source is connected to
a variable load resistor with resistance RL. The source voltage is V and its internal
resistance is RS. Calculate the value of RL that results in the maximum power being
transferred from the voltage source to the load resistor.
Figure 7.6 i
Maximum power
transfer occurs
when RL = RS. RS
Non-ideal
voltage RL
source ⫹
V
⫺
Solution
Let i be the current flowing in the circuit. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Ohm’s
law gives
V = i(RS + RL)
Let P be the power developed in the load resistor. Then
P = i 2 RL
V 2 RL
=
(RS + RL)2
Clearly P depends on the value of RL. Differentiating we obtain
dP 1(RS + RL)2 - RL2(RS + RL)
= V2
dRL (RS + RL)4
RS - RL
= V2
(RS + RL)3
dP
Equating to zero gives
dRL
RS - RL
V2 = 0
(RS + RL)3
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 816
16 816 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
that is
RL = RS
We need to check whether this is a maximum point.
dP RS - RL
= V2
dRL (RS + RL)3
When RL has a value just to the left of RS, the derivative is positive. When RL has a
value just to the right of RS, the derivative is negative. Hence there is a maximum
when RL = RS. Therefore maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance
equals the source resistance.
Exercises
1 Determine the location of all maximum and 2 Determine the location of all maximum and
minimum points of the following functions: minimum points of the following functions:
(a) y = x2 - 4x (a) y = xex
(b) y = x2 - 5x + 4 1
(b) y =
(c) y = 10 + 3x - x2 1 + x2
x3 x2 x5 x3
(d) y = - + 1 (c) y = -
3 2 5 3
3
(e) y = x - 27x x4
(d) y = + x + 1
4
(e) y = (1 - ln x)x
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) (2, -4) minimum 2 (a) ( -1, -0.3679) minimum
(b) 152, - 942 minimum (b) (0, 1) maximum
(c) 132, 49
4 2 maximum (c) 1-1, 152 2 maximum, 11, - 152 2 minimum
(d) (0, 1) maximum, 11, 562 minimum (d) 1-1, 142 minimum
(e) ( -3, 54) maximum, (3, -54) minimum (e) (1, 1) maximum
7.5 The second-derivative test
This is a test to distinguish between maximum and minimum points. Rather than
examine the sign of y¿ on both sides of the points where y¿ = 0 we can instead
consider the sign of the second derivative, y– , at these points.
On passing left to right through a maximum point, y¿ changes from positive to
zero to negative. Hence, y¿ is decreasing and so the derivative of y¿ is negative, that
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:13 PM Page 817
7.5 The second-derivative test 817 16
is y– 6 0. Similarly, on passing left to right through a minimum point, y¿ changes
from negative to zero to positive and so y¿ is increasing. Hence y– is positive. The
second-derivative test summarises this:
Key point • If y¿ = 0 and y– 6 0 at a point, then the point is a maximum point.
• If y¿ = 0 and y– 7 0 at a point, then the point is a minimum point.
• If y¿ = 0 and y– = 0 the second-derivative test fails and we must return to the first-
derivative test.
Example 7.7
Use the second-derivative test to find all maximum and minimum points of
x3 x2
y = - - 6x + 2
3 2
Solution
We see that
y¿ = x2 - x - 6
= (x + 2)(x - 3)
Solving y¿ = 0 yields x = - 2, 3. Now
y– = 2x - 1
The sign of y– is calculated at both x = - 2 and x = 3.
When x = - 2, y– = - 5. Since y– 6 0 then by the second-derivative test there is
a maximum point at x = - 2.
When x = 3, y– = 5. Here y– 7 0 and so there is a minimum point at x = 3.
When x = - 2, y = 28 3 . When x = 3, y = - 2 . So 1-2, 3 2 is a maximum point;
23 28
13, - 232 is a minimum point.
2
Example 7.8
Determine the positions of all maximum and minimum points of y = x4.
Solution
We have y¿ = 4x3. Solving y¿ = 0 yields x = 0. Also we see
y– = 12x2
To apply the second-derivative test we evaluate y– at x = 0. At x = 0, y– = 0. Since
y– = 0 the second-derivative test fails. We return to the first-derivative test and
examine the sign of y¿ to the left and to the right of x = 0.
Immediately to the left of x = 0, y¿ is negative. Immediately to the right of x = 0,
y¿ is positive. Hence there is a minimum point at x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 0 and so (0, 0) is a minimum point.
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 818
16 818 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
Example 7.9
Determine all maximum and minimum points of
x5 x2
y = + + 1
5 2
Solution
We have
y¿ = x4 + x
Solving y¿ = 0 yields
x = 0, -1
In order to use the second-derivative test we calculate y– .
y– = 4x3 + 1
The sign of y– is calculated at each value of x.
When x = -1,
y– is negative
and so there is a point at x = -1. maximum
When x = 0,
y– is positive
and so there is a point at x = 0 . minimum
When x = -1,
13
y =
10
When x = 0,
y = 1
So 1-1, 10 2
13
is a maximum point; (0, 1) is a minimum point.
Exercises
1 Determine the position of all maximum and x3 3x2
(c) y = + - 1
minimum points of the following using the 3 2
second-derivative test. x4 x2
(d) y = -
x2 4 2
(a) y = - x + 1
2
3x2
(b) y = 6 + 2x -
2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 11, 122, minimum (d) (0, 0), maximum; 11, - 142, minimum;
(b) 123, 20
3 2, maximum
1-1, - 142, minimum
(c) (0, -1), minimum; 1-3, 722, maximum
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 819
7.6 Points of inflexion 819 16
7.6 Points of inflexion
Figure 7.7 shows two curves. In both cases the gradient is increasing as we move
along the curve from left to right, that is y¿ is increasing.
Figure 7.7 y y
The gradient of
both curves is
increasing; the
curves are concave
up.
x x
When y¿ is increasing, then y– is positive, and the curve is described as concave
up. Figure 7.8 shows two curves the gradients of which are decreasing as we move
along the curve from left to right, that is y¿ is decreasing. When y¿ is decreasing, y–
is negative and the curve is said to be concave down.
Figure 7.8 y y
The gradient of
both curves is
decreasing; the
curves are concave
down.
x x
A point at which the concavity changes from concave up to concave down, or vice
versa, is called a point of inflexion. At such a point either y– = 0 or y– does not
exist. Figure 7.9 illustrates some points of inflexion.
Figure 7.9 y
(a) There is a point
of inflexion at A;
(b) there are points y y
of inflexion at A
and B; (c) there is O
a point of inflexion x
at O. A A B
x x
(a) (b) (c)
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 820
16 820 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
Key point A curve is concave up when y– 7 0, and concave down when y– 6 0. There is a
point of inflexion where the concavity changes.
Note that not all points where y– = 0 or where y– does not exist are points of inflexion.
However, when searching for points of inflexion, we can limit our search to points
where y– = 0 or where y– does not exist.
Example 7.10
Locate any points of inflexion of y = x3.
Solution
We have
y¿ = 3x2, y– = 6x
A point of inflexion can occur only where either y– = 0 or y– does not exist. Clearly
y– exists for all values of x but y– = 0 when x = 0.
We examine the concavity to the left and right of x = 0. To the left of x = 0, 6x is
negative and so y– 6 0: that is, the function is concave down. To the right of x = 0,
6x is positive, and so y– 7 0: that is, the function is concave up. Hence the concav-
ity changes at x = 0 and so there is a point of inflexion at x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 0 and so (0, 0) is a point of inflexion. Figure 7.10 illustrates
y = x3.
Figure 7.10 y
Since y– changes
sign at x = 0, y ⫽ x3
there is a point of
inflexion there. y" ⬎ 0
O x
y" ⬍ 0
Example 7.11
Determine all maximum points, minimum points and points of inflexion of
x3 x2
y = -
6 2
Solution
We have
x2
- x,
y¿ = y– = x - 1
2
To locate maximum and minimum points we solve y¿ = 0. This yields
x2
- x = 0
2
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:26 PM Page 821
7.6 Points of inflexion 821 16
xa
x
- 1b = 0
2
x = 0, 2
To distinguish between maximum and minimum points we use the second-derivative
test at x = 0 and at x = 2.
y–(0) 6 0 and so there is a maximum point at x = 0.
y–(2) 7 0 and so there is a minimum point at x = 2.
When x = 0, then y = 0. When x = 2, y = - 23 . So (0, 0) is a maximum point;
A 2, - 23 B is a minimum point.
We now consider points of inflexion. We know that points of inflexion can occur
only where y– = 0 or where y– does not exist. Clearly y– exists for all values of x but
y– = 0 at x = 1. To check whether there is a point of inflexion at x = 1 we check
the concavity to the left and right of x = 1.
Immediately to the left of x = 1, say at x = 0.9, y– 6 0. Immediately to the right
of x = 1, say at 1.1, y– 7 0 and so the concavity changes at x = 1: that is, there is a
point of inflexion at x = 1. When x = 1, y = - 13, so A 1, - 13 B is a point of inflexion.
In summary we have: (0, 0) maximum point; A 2, - 2 B minimum point; A 1, - 1 B
3 3
point of inflexion.
Example 7.12
Find all maximum points, minimum points and points of inflexion of
y = 1 + 12x + 3x2 - 2x3
Solution
We calculate y¿ and y–.
y¿ = 12 + 6x - 6x2
y– = 6 - 12x
Solving y¿ = 0 yields
x = -1, 2
We apply the second-derivative test to each value of x.
y–(-1) = 18
y–(2) = -18
Hence there is a point at x = - 1. minimum
There is a point at x ⫽ 2. maximum
When x = - 1, y = - 6. When x = 2, y = 21.
We seek points of inflexion by considering y–. Solving y– = 0 yields x = 0.5.
Immediately to the left of x = 0.5, say at 0.4,
y– is positive
Immediately to the right of x = 0.5, say at 0.6,
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 822
16 822 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
y– is negative
Hence the concavity changes and so there is a point of inflexion at x = 0.5.
When x = 0.5,
y = 7.5
In summary we have: (-1,-6), minimum point; (2, 21) maximum point; (0.5, 7.5),
point of inflexion.
Exercises
1 Determine the position of all points of 2 Locate all maximum points, minimum points
inflexion of the following functions: and points of inflexion of the following
x3 functions:
(a) y = - x2 x3
6 (a) y = - 3x2 + 5x + 1
x3 3
(b) y = 1 + 2x2 -
6 (b) y = -x5
x4 x3 (c) y = x1>3
(c) y = - + x + 1
24 6
x4 x2
(d) y = - - x + 1
12 2
4
(e) y = x
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) A 2, - 83 B (b) A 4, 67
3 B (c) (0, 1), A 2, 3 B
7
2 (a) A 1, 10
3 B maximum; A 5, - 3 B minimum;
22
(d) A -1, 19
12 B , A 1, - 12 B
5 (3, -2) inflexion
(b) (0, 0) inflexion
(e) no inflexion points
(c) (0, 0) inflexion
End of block exercises
1 State when each of the following functions are 3x2
(a) y = 1 + 4x -
concave up and when they are concave down: 2
(a) y = x2 x3
(b) y = + x2 - 3x + 7
(b) y = x3 3
2x3 x2
x3 (c) y = - - x + 6
(c) y = - x2 3 2
6
3x2 x3
x2 x3 (d) y = 1 + 4x - -
(d) y = + 2 3
2 6
x4 x2
(e) y = - + 2
2 Find all maximum points, minimum points and 4 2
points of inflexion of the following functions:
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 12:28 PM Page 823
End of chapter exercises 823 16
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) always concave up (c) A 1, 31
6 B minimum, A - 2 , 24 B maximum,
1 151
(b) concave up on (0, q ); concave down on
A 14, 275
48 B inflexion
( - q , 0)
(c) concave down on ( - q , 2); concave up on (d) A -4, - 53
3 B minimum, A 1, 6 B maximum,
19
(2, q )
(d) concave down on (- q , - 1); concave up A - 32, - 294 B inflexion
on ( - 1, q )
(e) A 1, 74 B minimum, A -1, 74 B minimum, (0, 2)
A B maximum maximum, A - 1 , 67 B inflexion, A 13, 67
36 B
4 11
2 (a) 3, 3
(b) A B minimum, (- 3, 16) maximum,
1, 16
3
inflexion 2 3 36
A - 1, 3 B inflexion
32
End of chapter exercises
dy dy
1 Find where y is given by 6 Find given
dx dx
(a) x3e2x (b) - 3 sin 2x cos 5x (a) x(t) = t2 + 3, y(t) = 2t2 + t + 1
(c) (x2 + 1)e-x (b) x(t) = t 2, y(t) = t3 + k, k constant
(d) sin x sin 2x sin 3x (e) x tan 3x 1
(c) x(t) = , y(t) = sin t
t
2 Find y¿ where y is given by (d) x(t) = 2et, y(t) = tet
x2 + 1 cos 2t r3 (e) x(t) = 2t, y(t) = 22t + 1
(a) (b) (c) 2r
2x + 3 sin 3t 3e dy
v + sin v 1x 7 Find given
(d) (e) dx
1 + ev x + 1
(a) x2 + x3 + y2 - y3 = 1
dy
3 Find when x = 1 where y is defined by (b) 2x2 - y2 + 3xy - 7x - 10y = 0
dx
x cos x x2 + 1 sin x cos 2x y
(a) (b) (c) (c) xy2 + = ex
sin x xex x2 x
1 4 tan x (d) ln(xy) - 2x = 2y
(d) (e) x (e) x sin y + y2 cos 2x = y
x sin x e sin x
4 Find the derivative of the following functions: dy
8 Find given ln(x + y) = k, k constant.
(a) y = e2xx3 sin 3x cos 2x dx
(b) y = (x + sin x)7 9 Find y¿ given (x2 - y3)6 = exy.
(c) H = ln(t2 + 3t - 9)
1 d2y
(d) V(r) = 10 Find given y = e(x ).
2
ln r dx 2
(e) M(b) = ln b + ln(b + 1)
11 Find the equation of the tangent to
5 Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate y = 3x3 - x where x = 1.
y = xx
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 11/28/18 7:44 PM Page 824
16 824 Block 7 Maximum and minimum values of a function
12 Find the equation of the normal to y = ln x (c) y = ex - 100x - 100
where x = 2. (d) y = (x - 1)4
13 Find the equation of the tangent to y = xex x2 x2
(e) y = ln x -
where x = 1. 2 4
1
14 Find the equation of the tangent to y = 2 16 Locate all maximum points, minimum points
where x = - 1. x and points of inflexion of
2x3 5x2
15 State the range of values of x for which each y = - + 1
3 2
of the following functions is (i) concave up
(ii) concave down: 17 Locate all maximum points, minimum points
and points of inflexion of
x3 5x2
(a) y = - + 3x - 9
6 2 y = x2ex
x2 x4
(b) y = 3 + x + -
2 12
Solutions to exercises
2t + 3
1 (a) x2e2x(3 + 2x) (c) 2
(b) 15 sin 2x sin 5x - 6 cos 2x cos 5x t + 3t - 9
(c) - e-x(x - 1)2 1 1 1
(d) cos x sin 2x sin 3x + 2 sin x cos 2x sin 3x + (d) - (e) +
r (ln r)2 b b + 1
3 sin x sin 2x cos 3x
(e) tan 3x + 3x sec 2 3x 5 xx(ln x + 1)
2x2 + 6x - 2 4t + 1 3t
2 (a) 6 (a) (b) (c) -t2 cos t
(2x + 3) 2 2t 2
(2 sin 2t sin 3t + 3 cos 2t cos 3t) 1 + t t
(b) - (d) (e) 2
2 A 2t + 1
sin2 3t
r2 3 - 2r 2x + 3x2
a b
4x + 3y - 7
(c) 7 (a) 2
(b)
3 e2r 3y - 2y 2y - 3x + 10
v v
(1 + e )(1 + cos v) - (v + sin v)e x2ex + y - x2y2 y(2x - 2)
(d) v 2 (c) (d)
(1 + e ) 2
x(2x y + 1) x(2 - 2 y)
a b
1 1 - x
(e) 2y2 sin 2x - sin y
2(x + 1)2 2x (e)
x cos y + 2y cos 2x - 1
3 (a) - 0.7702 (b) - 0.7358 (c) -1.0548
(d) - 1.9515 (e) 1.5181 8 -1
4 (a) x2e2x (2x sin 3x cos 2x + 3 sin 3x cos 2x + 12x(x2 - y3)5 - yexy
9
3x cos 3x cos 2x - 2x sin 3x sin 2x) 18y2(x2 - y3)5 + xexy
(b) 7(x + sin x)6(1 + cos x)
M16_CROF5939_04_SE_C16.QXD 9/26/18 10:51 AM Page 825
End of chapter exercises 825 16
10
2
2e(x )(1 + 2x2) (b) concave up on -1 6 x 6 1; concave
down on x 7 1 and x 6 -1
11 y = 8x - 6 (c) concave up for all values of x
(d) concave up for all values of x except x = 1
12 y = -2x + 4.6931 (e) concave up on x 7 e-1; concave down on
x 6 e-1
A 52, - 101
24 B minimum;
13 y = e(2x - 1)
16 (0, 1) maximum;
A 54, - 77
48 B point of inflexion
14 y = 2x + 3
15 (a) concave up on x 7 5; concave down on
17 (0, 0) minimum; (-2, 0.5413) maximum;
x 6 5
(-3.4142, 0.3835) and (-0.5858, 0.1910)
points of inflexion
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 826
Chapter 17
Integration
When a function, f (x), is known, we can differentiate it to obtain the
df
derivative, . The reverse process is to obtain f (x) from knowledge of
dx
its derivative. This process is called integration.
However, integration is much more than simply differentiation in
reverse. It can be applied to finding areas bounded by curves. Such
areas can have various physical interpretations. For example, the area
underneath a graph of the velocity of an object against time represents
the distance travelled by the object. The area under a graph of current
flow into a capacitor against time represents the total charge stored by
the capacitor. Clearly, there are many applications where it is required
to calculate quantities like these, and this is why a knowledge of
integration is important for the engineer.
It is also necessary to regard integration as a process of adding up, or
summation. Often a physical quantity can be obtained by summing
lots of small contributions or elements. For example, the position of
the centre of mass of a solid body can be found by adding the
contributions from all the small parts of which the body is composed.
You will see how this is done using integration in Chapter 18.
In this chapter we lay the foundations, and explain a wide variety of
techniques that are necessary to integrate the range of functions
commonly met in engineering applications.
Modern software packages enable the easy integration of complicated
functions. This is illustrated in Block 4.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 827
Chapter 17 contents
Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
Block 2 Definite integrals
Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
Block 5 Integration by parts
Block 6 Integration by substitution
Block 7 Integration using partial fractions
Block 8 Integration of trigonometrical functions
End of chapter exercises
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 828
Integration as differentiation in reverse
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
The topic of integration can be approached in several different ways. Perhaps the
simplest way of introducing it is to think of it as differentiation in reverse. In some
applications we shall know the derivative of a function, but not the function from
which it was derived. This is why we need knowledge of integration.
In this block we give a look-up table that you can use to integrate a wide range of
functions, and we provide lots of opportunities for you to practise using it. Then
rules are given that allow you to integrate a wider range of functions. In particular
you will be able to integrate sums, differences and constant multiples of functions.
1.2 Differentiation in reverse
dy
Suppose we differentiate the function y = x2. We obtain = 2x. Integration
dx
2
reverses this process, and we say that the integral of 2x is x . Pictorially we can regard
this as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Differentiate
Integration can be
thought of as
x2 2x
differentiation in
reverse.
Integrate
The situation is just a little more complicated because there are lots of functions
we can differentiate to give 2x. Here are some of them:
x 2 + 4, x 2 - 15, x 2 + 0.5
Example 1.1
Write down some more functions that have derivative 2x.
Solution
e.g. x2 - 7, x2 + 0.1
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 829
1.2 Differentiation in reverse 829 17
All these functions have the same derivative, 2x, because when we differentiate the
constant term we obtain zero. Consequently, when we reverse the process, we have
no idea what the original constant term might have been. Because of this we include in
our answer an unknown constant, c say, called the constant of integration. We state
that the integral of 2x is x2 + c. There is nothing special about the letter c. We might
use K for example, but we avoid using letters from the end of the alphabet like x, y
and z, which are used for variables.
The symbol for integration is 1 , known as an integral sign. Formally we write
冕2x dx ⫽ x2 ⫹ c
integral
}
constant of integration
sign this term is
called the there must always be a
integrand term of the form dx
Note that along with the integral sign there is a term of the form dx, which must
always be written, and which indicates the name of the variable involved, in this case
x. The term dx must not be interpreted as a product of d and x. Rather it is a notation
and as such you should think of dx as a single quantity.
We say that 2x is integrated with respect to x to give x2 + c. The function being
integrated is called the integrand. Technically, integrals of this sort are called
indefinite integrals, to distinguish them from definite integrals, which are dealt with
subsequently. When you find an indefinite integral your answer should always con-
tain a constant of integration.
Exercises
1 (a) Write down the derivatives of each of 3 Explain why, when finding indefinite integrals,
3 3 3 a constant of integration is needed.
x , x + 17, x - 21
(b) Deduce that 1 3x 2 dx = x 3 + c.
2 Explain what is meant by the term
‘integrand’.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) All have derivative 3x 2.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 830
17 830 Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
1.3 A table of integrals
We could use a table of derivatives to find integrals, but the more common ones are
usually found in a ‘table of integrals’ such as that shown in Table 1.1. You could
check many of the entries in this table using your knowledge of differentiation. Try
checking some of these for yourself.
When dealing with the trigonometrical functions the variable x must always be
measured in radians and not degrees. Note that the fourth entry for integrating a
power of x is valid whether n is positive, negative or fractional, but not when n = -1.
If n = -1 use the fifth entry in the table. Various other conditions are detailed in the
third column.
Example 1.2
(a) Use the table of integrals to find 1 x7 dx.
(b) Check the result by differentiating the answer.
Solution
(a) From the table note that
xn + 1
冮 xn dx =
n + 1
+ c
In words, this states that to integrate a power of x, increase the power by one,
and divide the result by the new power. You will find it helpful to remember
this rule. With n = 7 we find
x8
冮
x7 dx =
8
+ c
(b) The answer can be differentiated as a check.
d x8
a + cb =
1 d 8
x
dx 8 8 dx
1
= * 8x7
8
= x7
The answer has been verified.
Example 1.3
Find 1 cos 5x dx.
Solution
From the table note that
冮cos kx dx =
sin kx
+ c
k
With k = 5 we find
冮 cos 5x dx =
sin 5x
+ c
5
Check this result for yourself by differentiating it.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 831
1.3 A table of integrals 831 17
Table 1.1
Table of integrals. Function f(x) Indefinite integral 1 f(x) dx
constant, k kx + c
x2
x + c
2
x3
x2 + c
3
x n+1
xn + c n Z -1
n + 1
1
x -1 = ln|x| + c
x
sin x -cos x + c
cos x sin x + c
-cos kx
sin kx + c
k
sin k x
cos kx + c
k
1
tan kx ln ƒ sec kx ƒ + c
k
1
sec kx ln ƒ sec kx + tan kx ƒ + c
k
ex ex + c
-x
e -e-x + c
ekx
ekx + c
k
1
cosh kx sinh kx + c
k
1
sinh kx cosh kx + c
k
1 1 x
tan-1 + c a 7 0
x + a2
2 a a
1 1 x - a
ln + c |x| 7 a 7 0
x 2 - a2 2a x + a
1 1 a + x
ln + c |x| 6 a
a2 - x2 2a a - x
sinh-1 a b + c
1 x
a 7 0
2x2 + a2 a
cosh-1 a b + c
1 x
x Ú a 7 0
2x2 - a2 a
1
ln(x + 2x2 + k) + c
2x2 + k
sin-1 a b + c
1 x
-a … x … a
2a - x 2 2 a
In the table the independent variable is always given as x. However, with a little
imagination you will be able to use it when other independent variables are
involved.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 832
17 832 Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
Example 1.4
Find 1 cos 5t dt.
Solution
We integrated cos 5x in the previous example. Now the independent variable is t, so
simply use the table and read every x as a t. With k = 5 we find
冮 cos 5t dt =
sin 5t
+ c
5
It follows immediately that, for example,
冮 cos 5v dv = 冮 cos 5u du =
sin 5v sin 5u
+ c, + c
5 5
and so on.
Example 1.5
冮
x
Find sin dx.
2
Solution
x
Note that is equivalent to 21 x. Use the table of integrals with k = 12 .
2
x
cos
冮
x 2 x
sin dx = = - 1
+ c = -2 cos + c
2 2
2
Example 1.6
冮
2pt
Find sin dt where T is a constant.
T
Solution
With respect to which variable is the integration being carried out?
t
2p
The quantity is a constant. Perform the integration:
T
冮 sin
2pt
dt =
T
2pt
cos
T T 2pt
=- +c= - cos +c
2p 2p T
T
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 833
1.3 A table of integrals 833 17
Example 1.7
Find 1 12 dx.
Solution
In this example we are integrating a constant, 12. Using the table we find
冮 12 dx = 12x + c
Note that 1 12 dt would be 12t + c and so on. This shows the importance of includ-
ing the term dx or dt in the integral.
Example 1.8
Find 1 dx.
Solution
This example looks a little different from the earlier ones. But if we think of dx as
1 dx then we are integrating a constant, 1. Using the table we find
冮 1 dx = 1x + c or simply x + c
Note that 1 dt would be t + c.
Example 1.9
Find 1 e-3x dx.
Solution
Use the appropriate entry in the table with k = -3:
冮
e-3x 1
e-3x dx = + c = - e-3x + c
-3 3
Example 1.10
Look for an entry in the table of integrals that will enable you to calculate
冮 29 - t
1
dt
2
Solution
Write down the appropriate entry.
冮 2a dx = sin - 1 a b + c
1 x
2
- x 2 a
Select an appropriate value for the constant a and hence find the integral.
冮 29 - t dt = sin-1 a b + c
1 t
Take a = 3, so that a2 = 9.
2 3
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 834
17 834 Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
Exercises
1 Integrate each of the following functions with (e) 1 sinh 0.3x dx
respect to x: 1 (f) 1 cos 0.01px dx
(a) x9 (b) x1>2 (c) x-3 (d) 4 (e) 4 (f) 1x
x (g) 1 cosh 0.01t dt
x 7>2
(g) e4x (h) cos (i) cos px (h) 1 x dx
2
冮
1
2 Find (i) 3
dx
2x
2
(a) 1 t dt (b) 1 6 dt (c) 1 sin 3t dt (j) 1 x1>4 dx
冮 cos 冮
2pt dz (k) 1 2t dt
5
(d) 1 e7t dt (e) dt (f)
T z
(l) 1 e-0.7t dt
3 Find 1 et dt.
冮 64 - x dx
1
(m) 2
4 Find
冮x 冮 2t (n) 冮
1 1 1
(a) 2
dx (b) dt dx
+ 25 2
- 4 264 - x 2
(o) 冮
1
5 Find dx
(a) 1 sin v dv 2x + 8 2
(b) 1 cos 3t dt 6 Find
(c) 1 tan 13 x dx
冮 cos 冮 sin
1 npt npt
(a) 5 dt (b) 15 dt
x 5 5
(d) 1 tan dx
3
Solutions to exercises
x10 2x3>2 1 1
1 (a) + c (b) + c (c) - x-2 + c 5 (a) - cos v + c (b) sin 3t + c
10 3 2 3
1 x x
(d) - x-3 + c (e) 4x + c (f) same as (b) (c) 3 ln ƒ sec ƒ + c (d) 3 ln ƒ sec ƒ + c
3 3 3
10 100
e4x x sin px (e) cosh 0.3x + c (f) sin 0.01px + c
(g) + c (h) 2 sin + c (i) + c 3 p
4 2 p
2
t3 cos 3t (g) 100 sinh 0.01t + c (h) x9>2 + c
2 (a) + c (b) 6t + c (c) - + c 9
3 3 3 4 5
(i) x2>3 + c (j) x5>4 + c (k) t6>5 + c
e7t T 2pt 2 5 6
(d) + c (e) sin + c (f) ln ƒ z ƒ + c
7 2p T 1 8 + x
(l) -1.429e-0.7t + c (m) ln + c
3 et + c 16 8 - x
x
(n) sin-1 + c (o) ln(x + 2 x2 + 8) + c
tan-1 a b + c (b) cosh-1 a b + c
1 x t 8
4 (a)
5 5 2 1 npt 1 npt
6 (a) sin + c (b) - cos + c
np 5 np 5
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 835
1.4 Some rules of integration 835 17
1.4 Some rules of integration
To enable us to find integrals of a wider range of functions than those normally given
in a table of integrals we can make use of the following rules.
The integral of k f (x) where k is a constant
A constant factor in an integral can be moved outside the integral sign as follows:
Key point The integral of a constant multiple of a function
冮 k f (x) dx = k 冮 f (x) dx
Example 1.11
Find 1 11x2 dx.
Solution
冮 11x dx = 11 冮 x dx
2 2
x3
= 11 a + cb
3
11x3
= + K
3
where K is a constant.
Example 1.12
Find 1 -5 cos x dx.
Solution
冮 -5 cos x dx = -5 冮 cos x dx
= -5(sin x + c)
= -5 sin x + K
where K is a constant.
Example 1.13
冮
14
Find ds.
1 + s2
Solution
Use the result in the previous Key point to extract the constant factor 14. Then use
the table to complete the solution.
冮 1 + s ds = 冮 1 + s ds = 14 tan
14 1 -1
2
14 2
s + c
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 836
17 836 Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
Example 1.14
Find 1 2pmr3 dr.
Solution
In this example, integration is with respect to which variable?
r
The 2, p and m are all constant factors and can be written in front of the integral sign.
Thus
冮 2pmr dr = 2pm 冮 r dr
3 3
r4
= 2pm a b + c
4
pmr4
= + c
2
The integral of f (x) ; g(x)
When we wish to integrate the sum or difference of two functions, we integrate each
term separately as follows:
Key point The integral of a sum or difference of two functions
冮 [ f (x) ; g(x)] dx = 冮 f (x) dx ; 冮 g(x) dx
Example 1.15
Find 1 (x3 + sin x) dx.
Solution
冮 (x 3
+ sin x) dx = 冮 x dx + 冮 sin x dx
3
x4
- cos x + c
=
4
Note that only a single constant of integration is needed.
Example 1.16
Find 1 3t4 + 1t dt.
Solution
You will need to use both of the rules to deal with this integral.
3t5 2t3>2
+ + c
5 3
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/29/18 7:30 AM Page 837
1.4 Some rules of integration 837 17
Example 1.17
The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, sinh x and cosh x, are defined as follows:
ex - e-x ex + e-x
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2
Note that they are simply combinations of the exponential functions ex and e-x. Find
1 sinh x dx and 1 cosh x dx.
Solution
ex - e-x
冮 sinh x dx = 冮 a
2
b dx
1 x
= = (e + e-x) + c = cosh x + c
2
ex + e-x
冮 cosh x dx = 冮 a 2
b dx
= = sinh x + c
We would normally simply use Table 1.1 to integrate hyperbolic functions.
Example 1.18 Structural Engineering – Bending moment in a beam
In Example 8.4 in Chapter 6 we considered a simply supported beam of length L car-
rying a uniform load w per unit length, and introduced the bending moment, M,
which is a measure of the internal stress caused when the beam is loaded. M varies
with position x along the beam. It can be shown that the bending moment, M, is
dM
related to the shear force, V , by the equation = V. In Example 7.9 on page 182 we
dx
w
have already seen that V = (L - 2x) and hence
2
dM w
= (L - 2x)
dx 2
from which
冮 2 (L - 2x) dx
w
M (x) =
Evaluate the integral to find an expression for the bending moment.
Solution
Here w is a constant. Performing the integration we find
冮 2 (L - 2x) dx
w
M (x) =
冮
w
= (L - 2x) dx
2
w
= (Lx - x2) + c (where c is a constan
2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 838
17 838 Block 1 Integration as differentiation in reverse
For a simply supported beam it can be shown that M(0) ⫽ 0 and consequently c ⫽ 0.
Therefore the bending moment at any point is given by
w
M(x) = (Lx - x2)
2
Further rules for finding more complicated integrals are dealt with in subsequent
blocks. However, it is important that you are aware at this stage that the integral of a
product of two functions is not the product of two separate integrals:
冮 f 1x2 * g1x2 dx Z 冮 f 1x2 dx * 冮 g1x2 dx
You will learn how to integrate products in Block 5 on integration by parts.
Exercises
冮x
1 Find 1 2x - ex dx. 8
7 Find 2
dx.
+ 16
2x
2 Find 1 3e dx.
8 Find 1 3 cos npx dx.
冮
x + cos 2x
3 Find dx. 9 Find 1 0.5 sin npx dx.
3
冮 2 sin
4 Find 1 7x-2 dx. 1 2pt
10 Find dt.
T
5 Find 1 (x + 3)2 dx (be careful!).
冮
sin x + cos x
11 Find dx.
6 Find 1 3 tan 2x + 2 sin 3x dx. 2
Solutions to exercises
2 tan-1 a b + c
1 x2 - ex + c x
7
4
3e2x
2 + c 3
2 8 sin npx + c
np
x2 sin 2x
3 + + c 0.5
6 6 9 - cos npx + c
np
7
4 - + c T 2pt
x 10 - cos + c
4p T
x3
5 + 3x2 + 9x + c -cos x + sin x
3 11 + c
2
3 2
6 ln ƒ sec 2x ƒ - cos 3x + c
2 3
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 839
1.4 Some rules of integration 839 17
End of block exercises
冮 24 + t
1 Integrate each of the following functions with 1
8 Find dt.
respect to x: 2
(a) x2 (b) x17 (c) 6 (d) sin 4x (e) e8x
冮 225 - x
1
2 Integrate each of the following functions with 9 Find dx.
2
respect to t:
1
冮 tan 5 dx.
(a) t3 (b) 7 (c) e-3t (d) e-t (e) x
t 10 Find
3 Find the following integrals:
(a) 1 3t dt (b) 1 3t2 dt (c) 1 2t4 dt 11 Find 1 sin 100pt + cos 100pt dt.
(d) 1 t + t2 dt
12 Find 1 cos(m + n)t dt.
4 Find the following integrals:
(a) 1 x2 + 4x + 8 dx (b) 1 2x2 - 4x + 7 dx 13 Find 1 mbx2 dx.
(c) 1 6x2 - x + 2 dx
冮 冮 4 cos 2 du,
1 u
14 Find (a) u du, (b)
2
冮 1t + t
1
5 Find 2
dt. (c) 1 12 du.
6 Find 1 e-st dt where s is a number.
冮s
1
7 Find 2
ds.
+ 0.5
Solutions to exercises
x3 x18 e-st
1 (a) + c (b) + c (c) 6x + c 6 - + c
3 18 s
cos 4x e8x 7 12 tan - 1(s12) + c
(d) - + c (e) + c
4 8
sinh-1 a b + c
t
t4 e-3t 8
2 (a) + c (b) 7t + c (c) - + c 2
4 3
sin-1 a b + c
x
(d) -e-t + c (e) ln | t | + c 9
5
3t2 x
3 (a) + c (b) t3 + c 10 5 ln ƒ sec ƒ + c
2 5
2t5 t2 t3 cos 100pt sin 100pt
(c) + c (d) + + c 11 - + + c
5 2 3 100p 100p
x3 sin(m + n)t
4 (a) + 2x2 + 8x + c 12 + c
3 (m + n)
2x3 mbx3
(b) - 2x2 + 7x + c 13 + c
3 3
x2 u2 u
(c) 2x3 - + 2x + c 14 (a) + c (b) 8 sin + c (c) 22u + c
2 4 2
2t3>2 1
5 - + c
3 t
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 840
Definite integrals
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
When integration was introduced as the reverse of differentiation in Block 1,
the integrals you dealt with were indefinite integrals. The result of finding an
indefinite integral is usually a function plus a constant of integration. In this block
we introduce definite integrals, so called because the result will be a definite
answer, usually a number, with no constant of integration. Definite integrals
have many applications, for example in finding areas bounded by curves, and
finding volumes of solids. Applications such as these will be described in later
blocks.
2.2 Evaluating definite integrals
Definite integrals can be recognised by numbers written to the upper and lower
right of the integral sign. The quantity
x=b
冮x=a
f 1x2 dx
is called the definite integral of f(x) from a to b. The numbers a and b are known as
the lower and upper limits of the integral. This integral is commonly written as
b
冮 a
f 1x2 dx
When you evaluate a definite integral the result will usually be a number. To see how
to evaluate a definite integral consider the following example.
Example 2.1
4
Find 11 x2 dx.
Solution
First of all the integration of x2 is performed in the normal way. However, to show we
are dealing with a definite integral, the result is usually enclosed in square brackets
and the limits of integration are written on the right bracket:
4
x3 x3 4
冮 x2 dx =
3
+ c so that 冮1
x2 dx = c
3
+ cd
1
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 841
2.2 Evaluating definite integrals 841 17
You should always use this convention. Then, the quantity in the square brackets
is evaluated, first by letting x equal the value at the upper limit, then by letting x
equal the value at the lower limit, and the difference between the resulting values is
found:
x3 4
c + c d = (evaluate when x equals upper limit)
3 1
- (evaluate when x equals lower limit)
43 13
= a + cb - a + cb
3 3
64 1
= -
3 3
63
=
3
= 21
Note that the constants, c, cancel out. This will always happen, and so in future
we can ignore them when we are evaluating definite integrals. So, the value of the
4
definite integral 11 x2 dx is 21.
Example 2.2
p>2
Find 10 cos x dx.
Solution
Since 1 cos x dx = sin x + c then
p>2
冮
0
cos x dx = 3sin x4p>2
0
= sin a b - sin 0
p
2
= 1 - 0
= 1
Always remember that if you use a calculator to evaluate any trigonometrical func-
tions, you must work in radian mode.
Example 2.3
2
Find 11 (x2 + 1) dx.
Solution
First perform the integration:
x3 2
c + xd
3 1
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 842
17 842 Block 2 Definite integrals
Now insert the limits of integration, the upper limit first, and hence find the value of
the integral.
a + 2b - a + 1b =
8 1 10
or 3.333 (3 d.p.)
3 3 3
Example 2.4
This exercise is very similar to the previous one. Note that the limits of integration
have been interchanged.
1
Find 12 (x2 + 1) dx.
Solution
10
-
3
Note from these two exercises that interchanging the limits of integration changes
the sign of the answer.
Key point If you interchange the limits, you must introduce a minus sign.
b a
冮
a
f 1x2 dx = - 冮
b
f 1x2 dx
Example 2.5 The average value of a function
If a function f(t) is defined on the interval a … t … b then the average value of the
function over the interval is defined to be
1a f 1t2 dt
b
average value =
b - a
The average value of a function is found by evaluating a definite integral.
Find the average value of the function f (t) = t2 across the interval 2 … t … 5.
Solution
Apply the formula for finding the average value:
5 2
12 t dt
average value =
5 - 2
Complete the integration to find this average value.
1 t3 5
c d = 13
3 3 2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 9:18 AM Page 843
2.2 Evaluating definite integrals 843 17
Example 2.6 Civil Engineering – The force on the wall of a tank
Civil engineers are frequently faced with problems involving the pressure and forces
on the walls of a tank containing water. Such problems will arise during the design
and construction of dams and other underwater structures where it is essential that
the structure has sufficient strength to withstand such forces.
Consider the tank of water in Figure 2.1 in the shape of a cuboid with dimensions
as shown.
Figure 2.1 z
Integration can be
used to find the
force on the wall
of a tank or
reservoir.
D y
W
L
x
The pressure, p, at a depth h was shown by Pascal in the seventeenth century to be
equivalent to rgh where r is the density of the water and g is the constant accelera-
tion due to gravity, nominally 9.8 m s–2. With a knowledge of hydrostatics it can be
shown that the force exerted on the wall of the tank (hatched in Figure 2.1) is given
by the definite integral
D
冮0
rgW (D - z)dz
(a) Evaluate this integral.
(b) Show that the force on the wall is the same as the product of the average pressure
and the area of the wall.
Solution
(a)
D D
冮0
rgW (D - z) dz = rgW 冮
0
(D - z) dz since r, g, W are constants
2
z D
= rgW c Dz - d
2 0
2
= rgW aD2 - b
D
2
2
rgW D
=
2
(b) Given that the pressure at depth h is rgh, the pressure at the surface is zero and
the pressure at the base of the tank is rgD. Since p varies linearly between
these two values, the average pressure is 12 rgD. The area of the wall is DW. The
rgW D2
force on the wall has been shown in part (a) to be which can be written
1 2
2 rgD ⫻ DW as required.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/29/18 7:33 AM Page 844
17 844 Block 2 Definite integrals
Exercises
4
1 Explain why a constant of integration is not 9 Evaluate 12 x3 dx. Show that
needed when evaluating definite integrals. 4 2
3 3
12 x dx = - 14 x dx.
2 Explain what happens to the value of a definite
integral when the upper and lower limits are b b
10 Show that 1a sin x dx = 1a sin t dt.
interchanged.
k
3 Evaluate 11 Find 10 2(kv3 - v4) dv.
3
冮 x dx
1 1
(a) 10 x2 dx (b) 0.001
2
2 12 Find 10 100 dt.
2
4 Evaluate 11 ex dx. 0.01
13 Find 100 10 sin (100 npt) dt.
1
5 Evaluate 1-1 (1 + t2) dt.
14 Find the average value of the function
f(t) = sin t across the interval 0 … t … p2 .
p>3
6 Find 10 cos 2x dx.
1
冮
1
p 15 Find dt.
7 Find 10 sin x dx. 0 29 - 4t2
3 a
8 Find 11 e2t dt. 16 Find 10 2pmr3 dr.
Solutions to exercises
3 (a) 13 (b) 16 k5
11
10
4 e2 - e1 = 4.671
12 0.1
5 2.667 1
13 - (cos np - 1)
23 np
6 = 0.4330
4 2
14
7 2 p
8 198 15 0.365
mpa4
9 60 16
2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 845
2.3 Some integrals with infinite limits of integration 845 17
2.3 Some integrals with infinite limits of integration
On occasions, and notably when dealing with Laplace and Fourier transforms, you
will come across integrals in which one of the limits is infinite. We avoid a rigorous
treatment of such cases here and instead give some commonly occurring examples.
Example 2.7
q
Find 10 e-x dx.
Solution
The integral is found in the normal way:
e-x dx = C -e-x D 0
q
冮
q
There is no difficulty in evaluating the square bracket at the lower limit. We obtain
simply -e-0 = -1. At the upper limit we must examine the behaviour of -e-x as x
gets infinitely large. This is where it is important that you are familiar with the graph
of the exponential function. If you refer to the graph you will recognise that as x
tends to infinity e-x tends to zero. Consequently the contribution to the integral from
the upper limit is zero. So
e-x dx = C -e-x D 0
q
冮
q
= 102 - 1-e-02
= 1
q
The value of 10 e-x dx is 1.
Another way of achieving this result is as follows.
We change the infinite limit to a finite limit, b, say, and then examine the behaviour
of the integral as b tends to infinity, written
q b
冮 0
e-x dx = lim
b: q 冮 0
e-x dx
So
e-x dx = C -e-x D 0
b
冮
b
= 1-e-b2 - 1-e-02
= -e-b + 1
Then as b tends to infinity -e-b tends to zero, and the resulting integral has the
value 1, as before.
Many integrals having infinite limits cannot be evaluated in a simple way like this,
and many cannot be evaluated at all. Fortunately, most of the integrals you will meet
will exhibit the sort of behaviour seen in the last example.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 846
17 846 Block 2 Definite integrals
Exercises
q q
1 Find 11 e-x dx. 3 Find 12 e-3x dx.
q 0
2 Find 10 e-2x dx. 4 Find 1- q e7x dx.
Solutions to exercises
1 e-1 or 0.368 e-6
3 = 0.0008 (4 d.p.)
3
1 1
2 4
2 7
End of block exercises
0.1
1 Find the value of the following integrals: 6 Find 10 3 tan 2x dx.
2 4
(a) 11 x2 + 1 dx (b) 13 x2 + 1 dx 0
p>4 1 7 Find 1-1 e-2x + e-3x dx.
(c) 10 sin x dx (d) 1-1 cos 2x dx
v
8 Find 1v12 sin v dv.
2 Find the value of the following integrals:
3 p
(a) 10 x2 + 7x - 2 dx
冮
1
9 Find 1 + t dt.
1 p
(b) 1-1 2x2 + x + 3 dx -p
b>2
3 Find 11 et dt.
3 10 Find 1-b>2 mbx2 dx.
2p p>2
冮 冮
b u u
11 Find (a) du, (b) 4 cos du,
冮
1
4 Find dr. 0 2 0 2
r p>2
a (c) 10 22 du.
b b
5 Show that 1a x3 dx = 1a t3 dt.
Solutions to exercises
10
1 (a) 3 (b) 403 (c) 0.293 (d) 0.909 8 cos v1 - cos v2
2 (a) 34.5 (b) 223 9 2
3 17.367 b4 m
10
12
ln b - ln a = ln a b
b
4
a p12
11 (a) p2 (b) 422 (c)
6 0.030 2
7 9.556
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 847
The area bounded by a curve
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
One of the important applications of integration is to find the area bounded by a
curve. Often such an area can have a physical significance, such as the work done by
a motor, or the distance travelled by a vehicle. In this block we explain how such an
area is calculated.
3.2 The area bounded by a curve lying above the x axis
Consider the graph of the function y(x) shown in Figure 3.1. Suppose we are inter-
ested in calculating the area underneath the graph and above the x axis, between the
points where x = a and x = b. When such an area lies entirely above the x axis, as
is clearly the case in Figure 3.1, this area is given by the definite integral
冮 y(x) dx
a
Key point The area under the curve y(x), between x = a and x = b, is given by
b
area = 冮
a
y(x) dx
when the curve lies entirely above the x axis between a and b.
Figure 3.1 y
The area bounded
by a graph is found y(x)
by evaluating an
integral. Area required
x
a b
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 848
17 848 Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
Example 3.1 1
Calculate the area bounded by the curve y = and the x axis, between x = 1 and
x
x = 4.
Solution 1
The graph of y = , for x greater than 0, is shown in Figure 3.2. The area required is
x
shaded. This area lies entirely above the x axis.
Figure 3.2 y
The required area
lies entirely above
the x axis.
2 y 1x
1 Area required
x
O 1 2 3 4 5
The area is calculated as
4
冮
1
area = dx
1 x
C ln ƒ x ƒ D 1
4
=
= ln 4 - ln 1
= ln 4 since ln 1 = 0
= 1.386 (3 d.p.)
Example 3.2
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x and the x axis between x = 0 and
x = p.
Solution
The required area is shown in Figure 3.3. Note that it lies entirely above the x axis.
Calculate the area
sin x dx = C -cos x D 0 = 2
p
冮
p
Example 3.3
Find the area under f (x) = e2x from x = 1 to x = 3 given that the exponential func-
tion e2x is always positive.
Solution
Because e2x is positive, the area will lie above the x axis:
3 2x
e 3
area = 冮1
e2x dx = c d = 198
2 1
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 849
3.2 The area bounded by a curve lying above the x axis 849 17
Figure 3.3 y
The area found in
Example 3.2.
1
y sin x
Area required
x
O π
Example 3.4
Figure 3.4 shows the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x for 0 … x … p2 . The
two graphs intersect at the point where x = p4 . Find the area that is shaded in
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 y
The required area y sin x
is enclosed 1 y cos x
between two
curves. Area required
π
x
2
Solution
To find the shaded area we could calculate the area under the graph of y = sin x for
x between 0 and p4 , and subtract this from the area under the graph of y = cos x
between the same limits. Alternatively the two processes can be combined into one
and we can write
p>4
shaded area = 冮
0
cos x - sin x dx
p>4
= [sin x + cos x]0
= asin + cos b - (sin 0 + cos 0)
p p
4 4
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 850
17 850 Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
1
If you are aware of the standard triangles you will know that sin p4 = cos p4 = ,
12
2
in which case the value of the integral is - 1 = 0.414. Alternatively you can
12
use your calculator to obtain this result directly.
Example 3.5 The area under a velocity–time graph
Figure 3.5 shows a graph of the velocity, v, of an object plotted against time t. It can
be shown that the area under such a graph between t = a and t = b represents the
distance, s, travelled by the object between these times.
Suppose the velocity (m s-1) of an object is given by the formula v(t) = 3t2 + 5.
(a) State the velocity when t = 1 s.
(b) State the velocity when t = 2 s.
(c) Find the distance travelled between these times.
Figure 3.5 v(t)
The area under a
velocity–time
graph represents
distance travelled.
t
a b
Solution
(a) When t = 1, v = 8 m s-1
(b) When t = 2, v = 17 m s - 1
(c) The distance travelled is given by the area under the velocity–time graph.
Write down the required integral:
2
冮
1
(3t2 + 5) dt
Finally, evaluate this integral to obtain the distance travelled.
[t3 + 5t]21 = 18 - 6 = 12 m
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:35 AM Page 851
3.2 The area bounded by a curve lying above the x axis 851 17
We saw in Example 3.5 that the area under a velocity–time graph is interpreted as
‘distance travelled’. Example 3.6 illustrates another interpretation of the area under
a graph.
When the volume of a gas expands then work is done by the gas. If P denotes pres-
sure, V denotes volume and W denotes work done then
b
W = 冮 P dV
a
b
where a is the initial volume and b is the final volume. Note that the integral 1a P dV
is the area under a graph of P against V, as illustrated in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 P
Shaded area is
b
given by 1a P dV
which is the work
done by the gas in
expanding from
volume a to
volume b.
a b V
Example 3.6 Thermodynamics – Work done in expansion of a gas
Suppose that the volume, V, and pressure, P, of a gas are related by the equation
PV1.3 = K
where K is a constant. Calculate the work done in expanding from an initial volume
of 3 cubic units to a final volume of 10 cubic units.
Solution
10
W = 冮
3
P dV
From PV1.3 = K then P = KV -1.3 and so
10
W = 冮3
KV -1.3 dV
V -0.3 10
= Kc d
-0.3 3
310 - 3-0.34
-K -0.3
=
0.3
= 0.727K
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 852
17 852 Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
Exercises
In each question the required area lies entirely above
the horizontal axis, although you should verify this
fact for yourself independently.
1 Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 (a) Find the distance travelled by the object
between x = 0 and x = 2. between t = 0 s and t = 2 s.
(b) Find the average velocity between t = 0
2 Find the area bounded by the curve y = 3t2 and t = 2.
between t = -3 and t = 3.
5 Thermodynamics – Expansion of a gas.
1 The pressure, P, and volume, V, of a gas are
3 Find the area under y = between x = 1 and related by
x2
x = 10. PV 2 = 10
4 Mechanical Engineering – Area under a Calculate the work done when the gas expands
velocity–time graph. The velocity v (m s-1) from V = 5 cubic units to V = 9 cubic units.
of an object varies with time, t, according to
v(t) = t3 + 1
Solutions to exercises
1 4 4 (a) 6 m (b) 3 m s - 1
8
2 54 5 9
3 0.9
3.3 The area bounded by a curve, parts of which lie below the x axis
Figure 3.7 shows a graph of y = -x2 + 1. The shaded area is bounded by the x axis
and the curve, but lies entirely below the x axis.
Figure 3.7 y
Areas lying below
the x axis need y x2 1
special care.
x
2 1 1 2 3
Area required
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 853
3.3 The area bounded by a curve, parts of which lie below the x axis 853 17
2
Let us evaluate the integral 11 -x2 + 1 dx.
2 2
x3
冮1
-x2 + 1 dx = c -
3
+ xd
1
23 13
= a- + 2b - a - + 1b
3 3
7
= - + 1
3
4
= -
3
The evaluation of the area yields a negative quantity. There is no such thing as a neg-
ative area. The area is actually 43 , and the negative sign is an indication that the area
lies below the x axis.
If an area contains parts both above and below the horizontal axis, care must be
taken when trying to calculate this area. It is necessary to determine which parts of the
graph lie above the horizontal axis and which lie below. Separate integrals need to be
calculated for each ‘piece’ of the graph. This idea is illustrated in the next example.
Example 3.7
Find the total area enclosed by the curve y = x3 - 5x2 + 4x and the x axis between
x = 0 and x = 3.
Solution
We need to determine which parts of the graph, if any, lie above and which lie below
the x axis. To do this it is helpful to consider where the graph cuts the x axis. So we
consider the function x3 - 5x2 + 4x and look for its zeros.
x3 - 5x2 + 4x = x(x2 - 5x + 4)
= x(x - 1)(x - 4)
So the graph cuts the x axis when x = 0, x = 1 and x = 4. Also, when x is large and
positive, y is large and positive since the term involving x3 dominates. When x is large
and negative, y is large and negative for the same reason. With this information we
can sketch a graph showing the required area. If you have access to a graphics calcu-
lator or computer package this is a trivial matter. The graph is shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8
y
This area must be
calculated in two y x3 5x2 4x
parts.
x
1 2 3 4 5
Area required
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 854
17 854 Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
From the graph we see that the required area lies partly above the x axis (when
0 … x … 1) and partly below (when 1 … x … 3). So we evaluate the integral in two
parts.
Firstly,
1 1
x4 5x3 4x2
冮0
x3 - 5x2 + 4x dx = c
4
-
3
+
2 0
d
= a - + 2b - (0)
1 5
4 3
7
=
12
This is the part of the required area that lies above the x axis.
Secondly,
3 3
x4 5x3 4x2
冮1
x3 - 5x2 + 4x dx = c
4
-
3
+
2 1
d
= a + 18b - a - + 2b
81 135 1 5
-
4 3 4 3
81 7
= - -
12 12
88
= -
12
22
= -
3
This represents the part of the required area that lies below the x axis. The actual area
is 22
3.
Combining the results of the two separate calculations we can find the total area
bounded by the curve:
7 22
area = +
12 3
95
=
12
Example 3.8
(a) Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x for 0 … x … p.
p
(b) Find the total area bounded by the curve and the x axis between x = and
3p 3
x = .
4
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3.3 The area bounded by a curve, parts of which lie below the x axis 855 17
Solution
Sketch the graph and indicate the required area noting where the graph crosses the
x axis.
y y sin 2x
Area required
π x
Perform the integration in two parts to obtain the required area.
For the area above the x axis evaluate the appropriate integral.
p>2 p>2
冮 sin 2x dx = c - d
cos 2x 1
=
p>3 2 p>3 4
Now evaluate the integral for finding the area below the x axis.
3p>4
冮
1
sin 2x dx = -
p>2 2
Finally write down the total area required.
1 1 3
+ =
4 2 4
Exercises
1 Find the total area enclosed between the x axis 5 Find the area bounded by y = ex, the y axis,
and the curve y = x3 between x = -1 and the x axis and the line x = 2.
x = 1.
6 Find the area enclosed between
2 Find the area under y = cos 2t from t = 0 to y = x(x - 1)(x - 2) and the x axis.
t = 0.5.
7 Find the area enclosed by the graph of
3 Find the area enclosed by y = 4 - x2 and the 1
x axis from (a) x = 0 to x = 2, (b) x = -2 to y = between t = 0 and t = 1.
29 - 4t2
x = 1, (c) x = 1 to x = 3.
4 Calculate the area enclosed by the curve
y = x3 and the line y = x.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 856
17 856 Block 3 The area bounded by a curve
Solutions to exercises
1 0.5 5 e2 - 1
1
2 0.4207 6 2
3 (a) 16
3 (b) 9 (c) 4 7 0.365
4 0.5
End of block exercises
1 Find the area enclosed by y = 4t - t2 and the 3 Find the area enclosed by the curve
t axis between t = 1 and t = 2. y = -x2 + 6x - 5 and the x axis.
2 Find the area enclosed between the curves 4 Find the total area enclosed by the graph of the
y = x2 - 2x and y = 4 - x2. function y = x3 - 4x and the x axis.
Solutions to exercises
1 323 3 10.667
2 9 4 8
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 857
Computational approaches to integration
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Computer software packages are readily available that can integrate. The results that
they produce fall into two categories, symbolic and numerical.
For many indefinite integrals, 1 f (x) dx, it is possible for the computer to obtain a
symbolic answer in terms of common functions such as exponential, trigonometrical
or polynomial functions. Furthermore, the computer can evaluate exactly many defi-
b
nite integrals, 1a f (x) dx, often by leaving an answer in the form of a fraction, or in
surd form, or using common mathematical constants such as p and e. We shall illus-
trate such use of computer software.
For some integrals it is impossible to obtain a symbolic answer. However, there
are techniques for approximating definite integrals. Such techniques are called
numerical methods, and two of these, the trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule, are
explained here. Because such methods require substantial calculation they are very
laborious to perform by hand. So, they are best implemented using a computer. We
shall be content to illustrate the principles involved on simple examples, and then use
software to tackle more substantial problems.
4.2 Use of symbolic algebra packages to find integrals exactly
Computer software designed for tackling mathematical problems invariably has the
facility to integrate. This is certainly true of Matlab and Maple. You should work
through the following examples using the package to which you have access. You
may need to refer to local documentation. Some of the packages may require you to
call, or load, an additional piece of software (e.g. a symbolic toolkit). You will note
from the examples below that the particular commands and syntax required by the
different packages vary, but often only slightly. Most packages provide extensive
on-line help and examples to which you should refer for further details as required.
Example 4.1 Finding indefinite integrals exactly
Find 1 x cos2 x dx.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 858
17 858 Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
Solution
Maple
In Maple the command to perform this integration is
int(x*cos(x)^2,x);
and Maple outputs
x a cos(x) sin(x) + xb + cos(x)2 - x2
1 1 1 1
2 2 4 4
Note that Maple can supply a symbolic answer, but gives no constant of integration – it is
assumed that the user will remember to add this.
Matlab
In Matlab, to perform this calculation it is necessary first to declare that x is a symbol
using the command
syms x
Then the command to integrate x cos2 x is
int(x*cos(x)^2,x)
and Matlab outputs
ans=
x*(1Ⲑ2*cos(x)*sin(x)+1Ⲑ2*x)+1/4*cos(x)^2-1Ⲑ4*x^2
This is equivalent to the answer produced by Maple although it is not set out in as
friendly a form.
Example 4.2 Finding definite integrals exactly
2
冮
1
Find dt.
1 t
Solution
Maple
In Maple the command to perform this integration is
int(1Ⲑt,t=1..2);
and Maple outputs
ln(2)
Note that, when possible, the output from the symbolic algebra package is an exact
result, that is ln 2, as opposed to a decimal approximation.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 859
4.2 Use of symbolic algebra packages to find integrals exactly 859 17
Matlab
In Matlab, the symbol t must be declared before integrating:
syms t
int(1/t,1,2)
and Matlab outputs
ans = log(2)
Again, this answer is equivalent to that produced by Maple although given in a different
form.
Example 4.3
3
Find 10 1x dx.
Solution
Maple
The command to perform this integration is
int(sqrt(x), x=0..3);
and Maple outputs
2 23
Once again, note the exact result produced by the package, rather than a decimal approxi-
mation. There is the facility in all packages to produce a decimal approximation if this is
required.
Matlab
syms x
int(sqrt(x),0,3)
and the output is
ans = 2*3^(1/2)
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 860
17 860 Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
Computer packages can find indefinite integrals when one or both limits is infinity.
Consider the following example.
Example 4.4 Finding definite integrals with infinite limits of
integration
q 2
Find 1- q e-x dx.
Solution
Maple
The Maple command to evaluate this integral is
int(exp(-x^2),x = -infinity..infinity);
and Maple outputs the exact solution
1p
Matlab
syms x
int(exp(-x^2),-inf,inf)
with output
ans = pi^(1/2)
Although symbolic algebra packages are extremely powerful, there are nevertheless
some integrals that are beyond their scope. In such cases you will either be warned
that an explicit solution could not be found, or the expression you input may be
returned to you unevaluated. For example, try to use a package to find 1 x x dx.
Computer and calculator exercises
Computer algebra packages are sophisticated products. Because they are designed for professionals their
scope extends way beyond an introductory textbook like this one. Some of the computer output may well be
given in terms of functions with which you are not familiar. This is normal, and when necessary you will need
to explore these functions further.
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4.3 The trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule 861 17
Use a symbolic algebra package to find the 1
冮
sin x
following integrals exactly: 4 dx
3 0 x
冮
1
1 dx 1
1x 1-1 e dt where j is the complex number with
-jvt
2 5
2
2
j = -1.
2 1 x sin x dx
1 te
-st
3 dt
Solutions to exercises
1 2 13 - 2 12 4 Si(1). This result may be given in terms of a
function you will probably not be familiar
x a - cos(x) sin(x) + xb
1 1 with, known as the sine integral. See if you can
2 use the computer to evaluate a decimal
2 2
approximation to this as 0.946 (3 d.p.).
1 1
- cos(x)2 - x2 + c
4 4 j(e-jv - e jv) 2 sin v
5 or the alternative form .
v v
-ste-st - e-st
3 + c
s2
4.3 The trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule
We have seen the power of computer packages for performing some definite and
indefinite integrals. We have also seen that not all functions can be integrated,
and so not all integrals can be found exactly. However, techniques do exist for
finding approximations to definite integrals. These techniques are called numeri-
cal methods.
Trapezium rule
b
We have seen in Block 3 that the definite integral 1a f(x) dx can be thought of as
the area lying under the graph of f(x) for a … x … b. This observation leads us to
the following method for approximating the integral. We estimate the area lying
under the graph and use this as an estimate of the integral. In the trapezium rule, the
area under f(x) between x = a and x = b is divided into several vertical strips, and
the area of each strip is estimated by assuming that it has the shape of a trapezium.
Consider Figure 4.1. Suppose that we divide the area under y = f(x) from x = a to
x = b into n strips. We denote the width of each strip by h. Note that since the
b - a
distance from x = a to x = b is b - a, then the width of each strip is .
n
The lengths of the sides of the strips are denoted by y0, y1, . . . , yn.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 862
17 862 Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
Figure 4.1 y y = f(x)
The area under f(x)
is divided into n
strips, each of
width h. The area
of the typical strip
shown is h
h yi yi+1
(y + yi + 1).
2 i y0
yn h
n strips
x=a x=b x
Now the area of the first trapezium of width h, which has sides of heights y0
h h
and y1, is (y0 + y1). Similarly the area of the second strip is (y1 + y2). We
2 2
continue in this way until the areas of all the strips have been found. The area of the
h
final strip is (yn - 1 + yn).
2
Consequently we can estimate the total area as
h h h h
area L (y0 + y1) + (y1 + y2) + (y2 + y3) + . . . + (yn - 1 + yn)
2 2 2 2
which can be simplified to
h
area L (y + 2y1 + 2y2 + . . . + 2yn - 1 + yn)
2 0
Key point b - a
Trapezium rule: with n strips, and h = ,
n
b
冮
h
f (x) dx L (y + 2y1 + 2y2 + . . . + 2yn - 1 + yn)
a 2 0
Example 4.5
2
冮
1
Use the trapezium rule with eight strips to estimate dx. Work throughout to six
1 x
decimal places and quote your final result to four decimal places.
Solution
In this example a = 1, b = 2 and n = 8. We are dividing the area under the graph
1
of y = from x = 1 to x = 2 into eight strips, and so the width of each strip will be
x
2 - 1
h = = 0.125. We must calculate the lengths of the sides of each of the strips,
8
1
y0, y1, . . . , y8. These are simply the respective y values calculated from y = . It is
x
helpful, and conventional, to set these out as in Table 4.1. The table has been laid out
in the way shown because all y values other than the first and last will be multiplied
by 2.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 863
4.3 The trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule 863 17
Table 4.1
x y = 1>x
1 y0 = 1.000000
1.125 y1 = 0.888889
1.25 y2 = 0.800000
1.375 y3 = 0.727273
1.5 y4 = 0.666667
1.625 y5 = 0 .615385
1.75 y6 = 0 .571429
1.875 y7 = 0 .533333
2 y8 = 0.500000
y0 + yn 1.500000
y1 + y2 + . . . + yn - 1 4.802976
Using the data in the table we can apply the trapezium rule formula:
2
冮
1 0.125
dx L (1.5000000 + 2(4.802976)) = 0.694122
1 x 2
So, to four decimal places we estimate the integral to be 0.6941. Compare this with
the exact value ln 2 = 0.6931 (4 d.p.).
Simpson’s rule
Simpson’s rule is a more sophisticated technique, which results in a more accurate
estimate of the definite integral. It can be applied only when there is an even number
of strips.
We state and use Simpson’s rule without deriving it. For specific details refer to a
textbook on numerical methods for engineers.
Key point b - a
Simpson’s rule: with n (even) strips, and h = ,
n
b
冮
h
f (x) dx L (y + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + . . . + 2yn - 2 + 4yn - 1 + yn)
a 3 0
It can be helpful to remember this formula as
冮 f (x) dx L 3 (first + last + 4(odd-numbered terms) + 2(even-numbered terms))
h
a
Example 4.6
2
冮
1
Use Simpson’s rule with eight strips to estimate dx.
1 x
As in the previous example it is helpful to set out the data as in Table 4.2. It has been
laid out in this way because y1, y3, etc., will be multiplied by 4, whereas y2, y4, etc.,
will be multiplied by 2.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 864
17 864 Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
Table 4.2
x y = 1>x
1 y0 = 1.000000
1.125 y1 = 0.888889
1.25 y2 = 0.800000
1.375 y3 = 0.727273
1.5 y4 = 0.666667
1.625 y5 = 0.615385
1.75 y6 = 0.571429
1.875 y7 = 0.533333
2 y8 = 0.500000
first + last, y0 + y8 1.500000
sum of odd terms, y1 + y3 + . . . + y7 2.764880
sum of even terms, y2 + y4 + . . . + y6 2.038096
Solution
Using the data in the table we can apply Simpson’s rule:
冮
1 0.125
dx L (1.500000 + 4(2.764880) + 2(2.038096)) = 0.693155
1 x 3
So, to four decimal places we can estimate the integral to be 0.6932. This compares
well with the exact answer ln 2, which is 0.6931 to 4 d.p.
Computer algebra packages have the facility to carry out numerical integration,
which means that the user can avoid lengthy and tedious arithmetical calculations.
Example 4.7 Using a computer package for numerical integration
4
Use a computer package to evaluate 11 xx dx.
Solution
We have seen previously that no symbolic expression exists for 1 x x dx. However,
computer packages can apply methods such as Simpson’s rule.
Maple
The command to perform the required numerical evaluation is
evalf(int(x^x,x = 1..4));
and Maple outputs the result 113.3356 (4 d.p.).
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 865
4.3 The trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule 865 17
Matlab
We need a command quad, which stands for quadrature, the technical name for numeri-
cal integration.
Q = quad('x.^x',1,4)
and Matlab calculates the value of the integral
ans = 113.3356
Exercises
1 Use the trapezium rule with the number of 2 Use Simpson’s rule with the number of strips
strips specified to approximate the following specified to approximate the following definite
definite integrals: integrals:
1 0.8
(a) 10 tan2 x dx, 4 strips (a) 10 tan2 x d x, 8 strips
1.6 2x 2
(b) 11 21 + x3 d x , 10 strips
冮
e
(b) dx, 3 strips
1 x2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.611069 (6 d.p.) (b) 4.906229 (6 d.p.) 2 (a) 0.229685 (6 d.p.) (b) 2.129862 (6 d.p.)
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Use software to evaluate
0.1
x3 + x
(a) 1 (ln x)2 dx (b) 1 sin3 x d x
1
(c) 10 sin z3 dz (d) 冮0 cos x
dx
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x (ln x)2 - 2x ln x + 2x + c (c) 0.23385 (5 d.p.) (d) 0.00504 (5 d.p.)
1 2
(b) - sin2 x cos x - cos x + c
3 3
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 866
17 866 Block 4 Computational approaches to integration
End of block exercises
1 Use a package to find an exact expression for
the area bounded by y = 5 - x2 and lying
above the x axis.
Solutions to exercises
2025
1
3
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 867
Integration by parts
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
The technique known as integration by parts is used to integrate a product of two
functions, for example
1
冮 e2x sin 3x dx and 冮xe
0
3 - 2x
dx
Note that in the first example the integrand is the product of the functions e2x and
sin 3x, and in the second example the integrand is the product of the functions x3
and e-2x. Note also that we can change the order of the terms in the product if we
wish and write
1
冮 sin 3x e2x dx and 冮e
0
- 2x 3
x dx
It is often possible to find integrals involving products using a method known as
integration by parts – you can think of this as a product rule for integrals. This
technique is described in the block.
5.2 The integration by parts formula
The integration by parts formula states
Key point For indefinite integrals:
冮 ua dx b dx = uv - 冮 va dx b dx
dv du
For definite integrals:
b b
冮 b dx = [uv]ba - 冮 va dx b dx
dv du
ua
a dx a
Study the formula carefully and note the following observations:
• The formula replaces one integral, the one on the left, with a different integral,
that on the right. The intention is that the latter is simpler to evaluate.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 868
17 868 Block 5 Integration by parts
dv
• The integrand on the left-hand side is the product of the terms u and . To apply
dx
the formula to a particular example we must let one function in the product equal u.
du
We must be able to differentiate this function to find . We let the other function in
dx
dv
the product equal . We must be able to integrate this function, to find v.
dx
Consider the following example.
Example 5.1
Find 1 x sin x dx.
Solution
Compare the required integral with the formula for integration by parts: we see that
it makes sense to choose
dv
u = x and = sin x
dx
It follows that
冮 sin x dx = -cos x
du
= 1 and v =
dx
dv
(When integrating to find v there is no need to worry about a constant of
dx
integration. When you become confident with the method, you may like to think
about why this is the case.) Applying the formula we obtain
冮 x sin x dx = uv - 冮 v a dx b dx
du
= x(-cos x ) - 冮 (-cos x) # 1 dx
= -x cos x + 冮 cos x dx
= -x cos x + sin x + c
Example 5.2
Find 1 (5x + 1) cos 2x dx.
Solution
dv du
Let u = 5x + 1 and = cos 2x. Now calculate and v.
dx dx
冮 cos 2x dx =
du sin 2x
= 5 and v =
dx 2
Substitute these results into the formula for integration by parts:
冮
(5x + 1) sin 2x sin 2x
- 5 dx
2 2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 869
5.2 The integration by parts formula 869 17
Finish the problem by finding the final integral:
(5x + 1) sin 2x 5
+ cos 2x + c
2 4
Example 5.3
2
Find 10 xex dx.
Solution
dv du
We let u = x and = ex. Then = 1 and v = ex. Using the formula for integra-
dx dx
tion by parts we obtain
2 2
冮 xe dx =
0
x 2
[xex]0 -
0
冮 e # 1 dx
x
x 2
= 2e2 - [e ]0
= 2e2 - [e - 1]2
= e2 + 1 (or 8.389 to 3 d.p.)
Sometimes it is necessary to apply the formula more than once, as the next example
shows.
Example 5.4
2
Find 10 x2ex dx.
Solution
We let
dv
u = x2 and = ex
dx
Then
du
= 2x and v = ex
dx
Using the formula for integration by parts we find
2 2
冮0
x2ex dx = [x2ex]0 -
2
冮 2xe dx
0
x
2
= 4e2 - 2 冮 xe dx
0
x
The remaining integral must be integrated by parts also, but we have just done this in
the previous example. So
2
冮 x e dx = 4e
0
2 x 2
- 2[e2 + 1]
= 2e2 - 2
= 12.778 (3 d.p.)
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 870
17 870 Block 5 Integration by parts
Example 5.5
p>4
Find 10 (4 - 3x) sin x dx.
Solution
dv du
Take u = 4 - 3x and = sin x. State .
dx dx
du
= -3
dx
State v.
v = -cos x
Now apply the formula.
p>4
冮0
(4 - 3x) sin x dx =
p>4
[(4 - 3x)(-cos x)]p0>4 - 3 冮
0
cos x dx
Perform the final integral and apply the limits:
[(4 - 3x)(-cos x)]p>4
0 - 3[sin x]p>4
0
Evaluate this result:
0.716
Example 5.6
Let I stand for the integral
冮e -x
sin x dx
Calculate this integral.
Solution
In this example you will find that it does not matter which term in the product is dif-
ferentiated and which is integrated. Verify this for yourself later.
dv
Take u = e-x and = sin x.
dx
du
State .
dx
du
= -e-x
dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 871
5.2 The integration by parts formula 871 17
State v.
v = -cos x
Apply the integration by parts formula.
I = 冮e -x
sin x dx =
e-x(-cos x) - 冮 (-cos x)(-e -x
) dx
This simplifies to I = -e-x cos x - 1 e-x cos x dx. This integral must now be
dv
evaluated by parts. Still with u = e-x, and taking = cos x, perform the integration.
dx
I = -e-x cos x - ce-x sin x + 冮e -x
sin x dx d
At this stage it looks as though we have gone round in a circle because the integral
remaining is the same as the one we started with. However, writing this as I we find
I = -e-x cos x - e-x sin x - I
so that
2I = -e-x cos x - e-x sin x
from which
-e-x cos x - e-x sin x
I =
2
We conclude that
-e-x cos x - e-x sin x
I = + c
2
Exercises
In some questions it may be necessary to apply the 4 Find (a) 1 tan-1 x dx, (b) 1 -7x cos 3x dx,
formula more than once. (c) 1 5x2e3x dx, (d) 1 (x + 1)ex dx.
1 Find (a) 1 x sin(2x) dx, (b) 1 te3t dt, 5 Find (a) 1 x cos kx dx, (b) 1 z2 cos kz dz,
(c) 1 x cos x dx. where k is a constant.
2 Find 1 (x + 3) sin x dx. 6 Find 1 te-st dt where s is a constant.
3 By writing ln x as 1 * ln x find 1 ln x dx. 7 Find 1 t2e-st dt where s is a constant.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 872
17 872 Block 5 Integration by parts
8 Evaluate the following definite integrals: 11 Show that
冮e
1 p>2
(a) 10 x cos 2x dx (b) 10 x sin 2x dx ax
cos bx dx
1 2t
(c) 1-1 te dt
eax (a cos bx + b sin bx)
2
= + c
a2 + b2
9 Find 冮 (x + 2) sin x dx.
1
1
10 Find 冮 (x
0
2
- 3x + 1)ex dx.
Solutions to exercises
sin 2x x cos 2x cos kx x sin kx
1 (a) - + c 5 (a) 2
+ + c
4 2 k k
(b) e3t a - b + c
t 1 2z cos kz z2 sin kz 2 sin kz
3 9 (b) + - + c
k2 k k3
(c) cos x + x sin x + c
-e-st(st + 1)
2 -(x + 3) cos x + sin x + c 6 + c
s2
3 x ln x - x + c -e-st(s2t2 + 2st + 2)
7 + c
2 s3
ln(x + 1)
4 (a) x tan-1 x - + c p
2 8 (a) 0.1006 (b) = 0.7854 (c) 1.9488
7 cos 3x 7x sin 3x 4
(b) - - + c
9 3 9 3.3533
5e3x(9x2 - 6x + 2)
(c) + c 10 -0.5634
27
x
(d) xe + c
End of block exercises
1 Find the following integrals: 2 Evaluate the following definite integrals:
1
(a) 1 t sin 4t dt (a) 10 2x2ex dx
(b) 1 te-5t dt 1
(b) 1-1 (x + 5)e5x dx
(c) 1 3xe3x dx p
(c) 10 e-x sin x dx
(d) 1 (2 + 3x)ex dx
(e) 1 (7 - x) sinx dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 873
5.2 The integration by parts formula 873 17
3 Let In stand for the integral 1 sinn x dx, so for integral such as 1 sin4 x dx to one involving
example I4 means 1 sin4 x dx. By writing sinn x sin2 x and then to one involving sin0 x or
as sinn-1x sin x and using integration by parts simply 1. Use the reduction formula to find
show that 6
1 sin x dx.
1 n - 1
In = - sinn - 1 x cos x + In - 2 4 Obtain a reduction formula for 1 cosn x dx.
n n
Such a formula is called a reduction formula.
Used repeatedly it can be used to reduce an
Solutions to exercises
sin 4t t cos 4t
1 (a) - + c 2 (a) 1.437 (b) 172.154 (c) 0.522
16 4
3 I6 = - 16 sin5 x cos x - 5
24 sin3 x cos x
e-5t(5t + 1)
(b) - + c 5 5x
25 - 16 sin x cos x + 16 + c
e3x(3x - 1) 1 n - 1
(c) + c 4 In = cosn - 1 x sin x + In - 2
3 n n
(d) ex(3x - 1) + c
(e) (x - 7) cos x - sin x + c
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 874
Integration by substitution
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
The technique described in this block involves making a substitution in order to sim-
plify an integral or make it more amenable to integration. There are many different
ways in which a substitution can be made. For example, we may let a new variable,
u say, equal a more complicated part of the function we are trying to integrate. The
choice of which substitution to make often relies upon experience: don’t worry if at
first you cannot see an appropriate substitution. This skill develops with practice.
However, it is not simply a matter of changing the variable – care must be taken with
the term dx, as we shall see.
冮
f ¿(x)
Integrals of the form dx can be dealt with in a particularly simple way as
f (x)
we show in Section 6.4. In Section 6.5 we provide a table of suggested substitutions
to be tried in some more difficult cases.
6.2 Making a substitution
The technique of integrating by substitution is illustrated in the following example.
Example 6.1
Find 1 (3x + 5)6 dx.
Solution
First, look at the function we are trying to integrate: (3x + 5)6. It looks quite a com-
plicated function to integrate. Suppose we introduce a new variable, u, such that
u = 3x + 5. Doing this means that the function we must integrate becomes u6.
Would you not agree that this looks a much simpler function to integrate than
(3x + 5)6? There is a slight complication, however. The new function of u must be
integrated with respect to u and not with respect to x. This means that we must take
care of the term dx correctly. It is not simply a matter of changing the dx to du. From
the substitution
u = 3x + 5
note, by differentiation, that
du
= 3
dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 875
6.2 Making a substitution 875 17
It follows that we can write
1
dx = du
3
This is the way in which the dx is changed into du.
The required integral then becomes
冮 (3x + 5) dx = 冮 u
6 6 1
du
3
The factor of 13 , being a constant, means that we can write
冮 (3x + 5) dx = 3 冮 u
6 1 6
du
1 u7
= + c
3 7
u7
= + c
21
To finish off we must rewrite this answer in terms of the original variable x and
replace u by 3x + 5:
(3x + 5)7
冮 (3x + 5)6 dx =
21
+ c
Example 6.2
By making the substitution u = 2x - 7 find 1 cos(2x - 7) dx.
Solution
First differentiate the given substitution.
du
= 2
dx
Hence write down an expression for dx.
1
dx = du
2
Now the integral can be written entirely in terms of the variable u:
冮 cos (2x - 7) dx = 冮 cos u du
1
2
Complete the integration:
1 1
sin u + c = sin (2x - 7) + c
2 2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 9:22 AM Page 876
17 876 Block 6 Integration by substitution
Example 6.3
By means of the substitution u = 1 - x2, find the integral 1 x21 - x2 dx.
Solution
First differentiate u = 1 - x2.
du
= -2x
dx
This implies that x dx = - 12 du, so 21 - x2 = 1u and x dx = - 12 du.
Rewrite the integral in terms of u.
冮 x21 - x d x = 冮 1u du
2 1
-
2
Complete the integration:
1 u3>2 1
- + c = - u3>2 + c
2 3>2 3
Finally rewrite the answer in terms of the original variable, x.
(1 - x2)3>2
- + c
3
Sometimes it may be possible to complete the square to obtain a recognisable
standard form.
Example 6.4
冮
1
Find 2
ds.
s + 6s + 18
Solution
By completing the square in the denominator we can write the integral as
冮 (s + 3)
1
2
ds
+ 9
Referring to the table of integrals, Table 1.1 in Block 1, note that
冮x dx = tan-1 a b + c
1 1 x
2 2 a a
+ a
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 877
6.3 Substitution and definite integrals 877 17
dx
This standard form suggests the substitution x = s + 3, = 1 from which
ds
dx = ds. Write down and complete the resulting integral:
冮x
1
2
dx
+ 32
tan-1 a b + c
1 s + 3
3 3
Exercises
冮 (x + 1) 冮 (2x + 3)
1 Use a substitution to find 1 1
4 Find (a) 2
dx, (b) 3
dx.
(a) 1 (4x + 1)7 dx (b) 1 t2 sin(t3 + 1) dt
(hint: let u = t3 + 1) (c) 1 sin(3x - 1) dx
5 Find 1 cos(1 - x) dx.
(d) 1 e2x - 3 dx (e) 1 x(2x2 + 7)4 dx
(f) 1 sin2 4t cos 4t dt 6 By factorising the denominator and making a
substitution find
2 Find (a) 1 3e-x - 1 dx, (b) 1 4 sin(3x + 7) dx.
冮t
1
2
dt
3 By making the substitution u = 3x, and using - 2t + 1
the laws of logarithms, find 1 3x dx.
Solutions to exercises
(4x + 1)8 cos(t3 + 1) 1
1 (a) + c (b) - + c 3 3x + c
32 3 ln 3
cos(3x - 1) e2x - 3 1 1 # 1
(c) - + c (d) + c 4 (a) - + c (b) - + c
3 2 x + 1 4 (2x + 3)2
(2x2 + 7)5 sin3 4t 5 - sin(1 - x) + c
(e) + c (f) + c
20 12
1
2 (a) -3e-x-1 + c (b) - 43 cos(3x + 7) + c 6 - + c
t - 1
6.3 Substitution and definite integrals
If you are dealing with definite integrals (ones with limits of integration) you must
be particularly careful when you substitute. Consider the following example.
Example 6.5
3
Find 12 t sin(t2) dt by making the substitution u = t2.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 878
17 878 Block 6 Integration by substitution
Solution
du du
Note that if u = t2 then = 2t so that dt = . We find
dt 2t
t=3 t=3
冮 冮
du
t sin(t2) dt = t sin u
t=2 t=2 2t
t=3
冮
1
= sin u du
2 t=2
An important point to note is that the limits of integration are limits on the variable t,
not on u. To emphasise this they have been written explicitly as t = 2 and t = 3.
When we integrate with respect to the variable u, the limits must be written in terms
of u too. From the substitution u = t2, note that
when t = 2, u = 4 and when t = 3, u = 9
so the integral becomes
u=9
冮
1 1 9
sin u du = [-cos u]4
2 u=4 2
1
= (-cos 9 + cos 4)
2
= 0.129
Example 6.6
4
By making the substitution u = t + 1 find 11 t1t + 1 dt.
Solution
State the corresponding limits on u: 2, 5
Make the substitution and obtain an integral in terms of u:
冮 (u - 1)1u du
2
This integration can be performed by removing the brackets and integrating each
term separately. Finish the solution:
c u5>2 - u3>2 d = 14.530
2 2 5
5 3 2
Exercises
1 Use a substitution to find
2 1 3
(a) 11 (2x + 3)7dx (b) 10 3t2et dt
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 879
6.4 Integrals of the form 冮 f (x) dx
f ¿(x)
879 17
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 3.3589 * 105 (b) 1.7183
冮 f (x) dx
f ¿(x)
6.4 Integrals of the form
Example 6.7
(3x2 + 1)
Find 冮
x3 + x + 2
dx.
Solution
Let us consider what happens when we make the substitution z = x3 + x + 2. Note
that
dz
= 3x2 + 1
dx
so that we can write
dz = (3x2 + 1) dx
Then
(3x2 + 1)
冮x 冮z
dz
3
dx =
+ x + 2
= ln ƒ z ƒ + c
= ln ƒ x3 + x + 2 ƒ + c
Note that, in the previous example, the numerator of the integrand is the derivative of
the denominator. The result is the logarithm of the denominator. This is a special
case of the following rule, which should be remembered:
Key point
冮 f (x)
df>dx
dx = ln ƒ f (x) ƒ + c
Example 6.8
Write down, purely by inspection, the following integrals:
冮 x + 1 dx (b) 冮 x 冮 x - 3 dx
1 2x 1
(a) 2
dx (c)
+ 8
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 880
17 880 Block 6 Integration by substitution
Solution
(a) ln ƒ x + 1 ƒ + c
(b) ln ƒx2 + 8 ƒ + c
(c) ln ƒ x - 3 ƒ + c
Example 6.9
4
3t2 + 2t
Evaluate 3冮 2
2 t + t + 1
dt by inspection.
Solution
C ln ƒ t3 + t2 + 1 ƒ D 2 = ln 81 - ln 13 = 1.83
4
Sometimes it is necessary to make slight adjustments to the integrand to obtain a
form for which the previous rule is suitable. Consider the next example.
Example 6.10
x2
Find 冮
x3 + 1
dx.
Solution
In this example the derivative of the denominator is 3x2 whereas the numerator is just
x2. We adjust the numerator as follows:
x2 3x2
冮 冮
1
dx = dx
x3 + 1 3 x3 + 1
Note that this sort of procedure is possible only because we can move constant fac-
tors through the integral sign. It would be wrong to try to move terms involving x in
a similar way. Then
3x2
冮
1 1
3
dx = ln ƒ x3 + 1 ƒ + c
3 x + 1 3
Example 6.11
冮 1 - x dx in order to find the integral.
1
Adjust the numerator of the integral
Solution
冮 1 - x dx = 冮 1 - x dx
1 -1
-
Finish the calculation:
冮 1 - x dx =
1
-ln ƒ 1 - x ƒ + c
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 10/16/18 7:35 AM Page 881
6.5 Some harder examples of integration by substitution 881 17
Exercises
1 Write down the result of finding the following
integrals:
冮 2x + 5 dx (d) 冮 3x - 2 dx
1 2
冮 冮t
1 2t (c)
(a) dx (b) 2
dt
x + 1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) ln|x| + c (b) ln|t2 + 1| + c
(c) 12 ln ƒ 2x + 5 ƒ + c (d) 23 ln ƒ 3x - 2 ƒ + c
6.5 Some harder examples of integration by substitution
The range of possible substitutions is so wide and varied that it is impossible to give
examples of every type here. However, Table 6.1 provides some suggestions for
evaluating 1 f (x) dx when f (x) takes particular forms.
Table 6.1
f(x) contains make the substitution:
dx
2a2 - x2 x = a sin u = a cos u
du
dx
x = a tanh u = a sech 2 u
du
dx
2a2 + x2 x = a sinh u = a cosh u
du
dx
x = a tan u = a sec 2 u
du
dx
2x 2 - a2 x = a cosh u = a sinh u
du
dx
x = a sec u = a sec u tan u
du
2t 1 - t2 dx 2
sin x, cos x sin x = 2
, cos x = 2
, =
1 + t 1 + t dt 1 + t2
x
where t = tan
2
t 1 dx 1
sin2 x, cos2 x sin x = , cos x = , =
21 + t 2
21 + t 2 dt 1 + t2
where t = tan x
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 882
17 882 Block 6 Integration by substitution
Example 6.12
By making a hyperbolic substitution, find 1 21 + x2 dx . You will also need to
make use of the hyperbolic identities:
1 + cosh 2u
cosh2 u - sinh2 u = 1, cosh2 u =
2
Solution
Study the form of the integrand and use Table 6.1 to select an appropriate substitution.
x = sinh u
dx
It follows that = cosh u.
du
Make the substitution and use the first of the identities to obtain an integral in
terms of u.
冮 21 + sinh u cosh u du = 冮 cosh
2 2
u du
The second of the identities allows us to rewrite the integral in the form
冮
1 + cosh 2u
du
2
which can be integrated directly. Complete the calculation.
1 sinh 2u
u + + c
2 4
From x = sinh u it follows that u = sinh -1 x and so in terms of the original vari-
able, x, we have
1 1
sinh-1 x + sinh(2 sinh-1 x) + c
2 4
This integral arises when calculating the length of a quadratic curve as you will see
in Chapter 18, Block 5.
Example 6.13
冮 1 + cos x + sin x .
dx
Find
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 883
6.5 Some harder examples of integration by substitution 883 17
Solution
By noting the form of the integrand and referring to Table 6.1 we let
2t 1 - t2 x
sin x = and cos x = , where t = tan
1 + t2 1 + t2 2
dx 2
=
dt 1 + t2
Make these substitutions and simplify the result to obtain an integral in terms of t.
冮1 + t
dt
This can be integrated using the technique of Section 6.4.
ln(1 + t) + c
Finally, reverting to the original variable x we have
冮 1 + cos x + sin x
dx 1
= lna1 + tan xb + c
2
Exercises
1 dx 1
冮 24 - x
x
1 Find dx. (b) cos x = , (c) = .
2 21 + t 2 dt 1 + t2
2 Find 1 2x 2 - 1 dx. 5 Refer to Figure 6.2 and use it to obtain the
x
t = tan substitution given in Table 6.1.
p>2 2
冮
1
3 Find dx.
0 2 + cos x Figure 6.2
4 Refer to Figure 6.1 from which tan x = t.
t
Show that (a) sin x = ,
21 + t2 t
x/2
Figure 6.1
1
t 6 Show that
p>2
冮
1 1
dx = ln 6.
0 3 cos x + 4 sin x 5
x
1
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 9:25 AM Page 884
17 884 Block 6 Integration by substitution
Solutions to exercises
1 - 2(4 - x2) + c p 13
3
9
sinh(2 cosh-1 x) cosh-1 x
2 - + c
4 2
End of block exercises
冮 4x - 3 dx. 冮 (2 - x)
1 7
1 Find 5 Find 3
dx.
4
Find 1 (9 - 2t)7 dt.
冮 2t
t 6
2 Find dt.
2
3 - 3
冮 23 + y dy .
1
p>3 7 Find
3 Find 冮 0
cos3 x sin x dx.
冮
ln x
8 Find dx by making the substitution
冮 (x + 2)
3 x
4 Find 2
dx. z = ln x.
Solutions to exercises
1 1
ln(4x - 3) + c (9 - 2t)8
4 6 - + c
16
2 1.156
7 2(3 + y)1>2 + c
3 0.234
(ln x)2
3 8 + c
4 - + c 2
x + 2
7
5 + c
2(2 - x)2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 885
Integration using partial fractions
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
Often the technique of partial fractions can be used to write an algebraic fraction as
the sum of simpler fractions. On occasions this means that we can then integrate a
complicated algebraic fraction. We shall explore this approach in this block. A
thorough understanding of the various forms that partial fractions can take is an
essential prerequisite.
7.2 Integration using partial fractions
Sometimes expressions which at first sight look impossible to integrate using the
techniques already met may in fact be integrated by first expressing them as simpler
partial fractions, and then using the techniques described earlier in this chapter.
Consider the following example.
Example 7.1
By expressing the integrand as the sum of its partial fractions find
冮 (x + 7)
2x + 11
2
dx
Solution
The denominator of the integrand contains a repeated linear factor (x + 7)2. The
appropriate form of partial fractions is
2x + 11 A B
2
= +
(x + 7) x + 7 (x + 7)2
Then
2x + 11 = A (x + 7) + B
from which, by letting x = -7, we find -3 = B. Equating coefficients of x, for
example, gives A = 2. The integral becomes
冮 x + 7 - (x + 7)
2 3
2
dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 886
17 886 Block 7 Integration using partial fractions
冮 f (x) dx covered in Section 6.4. Thus
f ¿(x)
The first integral is of the form
冮 x + 7 dx = 2 ln ƒ x + 7 ƒ + c
2
du
The second integral can be evaluated by making a substitution u = x + 7, = 1,
dx
to give
冮 (x + 7) 冮u
3 3
2
dx = 2
du
3
= - + c
u
3
= - + c
x + 7
Finally, putting both parts together we find
冮 (x + 7)
2x + 11 3
2
dx = 2 ln ƒ x + 7 ƒ + + K
x + 7
Example 7.2
Express
23 - x
(x - 5)(x + 4)
as the sum of its partial fractions. Hence find
冮 (x - 5)(x + 4) dx
23 - x
Solution A B
First produce the partial fractions (hint: write the fraction in the form + ):
x - 5 x + 4
A = 2, B = -3
Then integrate each term separately.
2 ln ƒ x - 5 ƒ - 3 ln ƒ x + 4 ƒ + c
Exercises
By expressing the following in partial fractions
evaluate the given integral. Remember to select the
correct form for the partial fractions.
冮x 冮 6x
1 13x - 4
1 3
dx 2 2
dx
+ x - x - 2
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 887
7.2 Integration using partial fractions 887 17
冮 (x + 1)(x - 5) dx 冮x
1 1
3 5 2
dx
- 2x - 1
冮 (x - 1) (x + 1) dx
2x
4 2
Solutions to exercises
1 1
1 ln ƒ x ƒ - 2 ln ƒ x2 + 1 ƒ + c 4 - 12 ln ƒ x + 1 ƒ + 1
ln ƒ x - 1 ƒ - + c
2
x - 1
3 2
2 ln ƒ 2x + 1 ƒ + ln ƒ 3x - 2 ƒ + c x - 1 - 22
ln a b
2 3 1
5
3 1
ln ƒ x - 5 ƒ - 1
ln ƒ x + 1 ƒ + c 222 x - 1 + 22
6 6
End of block exercises
冮x 冮 (1 - 2x)(2 - x) dx.
3x - 17 15x - 6
1 Find 2
dx. 5 Find
- 2x - 3
冮 (x + 1) 冮 (1 + t)(1 + 3t) dt.
x + 3 2
2 Find 2
dx. 6 Find
冮 (t + 3)(t - 2) dt. 冮 (x - 2) (x + 1) dx.
t 8 - x
3 Find 7 Find 2
冮 (x - 2) (x + 1) dx.
3 - x
4 Find 2
Solutions to exercises
1 5 ln(x + 1) - 2 ln(x - 3) + c ln(2x - 1)
5 8 ln(x - 2) - + c
2 2
2 ln(x + 1) - + c
x + 1 6 ln(3t + 1) - ln(t + 1) + c
3 2 x + 1 2
3 ln(t + 3) + ln(t - 2) + c 7 ln - + c
5 5 x - 2 x - 2
4 4 1
4 ln(x + 1) - ln(x - 2) - + c
9 9 3(x - 2)
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 888
Integration of trigonometrical functions
BLOCK 8
8.1 Introduction
Integrals involving trigonometrical functions are commonplace in engineering
mathematics. This is especially true when modelling waves, and alternating current
circuits. When the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of a waveform or signal is to be
calculated, you will often find this results in an integral of the form
冮 sin t dt
2
In Fourier analysis it is necessary to find integrals such as
冮 sin mt cos nt dt
In this block you will learn how such integrals can be evaluated.
Simple integrals involving trigonometrical functions have already been dealt with
in Block 1. See what you can remember.
Example 8.1
Write down the following integrals:
(a) 1 sin x dx (b) 1 cos x dx (c) 1 sin 2x dx (d) 1 cos 2x dx
Solution
(a) -cos x + c
(b) sin x + c
cos 2x
(c) - + c
2
sin 2x
(d) + c
2
The basic rules from which these results can be derived are summarised here:
Key point
冮 sin kx dx = - 冮 cos kx dx =
cos kx sin kx
+ c, + c
k k
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 889
8.2 The integration of more complicated trigonometrical functions 889 17
8.2 The integration of more complicated trigonometrical functions
In engineering applications it is often necessary to integrate functions involving
powers of the trigonometrical functions such as
冮 sin x dx
2
or 冮 cos vt dt
2
Note that these integrals cannot be obtained directly from the formulae in the Key point
above, which involve multiples of the variable x rather than powers of trigonometrical
functions. However, by making use of trigonometrical identities the integrands can be
rewritten in an alternative form. It is often not clear which identities are useful, and
each case needs to be considered individually. Experience and practice are essential.
Work through the following example.
Example 8.2
Use the trigonometrical identity
1
sin2 u = 2 (1 - cos 2u)
to express the integral 1 sin2 x dx in an alternative form.
Solution
1
1 2 (1 - cos 2x) dx
Note from the last example that the trigonometrical identity was used to convert
a power of sin x into a function involving cos 2x, which can be integrated directly.
Example 8.3
Find the integral 1 sin2 x dx.
Solution
ax -
1 sin 2x 1 1 c
+ cb = x - sin 2x + K where K =
2 2 2 4 2
Example 8.4
Use the trigonometrical identity sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x to find
1 sin x cos x dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 890
17 890 Block 8 Integration of trigonometrical functions
Solution
Use the identity to rewrite the integrand.
冮 2 sin 2x dx
1
Complete the integration.
冮 2 sin 2x dx =
1 1
- cos 2x + c
4
Example 8.5
Find 1 2 sin 7x cos 3x dx.
Solution
In this example you will need to make use of the trigonometrical identity
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)
Use this identity to rewrite the integral:
冮 sin 10x + sin 4x dx
Now complete the calculation:
cos 10x cos 4x
- - + c
10 4
Example 8.6
Find 1 sin3 x cos3 x dx.
Solution
To perform this calculation you will need to use a trigonometrical identity, and also
use a substitution (see Block 6).
Make the substitution u = sin x.
du
Write down .
dx
cos x
Write cos3 x as cos2 x cos x and use the trigonometrical identity cos2 x = 1 - sin2 x.
Try to obtain an integral in terms of u.
冮u 3
- u5 du
sin4 x sin6 x
Complete the calculation: - + c
4 6
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 891
8.2 The integration of more complicated trigonometrical functions 891 17
If you have worked through the previous examples you will have realised that there
is no single approach for tackling such integrals. Sometimes it is appropriate to make
a substitution; sometimes a trigonometrical substitution is appropriate. You may
need to integrate by parts. When faced with a particular integral to evaluate you may
need to have several attempts and try different methods. Carrying out a range of
practice exercises will help build your confidence.
Exercises
You will need to refer to a table of trigonometrical
6 The mean square value of a function f (t) over
identities to answer these questions.
the interval t = a to t = b is defined to be
1 Find 1 cos2 x dx. b
冮
1
( f (t))2 dt
p>2 2 b - a
10 cos
2 Find t dt. a
Find the mean square value of f (t) = sin t over
3 Find 1 (cos2 u + sin2 u) du. the interval t = 0 to t = 2p.
4 Use the identity 7 Find 1 sin mt sin nt dt where m and n are
sin(A + B) + sin(A - B) = 2 sin A cos B to constants and m Z n.
find sin 3x cos 2x dx.
1 sin3 x
5 Find 1 (1 + tan2 x) dx.
8 Find 冮 cos x + sin x cos x dx.
Solutions to exercises
1 1
1 2 x + 4 sin 2x + c 5 tan x + c
p 1
2 6 2
4
a b + c
3 u + c 1 sin(m - n)t sin(m + n)t
7 -
cos 5x cos x 2 m - n m + n
4 - - + c
10 2
8 1 tan x dx = ln sec x + c
End of block exercises
1 Find 1 sin2 2x dx. 3 Find 1 5 sin t cos t dt.
2 Find 1 sin 3x cos 3x dx. 4 Find 1 cos vt sin vt dt.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 11/28/18 7:45 PM Page 892
17 892 Block 8 Integration of trigonometrical functions
p
5 Find 1-p sin2 t dt. 8 Find 1 sin t sin 2t dt.
p
6 Find 1-p cos2 3t dt. 9 Find 1 sin2 x + cos2 x dx.
7 Find 1 cos 3x cos 5x dx. 10 Find 1 cos p dx.
Solutions to exercises
x sin 4x
1 - + c 6 p
2 8
sin 8x sin 2x
1 7 + + c
2 - cos 6x + c 16 4
12
sin t sin 3t
5 8 - + c
3 - cos 2t + c 2 6
4
9 x + c
cos 2vt
4 - + c
4v 10 (cos p)x + c = - x + c
5 p
End of chapter exercises
冮 2t
1 Find the following integrals using an 3
(i) dt
appropriate technique selected from this 2
+ 0.25
chapter:
1
(j) 1- 1cosh 3t dt
冮4 + x
1
(a) dx 3
冮1+x
2
1
(k) 2
dx
2
(b) 1 cos x dx 1
冮 2100 - 4x dx
1
冮 4 - t dt
1 (l)
(c) 2
p
(d) 10 cos t dt
冮
x
(m) x cos dx
1.2 2
(e) 11 tan x dx
(n) 1 3x dx
2x2 + x + 2
(f) 冮 x3 + x
dx (o) 1 sec t dt
(g) 1 sin 3t cos 3t dt (p) 1 sin 5x cos 2x dx
冮 x(x - 3) dx
1
冮 16 - x
1 (q)
(h) 2
dx
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 9/27/18 8:36 AM Page 893
End of chapter exercises 893 17
冮 t (t - 1) dt Use the substitution u = ex - 1 to find
1 9
(r)
e2x
冮
2
dx.
ex - 1
冮
ln x
(s) dx 0.3
x
冮
1
10 Find 2
dx.
(t) 1 t23t - 2 dt 0 x - 3x + 2
Use integration by parts to find 1 sec3 x dx.
冮 5 + 4 cos x dx
1 11
(u)
2 2 t
12 If In = 1 xn e2x dx show that
(v) 10 t e dt
xne2x n
In = - In - 1.
(w) 1 cos x2sin x dx 2 2
冮x
x2 2x + 7
(x) 冮x 3
+ 1
dx 13 Find 2
+ 7x
dx.
冮 4t 冮 sin t + cos t dt.
8t + 10 cos t - sin t
(y) 2
dt 14 Find
+ 8t + 3
冮 (e )
7
冮 3 - x dx.
(z) dt 4
t 7 15 Find
2 By making the substitution u2 = x find
冮s
1
16 Find ds.
冮 sin 1x dx. q
2
- 2s + 5
17 Find 10 e-2t dt.
p
3 Use the substitution t = - u to show that q
4 18 Find 10 e-x cos x dx.
p>4
冮
1
冮x
ln(1 + tan t) dt = p ln 2. 1
0 8 19 Find 2
dx.
- 4x + 3
1
冮1+x
1 + 2x 20 Mechanical Engineering – Distance travelled
4 Find 2
dx.
0 by a projectile. The velocity, v(t), in m s-1, of
a projectile is given by
冮 (1 - x)1x .
dx
5 Find v(t) = 10e-t t Ú 0
(a) Calculate the distance travelled in the first
6 By means of the substitution x = sin 2 u find 3 seconds.
(b) Calculate the average speed over the first
冮
x
dx. 3 seconds.
A1 - x
21 Thermodynamics. The pressure, P, and
冮
x
7 Find dx. volume, V, of a gas are connected by
Ax - 2
PV 0.9 = 106
p>4
8 Find 冮 0
sin2 t dt. Calculate the work done by the gas as it
expands in volume from 100 to 1000 units.
M17_CROF5939_04_SE_C17.QXD 11/28/18 7:45 PM Page 894
17 894 Block 8 Integration of trigonometrical functions
Solutions to exercises
(a) 12 tan-1 a b + c
x 2 2 sin 1x - 21x cos 1x + c
1
2
4 1.479
ax + b + c (c) —ln (4 - t) + c
1 sin 2x
(b)
2 2 1x - 1
5 -ln a b + c
-1
(d) 0 (e) 0.4 (f) tan x + 2 ln x + c 1x + 1
+ tan-1 a b + c
cos 6t 1 4 + x x x
(g) - + c (h) ln + c 6 (x - 1)
12 8 4 - x A1 - x A1 - x
(i) 3 sinh-1 2t + c (j) 6.679 (k) 0.464 21x - 2 (x + 4)
7 + c
1 -1 x 3
(l) sin + c
2 5 p 1
8 -
(m) 2x sin a b + 4 cosa b + c
x x 8 4
2 2 9 ex + ln(ex - 1) + c
1
(n) 3x + c (o) ln ƒ sec x + tan x ƒ + c
ln 3 10 0.194
cos 7x cos 3x 1 1
(p) - - + c 11 2 ln ƒ tan x + sec x ƒ + 2 tan x sec x + c
14 6
-1 1 13 ln(x2 + 7x) + c
(q) ln x + ln(x - 3) + c
3 3
14 ln(sin t + cos t) + c
1 t 1
(r) - ln + c (s) (ln x)2 + c 15 —4 ln(3 - x) + c
t t - 1 2
2(3t - 2)3>2 (9t + 4)
tan-1 a b + c
(t) + c 1 s - 1
135 16 2
2
tan(x>2)
tan-1 a b + c
2 17 0.5
(u)
3 3
18 0.5
(v) 12.778 (w) 23 (sin x)3>2 + c 1 1
19 2 ln(x - 3) - 2 ln(x - 1) + c
1 3
(x) ln(x + 1) + c
3
20 (a) 9.502 (b) 3.167
(y) 12 ln(2t + 3) + 3
2 ln(2t + 1) + c
21 4.104 * 106
(z) - e - 7t + c
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 10/3/18 8:12 PM Page 895
Chapter 18
Applications of integration
In the previous chapter integration was introduced, and you were
shown a wide variety of techniques for obtaining integrals. In this
chapter you will meet several important applications of those
techniques.
The first block is particularly important for it introduces integration as
the limit of a sum. This involves obtaining a physical quantity by
considering it to be made up of contributions from lots of small parts.
The sum of these contributions is calculated using integration. An
understanding of Block 1 is essential if you want to be able to apply
the techniques to a wider range of problems than those described
here.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 896
Chapter 18 contents
Block 1 Integration as the limit of a sum
Block 2 Volumes of revolution
Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
Block 4 Moment of inertia
Block 5 The length of a curve and the area of a surface of
revolution
Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square value of a function
End of chapter exercises
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 897
Integration as the limit of a sum
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In Chapter 17, integration was introduced as the reverse of differentiation. A more
rigorous treatment would show that integration is a process of adding or ‘sum-
mation’. By viewing integration from this perspective it is possible to apply the tech-
niques of integration to finding areas, volumes, centres of gravity and many other
important physical quantities.
The content of this block is important because it is here that integration is defined
properly. A thorough understanding of the process involved is essential if you need
to apply the techniques to practical problems.
1.2 The limit of a sum
Consider the graph of the positive function y(x) shown in Figure 1.1. Suppose we are
interested in finding the area under the graph between x = a and x = b.
Figure 1.1 y
The area under a
curve.
y(x)
Area required
x
a b
One way in which this area can be approximated is to divide it into a number of
rectangles, find the area of each rectangle, and then add all these individual areas up.
This is illustrated in Figure 1.2(a), which shows the area divided into n rectangles,
and Figure 1.2(b), which shows the dimensions of a typical rectangle that is located
at x = xk.
Figure 1.2 y y
(a) The area
approximated by n δx
rectangles; (b) a y(x)
typical rectangle. n rectangles y(xk)
x x
a b xk
(a) (b)
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 898
18 898 Block 1 Integration as the limit of a sum
First, refer to Figure 1.2(a) and state the distance from a to b:
b - a
In Figure 1.2(a) the area has been divided into n rectangles. If n rectangles span the
distance from a to b state the width of each rectangle:
b - a
n
It is conventional to label the width of each rectangle as dx. Suppose we label the x
coordinates at the left-hand side of the rectangles as x1, x2 up to xn. A typical rec-
tangle, the kth rectangle, is shown in Figure 1.2(b). Note that its height is y(xk).
Calculate its area:
y(xk) * dx
The sum of the areas is then
y(x1)dx + y(x2)dx + y(x3)dx + . . . + y(xn)dx
which we write concisely using sigma notation (introduced in Chapter 5, Block 1) as
n
a y(xk)dx
k=1
This, of course, gives us an estimate of the area under the curve, but it is not exact.
To improve the estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. So,
what we want to find is the value of this sum when n tends to infinity and dx tends to
zero. We write this as
n
n: q a
lim y(xk)dx
k=1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and last rectangle where
x = a and x = b respectively, and so we can write this limit in the equivalent form
x=b
dx : 0 a
lim y(x)dx (1)
x=a
If this sum can actually be found, it is called the definite integral of y(x), from
b
x = a to x = b, and it is written 1a y(x) dx. You are already familiar with the mech-
anism for finding definite integrals, which were studied in Chapter 17, Block 2.
Therefore we have the following definition:
Key point The definite integral
b
冮 y(x) dx
a
is defined as
x=b
dx : 0 a
lim y(x)dx
x=a
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 899
1.2 The limit of a sum 899 18
Note that the quantity dx represents the thickness of a small but finite rectangle.
When we have taken the limit as dx tends to zero to obtain the integral, we write dx.
This process of dividing an area into very small regions, performing a calculation
on each region, and then adding the results by means of an integral is very important.
This will become apparent when finding volumes, centres of gravity, moments of
inertia, etc., in the following blocks.
Example 1.1
The area under the graph of y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1 is to be found using
the technique just described. If the required area is approximated by a large number
of thin rectangles, the limit of the sum of their areas is given from equation (1) as
x=1
dx : 0 a
lim y(x)dx
x=0
Write down the integral that this sum defines and evaluate it to obtain the area under
the curve.
Solution
1
The limit of the sum defines the integral 10 y(x) dx. Here y = x2 and so
1
x3 1
冮
0
x2 dx = c d
3 0
1
=
3
To show that taking the limit of a sum actually works we have provided a detailed
example for you to work through.
Example 1.2
Use the idea of the limit of a sum to find the area under the graph of y = x2 between
x = 0 and x = 1.
Solution
Refer to the graph in Figure 1.3 to help you answer the questions.
If the interval between x = 0 and x = 1 is divided into n rectangles what is the
width of each rectangle?
Figure 1.3 y
The area under y x2
y = x2 is 1
approximated by a
number of thin
rectangles.
n rectangles
x
O 1
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 900
18 900 Block 1 Integration as the limit of a sum
1
n
Mark this on Figure 1.3.
What is the x coordinate at the left-hand side of the first rectangle?
0
What is the x coordinate at the left-hand side of the second rectangle?
1
n
What is the x coordinate at the left-hand side of the third rectangle?
2
n
Mark these coordinates on Figure 1.3.
What is the x coordinate at the left-hand side of the kth rectangle?
k - 1
n
Given that y = x2, what is the y coordinate at the left-hand side of the kth rectangle?
k - 1 2
a b
n
The area of the kth rectangle is its height * its width. Write down the area of the kth
rectangle:
k - 1 2 (k - 1)2
a b * =
1
n n n3
To find the total area of the n rectangles we must add up all these individual areas:
n
(k - 1)2
total area of rectangles = a
k=1 n3
This sum can be simplified and then calculated as follows. You will need to make use
of the formulae for the sum of the first k integers, and the sum of the squares of the
first k integers. Details of these will be given in Chapter 19, Block 2. For complete-
ness we state the relevant formulae now:
n n n
n 2 n
a 1 = n, a k = 2 (n + 1), a k = 6 (n + 1)(2n + 1)
k=1 k=1 k=1
Then, the total area of the rectangles is given by
n
(k - 1)2 1 n
a (k - 1)2
n3 ka
=
k=1 n3 =1
1 n 2
n3 ka
= k - 2k + 1
=1
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 901
1.2 The limit of a sum 901 18
n n n
a
1 2
n3 ka a a 1b
= k - 2 k +
=1 k=1 k=1
a (n + 1)(2n + 1) - 2 (n + 1) + nb
1 n n
=
n3 6 2
a
1 (n + 1)(2n + 1)
= - (n + 1) + 1b
n2 6
a
1 (n + 1)(2n + 1)
= - nb
n2 6
a b
1 (n + 1)(2n + 1) 6n
= 2
-
n 6 6
1
= (2n2 - 3n + 1)
6n2
1 1 1
= - + 2
3 2n 6n
Note that this is a formula for the total area of the n rectangles. It is an estimate of the
1 1
area under the graph of y = x2. Now, as n gets larger, the terms and become
2n 6n2
small and will eventually tend to zero. If we now let n tend to infinity we obtain the
exact answer:
lim a + 2b =
1 1 1 1
-
n: q 3 2n 6n 3
1
The required area is .
3
The area has been found as the limit of a sum.
In the calculations that follow in subsequent blocks the need to evaluate complicated
limits like this is avoided by performing the integration using the techniques of
Chapter 17. Nevertheless it will still be necessary to go through the process of divid-
ing a region into small sections, performing a calculation on each section and then
adding the results, in order to obtain the integral required.
Exercises
There are deliberately few exercises in this block because in practice integrals are evaluated using the
techniques of Chapter 17 and not via taking the limits of sums explicitly. What is important though is an
understanding of how the appropriate sum is formed.
1 Find the area under y = x + 1 from x = 0 to 2 Find the area under y = 3x2 from x = 0 to
x = 10 using the limit of a sum. x = 2 using the limit of a sum.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 902
18 902 Block 1 Integration as the limit of a sum
3 Write down, but do not evaluate, the integral
defined by the limit as dx : 0, or dy : 0, of
the following sums:
x=1 x=4
(a) a x = 0 x3 dx (b) a x = 0 4px2 dx
y=1 x=1
(c) a y = 0 y3 dy (d) a x = 0 6mx2 dx
Solutions to exercises
1 4 1
1 60 3 (a) 10 x3 dx (b) 4p 10 x2 dx (c) 10 y3 dy
1
2 8 (d) 10 6mx2 dx
End of block exercises
1 Use the method of the limit of a sum to find 2 Write down, but do not evaluate, the integral
the area bounded by the curve y = x3 and the defined by the limit as dx : 0, dy : 0, or
x axis between x = a and x = b. You may ds : 0 of the following sums:
assume the result x=5 x=a
(a) a x = 1 px3 dx (b) a x = 0 px2 dx
n 2
n y=2
3
a k = 4 (n + 1)
2 (c) a y = 0 m(2 - y)y dy
k=1 x = b>2
(d) a x = -b>2 mbx2 dx
s=1
(e) a s = 0 s2 ds
Solutions to exercises
(b4 - a4) 2
5 a
(a) 11 px3 dx (b) 10 px2 dx
1
4 2 b>2
(c) 10 m(2 - y)y dy (d) 1-b>2 mbx2 dx
1
(e) 10 s2 ds
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 903
Volumes of revolution
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
In this block we show how the concept of integration as the limit of a sum can be
used to find volumes of solids formed when areas are rotated around the x or
y axes.
2.2 Volumes generated by rotating areas about the x axis
Figure 2.1 shows a graph of the function y = 2x for x between 0 and 3.
Figure 2.1 y
A graph of the 6 y 2x
function y = 2x,
for 0 … x … 3.
x
O 3
Imagine rotating the shaded area under y = 2x a full revolution around the x axis.
The body so formed is a cone as shown in Figure 2.2. Such a three-dimensional body
is known as a solid of revolution or a volume of revolution.
Figure 2.2 y
When the area 6
under y = 2x is
rotated around the y 2x
axis, a solid is
generated.
x
O 3
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 904
18 904 Block 2 Volumes of revolution
Example 2.1
Find the volume of the cone generated by rotating the area under y = 2x, for
0 … x … 3, around the x axis, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Solution
In order to find the volume of this solid we assume that it is composed of lots of
thin circular discs all aligned perpendicular to the x axis, such as that shown in
Figure 2.3. From Figure 2.3 we note that a typical disc has radius y, which in this
example equals 2x, and thickness dx.
Figure 2.3 y
The cone is
divided into a 6
number of thin
circular discs. y 2x
(x, y)
δx
x
O 3
The volume of a circular disc is the circular area multiplied by the thickness.
Write down an expression for the volume of this typical disc:
p(2x)2 dx = 4px2 dx
To find the total volume we must sum the contributions from all discs and find the limit
of this sum as the number of discs becomes infinite and dx becomes zero. That is,
x=3
4px2 dx
dx : 0 a
lim
x=0
This is the definition of a definite integral. Write down the corresponding integral.
3
冮 4px dx
0
2
Find the required volume by performing the integration:
4px3 3
c d = 36p
3 0
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2.2 Volumes generated by rotating areas about the x axis 905 18
Example 2.2
A graph of the function y = x2 for x between 0 and 4 is shown in Figure 2.4. The
area under the graph is rotated around the x axis to produce the solid shown. Find
its volume.
Figure 2.4 y
The solid of y x2
revolution is 16
divided into a
number of thin
circular discs.
(x, y)
δx
x
O 4
Solution
As in Example 2.1, the volume is considered to be composed of lots of circular discs
of radius y, which in this example is equal to x2, and thickness dx.
The volume of a circular disc is the circular area multiplied by the thickness.
Write down the volume of each disc:
p(x2)2 dx = px4 dx
Write down the expression that results by summing the volumes of all such discs:
x=4
4
a px dx
x=0
Write down the integral that results from taking the limit of the sum as dx : 0:
4
冮0
px4 dx
Perform the integration to find the volume of the solid:
45 p
= 204.8p
5
In general, suppose the area under the graph of y(x) between x = a and x = b is
rotated about the x axis, and the solid so formed is considered to be composed of lots
of circular discs of thickness dx.
Write down an expression for the radius of a typical disc:
y
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 906
18 906 Block 2 Volumes of revolution
Write down an expression for the volume of a typical disc:
py2 dx
The total volume is found by summing these individual volumes and taking the limit
as dx becomes zero:
x=b
py2 dx
dx : 0 a
lim
x=a
Write down the definite integral that this sum defines:
b
冮 py dx
a
2
Key point If the area under the graph of y(x), between x = a and x = b, is rotated about the x axis
the volume of the solid formed is
b
冮 py dx
a
2
Exercises
1 When the area under the graph of y(x) between 3 The area under the parabola y2 = 4x for 0 …
x = a and x = b is rotated around the x axis, x … 1 is rotated around the x axis. Find the
show that the volume of the solid formed is volume of the solid formed.
b 2
1a py dx.
2 Find the volume of the solid formed when the
area under y = x2 between x = 1 and x = 2 is
rotated about the x axis.
Solutions to exercises
31p
2 3 2p
5
2.3 Volumes generated by rotating areas about the y axis
We can obtain a different solid of revolution by rotating an area around the y axis
instead of around the x axis. In Figure 2.5 the area between the graph of y(x) and the
y axis has been rotated about the y axis.
To find the volume of this solid it is divided into a number of circular discs as
before, but this time the discs are horizontal. The radius of a typical disc is x and
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 907
2.3 Volumes generated by rotating areas about the y axis 907 18
Figure 2.5 y
A solid can be
generated by y(x)
rotation around the
y axis.
(x, y)
δy
x
O
its thickness is dy. The volume of the disc will be px2 dy where dy is the thickness
of the disc.
The total volume is found by summing these individual volumes and taking the
limit as dy : 0. If the lower and upper limits on y are c and d, we find
y=d
px2 dy
dy : 0 a
lim
y=c
which is the definite integral
冮 px dy
c
2
Key point If the area between the graph of y(x) and the y axis between y = c and y = d (Figure 2.6)
is rotated about the y axis the volume of the solid formed is
d
冮 px dy
c
2
Figure 2.6 y
Rotating the
y(x)
shaded area about
the y axis produces
a volume of
revolution.
d
x
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 908
18 908 Block 2 Volumes of revolution
Example 2.3
Find the volume generated when the area between y = x2 and the y axis between
y = 0 and y = 1 is rotated around the y axis.
Solution
Write down the required integral.
1
冮 px dy
0
2
Because y = x2 this integral can be written entirely in terms of y. Do this now, and
then evaluate the integral.
1
py2 1
冮 py dy = c d =
p
0 2 0 2
Exercises
1 The area between y = x2 and the y axis 2 The area between y = 2 - 2x and the y axis
between y = 1 and y = 4 is rotated about the between y = -2 and y = 2 is rotated around
y axis. Find the volume of the solid formed. the y axis. Find the volume of revolution.
Solutions to exercises
15p 16p
1 2
2 3
End of block exercises
1 The area between the parabola y2 = 4ax and 3 Find the volume obtained when the area
the x axis for 0 6 x 6 a is rotated around the between y = sin x and the x axis for
x axis. Show that the volume of the solid 0 6 x 6 p is rotated around the x axis.
formed is 2pa3. 1
4 The area under y = between x = 1 and
2 The equation of a circle with centre the origin x
x = 3 is rotated about the x axis. Find the
and radius a is x2 + y2 = a2. By considering volume of revolution.
that portion of the circle that lies in the first
quadrant, and rotating this around the x axis,
show that the volume of a hemisphere of
2pa3
radius a is .
3
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2.3 Volumes generated by rotating areas about the y axis 909 18
5 Consider the area bounded by the curve 6 The area between y = 1 - 12 x and the x axis
y = x2 - 1 between x = 1 and x = 2 and the for 0 … x … 2 is rotated around the y axis.
x axis. If this area is rotated around the y axis Find the volume of the solid generated.
show that the volume of the solid generated
is 9p
2 .
Solutions to exercises
p2 4p
3 6
2 3
2p
4
3
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 910
Calculating centres of mass
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
In this block we show how the idea of integration as the limit of a sum can be used to
find the centre of mass of an object such as a thin plate, like a sheet of metal. Such a
plate is also known as a lamina. An understanding of a ‘moment’ is necessary, and so
this concept is introduced as well.
3.2 The centre of mass of a collection of point masses
Suppose we have a collection of masses located at a number of known points. The
centre of mass is the point where, for many purposes, all the mass can be assumed
to be located.
For example, if two objects each of mass m are placed at the locations x = 1 and
x = 2, as shown in Figure 3.1(a), then the total mass, 2m, can be assumed to be
located at x = 1.5 as shown in Figure 3.1(b). This is the point where we could imag-
ine placing a pivot to achieve a perfectly balanced system.
Figure 3.1 m m
(b) The location O
of the centre of 1 2
mass of the (a)
objects in (a).
2m
O
1.5
(b)
To think of this another way, if a pivot is placed at the origin, as on a see-saw, then
the two masses at x = 1 and x = 2 together have the same turning effect or moment
as a single mass 2m located at x = 1.5. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Before we can calculate the position of the centre of mass of a collection of
masses it is important to define moment more precisely.
Given a mass M located a distance d from O, as shown in Figure 3.3, its moment
about O is defined to be
moment = Md
In words, the moment of the mass about O is the mass multiplied by its distance from
O. The unit of moment will therefore be kg m when the mass is measured in kilo-
grams and the distance is measured in metres.
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3.2 The centre of mass of a collection of point masses 911 18
Figure 3.2
The single object O m m
of mass 2m has the 1 2
same turning
effect as the two (a)
objects each of
mass m. 2m
O
1.5
(b)
Figure 3.3 Moment Md
The moment of the M
O
mass M about O
is Md.
Example 3.1 Mechanical Engineering – Moments
Calculate the moment of the mass about O in each of the cases shown in Figures 3.4
and 3.5.
Figure 3.4 (a) 5 kg
O
8m
Figure 3.5 (b) 5 kg
O
10 m
Solution
(a) 40 kg m
(b) 50 kg m
Intuition tells us that a large moment corresponds to a large turning effect. A mass
placed 8 metres from the origin has a smaller turning effect than the same mass
placed 10 metres from the origin. This is of course why it is easier to rock a see-saw
by pushing it at a point further from the pivot.
For a collection of masses the moment of the total mass located at the centre of mass
is equal to the sum of the moments of the individual masses. This result enables
us to calculate the position of the centre of mass, as we shall see in the following
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18 912 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
examples. It is conventional to label the x coordinate of the centre of mass as x,
pronounced ‘x bar’.
Key point The moment of the total mass located at the centre of mass is equal to the sum of the
moments of the individual masses.
Example 3.2 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass
Objects of mass m and 3m are placed at the locations shown in Figure 3.6. Find the
distance x of the centre of mass from the origin O.
Figure 3.6 6
m 3m 4m
O O
10 x
Solution
First calculate the sum of the individual moments:
6(m) + 10(3m) = 36m
The moment of the total mass about O is
(4m)x
Now, the moment of the total mass is equal to the sum of the moments of the individ-
ual masses. Write down the equation satisfied by x.
36m = 4mx
Solve for x.
x = 9
So the centre of mass is located a distance 9 units along the x axis.
Example 3.3 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass
Obtain an equation for the location of the centre of mass of two objects of masses m1
and m2 located at x = x1 and x = x2 respectively, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Centre of mass
x1
O m1 m2
x2
x
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3.2 The centre of mass of a collection of point masses 913 18
Solution
Referring to Figure 3.7, first write down an expression for the sum of the individual
moments:
m1x1 + m2x2
Write down an expression for the total mass:
m1 + m2
Write down an expression for the moment of the total mass:
(m1 + m2)x
The moment of the total mass is equal to the sum of the moments of the individual
masses. Write down the equation satisfied by x.
(m1 + m2)x = m1x1 + m2x2
Finally write down an expression for x.
m1x1 + m2x2
x =
m1 + m2
The formula obtained in the previous example can be generalised very easily to deal
with the situation of n masses, m1, m2, Á , mn, located at x1, x2, Á , xn:
Key point The centre of mass of m1, m2, Á , mn located at x1, x2, Á , xn is
a mi xi
i=1
x = n
a mi
i=1
Example 3.4 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass
Calculate the centre of mass of the four masses distributed as shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8
9 1 5 2
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Solution
4
a mi xi
i=1
x = 4
a mi
i=1
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18 914 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
(9)(2) + (1)(3) + (5)(7) + (2)(9)
9 + 1 + 5 + 2
74
17
The centre of mass is located a distance 74
17 L 4.35 units along the x axis from O.
When n masses are distributed, not just along the x axis but anywhere in the x–y
plane (Figure 3.9), the coordinates of their centre of mass are given as follows:
Key point The centre of mass of m1, m2, Á , mn located at (x1, y1), (x2, y2), Á , (xn, yn) has
coordinates
n n
a mi xi a mi yi
i=1 i=1
x = n ,y = n
a mi a mi
i=1 i=1
Figure 3.9 m2
These masses y (x2, y2)
are distributed
throughout the (x, y)
x–y plane.
m1
(x1, y1)
(x3, y3)
m3
x
Example 3.5 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass
Masses of 5 kg, 3 kg and 9 kg are located at the points with coordinates ( -1, 1),
(4, 3) and (8, 7) respectively. Find the coordinates of their centre of mass.
Solution
Here n = 3.
3
a mi xi
i=1
x = 3
a mi
i=1
5(-1) + 3(4) + 9(8)
=
5 + 3 + 9
79
=
17
= 4.65
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3.3 Finding the centre of mass of a plane, uniform lamina 915 18
5(1) + 3(3) + 9(7)
y = = 4.53
17
Hence the centre of mass is located at the point (4.65, 4.53).
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by the centre of mass of 4 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass.
a collection of point masses. Calculate the position of the centre of mass of
2 kg placed at x = 1, 3 kg placed at x = 4, 1 kg
2 Find the x coordinate of the centre of mass of placed at x = 6 and 6 kg placed at x = -5.
five identical masses placed at x = 2, x = 5,
x = 7, x = 9, x = 12. 5 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass.
Masses of 3 kg, 2 kg, 2 kg and 4 kg are located
3 Derive the formula for y given in the previous at points with coordinates (1, 3), ( -2, 0),
key point. (4, -1) and ( -3, 4), respectively. Calculate
the coordinates of the centre of mass.
Solutions to exercises
5 23
2 x = 7 5 x = - 11 ,y = 11
4 x = - 56
3.3 Finding the centre of mass of a plane, uniform lamina
In the previous section you calculated the centre of mass of several individual point
masses. Suppose we are interested in the centre of mass of a thin sheet of material,
such as a plane sheet of metal. Such an object is called a lamina. The mass is not
located at individual points. Rather, it is distributed continuously throughout the
lamina. In what follows we assume that the mass is distributed uniformly throughout
the lamina. In this section you will see how integration as the limit of a sum is used
to find the centre of mass.
Figure 3.10 shows a lamina where the centre of mass has been marked at point G
with coordinates (x, y). If the total mass of the lamina is M then the moments about
Figure 3.10 y
The centre of mass
of the lamina is
located at G(x, y).
G (x, y)
x
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18 916 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
the y and x axes are respectively M x and M y. Our approach to locating the position
of G is to divide the lamina into many small pieces, find the mass of each piece and
the moment of each piece about the axes. The sum of the moments of the individual
pieces about the y axis will be equal to M x. The sum of the moments of the individ-
ual pieces about the x axis will be equal to M y.
There are no formulae that can be memorised for finding the centre of mass of a
lamina because of the wide variety of possible shapes. Instead you should be famil-
iar with the technique for deriving the centre of mass.
An important preliminary concept is ‘mass per unit area’.
Mass per unit area
Suppose we have a uniform lamina and suppose we select a piece of the lamina that
has area equal to 1 unit. Let m stand for the mass of such a piece. Then m is called the
mass per unit area. The mass of any other piece can be expressed in terms of m. For
example, an area of 2 units must have mass 2m. An area of 3 units must have mass
3m, and so on. Any other portion of the lamina that has area A has mass mA.
Key point If a lamina has mass per unit area m, then the mass of part of the lamina having area A
is Am.
We shall illustrate the calculation of centre of mass in the following examples.
Example 3.6 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass of a lamina
Consider the plane sheet, or lamina, in Figure 3.11. Find the location of its centre
of mass.
Figure 3.11 y
By symmetry the 3
centre of mass of
this lamina lies on
y 3x
the x axis.
G (x, y)
O x 1 x
Solution
First inspect the figure and note the symmetry of the lamina. Purely from the sym-
metry, what must be the y coordinate, y, of the centre of mass?
y = 0 since the centre of mass
must lie on the x axis
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3.3 Finding the centre of mass of a plane, uniform lamina 917 18
Let m stand for the mass per unit area of the sheet. The total area is 3 units. The total
mass is therefore 3m. Its moment about the y axis is 3mx where x is the x coordinate
of the centre of mass.
To find x first divide the sheet into a large number of thin vertical slices. In
Figure 3.12 a typical slice has been highlighted. Note that the slice has been drawn
from the point P on the graph of y = 3x. The point P has coordinates (x, y). The thick-
ness of the slice is dx. This notation is consistent with that introduced in Block 1.
Figure 3.12 y
A typical slice of y 3x
3
this sheet has been
shaded.
P (x, y)
O 1 x
δx
Assuming that the slice is rectangular in shape, write down its area.
2ydx
Writing m as the mass per unit area, write down the mass of the slice.
(2ydx)m
The centre of mass of this slice lies on the x axis. So the slice can be assumed to be a
point mass, 2ymdx, located a distance x from O.
Write down the moment of the mass of the slice about the y axis:
(2ydx)mx
By adding up contributions from all such slices in the lamina we obtain the sum of
the moments of the individual masses:
x=1
a 2mxydx
x=0
The limits on the sum are chosen so that all slices are included.
Write down the integral defined by letting dx : 0:
x=1
冮x=0
2mxy dx
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 918
18 918 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
Note that this represents the sum of all the individual moments taken throughout the
entire lamina. Noting that y = 3x express the integral in terms of x and evaluate it:
1
冮0
6mx2 dx = [2mx3]10 = 2m
This must equal the moment of the total mass acting at the centre of mass.
Hence
3mx = 2m
from which
2
x =
3
Finally the coordinates of the centre of mass are 123 , 02.
Example 3.7 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass of a lamina
Find the centre of mass of the plane lamina shown in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13 y
We assume that the yx
2
shaded slice is
rectangular.
(x, y)
δx
O 2 x
Solution
The coordinates of x and y must be calculated separately.
To calculate x
Let m equal the mass per unit area. Write down the total area, the total mass and its
moment about the y axis:
2, 2m, 2mx
To calculate x the lamina is divided into thin slices; a typical slice is shown in
Figure 3.13. Assume that it is rectangular.
Write down the height of the typical strip shown in Figure 3.13.
y
Write down the area of the typical strip.
ydx
Write down the mass of the typical strip.
(ydx)m
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 919
3.3 Finding the centre of mass of a plane, uniform lamina 919 18
Write down the moment about the y axis of the typical strip.
(ydx)mx
The sum of the moments of all strips is
x=2
a mxydx
x=0
Write down the integral that follows as dx : 0.
2
冮 mxy dx
0
In this example, y x. Substitute this for y in the integral, and evaluate it.
冮 mx dx = 3 m
2 8
0
Equating the sum of individual moments and the total moment gives
8
2mx = m
3
from which
4
x =
3
To calculate y
We will illustrate two alternative ways of calculating y.
Referring to Figure 3.13, the centre of mass of the slice must lie half-way along
y
its length: that is, its y coordinate is . Assume that all the mass of the slice, ymdx,
2
y
acts at this point. Then its moment about the x axis is ymdx . Adding contributions
from all slices gives the sum 2
x=2
y2m
a dx
x=0 2
Write down the integral which is defined as dx : 0.
2
my2
冮
0 2
dx
which we can write as
2
y2
m 冮
0 2
dx
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 920
18 920 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
In this example y = x, so the integral becomes
2
x2
m 冮
0 2
dx
4m
which equals . This is the sum of the individual moments about the x axis and
3
must equal the moment of the total mass about the x axis which is 2my. Therefore
4m
2my =
3
from which
2
y =
3
Finally, the coordinates of the centre of mass are a , b .
4 2
3 3
Consider now an alternative way of finding y.
This time the lamina is divided into a number of horizontal slices; a typical slice is
shown in Figure 3.14.
The length of the typical slice shown is 2 - x.
Figure 3.14 y
A typical yx
2
horizontal slice is
shaded.
(x, y) δy
2x
O 2 x
Write down its area, its mass and its moment about the x axis
(2 - x)dy, m(2 - x)dy, m(2 - x)ydy
Write down the expression for the sum of all such moments and the corresponding
integral as dy : 0.
y=2 2
a m(2 - x)ydy,
y=0
冮 m(2 - x)y dy
0
Now, since y = x the integral can be written entirely in terms of y as
2
冮 m(2 - y)y dy
0
Evaluate the integral:
4m
3
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 921
3.3 Finding the centre of mass of a plane, uniform lamina 921 18
As before the total mass is 2m, and its moment about the x axis is 2my. Hence
4m
2my =
3
from which
2
y =
3
as before.
Example 3.8 Mechanical Engineering – Centre of mass of a lamina
Find the position of the centre of mass of a uniform semicircular lamina of radius a.
Solution
The lamina is shown in Figure 3.15. The equation of a circle with centre the origin,
radius a, is x2 + y2 = a2. By symmetry x must lie on the y axis. However, it is nec-
essary to calculate y.
Figure 3.15 y x2 y2 a2 or x a2 y2
A typical
horizontal strip
is shaded.
(x, y)
δy
The lamina is divided into a number of horizontal strips, and a typical strip is
shown. Assume that each strip is rectangular. Writing the mass per unit area as m,
identify the area and the mass of the strip:
2xdy, 2xmdy
Write down the moment of the mass about the x axis:
2xmydy
Write down the expression representing the sum of the moments of all strips and the
corresponding integral obtained as dy : 0.
y=a a
a 2xmydy,
y=0
冮 2xmy dy
0
Now since x = 2a2 - y2 the integral becomes
a
冮 2my2a
0
2
- y2 dy
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 922
18 922 Block 3 Calculating centres of mass
Evaluate this integral by making the substitution u2 = a2 - y2 to obtain the total
moment.
2ma3
3
The total area is half that of a circle of radius a, that is 12 pa2. The total mass is
1 2 1 2
2 pa m. Its moment is 2 pa my.
Hence
1 2 2ma3
pa my =
2 3
from which
4a
y =
3p
Exercise
1 Find the centre of mass of a lamina bounded
by y2 = 4x and x = 9.
Solution to exercise
a , 0b
27
1
5
End of block exercises
introduce a mass per unit volume, or density, and
1 Find the position of the centre of mass of a
divide the cone into a large number of discs.)
lamina in the shape of a triangle formed by
y = 1 - x, for 0 6 x 6 1, and the x and
3 Show that the centre of mass of a uniform
y axes.
triangular lamina ABC is at a distance 13 h from
BC where h is the perpendicular distance from
2 Show that the distance of the centre of mass of a
A to BC.
uniform solid right circular cone, of height h,
h
from its plane base is . (Hint: you will need to
4
Solutions to exercises
a , b
1 1
1
3 3
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 923
Moment of inertia
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Figure 4.1 shows a lamina, or plane sheet, which is allowed to rotate about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the lamina and through O. The moment of inertia
about this axis is a measure of how difficult it is to rotate the lamina. It plays the
same role when dealing with rotating bodies as the mass of an object plays when
dealing with motion in a line. An object with large mass needs a large force to
achieve a given acceleration. Similarly, an object with large moment of inertia needs
a large turning force to achieve a given angular acceleration. A knowledge of the
moments of inertia of laminae, and also of solid bodies, is essential for understand-
ing their rotational dynamics.
Figure 4.1
A lamina rotating
about an axis
through O. O
In this block we show how the idea of integration as the limit of a sum can be used
to find the moment of inertia of a lamina.
4.2 Calculating the moment of inertia
Suppose a lamina is divided into a large number of small pieces or elements. A
typical piece is shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
The moment of
inertia of the small
element is dmr2. r
δm
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 924
18 924 Block 4 Moment of inertia
It has mass dm, and is located a distance r from the axis O. The moment of inertia
of this small piece is defined to be dmr2, that is the mass multiplied by the square of
its distance from the axis of rotation. To find the total moment of inertia we sum the
individual contributions to give
2
a r dm
where the sum must be taken in such a way that all parts of the lamina are included.
As dm : 0 we obtain the following integral as the definition of moment of inertia, I:
Key point
moment of inertia I = 冮 r dm
2
where the limits of integration are chosen so that the entire lamina is included.
The unit of moment of inertia is kg m2.
We shall illustrate how the moment of inertia is actually calculated in practice, in
the following examples.
Example 4.1 Mechanical Engineering – Moment of inertia of a square
Calculate the moment of inertia about the y axis of the square lamina of mass M and
width b, shown in Figure 4.3. The moment of inertia about the y axis is a measure of
the resistance to rotation around this axis.
Figure 4.3 y
A square lamina
rotating about the
y axis.
x
b
b/2 O b/2 x
δx
Solution
Let the mass per unit area of the lamina be m. Then, because its total area is b2, its
total mass is b2m, which must equal the given mass, M.
Imagine that the lamina has been divided into a large number of thin vertical
strips. A typical strip is shown in Figure 4.3. The strips are chosen in this way
because each point on a particular strip is approximately the same distance from the
axis of rotation (the y axis).
Referring to Figure 4.3 write down the width of each strip.
dx
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 925
4.2 Calculating the moment of inertia 925 18
Write down the area of the strip.
bdx
With m as the mass per unit area write down the mass of the strip.
mbdx
The distance of the strip from the y axis is x. Write down its moment of inertia.
mbx2dx
Adding contributions from all strips gives the expression a mbx2dx, where the sum
must be such that the entire lamina is included. As dx : 0 the sum defines an inte-
gral. Write down this integral.
b>2
I = 冮
-b>2
mbx2 dx
Note that the limits on the integral have been chosen so that the whole lamina is
included. Then
b>2
I = mb 冮
-b>2
x2 dx
x3 b>2
= mb c d
3 -b>2
mb4
=
12
Mb2
Noting that M = b2m then we can write I as .
12
Example 4.2 Mechanical Engineering – Moment of inertia of a
circular disc
Find the moment of inertia of a circular disc of mass M and radius a about an axis
passing through its centre and perpendicular to the disc.
Solution
Figure 4.4 shows the disc lying in the plane of the paper. Imagine that the axis of
rotation is coming out of the paper through O and is perpendicular to the disc. The
disc can be considered to be spinning in the plane of the paper. Because of the circu-
lar symmetry the disc is divided into concentric rings of width dr. A typical ring is
shown in Figure 4.5. Note that each point on the ring is approximately the same dis-
tance from the axis of rotation.
The ring has radius r and inner circumference 2pr. Imagine cutting the ring and
opening it up. Its area will be approximately that of a long thin rectangle of length
2pr and width dr. If m is the mass per unit area write down an expression for the
mass of the ring.
2prmdr
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 926
18 926 Block 4 Moment of inertia
Figure 4.4
a
A circular disc
rotating about an
axis through O.
O a
Figure 4.5
a
The lamina is
divided into many
circular rings.
r
O a
δr
The moment of inertia of the ring about O is its mass multiplied by the square of its
distance from the axis of rotation. This is (2prmdr) * r 2 = 2pr 3mdr.
The contribution from all rings must be summed. This gives rise to the sum
r=a
3
a 2pr mdr
r=0
Note the way that the limits have been chosen so that all rings are included in the
sum. As dr : 0 the limit of the sum defines the integral
a
冮 2mpr
0
3
dr
Evaluate this integral to give the moment of inertia I.
2mpr4 a mpa4
I = c d =
4 0 2
Write down the radius and area of the whole disc.
a, pa2
With m as the mass per unit area, write down the mass of the disc.
pa2m
Ma2
But this total mass is M. Hence I can be written .
2
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 927
4.2 Calculating the moment of inertia 927 18
Exercises
1 The moment of inertia about a diameter of a the moment of inertia about a parallel axis
sphere of radius 1 m and mass 1 kg is found through the centre of mass, plus the mass
by evaluating the integral of the body * the square of the distance
1 between the two axes. Verify this theorem
冮
3 for the rod in questions 3 and 4.
(1 - x2)2 dx
8 -1
6 The perpendicular axis theorem applies to a
Show that the moment of inertia of the sphere
lamina lying in the x–y plane. It states that the
is 25 kg m2.
moment of inertia of the lamina about the z
2 Find the moment of inertia of the lamina in axis is equal to the sum of the moments of
Figure 4.3 about one of its sides. inertia about the x and y axes. Suppose a thin
circular disc of mass M and radius a lies in the
3 Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform x–y plane and the z axis passes through its
thin rod of mass M and length l about a centre. The moment of inertia of the disc about
perpendicular axis of rotation at its end. this axis is 12 Ma2.
(a) Use this theorem to find the moment of
4 Calculate the moment of inertia of the rod in inertia of the disc about the x and y axes.
question 3 about an axis through its centre and (b) Use the parallel axis theorem to find
perpendicular to the rod. the moment of inertia of the disc about
a tangential axis parallel to the plane of
5 The parallel axis theorem states that the the disc.
moment of inertia about any axis is equal to
Solutions to exercises
Mb2 6 (a) The moments of inertia about the x and y
2
3 axes must be the same by symmetry, and
are equal to 14 Ma2.
1 2
3 Ml
3 5Ma2
(b)
1 4
4 Ml2
12
End of block exercises
-b 6 y 6 b. It is allowed to rotate about
1 A lamina of mass M has profile y = 8 - x2
the y axis. Show that its moment of inertia is
for -222 6 x 6 2 22. Find the moment of 1 2
inertia of the lamina about the y axis. 3 Ma .
3 If the lamina in question 2 is allowed to rotate
2 A uniform rectangular lamina of mass M is about the x axis, show that its moment of
defined by the region -a 6 x 6 a and inertia is 13 Mb2.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 928
18 928 Block 4 Moment of inertia
4 If the lamina in question 2 rotates about the energy, KE, is given by KE = 12 Iv2, where I is
line x = -a show that the relevant moment of the moment of inertia of the body about the
inertia is 43 Ma2. fixed axis. Show that the kinetic energy of a
rod of length l rotating about an axis through
1
5 Prove that the moment of inertia of a uniform its midpoint is 24 Ml2v2.
ring of mass M and radius a, about an axis
through its centre and perpendicular to its 8 A lamina has a profile in the first quadrant
plane, is Ma2. given by y2 = 4ax, for 0 … x … b.
(a) Show that the area of the lamina is
4 1>2 3>2
6 Use the parallel axis theorem given in the 3a b .
previous exercises to show that the moment of (b) Show that its moment of inertia about the y
inertia of a thin circular disc of mass M and axis is 37 Mb2.
radius a, about an axis perpendicular to the
(c) Show that its moment of inertia about the x
plane of the disc and passing through a point
axis is 45 Mab.
on the circumference, is 32 Ma2.
7 When a body rotates about a fixed axis with
angular speed v radians per second, its kinetic
Solutions to exercises
8M
1
5
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 929
The length of a curve and the area
BLOCK 5
of a surface of revolution
5.1 Introduction
Integration can be used to find the length of a curve and the area of the surface
generated when a curve is rotated around an axis. In this block we state and use the
formulae for doing this.
5.2 The length of a curve
Given a curve with equation y = f (x), then the length of the curve between the
points where x = a and x = b is given by the formula
Key point b 2
冮 A 1 + a dx b dx
dy
length of curve =
a
The proof of this formula is left as an exercise (question 1).
Because of the form of the integrand, and in particular the square root, integrals of
this type are often difficult to calculate and, in practice, approximate rather than
exact methods are needed to perform the integration. We shall illustrate the applica-
tion of the formula by an example which could be calculated in a much simpler way,
before looking at some harder examples.
Example 5.1
Find the length of the curve y = 3x + 2 between x = 1 and x = 5.
Solution
In this example, the curve is in fact a straight line, although we shall proceed as
though it had been more complicated. dy
Notice from the formula in the Key point that it is necessary to find . Do this
first. dx
dy
= 3
dx
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 930
18 930 Block 5 The length of a curve and the area of a surface of revolution
Applying the formula we find
5
length of curve = 冮 21 + (3) dx
1
2
5
= 冮 210 dx
1
5
= c 210 x d
1
= (5 - 1)210
= 4210
= 12.65
Thus the length of the curve y = 3x + 2 between the points where x = 1 and x = 5
is 12.65 units.
Example 5.2 Mechanical Engineering – Length of a curve
Find the length of the catenary y = cosh x between x = 0 and x = 2.
Solution
dy
First find .
dx
dy
= sinh x
dx
Hence write down the required integral:
2
冮 21 + sinh
0
2
x dx
This integral can be evaluated by making use of the hyperbolic identity
cosh2 x - sinh2 x = 1
Write down the integral that results after applying this identity.
冮 cosh x dx
0
Perform the integration for yourself to find the required length.
[sinh x]20 = 3.63
Thus the length of y = cosh x between x = 0 and x = 2 is 3.63 units.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 931
5.2 The length of a curve 931 18
The final example is more complicated still and requires the use of a hyperbolic sub-
stitution and knowledge of the hyperbolic identities.
Example 5.3
Find the length of the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 3.
Solution
dy
Given y = x2 then = 2x. Apply the formula to obtain the integral required:
dx
3
冮 21 + 4x dx
0
2
1 dx 1
Make the substitution x = sinh u, = cosh u, to obtain an integral in terms of u.
2 du 2
sinh-1 6
冮
1
2 1 + sinh2 u cosh u du
0 2
Use the hyperbolic identity cosh2 u - sinh2 u = 1 to rewrite this integral:
sinh-1 6
冮
1
cosh2 u du
2 0
1
Another hyperbolic identity is cosh2 u = (cosh 2u + 1). Apply this identity to
rewrite the integrand. 2
sinh-1 6
冮
1
cosh 2u + 1 du
4 0
Finally, performing the integration we can now complete the calculation:
sinh-1 6 sinh -1
6
冮 c + ud
1 1 sinh 2u
cosh 2u + 1 du =
4 0 4 2 0
= 9.75
Thus the length of the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 3 is 9.75 units.
Exercises
1 Figure 5.1 shows the portion of the curve y(x) (a) Use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the
between x = a and x = b. A small piece of length of the hypotenuse.
this curve has been selected and can be (b) By summing all such contributions
considered as the hypotenuse of a triangle with between x = a and x = b, and letting
base dx and height dy. dx : 0, obtain the integral expression for
the total length of the curve.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 932
18 932 Block 5 The length of a curve and the area of a surface of revolution
y
2 Find the length of the line y = 2x + 7
between x = 1 and x = 3 using the technique
y(x) of this section. Verify your result from your
δy knowledge of the straight line.
δx
3 Find the length of y = x3>2 between x = 0 and
x = 5.
O a b x 4 Calculate the length of the curve y2 = 4x3
between x = 0 and x = 2.
Figure 5.1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2(dx)2 + (dy)2 2 2 25 = 4.47
x=b
(b) a x = a 2(dx)2 + (dy)2 which, by taking 3 12.41
out a factor of (dx)2 from under the square
4 6.06 (first quadrant only)
root, gives
x=b
dy 2
a A 1 + a b dx
x=a dx
and then letting dx : 0 defines the integral
b
冮 A 1 + a dydx b dx
2
5.3 The area of a surface of revolution
Given a curve with equation y = f (x), then the area of the surface generated by rotat-
ing that part of the curve between the points where x = a and x = b around the x
axis is given by the formula
Key point b
冮 2py A 1 + a dx b dx
dy 2
area of surface =
a
The proof of this formula is left as an exercise (question 1).
Example 5.4
Find the area of the surface generated when the part of the curve y = x3 between
x = 0 and x = 4 is rotated around the x axis.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 933
5.3 The area of a surface of revolution 933 18
Solution
The area of surface is given by
b
dy 2
area = 冮 a
2py A 1 + a
dx
b dx
4
= 冮 0
2px3 21 + (3x2)2 dx
4
= 冮 0
2px3 21 + 9x4 dx
du
This integral can be found by making a substitution u = 1 + 9x4, = 36x3 so that
du dx
x3 dx = . When x = 0, u = 1 and when x = 4, u = 2305.
36
Write down the corresponding integral in terms of u.
2305
冮
p
1u du
18 1
Perform the integration.
p 2 3>2 2305
c u d
18 3 1
Apply the limits of integration to find the area.
p
[(2305)3>2 - 1]
27
Exercises
y
1 Figure 5.2 shows the portion of the curve
y(x) between x = a and x = b, which is y(x)
rotated around the x axis through 360°. A (x, y)
small disc of the solid of revolution has
been selected. Its radius is y and so its
circumference has length 2py. The surface
area of this disc is then approximately a b x
2py2(dx)2 + (dy)2. Obtain the formula for
the total surface area.
2 The line y = x between x = 0 and x = 1 is
rotated around the x axis.
(a) Find the area of the surface
generated. Figure 5.2
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 934
18 934 Block 5 The length of a curve and the area of a surface of revolution
(b) Verify this result by finding the curved 3 Find the area of the surface generated when
surface area of the corresponding cone. y = 2x for 1 … x … 2 is rotated
(The curved surface area of a cone of completely about the x axis.
radius r and slant height l is prl.)
Solutions to exercises
2 p12 3 8.28
End of block exercises
1 Calculate the length of the curve y2 = 8x3 y
between x = 1 and x = 3. 2
2 When a curve is defined parametrically by
1
x = x(t), y = y(t), show that
(a) the length of the curve between the points
where t = t1 and t = t2 is
O π 2π 3π x
t2
冮
2dy 2
a b + a b dt
dx
Figure 5.3
t1
A dt dt A cycloid.
(b) the area of the surface of revolution is
t2
冮 dx 2 dy 2
2py A a b + a b dt
and the graph shows the part of the curve
t1 dt dt generated when u lies between 0 and 4p.
(a) Using the result from question 2(a) show
3 Show that the area of the surface generated that the length of one arch of this curve,
when y =
x3
between x = 0 and x = 2 is that is 0 … u … 2p, is 8. a Hint: to integrate
9
rotated around the x axis is 98p
81 .
21 - cos u use the trigonometrical
identity
4 The curve shown in Figure 5.3 is called a
.b
1 - cos 2A
cycloid. It is the path traced out by a point on sin2 A =
2
the rim of a wheel that rolls along the ground
without slipping. This curve has parametric (b) Using the result from question 2(b) show
equations that the area of the surface generated when
the arch between 0 … u … 2p is rotated
x = u - sin u, y = 1 - cos u completely around the x axis is 64p
3 .
Solutions to exercises
1 12.04
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 935
The mean value and root-mean-square
BLOCK 6
value of a function
6.1 Introduction
Currents and voltages often vary with time. Engineers may wish to know the average
value of such a current or voltage over some particular time interval. The average
value of a time-varying function is defined in terms of an integral. An associated
quantity is the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of a function. The r.m.s. value of a
current is used in the calculation of the power dissipated by a resistor.
6.2 Average value of a function
Suppose a function f (t) is defined on the interval a … t … b. The area, A, under the
graph of f (t) is given by the integral
b
A = 冮 f (t) dt
a
This is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 f (t)
The area under the
curve from t = a
to t = b and the h
area of the
rectangle are
equal.
a b t
On Figure 6.1 we have also drawn a rectangle with base spanning the interval
a … t … b and which has the same area as that under the curve. Suppose the height
of the rectangle is h. Then
area of rectangle = area under curve
b
h(b - a) = 冮 f (t) dt
a
b
冮 f (t) dt
1
h =
b - a a
The value of h is the average value of the function across the interval a … t … b.
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 936
18 936 Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square value of a function
Key point b
冮
1
average value = f (t) dt
b - a a
The average value depends upon the interval chosen. If the values of a or b are
changed, then the average value of the function across the interval from a to b
will change as well. Note that the average value is also referred to as the mean
value.
Example 6.1
Find the average value of f (t) = t2 across the interval 1 … t … 3.
Solution
Here a = 1 and b = 3.
冮
1
average value = f (t) dt
b - a a
3
冮 t dt
1 2
=
3 - 1 1
3 3
c d
1 t
=
2 3 1
a9 - b
1 1
=
2 3
a b
1 26
=
2 3
13
=
3
Example 6.2
Find the average value of f (t) = t2 across the interval 2 … t … 5.
Solution
Here a = 2 and b = 5.
冮 t dt
1 2
average value =
5 - 2 2
= 13
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 937
6.2 Average value of a function 937 18
Example 6.3 Electrical Engineering – A thyristor-firing circuit
Figure 6.2 shows a simple circuit to control the voltage across a load resistor, RL.
This circuit has many uses, one of which is to adjust the level of lighting in a room.
The circuit has an alternating current power supply with peak voltage, VS. The main
control element is the thyristor. This device is similar in many ways to a diode. It has
a very high resistance when it is reverse biased and a low resistance when it is for-
ward biased. However, unlike a diode, this low resistance depends on the thyristor
being ‘switched on’ by the application of a gate current. The point at which the
thyristor is switched on can be varied by varying the resistor, RG. Figure 6.3 shows a
typical waveform of the voltage, vL, across the load resistor.
Figure 6.2
A thyristor-firing
circuit. vL RL
VS ~
Thyristor RG
Gate
Figure 6.3 vL
Load voltage
waveform. VS
t
αT αT αT
The point at which the thyristor is turned on in each cycle is characterised by the
quantity aT, where 0 … a … 0.25 and T is the period of the waveform. This restric-
tion on a reflects the fact that if the thyristor has not turned on when the supply volt-
age has peaked in the forward direction then it will never turn on.
Calculate the average value of the waveform over a period and comment on the
result.
Solution
The average value of load voltage is
T T>2
冮 冮 b dt
1 1 2pt
vL dt = VS sina
T 0 T aT T
2pt T>2
c -cosa bd
VS T
=
T 2p T aT
VS
= (1 + cos 2pa)
2p
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:46 AM Page 938
18 938 Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square value of a function
VS
If a = 0, then the average value is , the maximum value for this circuit. If
p
VS
a = 0.25, then the average value is , which shows that delaying the turning on of
2p
the thyristor reduces the average value of the load voltage.
Exercises
1 Calculate the average value of the given 3 Calculate the average value of the following:
functions across the specified interval: (a) f (t) = sin t across 30, p2 4
(a) f (t) = 1 + t across [0, 2] (b) f (t) = sin t across [0, p]
(b) f (x) = 2x - 1 across [-1, 1]
(c) f (t) = sin vt across [0, p]
(c) f (t) = t2 across [0, 1]
(d) f (t) = t2 across [0, 2] (d) f (t) = cos t across 30, p2 4
(e) f (z) = z2 + z across [1, 3] (e) f (t) = cos t across [0, p]
(f) f (t) = cos vt across [0, p]
2 Calculate the average value of the given (g) f (t) = sin vt + cos vt across [0, 1]
functions over the specified interval:
(a) f (x) = x3 across [1, 3] 4 Calculate the average value of the following
1 functions:
(b) f (x) = across [1, 2]
x (a) f (t) = 2t + 1 across [0, 3]
(c) f (t) = 1t across [0, 2]
(b) f (t) = et across 3-1, 14
(d) f (z) = z3 - 1 across [-1, 1]
1 (c) f (t) = 1 + et across 3-1, 14
(e) f (t) = 2 across [-3, -2]
t
Solutions to exercises
1 4 19 sin(pv) 1 + sin v - cos v
1 (a) 2 (b) -1 (c) (d) (e) (e) 0 (f) (g)
3 3 3 pv v
1
2 (a) 10 (b) 0.6931 (c) 0.9428 (d) -1 (e) 14
6 4 (a) (b) 1.1752 (c) 2.1752
2 2 1 2 9
3 (a) (b) (c) [1 - cos(pv)] (d)
p p pv p
6.3 Root-mean-square value of a function
If f (t) is defined on the interval a … t … b, the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value is
given by the following formula:
Key point
冮 3 f (t)4 dt
1 b
2
r.m.s. value =
Ab - a a
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:47 AM Page 939
6.3 Root-mean-square value of a function 939 18
The r.m.s. value depends upon the interval chosen. If the values of a or b are
changed, then the r.m.s. value of the function across the interval from a to b will
change as well. Note that when finding an r.m.s. value the function must be squared
before it is integrated. The expression
b
冮 3f (t)4 dt
1 2
b - a a
is the mean value of 3f (t)42 over the interval from a to b, that is the mean square value.
Example 6.4
Find the r.m.s. value of f (t) = t2 across the interval from t = 1 to t = 3.
Solution
冮 3f (t)4 dt
1 b
2
r.m.s. value =
Ab - a a
冮 3t 4 dt
3
1 2 2
=
A3 - 1 1
冮 t dt
1 3
4
=
A2 1
1 t5 3
A 2 c 5 d1
=
1 35
=A a - b
1
2 5 5
a - b
1 243 1
=
A2 5 5
242
=
A 10
= 4.92
Example 6.5 Electrical Engineering – r.m.s. value of a
sinusoidal current
The r.m.s. value is often used in the analysis of circuits. A sinusoidal current, i(t), is
given by
i(t) = sin t
Calculate the r.m.s. value of i(t) across the interval t = 0 to t = 2p.
Solution
Here a = 0 and b = 2p.
冮
1 2p
r.m.s. value = sin2 t dt
A 2p 0
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:47 AM Page 940
18 940 Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square value of a function
The integral of sin2 t is performed by using trigonometrical identities to rewrite it in
the alternative form 12 (1 - cos 2t). This technique was described in Chapter 17,
Block 8.
冮
1 2p (1 - cos 2t)
r.m.s. value = dt
A 2p 0 2
冮
1 2p
= (1 - cos 2t) dt
A 4p 0
sin 2t 2p
ct - d
1
=
A 4p 2 0
1
= (2p)
A 4p
1
=
A2
= 0.707
Thus the r.m.s. value is 0.707.
In the previous example the amplitude of the sine wave was 1, and the r.m.s. value
was 0.707. In general, if the amplitude of a sine wave is A, its r.m.s. value is 0.707A.
Key point The r.m.s. value of any sinusoidal waveform taken across an interval equal to one period
is 0.707 * the amplitude of the waveform.
Exercises
1 Calculate the r.m.s. values of the functions in 3 Calculate the r.m.s. values of the functions in
question 1 in the previous exercises. question 3 in the previous exercises.
2 Calculate the r.m.s. values of the functions in 4 Calculate the r.m.s. values of the functions in
question 2 in the previous exercises. question 4 in the previous exercises.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2.0817 (b) 1.5275 (c) 0.4472 (d) 1.7889 1 sin pv cos pv
(e) 0.7071 (f) +
(e) 6.9666 A2 2pv
sin2 v
2 (a) 12.4957 (b) 0.7071 (c) 1 (d) 1.0690 (g) 1 +
A v
(e) 0.1712
4 (a) 1.5811 (b) 1.3466 (c) 2.2724
3 (a) 0.7071 (b) 0.7071
1 sin pv cos pv
(c) - (d) 0.7071
A2 2pv
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 9/27/18 9:47 AM Page 941
6.3 Root-mean-square value of a function 941 18
End of block exercises
1 Find the average value of the following 3 Calculate the average value of the following
functions across the specified interval: functions:
(a) f (t) = 3 - t across [0, 4] (a) f (t) = Aekt across [0, 1]
(b) f (t) = t2 - 2 across [1, 3] 1
(b) f (t) = 3t across [0, 2]
1 e
(c) f (t) = t + across [1, 4]
t (c) f (t) = 3 - e-t across [1, 3]
(d) f (t) = 2t + 1 across [0, 4] (d) f (t) = et + e-t across [0, 2]
(e) f (t) = t2>3 across [0, 1] (e) f (t) = t + et across [0, 2]
2 Calculate the average value of the following: 4 Find the average and r.m.s. values of
A cos t + B sin t across
(a) f (t) = 2 sin 2t across c0, d
p
2 (a) [0, 2p]
(b) [0, p]
(b) f (t) = A sin 4t across c0, d
p
2 5 Find the r.m.s. values of the functions in
(c) f (t) = sin t + cos t across [0, p] question 1.
(d) f (t) = cosa b across c0, d
t p 6 Find the r.m.s. values of the functions in
2 2 question 2.
(e) f (t) = sin t cos t across [0, p]
7 Find the r.m.s. values of the functions in
question 3.
Solutions to exercises
7 7 3 A
1 (a) 1 (b) (c) 2.9621 (d) (e) 6 (a) 1.4142 (b) (c) 1 (d) 0.9046
3 3 5 22
(e) 0.3536
4 2
2 (a) (b) 0 (c) (d) 0.9003 (e) 0
p p
e2k - 1
7 (a) (b) 0.2887 (c) 2.8423
ek - 1 A 2k
3 (a) Aa b (b) 0.1663 (c) 2.8410
k (d) 3.9554 (e) 4.8085
(d) 3.6269 (e) 4.1945
A2 + B2
4 (a) average = 0, r.m.s. =
A 2
2B A2 + B2
(b) average = , r.m.s. =
p A 2
5 (a) 1.5275 (b) 3.2965 (c) 3.0414
(d) 2.3805 (e) 0.6547
M18_CROF5939_04_SE_C18.QXD 11/28/18 7:47 PM Page 942
18 942 Block 6 The mean value and root-mean-square value of a function
End of chapter exercises
1 Find the mean value of each of the following 4 Find the volume of the solid generated when
functions across the interval stated: the curve y = 3x2 for 0 … x … 1 is rotated
(a) f (t) = sin t, [0, p] around the y axis.
(b) f (t) = t3, [1, 5]
5 Find the volume of the solid generated when
(c) f (t) = e3t, [0, 2] 1
(d) f (t) = 20 + 2 sin pt, [0, 0.5] y = for 1 … x … 5 is rotated about the x axis.
x
2 Calculate the root-mean-square value of each 6 Consider the cycloid defined by
of the following functions across the interval x = a(u - sin u), y = a(1 - cos u) where a is
stated: a constant. Show that the length of this curve
(a) f (t) = t, [0, 10] for values of the parameter u between 0 and
(b) f (t) = cos 2t, [0, p] 2p is 8a. (Hint: see Block 5, End of block
(c) f (t) = sin 2t, [0, p] exercises, question 4.)
(d) f (t) = 10 sin 50pt, [0, 0.01]
7 Find the length of the curve y = cosh x for
3 The acceleration, a, of an object varies with -1 … x … 1.
time, t, according to the formula a = t2 + 3t.
Given that velocity v is given by v = 1 a(t) dt,
find the velocity after 5 seconds given that the
object is at rest at t = 0.
Solutions to exercises
2 4 3p
1 (a) (b) 39 (c) 67.07 (d) + 20 = 21.2732 4
p p 2
1 1 4p
2 (a) 5.7735 (b) (c) 5
22 22 5
(d) 250 = 7.07106 7 2 sinh 1 = 2.35
3 79.2
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 10/4/18 2:43 PM Page 943
Chapter 19
Sequences and series
A sequence is a set of numbers written down in a specific order. If a
continuous function or waveform is measured, or sampled, at periodic
intervals we obtain a sequence of values. Sequences also arise when
an attempt is made to find approximate solutions of equations that
model physical phenomena. Such approximation is often necessary
if a solution is to be obtained using a digital computer.
Sequences are important in engineering mathematics because they
can be used to describe discrete time signals. These are signals that
have a non-zero value only at certain specific instants of time. For
example, in digital computers calculations are carried out at fixed
intervals of time governed by an electronic clock.
A series is formed when the terms of a sequence are added. Series are
important because the solutions of some mathematical problems can
be expressed as series. Two notable groups of series are known
as Taylor series and Maclaurin series. These are used extensively to
provide approximations or estimates of function values.
In this chapter we discuss properties common to all sequences and
series and look at some particular and important examples.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 944
Chapter 19 contents
Block 1 Sequences and series
Block 2 Sums of whole numbers, their squares and cubes
Block 3 Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
End of chapter exercises
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 945
Sequences and series
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
A sequence is a set of numbers written down in a specific order. For example, 1, 3,
5, 7, 9 and -1, -2, -3, -4, -5 are both sequences. Each number in the sequence is
called a term of the sequence. Sometimes we use the symbol . . . to indicate that the
sequence continues. For example, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 20 is the sequence of integers from
1 to 20 inclusive. The sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . can be assumed to continue
indefinitely.
It is necessary to introduce a notation for handling sequences. Consider again the
sequence of odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . . Suppose we let x[1] stand for the first
term, x[2] stand for the second term, and so on. Then
x[1] = 1, x[2] = 3, x[3] = 5, and so on
Clearly x[k] will stand for the kth term. Note that by inspection we can write down a
formula for the k th term. It is x[k] = 2k - 1. Substitute some values of k for your-
self to check this.
To denote the full sequence concisely we write
x[k] = 2k - 1 where k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Some books use the alternative notation x1 = 1, x2 = 3, x3 = 5 and xk = 2k - 1.
Example 1.1
Consider the sequence of even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . . By inspection find a formula
for the kth term of this sequence.
Solution
x[k] = 2k, where k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Example 1.2
1
Write down the first five terms of the sequence given by x[k] = (- 1)k + 1 where
k
k 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Solution
x[1] = (- 1)2 11 = 1
x[2] = (- 1)3 12 = - 12
Write down the third, fourth and fifth terms.
1 1 1
,- ,
3 4 5
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 946
19 946 Block 1 Sequences and series
A series is obtained when the terms of a sequence are added. For example, if we add
the terms of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 we obtain the series
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9
We use sigma notation, first introduced in Chapter 5, Block 1, to write a series con-
cisely. For example, the sum of the first 10 odd numbers can be written
10
a 2k - 1
k=1
where the lowermost and uppermost values of k are placed below and above the sigma
sign respectively. Similarly, the sum of the first six even numbers can be written
6
a 2k
k=1
Example 1.3
5
1
Write out explicitly the terms of the series a .
k=1 k
Solution
1 1 1 1
1 + + + +
2 3 4 5
In this block we start by discussing the behaviour of sequences and series that have
an infinite number of terms. Then two particular types of sequence are described:
the arithmetic sequence and the geometric sequence. These are particularly straight-
forward, and there are simple formulae for finding their sums.
Exercises
1 Explain carefully the distinction between a 4 A sequence is given by 5, 85 , 27
5 5
, 64 , . . .. Write
sequence and a series. down an expression to denote the full
sequence.
2 Write out fully the following sums:
6 k=4 k=5 5 Write out explicitly the series
(a) a k = 1 k (b) a k = 1 k2 (c) a k = 1 k3
4
1
3 A sequence is defined by a (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
k=1
k2
x[k] = + k, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
2
State the first five terms.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 947
1.2 The limit of an infinite sequence 947 19
Solutions to exercises
5
2 (a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 4 x[k] = , k 1, 2, 3, . . . , for example
(b) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 k3
(c) 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 5 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
(3)(5) (5)(7) (7)(9) (9)(11)
3 0, 32 , 4, 15
2 , 12
1.2 The limit of an infinite sequence
Some sequences stop after a finite number of terms. These are called finite
sequences. Others continue indefinitely, and these are called infinite sequences.
Sometimes the terms of an infinite sequence get closer and closer to a fixed value.
1
For example, the terms of the sequence x[k] = , for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , are
k
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , . . .
2 3 4 5
The terms appear to be getting smaller. What do you think will be the eventual
behaviour of the sequence as k gets large?
terms approach the value 0
We say that ‘as k tends to infinity, x[k] tends to zero’, or ‘the limit of x[k] as k tends
to infinity is zero’ and write this as
lim x[k] = 0
k: q
When a sequence possesses a limit as k tends to infinity, it is said to converge.
Example 1.4
1
Write down the first four terms of the sequence x[k] = 2 , for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
k
What is the behaviour of the sequence as k tends to infinity?
Solution
The first four terms are
1 1 1
1, , ,
4 9 16
1
As k tends to infinity, tends to zero.
k2
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 948
19 948 Block 1 Sequences and series
Example 1.5
1
Explore the behaviour of the sequence x3k4 = 2 + , k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., as k : q .
A k
Solution
Write down the first few terms of this sequence:
23, 2212,2213, Á
1
As k tends to infinity the term tends to zero. So limk : q x[k] = 22.
k
When a sequence does not possess a limit it is said to diverge. The sequence of odd
numbers diverges because the terms of the sequence get larger and larger and so the
sequence does not possess a limit. The oscillating sequence -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, . . .
is divergent because it does not possess a limit.
Example 1.6
(a) Write out the first four terms of the sequence x[k] = 2k, k = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
(b) Find limk : q x[k].
Solution
(a) 1, 22, 23, 24.
(b) The terms of this sequence increase indefinitely. The sequence therefore
diverges.
Example 1.7
3k2 + 2k - 7
Find the limit of the sequence x[k] = as k : q .
9k2 - 7k
Solution
The approach to tackling a problem like this is to rewrite x[k] in a form in which we
can sensibly let k : q . Dividing both numerator and denominator by the highest
power of k, that is k2, gives
2 7
3 + - 2
k k
x[k] =
7
9 -
k
1 1
Now because and 2 both tend to zero as k tends to infinity it follows that
k k
2 7
3 + - 2
k k
lim x[k] = lim
k: q k: q 7
9 -
k
3
=
9
1
=
3
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 949
1.3 The sum of an infinite series 949 19
Exercises
1 k
1 Find if possible the limit of each of the (d) x[k] = a b , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
following sequences: 3
1 2k + 3
(a) x[k] = , k = 1, 2, 3, . . . (e) x[k] = , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
k + 1 4k + 2
2
(b) x3k4 = k , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
k - 1
(c) x[k] = , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
k + 1
Solutions to exercises
1
1 (a) 0 (b) diverges (c) 1 (d) 0 (e)
2
1.3 The sum of an infinite series
When the terms of an infinite sequence are added we obtain an infinite series. It may
seem strange to try to add together an infinite number of terms but under some cir-
cumstances their sum is finite and can be found. For example, consider the infinite
1
series formed from the sequence x[k] = k , k = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
2
1 1 1
1 + + + + ...
2 4 8
We can calculate the sum of n terms, Sn, for various values of n. For example, the
sum of just the first term is
S1 = 1
The sum of the first two terms is
1
S2 = 1 +
2
= 1.5
Similarly S3 = 1.75, S4 = 1.875, . . . , S10 = 1.9980. The sequence S1, S2, S3, . . .
is called the sequence of partial sums. As we calculate Sn for larger and larger
values of n, we note that Sn gets nearer and nearer to 2. We write S to stand for the
sum of an infinite number of terms, so
q
1
S = a k
k=0 2
= 2
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 950
19 950 Block 1 Sequences and series
q
For any infinite series, say a k = 1 x[k], we can form the sequence of partial sums:
S1 = x[1], S2 = x[1] + x[2], S3 = x[1] + x[2] + x[3], . . .
If the sequence Sn converges to a limit S we say that the infinite series has sum S, or
that it has converged to S.
In general it is difficult to determine whether or not an infinite series has a finite
sum. It is possible to establish tests or convergence criteria to help decide whether
or not a given series converges or diverges, but for these you must refer to a more
advanced book.
Example 1.8
Calculate the first six partial sums of the series
q
k+1 1
a (-1) k
k=1
Solution
The first six terms of the series are
1 1 1 1 1
1 - + - + -
2 3 4 5 6
Form the first six partial sums for yourself working to 4 d.p.
1, 0.5000, 0.8333, 0.5833, 0.7833, 0.6167
If you proceed to calculate many more terms you will see that the sequence of
partial sums converges to 0.6931, which is in fact ln 2.
Maple and Matlab, in common with similar packages, have built-in commands for find-
ing sums of finite and infinite series. For example, using Maple Example 1.8 can be
implemented using
sum((-1)^(k+1)/k, k = 1 .. 6);
evalf(sum((-1)^(k + 1)/k, k = 1 .. 6))
The command evalf( ) produces a decimal approximation. The sum to infinity can be
found using
sum((-1)^(k+1)/k,k = 1 .. infinity);
In Matlab, the symsum command calculates the symbolic sum of a series:
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/18 7:40 AM Page 951
1.4 Arithmetic sequences 951 19
sym k
symsum((-1)^(k+1)/k,k,1,6)
vpa(ans)
The command vpa( ) produces a decimal approximation. The sum to infinity can be
found using
symsum((-1)^(k + 1)/k,k,1,Inf)
You should investigate commands like these in the packages to which you have access.
Exercises
1 Calculate the first four partial sums of the 2 Calculate the first four partial sums of the
q q
1 1
series a . (Recall 0! = 1.) series a (-1)k .
k=0 k! k=0 (2k)!
Solutions to exercises
1 1, 2, 2.5, 2.6667 (in fact this converges to 2 1, 0.5, 0.5417, 0.5403 (this converges to
e = 2 .7183). cos 1 = 0.5403).
1.4 Arithmetic sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers where each new term after
the first is formed by adding a fixed amount called the common difference to the
previous term in the sequence. For example, the sequence
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
is an arithmetic sequence. Note that having chosen the first term to be 3, each new
term is found by adding 2 to the previous term, so the common difference is 2.
The common difference can be negative: for example, the sequence
2, -1, - 4, -7, . . .
is an arithmetic sequence with first term 2 and common difference -3.
In general we can write an arithmetic sequence as follows:
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 952
19 952 Block 1 Sequences and series
Key point Arithmetic sequence
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
where the first term is a and the common difference is d. Some important results
concerning arithmetic sequences now follow:
Key point The nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by
a + (n - 1)d
This result arises from inspection of the terms in the general sequence in the previ-
ous Key point. Note, for example, that the third term is given by a (3 1)d a
2d. Similarly, the 100th term would be a (100 1)d a 99d.
Key point The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence is
n
Sn = [2a + (n - 1)d]
2
This result can be derived as follows:
Write out the sum of n terms, Sn, of the sequence twice, first in order, and then in
reverse order:
Sn a (a d) (a 2d) (a 3d) . . . (a (n 2)d) (a (n 1)d) (1)
Sn (a (n 1)d) (a (n 2)d) . . . (a 3d) (a 2d) (a d) a (2)
Adding equations (1) and (2), and noting that each pair of terms adds to give
2a (n 1)d, we find
2Sn (2a (n 1)d) (2a (n 1)d) (2a (n 1)d) . . . (2a (n 1)d)
2Sn n (2a (n 1)d)
n
Sn (2a + (n - 1)d)
2
The sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence is known as an arithmetic series.
Example 1.9
Find the 17th term of an arithmetic sequence with first term 5 and common
difference 2.
Solution
The nth term is a (n 1)d.
Hence
17th term =
5 + (17 - 1)2 = 5 + 32 = 37
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 953
1.5 Geometric sequences 953 19
Example 1.10
Find the sum of the first 23 terms of the arithmetic sequence
4, -3, -10, . . .
Solution
First identify a and d.
a = 4, d = -7
32a + (n - 1)d4, find the sum of 23 terms:
n
Then, using Sn =
2
23
[2(4) + (23 - 1) (-7)] = -1679
2
Exercises
1 Find the 23rd term of an arithmetic sequence 4 An arithmetic sequence is given by
with first term 2 and common difference 7.
2b b
b, , , 0, . . .
2 Find the sum of the first five terms of the 3 3
arithmetic sequence with first term 3 and (a) State the sixth term.
common difference 5. (b) State the kth term.
(c) If the 20th term has a value of 15, find b.
3 Write down the 10th and 19th terms of the
arithmetic sequence
(a) 8, 11, 14, . . . (b) 8, 5, 2, . . .
Solutions to exercises
1 156 3 (a) 35, 62 (b) -19, -46
2b b(4 - k) 45
2 65 4 (a) - (b) (c) -
3 3 16
1.5 Geometric sequences
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is
found by multiplying the previous term by a fixed number called the common ratio.
For example, the sequence
1, 3, 9, 27, . . .
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 10/17/18 4:08 PM Page 954
19 954 Block 1 Sequences and series
is a geometric sequence with first term 1 and common ratio 3. Each term after the
first is found by multiplying the preceding term by 3.
The common ratio could be a fraction and it might be negative.
Example 1.11
Write down the first few terms of the geometric sequence with first term 2 and
common ratio - 13 .
Solution
2 2 2
2, - , , - , . . .
3 9 27
In general we can write a geometric sequence as follows:
Key point Geometric sequence
a, ar, ar2, ar3, . . .
where the first term is a and the common ratio is r.
Some important results concerning geometric sequences now follow:
Note that if r ⫽ 1, all terms will be the same and be equal to a.
Key point The nth term of a geometric sequence is given by
ar(n - 1)
This result arises from inspection of the terms in the general sequence in the previ-
ous Key point. Note, for example, that the third term is given by ar3⫺1 ⫽ ar2. Simi-
larly, the 10th term would be ar10⫺1 ⫽ ar9.
Key point The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is
a(1 - rn)
Sn = (valid only if r Z 1)
1 - r
Write out the sum of n terms, Sn:
Sn ⫽ a ⫹ ar ⫹ ar2 ⫹ ar3 ⫹ . . . ⫹ arn⫺1
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 955
1.5 Geometric sequences 955 19
Multiply both sides by r:
rSn ar ar2 ar3 . . . arn1 arn
Subtracting, and noting that most terms cancel out:
Sn rSn a arn
(1 r)Sn a(1 rn)
a (1 - rn)
Sn for r Z 1
1 - r
The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence is known as a geometric series.
Example 1.12
Find the seventh term of the geometric sequence
2, -6, 18, . . .
Solution
First identify a and the common ratio r.
a = 2, r = -3
Then, the nth term is arn1, so the seventh term is
(2)(-3)6 = 1458
If the common ratio in a geometric series is less than 1 in modulus (i.e. -1 6 r 6 1),
the sum of an infinite number of terms converges and can be calculated. This is known
as the sum to infinity, S q .
a (1 - rn)
The formula for S q can be obtained from Sn = by noting that as
1 - r
n : q , rn : 0 when -1 6 r 6 1.
Key point Sq =
a
provided -1 6 r 6 1
1 - r
Example 1.13
Find the sum to infinity of the geometric sequence with first term 3 and common
ratio 12 .
Solution
a
Sq =
1 - r
= 6
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 956
19 956 Block 1 Sequences and series
Exercises
1 Find the seventh term of a geometric sequence 5 The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence is
with first term 2 and common ratio 3. four times the first term. Find the common
ratio.
2 Find the sum of the first five terms of the
geometric sequence with first term 3 and 6 A geometric series has S3 = 37 3367
8 and S6 = 512 .
common ratio 2. Find the first term and the common ratio.
3 Find the sum of the infinite geometric series 7 A geometric sequence is given by 1, 12, 14, . . ..
with first term 2 and common ratio 12 . What is its common ratio?
4 A geometric sequence has first term 1. The
ninth term exceeds the fifth term by 240. Find
possible values for the eighth term.
Solutions to exercises
3
1 1458 5 4
2 93 6 2, 34
1
3 4 7 2
4 ;128
End of block exercises
1 State whether the following sequences are 5 A geometric series has first term equal to 3 and
arithmetic, geometric or neither: a common ratio of 1.5. Calculate the sum of
(a) 1, -1, -3, -5, . . . (b) 4, 2, 1, 0.5, . . . (a) the first 10 terms, (b) the first 50 terms,
(c) 6, 7, 8, 9, . . . (d) 4, 5, 7, 10, . . . (c) the 30th to the 49th terms inclusive.
(e) 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, . . .
(f) 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, . . . (g) 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . 6 Find the limit as k : q , if it exists, of each of
the following:
2 An arithmetic sequence has first term -3 and (a) x[k] = k5 (b) x[k] = sin k
common difference 4. State (a) the 10th term, k2 + k
(b) the 300th term. (c) x[k] =
k2 + k + 1
3 An arithmetic series has first term 4 and 3k2 + k
(d) x[k] =
common difference 12 . Find (a) the sum of k2 + k + 1
the first 20 terms, (b) the sum of the first
100 terms. 7 Show that the sum of the first n terms of an
arithmetic sequence, Sn, can be expressed as
4 A geometric sequence has first term -2 and n
common ratio - 34 . State the 20th term. Sn = (first term + last term)
2
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 957
1.5 Geometric sequences 957 19
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) arithmetic (b) geometric (c) arithmetic 4 8.4566 * 10-3
(d) neither (e) geometric (f) geometric
(g) arithmetic and geometric 5 (a) 339.99 (b) 3.8257 * 109
(c) 2.5497 * 109
2 (a) 33 (b) 1193
6 (a) diverges (b) diverges (c) 1 (d) 3
3 (a) 175 (b) 2875
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 958
Sums of whole numbers, their squares and cubes
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
There are a number of series that arise in the solution of certain problems and it is
useful to know their sums. In this block we give these series.
2.2 The sum of the first n positive integers
Key point The sum of the first n positive integers is given by
n
... + n
ak = 1 + 2 + 3 +
k=1
n
= (n + 1)
2
In fact this series is an arithmetic series with first term 1 and common difference 1,
as discussed in Block 1.
Example 2.1
Find the sum of the first 100 integers, 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100.
Solution
Use the formula with n = 100:
100
(101) = 5050
2
2.3 The sum of the squares of the first n positive integers
Key point The sum of the squares of the first n positive integers is given by
n
2 2 2 2 . . . + n2
ak = 1 + 2 + 3 +
k=1
n
= (n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 959
2.4 The sum of the cubes of the first n positive integers 959 19
Example 2.2
Find the sum of the squares of the first 10 integers, 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + 102.
Solution
Use the formula with n = 10:
10
(11)(21) = 385
6
2.4 The sum of the cubes of the first n positive integers
Key point The sum of the cubes of the first n positive integers is given by
n
3 3 3 3 . . . + n3
ak = 1 + 2 + 3 +
k=1
n(n + 1) 2
= a b
2
Example 2.3
Find the sum of the cubes of the first 12 integers, 13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + 123.
Solution
Use the formula with n = 12:
12(13) 2
a b = 6084
2
Exercises
1 Find the sum of the first 20 positive integers. 3 Find the sum of the cubes of the first six
positive integers.
2 Find the sum of the squares of the first
20 positive integers. 4 Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers.
Solutions to exercises
1 210 3 441
2 2870 4 820
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 960
19 960 Block 2 Sums of whole numbers, their squares and cubes
End of block exercises
32
1 Find a k = 1 k2. 4 Find the sum of the integers from -200 to -6
inclusive.
18
2 Find a k = 1 k. 5 Find the sum of the integers from -50 to 24
inclusive.
3 Find the sum of the integers from 18 to 96
inclusive. 6 Find 72 + 82 + . . . + 212.
Solutions to exercises
1 11440 4 -20085
2 171 5 -975
3 4503 6 3220
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 961
Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
It is frequently necessary to expand expressions of the form (a + b)2 or (a + b)3.
The expansion of an expression of the form (a + b)n is called a binomial
expansion. When the power n is small it is possible to multiply out the brackets. If n
is large this approach becomes tedious. An alternative and very simple approach is to
use Pascal’s triangle, which is described in the next section.
When n is very large, even Pascal’s triangle is tedious, and the binomial theorem
provides an alternative.
3.2 Pascal’s triangle
Consider the triangle of numbers shown below. Every entry is obtained by adding the
two entries on either side in the preceding row, always starting and finishing a row
with a 1.
Key point Pascal’s triangle
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
o o o o o o o
Example 3.1
Complete the next two rows in the triangle. Add these rows to the triangle above.
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 962
19 962 Block 3 Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
Compare the third and fourth rows of the triangle with the expansions of (a + b)2
and (a + b)3.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2, (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
Note that Pascal’s triangle gives the coefficients in the expansions. Furthermore, the
terms in these expansions are composed of decreasing powers of a and increasing
powers of b. If we want the expansion of (a + b)4 the row in the triangle beginning
1, 4 will provide the coefficients. We simply insert the appropriate powers of a and b,
starting with the highest power of a, namely a4. Thus
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
Example 3.2
Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (a + b)5.
Solution
a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5
Example 3.3
Find (cos x + sin x)3.
Solution
The answer can be written down immediately:
(cos x + sin x)3 = cos3 x + 3 cos2 x sin x + 3 cos x sin2 x + sin3 x
Exercises
1 Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (a + b)7. 2 Expand (a + b)4. By letting a = 1 and
b = 3y expand (1 + 3y)4.
Solutions to exercises
1 a7 + 7a6b + 21a5b2 + 35a4b3 + 35a3b4 + 2 1 + 12y + 54y2 + 108y3 + 81y4
21a2b5 + 7ab6 + b7
3.3 The binomial theorem when n is a positive integer
The binomial theorem is concerned with the expansion of (a + b)n. It is useful to
separate the discussion into two cases, the first when n is a positive integer, and the
second when n is negative or fractional. Section 3.4 will deal with the second case.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 963
3.3 The binomial theorem when n is a positive integer 963 19
When n is a positive integer, the expansion of (a + b)n contains a finite number of
terms. For example, we have seen in Example 3.2 that
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5
and so the expansion contains six terms. The binomial theorem is useful when we
want to expand (a + b)n for large n. To use the theorem you will need to recall
factorial notation first introduced in Chapter 5, Block 1.
2! = 2 * 1, 3! = 3 * 2 * 1, 4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1, and so on
Key point The binomial theorem states that when n is a positive integer
n(n - 1) n - 2 2
(a + b)n = an + nan - 1 b + a b
2!
n(n - 1)(n - 2) n - 3 3
+ a b + . . . + bn
3!
This is a sum of a finite number of terms, that is the series stops. The last term is bn.
Example 3.4
(a) Write out the first three terms of the expansion of (a + b)21.
(b) What would be the last term?
Solution
(a) Using the theorem with n = 21 we can write down the first three terms:
21(20) 19 2 . . .
(a + b)21 = a21 + 21a20b + a b +
2!
(b) The last term is b21.
The theorem is often quoted for the particular case when a = 1 and b = x:
Key point Binomial theorem (alternative form)
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + . . . + xn
2! 3!
Example 3.5
Use the theorem to write down the expansion of (1 + x)4.
Solution
Use the expansion with n = 4:
1 + 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + x4
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19 964 Block 3 Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
Exercises
1 Use the binomial theorem to expand 2 Write down the first three terms in the
4 5 expansion of (x + 3y)12.
(a) (1 + x)3 (b) a1 + b (c) a1 - b
x x
3 2
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3 2 x12 + 36x11y + 594x10y2 + . . .
4x 2x2 4x3 x4
(b) 1 + + + +
3 3 27 81
5x 5x2 5x3 5x4 x5
(c) 1 - + - + -
2 2 4 16 32
3.4 The binomial theorem when n is not a positive integer
The theorem can be applied when n is not a positive integer provided that x lies
between -1 and 1. However, when n is not a positive integer, the series is infinite:
Key point The binomial theorem states that when n is not a positive integer
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...
2! 3!
only for -1 6 x 6 1
This is an infinite series.
Example 3.6
Use the binomial theorem to write down the first four terms in the expansion of
(1 + x)1>2.
Solution 1
Use the theorem with n = .
2
1 A 12 B A - 12 B A 12 B A - 12 B A - 32 B
1 + x + 2
x + x3 + . . .
2 2! 3!
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 965
3.4 The binomial theorem when n is not a positive integer 965 19
Simplify your result:
x x2 x3
1 + - + + ...
2 8 16
x x2 x3
Note that (1 + x)1>2 and 1 + - + + . . . have the same numerical value
2 8 16
only when x lies in the range -1 to 1. If x is outside this range the two expressions
have different values.
Example 3.7
1
Expand in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3.
1 + x
Solution
1
can be written (1 + x)-1. Use the binomial theorem with n = -1:
1 + x
1 - x + x2 - x3 + . . .
This expansion is valid provided -1 6 x 6 1.
Example 3.8
1 x
Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of 2
in powers of .
(l - x) l
Solution
1
Note that we can rewrite in the following way:
(l - x)2
1 1
=
(l - x)2 x 2
l2 a1 - b
l
a1 - b
1 x -2
= 2
l l
The binomial theorem can then be used to expand a1 - b :
x -2
l
x 2
a1 - b = 1 + (-2) a - b + a- b
x -2 x (-2)(-3)
l l 2! l
x 3
a- b + ...
(-2)(-3)(-4)
+
3! l
x 2 x 3
= 1 + 2 a b + 3 a b + 4 a b + ...
x
l l l
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 966
19 966 Block 3 Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
Hence
x 2 x 3
= 2 c1 + 2 a b + 3 a b + 4 a b + . . . d
1 1 x
2 l l l
(l - x) l
Exercises
1 Obtain the first five terms in the expansion of 2 Obtain a quadratic approximation to (1 - 2x)1>2
(1 + x)-2. State the range of values of x for using the binomial theorem. For what range of
which the expansion is valid. values of x is your expansion valid?
Solutions to exercises
1 2 ... 1 1
1 1 - 2x + 3x2 - 4x3 + 5x4, -1 6 x 6 1 2 1 - x - x + ,- 6 x 6
2 2 2
End of block exercises
1 (a) Use the binomial theorem to expand 4 Write down the first two terms in the binomial
(1 + y)5. expansion of
(b) Use the result from part (a) to expand
x 1>4
(1 + 3y)5. a1 + b
5
2 Expand (a) (1 - z)3, (b) (2 - z)3,
1 5
(c) (2 + z)3, (d) (1 + 2z)3, (e) (z + 3)3. 5 Expand a2 - b .
x
3 Expand (cos u + j sin u)5 where j2 = -1.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 1 + 5y + 10y2 + 10y3 + 5y4 + y5 3 cos5 u - 10 cos3 u sin2 u + 5 cos u sin4 u +
(b) 1 + 15y + 90y2 + 270y3 + 405y4 + 243y5 j(sin5 u - 10 cos2 u sin3 u + 5 cos4 u sin u)
2 (a) 1 - 3z + 3z2 - z3 x
4 1 +
20
(b) 8 - 12z + 6z2 - z3
(c) 8 + 12z + 6z2 + z3 5
80 80 40 10 1
32 - + 2 - 3 + 4 - 5
(d) 1 + 6z + 12z2 + 8z3 x x x x x
(e) z3 + 9z2 + 27z + 27
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 967
Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Suppose the value of a function and the value of its derivatives are known at a partic-
ular point. From this information it is possible to obtain values of the function
around that point, using a series called a Taylor series.
When the particular point is the origin, it is possible to obtain function values at
neighbouring points using a Maclaurin series. Thus the Maclaurin series is a special
case of the Taylor series.
These two series are explored in this block.
4.2 Maclaurin series
Suppose we have a function f (x) from which we find the value of the function when
x = 0, that is f (0). Suppose also that by successive differentiation we find the value
of the derivatives of f (x) at x = 0, that is f ¿(0), f –(0), and so on.
The Maclaurin series formula enables us to find the value of the function at a
point, x, close to the origin:
Key point Maclaurin series
x2 x3
f (x) = f (0) + xf ¿(0) + f –(0) + f ‡(0) + . . .
2! 3!
This is an infinite series, although often we can approximate f (x) by using just a
finite number of the terms as we shall show.
Consider the following example.
Example 4.1
Obtain the Maclaurin series for f (x) = ex.
Solution
Here f (x) = ex. Evaluate f (0):
f (0) = e0 = 1
Differentiate f (x) and so find f ¿(0).
f ¿(x) = ex, f ¿(0) = 1
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 968
19 968 Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
We can continue in this way to show that
f –(0) = 1, f ‡(0) = 1, and so on
Applying the Maclaurin series formula,
x2 x3
f(x) = f (0) + xf ¿(0) + f –(0) + f ‡(0) + . . .
2! 3!
x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2! 3!
This is an infinite series, which is equal to ex for all values of x. We can write it
concisely using sigma notation as
xn
q
ex = a
n = 0 n!
It is also known as the power series expansion of ex about the origin.
We have shown in the previous example that
xn x2 x3
q
ex = a = 1 + x + + + ...
n = 0 n! 2! 3!
By taking successive partial sums of this Maclaurin series we can obtain polynomials
that are approximations to ex, known as Maclaurin polynomials. Denoting these
polynomials by p0(x), p1(x), and so on, we have
p0(x) = 1, by taking just the first term
p1(x) = 1 + x, by taking the first two terms
2
x
p2(x) = 1 + x + , and so on
2!
Each Maclaurin polynomial is a function that approximates the original function, in
this case ex. As more and more terms are included the approximation improves. To
see this more clearly study the graphs in Figure 4.1. The first shows f (x) = ex
together with the graph of p0 = 1. The second and third graphs show f (x) = ex
x2
together with p1(x) = 1 + x and p2(x) = 1 + x + . Notice that close to the
2!
origin you would expect p1 and p2 to give good approximate values of ex, but the
quality of the approximation will deteriorate as you move further from the origin.
y y y f (x) ex
f (x) ex f (x) ex
Figure 4.1
f (x) = ex together
p0(x)
p2(x) 1 1 x 1 x2!
1 2
with a number of 1 1 p1(x) 1 1 x 1
Maclaurin
polynomials. 1 1 x 1 1 x 1 1 x
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4.2 Maclaurin series 969 19
Example 4.2
(a) Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sin x, where x is measured in radians.
(b) State a cubic approximation to sin x.
Solution
(a) Obtain the successive derivatives of f (x) and evaluate them when x = 0.
Remember that, whenever it is necessary to differentiate trigonometrical
functions, work must be carried out in radians and not in degrees.
f (x) = sin x, f (0) = 0
f ¿(x) = , f ¿(0) = cos x, 1
f –(x) = , f –(0) = -sin x, 0
f ‡(x) = , f ‡(0) = -cos x, - 1
Continuing in this way and then substituting into the Maclaurin series formula
you will find
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x - + - + ...
3! 5! 7!
This is the power series expansion of sin x about the origin.
(b) Taking the first two non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series gives the cubic
polynomial
x3
p3 (x) = x -
3!
A useful exercise would be for you to use a computer package to draw graphs
of sin x and the first few Maclaurin polynomials to see the way in which the
approximation improves as the degree of the polynomial increases.
The power series expansions obtained in Examples 4.1 and 4.2 are valid for any x.
This means that the value of the series and the value of the function used to generate
it are equal for every value of x. However, some functions have a power series expan-
sion that is valid only for a limited range of values of x. For example, the Maclaurin
1
expansion of f (x) = is valid only when -1 6 x 6 1.
1 + x
Some common power series expansions are shown in Table 4.1.
The small-angle approximations
The Maclaurin series for sin x and cos x can be used to approximate the trigonomet-
rical ratios when x is small and measured in radians.
Key point Small-angle approximations
If x is small and measured in radians:
x2
sin x L x and cos x L 1 -
2
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 970
19 970 Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
Use your calculator to verify these approximations. For example, show that
sin 0.3 L 0.3.
Table 4.1
Some common x x2 x3
power series
ex = 1 + + + + . . . for all x
1! 2! 3!
expansions.
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x - + - + . . . for all x
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 - + - + . . . for all x
2! 4! 6!
x2 x3 x4
log e(1 + x) = x - + - + . . . for -1 6 x … 1
2 3 4
p(p - 1) 2 p(p - 1) (p - 2) 3
(1 + x) p = 1 + px + x + x + . . . for -1 6 x 6 1
2! 3!
x3 2x5 17x7 p p
tan x = x + + + + . . . for - 6 x 6
3 15 315 2 2
x3 x5 x7
sinh x = x + + + + . . . for all x
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cosh x = 1 + + + + . . . for all x
2! 4! 6!
Exercises
1 Derive the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos x. 4 Determine the Maclaurin series expansion for
1
f (x) = .
2 Use the power series expansion of ex to show 1 + x
that 5 Find the Maclaurin expansion for sin2 x.
(Hint: use a trigonometrical identity and the
4x3 series for sin x.)
e2x = 1 + 2x + 2x2 + + Á
3
6 Obtain the Maclaurin series expansion for
f (x) = cosh x.
3 Use the power series expansion of cos x to
show that 7 (a) Obtain a quadratic Maclaurin polynomial
approximation, p2(x), to f (x) = cos 2x.
x x2 x4 x6 (b) Compare the approximate value given by
cos = 1 - + - + Á
2 8 384 46080 p2(1) with actual value f (1).
Solutions to exercises
q
x2 x4 x6
4 1 - x + x2 - x3 + . . . = a (-1)n xn 6 1 + + + + ...
n=0 2! 4! 6!
1 4 2 6 ... 7 (a) 1 + 2x2 (b) f (1) = 3.7622, p2 (1) = 3
5 x2 - x + x -
3 45
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 971
4.3 Taylor series 971 19
4.3 Taylor series
The Taylor series is very similar to the Maclaurin series. The only difference is that
the expansion is now taken about any point, x = a say, not necessarily the origin. So
if we know the value of a function and its derivatives when x = a we can use the
Taylor series formula to find the value of the function at nearby points.
Key point Taylor series
(x - a)2 (x - a)3
f (x) = f (a) + (x - a) f ¿(a) + f –(a) + f ‡(a) + . . .
2! 3!
Example 4.3
Find the Taylor series expansion of f (x) = 1x about the point x = 4.
Solution
Here, the known point is x = 4. We must evaluate f (x) and its derivatives at this
point:
f (4) = 14
= 2
1 -1>2 1
f ¿(x) = x =
2 22x
1 1
and so f ¿(4) = = .
224 4
Now obtain the second and third derivatives of f(x).
1 3
f –(x) = - 3
, f ‡(x) =
4(1x) 8 (1x)5
Evaluate the second and third derivatives at x = 4.
1 3
f –(4) = - , f ‡(4) =
32 256
Substitute these values into the Taylor series formula:
(x - 4)2 (x - 4)3
f (x) = f (4) + (x - 4) f ¿(4) + f –(4) + f ‡(4) + . . .
2! 3!
(x - 4)2 (x - 4)3
a- b + a b + ...
1 1 3
1x = 2 + (x - 4) +
4 2 32 6 256
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 972
19 972 Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
1 1 1
= 2 + (x - 4) - (x - 4)2 + (x - 4)3 + . . .
4 64 512
This is the Taylor series expansion of 1x about x = 4.
In the previous example we calculated the Taylor series of 1x. By taking successive
partial sums of this series we can obtain polynomials that are approximations to 1x,
known as Taylor polynomials. Denoting these polynomials by p0(x), p1(x), and so
on, we have
p0(x) = 2, by taking just the first term
1
p1(x) = 2 + 4 (x - 4), by taking the first two terms
1 1
p2(x) = 2 + 4 (x - 4) - 64 (x - 4)2, and so on
Each Taylor polynomial is a function that approximates the original function, in this
case 1x when x is close to the expansion point, x = 4. As more and more terms are
included the approximation improves.
The first graph in Figure 4.2 shows f (x) = 1x together with a graph of p0(x) = 2.
The second and third graphs show f (x) = 1x together with p1(x) and p2(x). Notice
how the approximation improves as the degree of the polynomial increases.
Figure 4.2 (x ⫺ 4) (x ⫺ 4)2
p2(x) ⫽ 2 ⫹ ⫺
f (x) = 1x (x ⫺ 4) 4 64
f (x) ⫽ x p1(x) ⫽ 2 ⫹
together with a 4
number of Taylor
polynomials. 2 2 f (x) ⫽ x 2 f (x) ⫽ x
p0(x) ⫽ 2
4 x 4 x 4 x
Maple and Matlab, in common with similar packages, have built-in commands for find-
ing Taylor and Maclaurin series. For example, using Maple, the result in Example 4.3 can
be found from
taylor(sqrt(x), x = 4,4);
In Matlab the same is achieved using
taylor(sqrt(x),'ExpansionPoint',4,'Order',4)
You should investigate commands like these in the packages to which you have access.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/18 7:43 AM Page 973
4.4 Other series 973 19
Exercises
1 Show that the first four terms in the Taylor series 2 Find the Taylor series for f (x) = x + ex about
p x = 1.
expansion of f (x) = tan x about x = are
4
p 2 p 3
1 + 2ax - b + 2 ax - b + ax - b
p 8
4 4 3 4
Solutions to exercises
(x - 1)2 (x - 1)3 (x - 1)4
2 f (x) = (1 + e)x + e a + + + . . .b
2! 3! 4!
4.4 Other series
Series play a fundamental role in engineering mathematics. We saw in Section 4.2 of
this chapter that many common functions, f(x), have power series expansions: that
is, they can be expressed as an infinite sum of terms each of which is a power of x.
Several other functions that have applications in engineering are defined by finite or
infinite series. These include an important class of functions known as Bessel func-
tions. But the terms in a series need not be restricted to powers of x. A Fourier
series is an infinite sum of sines and/or cosines used in a wide variety of engineering
applications ranging from the synthesis of sound waves to imitate musical instru-
ments to the analysis of the flow of thermal energy in heat exchangers employed in
chemical engineering processes (see Chapter 24).
Example 4.4 Mechanical Engineering – The profile of a vibrating
circular membrane
A Bessel function of order zero, J0(x), is defined by the infinite series
1 2 1 4 1 6 ...
J0(x) = 1 - x + x - x +
4 64 2304
which can be expressed concisely using sigma notation as
q
(- 1)mx2m
J0(x) = a 2m 2
m = 0 2 (m!)
In the analysis of a vibrating circular membrane such as a drum skin it can be shown
that in one of the possible modes of vibration the displacement, u(r), of the skin at a
specific moment in time and at a point distance r from the centre, has a profile given
by a Bessel function of order zero, J0(r). A graph of this function is shown in
Figure 4.3.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 10/16/18 7:41 AM Page 974
19 974 Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
Figure 4.3
J0(r)
Bessel functions,
which are defined by
infinite series, model
the displacement of a
vibrating drum skin.
O r
Example 4.5 Synthesis of waveforms using Fourier series
We show in Example 1.8 (page 1227) that the waveform, f (t), shown in Figure 4.4
can be built, or synthesised, by adding sine functions of different frequencies and
amplitudes.
Figure 4.4 f ( t)
This waveform can 1
be synthesised
using an infinite t
–1 O 1
series of sine
functions.
Specifically, this takes the form of an infinite series of sine functions:
q
8 sin np/2 8 8 8
f(t) = a 2 2
sin npt = 2 sin pt - 2
sin 3pt + sin 5pt - . . .
n=1 np p 9p 25p2
Thus knowledge of infinite series is important in the modelling and analysis of many
physical phenomena of interest to engineers.
Computer and calculator exercises
1 (a) Calculate the second-order Taylor 3 (a) Calculate the second-order Taylor
polynomial, p2(x), generated by y(x) = x3 polynomial, p2(x), generated by
about x = 0.
(b) Draw y(x) and p2(x) for - 2 … x … 2.
y(x) = sin a b about x = 3
1
x
2 (a) Calculate the second-order Taylor
polynomial, p2(x), generated by (b) Draw y(x) and p2(x) for 1 … x … 5.
y(x) = sin x about x = 0.
(b) Draw y(x) and p2(x) for - 2 … x … 2.
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 9/27/18 10:35 AM Page 975
End of chapter exercises 975 19
4 (a) Calculate the second-order Taylor 6 Draw y = tan x for -1 … x … 1. Using
polynomial, p2(x), generated by the same axes, draw the fifth-order Taylor
y(x) = ecos x about x = 0. polynomial generated by y(x) about x = 0.
(b) Draw y(x) and p2(x) for -2 … x … 2.
7 Draw y(x) = ln x for 0.5 … x … 10. On the
1 same axes, draw the third-, fourth- and fifth-
5 Draw y(x) = for 1 … x … 8. On the same order Taylor polynomials generated by y(x)
x
axes draw the fourth-order Taylor polynomial about x = 1.
generated by y(x) about x = 3.
End of block exercises
1 Use the Maclaurin expansion of ex to find the 4 Obtain a small-angle approximation for tan x
value of e correct to four decimal places. and verify it by example.
1
2 Obtain the Maclaurin series for ln(1 - 4x). 5 Use the Maclaurin series for to deduce
1 1 - x
3 Obtain the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sinh x. that for .
1 - x2
Solutions to exercises
1 2.7183 4 tan x = x
64 3
2 -4x - 8x2 - x - Á 5 1 + x2 + x4 + Á
3
End of chapter exercises
1 3 1 1
1 Write out explicitly the first three non-zero tan-1 x = x - x + x5 - x7 + . . .
terms of the series 3 5 7
q for -1 6 x 6 1
a k(k + 1)(k + 3)
k=0 3 (a) If y = ln cos x show that y satisfies the
2 Use the binomial theorem to show that equation
1 y‡ = -2 y–y¿
= 1 - x2 + x4 - x6 + . . .
1 + x2 (b) Hence obtain the Maclaurin expansion of
for -1 6 x 6 1 y = ln cos x as far as the term in x5.
By integrating both sides of this expansion, 4 Find 103 + 113 + . . . + 203.
assuming that this is permissible, show that
2 5
tan-1 x has power series expansion 5 Expand a3 - b .
x
M19_CROF5939_04_SE_C19.QXD 11/28/18 7:48 PM Page 976
19 976 Block 4 Taylor, Maclaurin and other series
6 Use the Maclaurin series for ex to show that 9 Expand (1 - 2x)4.
the sum of the infinite series
10 By considering x + x2 as a single term,
1 1 1 expand (1 + x + x2)3.
1 + + + + ...
1! 2! 3!
is e. 11 Use the binomial theorem to expand
(9 + x2)1>2.
7 Use the Maclaurin series for ln(1 + x) to
show that the sum of the infinite series 12 By considering the Maclaurin expansions of
sin kx and cos kx where k is a constant, evaluate,
1 1 1 if possible,
1 - + - + ...
2 3 4
sin kx cos kx - 1
is ln 2. (a) lim (b) lim
x:0 x x:0 x
4 sin kx
8 Find a k2. (c) lim
x : 0 1 - cos kx
k=1
Solutions to exercises
1 (1) (2) (4) + (2) (3) (5) + (3) (4) (6) 9 1 - 8x + 24x2 - 32x3 + 16x4
1 1 4
3 - x2 - x 10 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 7x3 + 6x4 + 3x5 + x6
2 12
x2 x4
4 42075 11 3 + - + . . ., valid for -3 6 x 6 3
6 216
810 1080 720 240 32
5 243 - + 2
- 3 + 4 - 5 12 (a) k (b) 0 (c) not defined
x x x x x
8 30
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 10/4/18 2:45 PM Page 977
Chapter 20
Differential equations
The solution of problems concerning the motion of objects, the flow of
charged particles, heat transport, etc., often involves discussion of
relations of the form
dx dq
= f (x, t) or = g(q, t)
dt dt
dx
In the first equation, x might represent distance. For this case is the
dt
rate of change of distance with respect to time, t, that is speed. In the
dq
second equation, q might be charge and the rate of flow of charge,
dt
that is current. These are examples of differential equations, so called
because they are equations involving the derivatives of various
quantities. Such equations arise out of situations in which change is
occurring. To solve such a differential equation means to find the
function x(t) or q(t) when we are given the differential equations.
Solutions to these equations may be analytical in that we can write
down an answer in terms of common elementary functions such as e t,
sin t, and so on. Alternatively, the problem may be so difficult that only
numerical methods are available, which produce approximate
solutions. Modern software packages are available that can produce
analytical and numerical solutions. We shall introduce some of these
in Block 4.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 978
In engineering, differential equations are most commonly used to
model dynamic systems. These are systems that change with time.
Examples include an electronic circuit with time-dependent currents
and voltages, a chemical production line in which pressures, tank
levels, flow rates, etc., vary with time, and a semiconductor device in
which hole and electron densities change with time.
There are a wide variety of differential equations that occur in
engineering applications, and consequently there are a wide variety
of solution techniques available. In order to be able to apply an
appropriate technique it is essential that you can identify the sort of
equation you are dealing with. Block 1 gives details of the terminology
associated with differential equations. Knowledge of this will help in
the selection of an appropriate method. Later blocks describe these
methods in detail.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 979
Chapter 20 contents
Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
Block 2 Separation of variables
Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an
integrating factor
Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
End of chapter exercises
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 980
Basic concepts of differential equations
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
An equation is a mathematical expression that contains an unknown quantity that we
try to find. A differential equation is an equation that contains the derivative of an
unknown expression. For example, a very simple differential equation is
dy
= x2
dx
This equation contains the derivative of y, which represents the unknown expression
that we seek. Clearly y is an expression that when differentiated gives x2.
In order to solve a differential equation it is important to identify certain of its
features. This is because there are different techniques applicable to different sorts
of differential equations. In this block we introduce terminology associated with
differential equations that then allows these features to be described.
1.2 Basic definitions
Dependent and independent variables
Recall that in a function such as y = x2 + 3x we say that x is the independent vari-
able and y is the dependent variable, since the value of y depends upon the choice
we have made for x. When solving a differential equation it is essential that you can
identify the dependent and independent variables.
dx
In the differential equation = x + t2, t is the independent variable and x is the
dt
dy
dependent variable. In the equation = y + sin x, x is the independent variable
dx
and y is the dependent variable. Note that the dependent variable is always the vari-
able being differentiated.
Example 1.1
For each of the following differential equations, state which variable is dependent
and which is independent.
d2y dy
(a) 2
+ = x
dx dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 981
1.2 Basic definitions 981 20
dx
(b) = (xt)5
dt
dvc
(c) RC + vc = VS; R, C, VS are constants.
dt
Solution
The dependent and independent variables are respectively:
(a) dep.: y; ind.: x
(b) dep.: x; ind.: t
(c) dep.: vc; ind.: t
Order
A differential equation may contain derivatives of various orders, for example first
derivatives, second derivatives, etc. The order of a differential equation is the order
of its highest derivative. Thus in the equation
d2y dy
2
+= y
dx dx
d2y
the highest derivative is the second derivative, , so this equation is a second-
order differential equation. In the equation dx2
dv
+ v2 = 0
dt
dv
the highest derivative is the first derivative , so this is a first-order differential
dt
equation.
Example 1.2
State the order of the following differential equations:
d2y dy 3
(a) + a b = x7
dx2 dx
dx
(b) = (xt)5
dt
Solution
(a) Look for the term involving the highest derivative.
d2y dy 3
The order of 2 + a b = x7 is
dx dx
2
dy
Note that although is raised to the power 3, it is not the highest derivative.
dx
d2y
The highest derivative is 2 .
dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:37 PM Page 982
20 982 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
dx
(b) The order of = (xt)5 is
dt
1
Linear
A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable and its deriv-
atives occur to the first power only and if there are no products involving the depen-
dent variable and/or its derivatives. There should be no non-linear functions of the
dependent variable, such as sine, exponential, etc. A differential equation that is not
linear is said to be non-linear. The linearity of a differential equation is not deter-
mined or affected by the presence of non-linear terms involving the independent
variable.
The equation
d2y
- y = ex
dx2
is linear, but the equations
dy 2
a b = y and
dy
y = x
dx dx
are both non-linear, the former because the derivative of the dependent variable is
dy
raised to the power 2, and the latter because of the product y .
dx
The equation
dy
+ y = ey
dx
is non-linear because it contains a non-linear function, ey, of the dependent variable.
However the equation
dy
+ y = ex
dx
is linear.
It is particularly important to know whether an equation is linear or not, because in
general non-linear equations can be much harder to solve than linear ones.
The solution of first-order linear equations is described in Block 3.
The solution of second-order linear equations is described in Blocks 5 and 6.
Example 1.3
Decide whether or not the following equations are linear:
dy
(a) sin x + y = x
dx
dy
(b) sin y + y = x
dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 983
1.2 Basic definitions 983 20
d2y
(c) = -y2
dx2
dx
(d) + x = t3
dt
dy
(e) + sin y = 0
dx
Solution
(a) linear
(b) non-linear
(c) non-linear
(d) linear
(e) non-linear
Note in part (b) that the equation is non-linear because of the product term involving
the dependent variable and its derivative asin y b ; however, it is also non-linear
dy
dx
because of the non-linear function of the dependent variable, sin y.
Constant-coefficient linear equations
A linear differential equation has constant coefficients if the coefficients of the
dependent variable and its derivatives are constants.
So
d2y dy
5 2
- 3 + 8y = x2
dx dx
is a constant-coefficient equation. The coefficient of y is 8. The coefficients of the
first and second derivatives of y are -3 and 5 respectively.
However,
d2y dy
x 2
+ 7 + 4y = 0
dx dx
is not a constant-coefficient equation since the coefficient of the second derivative of
y is x (i.e. not constant).
Example 1.4 Chemical Engineering – A liquid system
Figure 1.1 shows a tank of liquid. The tank has a constant cross-sectional area A. The
liquid can flow out from the tank through a valve near the base. As it does so, the
height, or head, h, of liquid in the tank will reduce. Let q stand for the rate at which
liquid flows out of the tank. Under certain conditions the rate of outflow is propor-
tional to the head, so that q = kh where k is a constant of proportionality. Situations
like this one arise frequently in the chemical engineering industry. By considering
the rate of change of the volume of liquid in the tank, obtain a differential equation
with h as the dependent variable, and time, t, as the independent variable.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 984
20 984 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
Solution
The volume, V, of liquid in the tank at any time is
V ⫽ Ah
Figure 1.1 Area A
Modelling a liquid
system can give
rise to a constant-
coefficient h
equation. q ⫽ kh
q
Now, the volume of liquid in the tank changes because liquid is flowing out.
Specifically
the rate at which this volume changes = rate of flow in - rate of flow out
dV
This is the law of conservation of mass. The rate of change of volume is . There
dt
is no flow into the tank and liquid flows out at a rate q. Hence
dV
= -q
dt
dh
But V = Ah and A is constant, so the rate of change of volume is A .
dt
Therefore
dh
A = -q
dt
We are also given that q = kh and so
dh
A = -kh
dt
This is a first-order differential equation with dependent variable h and independent
variable t. It is linear and has constant coefficients. The unknown function that we
seek is h(t). You will see how this equation can be solved to find the head, h, at any
time, t, in Block 2.
Example 1.5 Electrical Engineering – An LCR circuit
Figure 1.2 shows an LCR circuit. This is a circuit comprising an inductor of induc-
tance L, a capacitor of capacitance C, and a resistor of resistance R placed in series.
Figure 1.2
Modelling an LCR
circuit can give L C R
rise to a constant- i
coefficient V
differential
equation. ⫹ ⫺
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 985
1.3 The solution of a differential equation 985 20
When a constant voltage source, V, is applied, it can be shown that the current, i,
through the circuit satisfies the differential equation
d2i di 1
L + R + i = 0
dt2 dt C
This equation can be derived using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, and the individual laws
for each component. Because L, R and C are constants, this is a constant-coefficient
equation. Furthermore it is linear and second order. When you have learnt how to
solve such equations you will be able to find the current in the circuit.
Exercises
1 Explain the distinction between a dependent 4 State the order of the equations
variable and an independent variable. dx 3
(a) y– + 2y¿ + 7y = 0 (b) a b + x = 0
dt
2 In the differential equation
5 Explain what is meant by a linear differential
du equation.
+ u = sin t
dt
d2y
state which is the dependent variable and 6 Is the equation + y = sin t linear?
dt 2
which is the independent variable.
3 Explain what is meant by the order of a
differential equation.
Solutions to exercises
2 u is the dependent variable and t is the 6 yes
independent variable.
4 (a) second (b) first
1.3 The solution of a differential equation
Given a differential equation such as
dy
= y
dx
a solution is found when we have obtained an expression for y in terms of x that can
be substituted into the equation to make both sides equal. That is, a solution is an
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 986
20 986 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
expression that satisfies the differential equation. Note that a solution is an expres-
sion of the dependent variable in terms of the independent variable.
Example 1.6
d2y dy
Show that y = 5e2x is a solution of the equation 2
- = 2y.
dx dx
Solution
We are given an expression for y in terms of x, namely y = 5e2x. We need to substi-
dy
tute this into both sides of the given equation. To do this we need the derivatives
d2y dx
and 2 .
dx
dy d2y
Write expressions for and 2 .
dx dx
dy
= 10e2x
dx
d2y
= 20e2x
dx2
Now substitute these expressions into the left-hand side of the given equation
d2y dy
2
- :
dx dx
20e2x - 10e2x which equals 10e2x
Now substitute y = 5e2x into the right-hand side of the given equation, 2y:
2y = 10e2x
Note that both the left- and right-hand sides are the same and equal to 10e2x when
y = 5e2x. We conclude that y = 5e2x is a solution of the equation.
Example 1.7 dy
Show that y = ex is not a solution of = 2y.
dx
Solution
Differentiate the given expression and substitute into the left-hand side:
dy
= ex
dx
Substitute for y on the right-hand side:
2y = 2ex
So the left-hand side is ex and the right-hand side is 2ex. But ex is not the same as 2ex and
so the given expression does not satisfy the equation and is therefore not a solution.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 987
1.3 The solution of a differential equation 987 20
There are many different expressions that can satisfy a differential equation: that is,
there are many solutions. A solution from which all possible solutions can be found
is called the general solution.
dy
The general solution of the equation = y is y = Cex, where C is any constant.
dx
C is called an arbitrary constant. By choosing different values of C, different
solutions are obtained. Every solution of the equation can be obtained from this
general solution.
Conditions
To determine a particular value for the constant C we need to be given more informa-
tion in the form of a condition. For example, if we are told that at x = 0, y = 4 then
from y = Cex we have
4 = Ce0
= C
so that C = 4. Therefore y = 4ex is the solution of the differential equation that
additionally satisfies the condition y(0) = 4. This is called a particular solution.
When the solution of a differential equation is sought, and a condition is to be sat-
isfied at the leftmost point of the interval of interest, such a condition is called an
initial condition. The problem of solving a differential equation subject to an initial
condition is often referred to as an initial value problem.
Example 1.8
Show that x(t) = 2e3t is a solution of the initial value problem
dx
- 2x = 2e3t, x(0) = 2
dt
Solution
The solution requires us to do two things. Firstly we must check that x = 2e3t satis-
fies the differential equation, and secondly we must check that it satisfies the initial
condition: that is, x must equal 2 when t = 0.
Differentiate x(t) = 2e3t.
6e3t
dx
Substitute for and x in the left-hand side of the given equation.
dt
dx
- 2x = 6e3t - 2(2e3t )
dt
which simplifies to 2e3t, the same as the right-hand side. Thus x = 2e3t is a solution
of the differential equation.
We now check that the initial condition is satisfied. x(0) = 2e0 = 2 and so the
condition is indeed satisfied.
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20 988 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
Exercises
1 Verify that y = 3 sin 2x is a solution of 5 The general solution of the equation
2
dy
+ 4y = 0 d2x dx
dx2 2
- 3 + 2x = 0
dt dt
2 Verify that 3ex, Axex, Axex + Bex, where A, B
are constants, all satisfy the differential equation is given by
dy2
dy x = Aet + Be2t
- 2 + y = 0
dx2 dx
Find the particular solution that satisfies
3 Verify that x = t2 + A ln t + B is a solution dx
x = 3 and = 5 when t = 0.
of dt
d2x dx 6 The general solution of
t 2
+ = 4t
dt dt
d2y dy
4 Verify that y = A cos x + B sin x satisfies the 2
- 2 + y = 0
dx dx
differential equation
d 2y is y = Axex + Bex. Find the particular solution
+ y = 0 dy
dx2 satisfying y(0) = 0, (0) = 1.
dx
Verify also that y = A cos x and y = B sin x
each individually satisfy the equation.
Solutions to exercises
5 x = et + 2e2t 6 y = xex
1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration
When a differential equation has a particularly simple form it is easy to solve it by
integration.
Suppose we have a first-order equation of the form
dy
= f (x)
dx
dy dy dy
Examples include = 3x4 and = 4 sin 2x + 3 cos 2x. That is, is equal to a
dx dx dx
function of x only. Then y is given by
y= 冮 f (x)dx
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1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration 989 20
Key point
冮 f (x) dx
dy
if = f (x) then y =
dx
Consider the following example.
Example 1.9
Obtain the general solution of the equation
dy
= cos x + sin x
dx
Solution
Here, the right-hand side is a function of x only.
y = 冮 cos x + sin x dx
= sin x - cos x + c
This is the general solution. Notice that it contains one arbitrary constant.
The same method can be applied to second-order equations of the form
d2y
= f (x)
d x2
Here again, the right-hand side is a function of x only.
Example 1.10
Obtain the general solution of the equation
d2y
= 5e2x
dx2
Solution
Integrating once gives
冮 5e
dy 2x
= dx
dx
dy 5e2x
= + A
dx 2
dy
where A is an arbitrary constant. This gives . We must integrate again to find y.
dx
5e2x
y = 冮 a
2
+ Ab dx
5e2x
= + Ax + B
4
where B is another arbitrary constant.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 990
20 990 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
This is the general solution. Notice that it contains two arbitary constants. This is
because the differential equation is second order.
The technique described in this section is applicable only when the right-hand side is
a function of the independent variable only. If the dependent variable appears on the
right, such as in the equation
dy
= xy
dx
you will need to apply other techniques such as those described in Blocks 2 and 3.
Example 1.11 Dynamics – The vertical motion of a projectile
When a projectile such as a ball is travelling vertically under the action of gravity its
motion is described by the differential equation
d2y
= -g
dt 2
where g is a constant called the acceleration due to gravity. The dependent variable
y is the vertical displacement of the projectile, and the independent variable is time t.
This equation is a statement of Newton’s second law of motion. Solving the equation
gives y in terms of t, that is the displacement as a function of time.
(a) Integrate the differential equation twice, to obtain the general solution for y.
dy
(b) Apply the following initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0, = v0 at t = 0, in
order to obtain a particular solution. dt
Solution
(a) Integrate once:
dy
= -gt + A
dt
Integrate again:
gt2
y = - + At + B
2
This is the general solution.
(b) Apply the condition y = 0 when t = 0 to obtain a value for B.
B = 0
gt2 dy
So y = - + At. If this is differentiated, = -gt + A, which is a result
2 dt
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1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration 991 20
dy
already obtained. Applying the condition = v0 when t = 0 gives a value
dt
for A:
A = v0
gt2
So the particular solution is y = - + v0 t.
2
Example 1.12 Mechanical Engineering – Bending of a beam
Figure 1.3(a) illustrates an unloaded beam of length L. The beam is fixed at both
ends. When a load (force) is applied the beam bends as illustrated in Figure 1.3(b).
Let the weight of the load being supported per unit length be w. Referring to
Figure 1.3(b) we see that, when loaded, the beam bends in the negative y direc-
tion. The magnitude of the bending is the crucial quantity and this is illustrated
in Figure 1.3(c). We refer to this as the displacement of the beam, denoted H(x).
Note that in Figure 1.3(c) the H axis is positive in the downward direction. It is
possible to show that
d4H
K = w
dx4
Figure 1.3 (a)
(a) An unloaded
beam of length L;
(b) beam bending L
under load (it is (b) y
fixed at both ends);
w
(c) displacement of
the beam.
x
(c) w
where K is known as the structural rigidity of the beam and is assumed to be con-
stant. It is the product of Young’s modulus and the moment of inertia of the beam
about its central axis.
(a) If w is constant, find an expression for the displacement of the beam.
(b) The beam is fixed rigidly at both ends. Hence when x ⫽ 0 and x ⫽ L the
displacement is zero, that is H(0) ⫽ H(L) ⫽ 0. Additionally at these end-points
the gradient of the beam remains zero, so H¿(0) = H¿(L) = 0. Find the
displacement at any point x.
(c) Show that the maximum displacement of the beam occurs half-way along its length.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 992
20 992 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
Solution
(a) We are given
d4H
K = w
dx4
First divide through by K. Repeated integration then produces
d3H w
= x + A (1)
dx3 K
d2H w x2
= + Ax + B (2)
dx2 K 2
dH w x3 x2
= + A + Bx + C (3)
dx K 6 2
w x4 x3 x2
H(x) = + A + B + Cx + D (4)
K 24 6 2
where A, B, C and D are constants of integration.
(b) We now apply the given conditions to find the unknown constants A, B, C and D.
Applying H(0) ⫽ 0 to equation (4) yields
0⫽D
Applying H¿(0) ⫽ 0 to equation (3) yields
0⫽C
Applying H(L) ⫽ 0 to equation (4) with C ⫽ D ⫽ 0 yields
w L4 L3 L2
0 = + A + B (5)
K 24 6 2
Applying H¿(L) ⫽ 0 to equation (3) with C ⫽ 0 yields
w L3 L2
0 = + A + BL (6)
K 6 2
Equations (5) and (6) can be solved to express A and B in terms of the known
constants w, K and L. This produces
wL wL2
A = - , B =
2K 12K
Replacing the expressions for A and B and the values of C and D into equation
(4) and simplifying produces
wx2 2 wx2
H(x) = (x - 2Lx + L2) = (x - L)2
24K 24K
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1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration 993 20
(c) We now seek the point along the beam at which the displacement is a
maximum. Recall that turning points of a function are located by equating the
first derivative to zero, that is H¿ ⫽ 0; the nature of the turning point is then
determined using the second-derivative test.
Using equation (3) we have
dH wx3 wLx2 wL2x wx
= - + = (2x2 - 3xL + L2)
dx 6K 4K 12K 12K
which may be expressed as
dH wx
= (2x - L)(x - L)
dx 12K
so dH>dx = 0 when x = 0, L>2, L.
The conditions H¿(0) ⫽ H¿(L) ⫽ 0 are given so we investigate that case where
x = L>2 using the second-derivative test.
Using equation (2) we have
d 2H wx2 wLx wL2
= - +
d x2 2K 2K 12K
Substituting x = L>2 and simplifying yields
d 2H wL2
(L>2) = -
d x2 24K
We note that this is negative and so H is a maximum at x = L>2. Hence the max-
imum displacement occurs at x = L>2, that is half-way along the beam. This
accords with intuition.
Exercises
1 Obtain the general solutions of the following 2 Find the particular solution of
differential equations:
dx
dy dy = t2
(a) = 3x + 2 (b) = e3x dt
dx dx
that satisfies the condition x(3) = 0.
d2y d2y
(c) 2 = k, constant (d) 2 = -sin x
dx dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 994
20 994 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations
Solutions to exercises
3x2 e3x (d) y = sin x + Ax + B
1 (a) y = + 2x + c (b) y = + c
2 3
t3
kx2 2 x = - 9
(c) y = + Ax + B 3
2
End of block exercises
dy
1 If y = Ae2x is the general solution of = 2y, 3 Show that x(t) = 7 cos 3t - 2 sin 2tis a
dx solution of
find the particular solution satisfying y(0) = 3.
What is the particular solution satisfying d2x
+ 2x = -49 cos 3t + 4 sin 2t
dy dt2
= 2 when x = 0?
dx
4 The general solution of
2 Identify the dependent and independent
variables of the following differential d2x
equations. Give the order of the equations = -v2x
dt2
and state which are linear.
dy is x = Ae jvt + Be-jvt, where j2 = -1. Verify
(a) + 9y = 0
dx that this is indeed a solution. What is the
d2y particular solution satisfying x(0) = 0,
(b) a b a 2 b + 3
dy dy
= 0 dx
dx dx dx (0) = 1? Express the particular solution
dt
d3x dx and the general solution in terms of
(c) + 5 = sin x
dt3 dt trigonometrical functions.
Solutions to exercises
(c) x is the dependent variable; t is the
1 y(x) = 3e2x, y(x) = e2x
independent variable; third order,
non-linear
2 (a) y is the dependent variable; x is the
independent variable; first order, linear
sin vt
(b) y is the dependent variable; x is the 4 particular solution: ; general solution:
independent variable; second order, v
non-linear (A + B) cos vt + (A - B)j sin vt
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 995
Separation of variables
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Separation of variables is a technique commonly used to solve first-order differential
equations. It is so called because we try to rearrange the equation to be solved in
such a way that all terms involving the dependent variable (y say) appear on one side
of the equation, and all terms involving the independent variable (x say) appear on
the other. Then it is a matter of integration to complete the solution. It is not possible
to rearrange all first-order equations in this way, so this technique is not always
appropriate. Further, it is not always possible to perform the integration even if the
variables are separable. In this block you will learn how to decide whether the
method is appropriate, and how to apply it in such cases.
2.2 Separating the variables
In this section we consider differential equations that can be written in the form
dy
= f (x)g(y)
dx
Note that the right-hand side is a product of a function of x and a function of y.
Examples of such equations are
dy dy dy
= x2y3, = y2 sin x and = (ln x)(sec y)
dx dx dx
You may have to think carefully about some equations to recognise this form. For
example, the equation
dy y
=
dx x + 1
can be written as
= a by
dy 1
dx x + 1
dy
and so is of the form = f (x)g(y).
dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:44 PM Page 996
20 996 Block 2 Separation of variables
Not all first-order equations can be written in this form. For example, it is not
possible to rewrite the equation
dy
= x2 + y3
dx
in the form
dy
= f (x)g(y)
dx
Example 2.1
Which of the following differential equations do you think can be written in the form
dy
= f (x)g(y)?
dx
If possible, rewrite each equation in this form.
dy x2 dy dy
(a) = 2 (b) = 4x2 + 2y2 (c) y + 3x = 7
dx y dx dx
Solution
= x2 a 2 b
dy 1
(a)
dx y
(b) cannot be written in the stated form
dy 1
(c) = (7 - 3x) *
dx y
The variables involved need not be x and y. Other equations of this type are
dz du dv v
= tez, = -u and = 2
dt dt dr r
dy
Given a differential equation in the form = f (x)g(y) we can divide through by
g(y) to obtain dx
1 dy
= f (x)
g(y) dx
dy
Note that in this form terms involving y and have been placed on the left, and
dx
terms involving just x have been placed on the right.
If we now integrate both sides of this equation with respect to x we obtain
冮 g(y) dx dx = 冮 f(x) dx
1 dy
that is
冮 g(y) dy = 冮 f(x) dx
1
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2.3 Applying the method of separation of variables 997 20
We have separated the variables because the left-hand side contains only the vari-
able y, and the right-hand side contains only the variable x. We can now try to inte-
grate each side separately. If we can actually perform the required integrations we
shall obtain a relationship between y and x. Examples of this process are given in the
next section.
Key point Separation of variables
The solution of the equation
dy
= f (x) g(y)
dx
is found from
冮 g(y) dy = 冮 f(x) dx
1
2.3 Applying the method of separation of variables
The method is illustrated in the following example.
Example 2.2
dy
Solve the first-order equation = 3yex by separation of variables.
dx
Solution
Note that the right-hand side has the form f(x)g(y), where f(x) = e x and g(y) = 3y.
Dividing both sides by g(y) we find
1 dy
= ex
3y dx
dy
The left-hand side now contains terms involving only y and . The right-hand side
is a function of x. Integrating both sides with respect to x, dx
冮 3y dx dx = 冮 e dx
1 dy x
that is
冮 3y dy = 冮 e dx
1 x
Performing the two integrations gives
1
ln y = ex + c
3
You might think that there should be a constant of integration on the left too. You are
quite right, but the two constants can be combined into a single constant and so we
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20 998 Block 2 Separation of variables
need write only one. We now have a relationship between y and x as required. This is
the general solution. In this case it could be rearranged to give y explicitly if required.
Example 2.3
Use the method of separation of variables to solve the differential equation
dy 3x2
=
dx y
Solution
dy 1
The equation already has the form = f (x)g(y) where f (x) = 3x2 and g(y) = .
dx y
Dividing both sides by g(y) we find
dy
y = 3x2
dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x gives
冮 y dx dx = 冮 3x dx
dy 2
that is
冮 y dy = 冮 3x dx
2
Note that the left-hand side is an integral involving just y; the right-hand side is an
integral involving just x. After integrating we find
y2
= x3 + c
2
where c is a constant of integration. We now have a relationship between y and x as
required. This is the general solution. Often it is sufficient to leave your answer in
this form but you may also be required to obtain an explicit relation for y in terms of
x. In this particular case
y2 = 2x3 + 2c
so that
y = ; 22x3 + D where D = 2c
Example 2.4
Use the method of separation of variables to solve the differential equation
dy cos x
=
dx sin 2y
Solution dy
Separate the variables so that terms involving y and appear on the left, and terms
involving just x appear on the right: dx
dy
sin 2y = cos x
dx
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2.3 Applying the method of separation of variables 999 20
Then integrate both sides with respect to x to obtain
冮 sin 2y dx dx = 冮 cos x dx
dy
that is
冮 sin 2y dy = 冮 cos x dx
Now integrate both sides:
cos 2y
- = sin x + c
2
Finally, rearrange, if possible, to obtain an expression for y in terms of x:
1
y = cos-1(D - 2 sin x) where D = -2c
2
This is the general solution.
Example 2.5 Mechanical Engineering – Simple harmonic motion
When an object such as a mass vibrating on a spring, or a pendulum oscillating under
the action of gravity, moves in simple harmonic motion its velocity v satisfies a
differential equation of the form
dv
v = -k2 x
dx
where x is displacement and k is a constant. Solve this equation.
Solution
dv
The variables are already separated because v and are on the left, and the right-
hand side is a function of x only. dx
Integrate both sides with respect to x.
冮 v dx dx = 冮 -k x dx
dv 2
This can be written
冮 v dv = 冮 -k x dx2
Complete the integration to find v.
v2 x2
= -k2 + c
2 2
This is the general solution. If we wished to we could write v explicitly in terms of x.
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20 1000 Block 2 Separation of variables
Example 2.6 Chemical Engineering – A liquid system
The differential equation describing the head, h, of liquid in a tank (see Example 1.4
in Block 1) is given by
dh
A = - kh
dt
Solve this differential equation given that at t = 0 the head of liquid is h0. A and k
are constants.
Solution
Separate the variables h and t:
A dh
= -k
h dt
Both sides are then integrated.
冮h 冮
dh
A = - k dt
Perform the integration to obtain the general solution:
A ln h = - kt + C
This is the general solution. By imposing the condition h = h0 at t = 0 find the
particular solution.
C = A ln h0
Thus
A ln h = - kt + A ln h0
Rearranging and using the laws of logarithms to combine the two log terms,
h
A ln h - A ln h0 = A ln
h0
= - kt
Rearrange this to obtain h:
h = h0e-kt>A
We interpret this result as saying that the head reduces exponentially from its initial
value of h0 to a final value of zero as we would expect on physical grounds.
Example 2.7 Manufacturing Engineering – Heat transfer
during quenching
During the manufacture of steel components it is often necessary to quench them in
a large bath of liquid in order to cool them down. This reduces the temperature of the
component to the temperature of the liquid. If u is the temperature of the component
in excess of the liquid temperature it can be shown that the variation of u with time,
t, satisfies the first-order differential equation
du
= - ku
dt
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2.3 Applying the method of separation of variables 1001 20
where k is a constant that depends upon the volume and surface area of the compo-
nent, its specific heat capacity, and the heat transfer coefficient between the
component and the liquid. Solve this equation given the initial condition that at
t = 0 the temperature excess is u0.
Solution
Separate the variables.
1 du
= -k
u dt
Integrate both sides with respect to t.
ln u + C = -kt
Apply the initial condition.
ln u0 + C = 0 so C = -ln u0
Hence
ln u - ln u0 = -kt
from which
u
ln = -kt
u0
Finally, obtain u as a function of t.
u = u0e-kt
This means that the temperature excess of the component decays exponentially from
its initial value u0 to zero. When the temperature excess is zero, the component has
cooled to the temperature of the bath.
Exercises
1 Solve the equation 4 Find the general solution of the equation
dy e-x dx
= = t(x - 2)
dx y dt
Find the particular solution that satisfies the
2 Solve the equation
condition x(0) = 5.
dy
= 3x2e-y 5 Some equations that do not appear to be
dx
separable can be made so by means of a
subject to the condition y(0) = 1. suitable substitution. In this exercise you will
solve the equation
3 Find the general solution of the following
equations: dy y2 y
= 2 + + 1
dy dy 6 sin x dx x x
(a) = 3 (b) = y
dx dx y by means of the substitution z = .
x
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20 1002 Block 2 Separation of variables
y 6 The equation
(a) If z = , then y = zx. Using the product
x di
rule for differentiation show that iR + L = E
dt
dy dz where R, L and E are constants arises in
= z + x
dx dx electric circuit theory. This equation can be
solved by separation of variables. Find the
(b) Make the substitution to obtain an solution that satisfies the condition i(0) = 0.
equation involving only z and x. Solve this
.
by separation of variables. Hence obtain 7 Solve the equation x = 4xt.
the solution of the given equation.
Solutions to exercises
1 y = ; 2D - 2e-x 5 z = tan(ln Dx) so that y = x tan(ln Dx)
E
2 y = ln(x3 + e) 6 i = (1 - e-t>t) where t = L>R
R
y2 2
3 (a) y = 3x + C (b) = C - 6 cos x 7 x = Ae2t
2
x = 2 + Aet >2, x = 2 + 3et >2
2 2
4
End of block exercises
1 Find the general solution of the following 2 Find the general solution of the following:
equations: dx dy x
dy dy dy (a) = xt (b) =
(a) = kx (b) = -ky (c) = y2 dt dx y
dx dx dx dx dx x2 - 1
dy dy (c) t = tan x (d) =
(d) y = sin x (e) y = x + 2 dt dt t
dx dx
dy dx t4
(f) x2 = 2y2 + yx (g) = 5
dx dt x
Solutions to exercises
kx2 (a) x = Aet >2 (b) y2 = x2 + C
2
1 2
1 (a) + c (b) Ae-kx (c) -
2 x + c
1 + At 2
2 2
(d) y = 2(C- cos x) (e) y = x + 4x + c 2 (c) x = sin -1(kt) (d) x =
1 - At 2
6 5
x x t
(f) (g) = + c
A - 2 ln x 6 5
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Solving first-order linear equations
BLOCK 3
using an integrating factor
3.1 Introduction
The standard form of a first-order linear differential equation is
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x) (1)
dx
P(x) and Q(x) are given functions of x, which may be constants. All first-order linear
dy
equations can be written in this form. Note that the coefficient of is 1. An example is
dx
dy
+ x2y = 3 + x
dx
in which P(x) = x2 and Q(x) = 3 + x.
Other variables will be used. For example,
dx
+ x sin t = t2
dt
is a first-order linear equation in standard form with dependent variable x and
independent variable t. Here, P(t) = sin t and Q(t) = t2.
Key point All first-order linear differential equations can be written in standard form as
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)
dx
Equations of this type can always be solved by multiplying through by a function
known as the integrating factor for the equation. In this block you will learn how to
determine the integrating factor and how to obtain the solution of the original equation.
3.2 Writing equations in standard form
In order to use the technique described in this block you must write the equation in
the standard form.
Example 3.1
dy
Write x2 + 3xy = x3 in standard form. Identify P(x) and Q(x).
dx
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20 1004 Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an integrating factor
Solution
Note that this is a first-order equation. It is linear, and so the integrating factor
method is appropriate. Study the standard form (1) of a first-order linear equation
and note that the coefficient of the derivative term is 1. We divide the given equation
through by x2 to achieve this.
dy 3
+ y = x
dx x
Compare this with the standard form to identify P(x) and Q(x).
3
P(x) =
x
Q(x) = x
Example 3.2
dy
Compare the equation - 2y = x with the standard form and identify P(x) and
dx
Q(x).
Solution
The coefficient of the derivative term is already 1.
P(x) = -2, in this case, a constant
Q(x) = x
The equation is already written in standard form.
Example 3.3 Electrical Engineering – Current in a circuit
di
The equation L + Ri = E sin t, where L, R and E are constants, models the current,
dt
i(t), in a series circuit. Write the equation in standard form. Identify P and Q.
Solution
Note that this is a first-order equation. It is linear, and so the integrating factor
method is appropriate. Here the dependent variable is i and the independent variable
is t. Study the standard form (1) and note that the coefficient of the derivative term is 1.
Dividing the given equation through by L we can achieve this:
di R E sin t
+ i =
dt L L
This is the standard form. Write down P(t) and Q(t).
R
P(t) = , which is constant
L
E sin t
Q(t) =
L
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:43 PM Page 1005
3.3 Finding an integrating factor 1005 20
Exercises
dy
1 Write each of the following equations in (b) + 3y - sin x = 0
standard form: dx
dy di
(a) x + 2xy = xe-2x (c) iR + L = sin vt
dx dt
Solutions to exercises
dy dy
1 (a) + 2y = e-2x (b) + 3y = sin x
dx dx
di R 1
(c) + i = sin vt
dt L L
3.3 Finding an integrating factor
The idea behind the method is to multiply the equation
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)
dx
through by some function of x, as yet unknown, called an integrating factor. Let
this integrating factor be m. Then
dy
m + mP(x)y = mQ(x) (2)
dx
Suppose we choose m in a special way so that the left-hand side of this equation can
be written more simply as
d
(my)
dx
This special way of choosing m is described below. The equation becomes
d
(my) = mQ(x)
dx
In this form the equation is said to be exact. It follows immediately, by integrating
both sides, that
my = 冮 mQ(x) dx (3)
So by knowing Q(x) and m, and performing the integration on the right, and dividing
through by m, we can obtain y.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:43 PM Page 1006
20 1006 Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an integrating factor
Choosing m
d
We want to choose m so that the left-hand side of (2) is equal to (my). That is,
dx
dy d
m + mP(x)y = (my)
dx dx
Using the product rule for differentiation we can expand the product on the right to
give
dy dy dm
m + mP(x)y = m + y
dx dx dx
Comparing the coefficients of y on both sides shows that we must choose m to satisfy
dm
mP(x) =
dx
This is a first-order equation for m, which can be solved by separating the variables
as follows:
冮 m = 冮 P(x) dx
dm
from which
ln m = 冮 P(x) dx
We have ignored the constant of integration. When you are experienced at this
technique, try including a constant of integration and you will see that it makes no
difference to the solution.
It follows that
m = e冮P(x) dx
Thus knowing P(x) we can use this formula to find the integrating factor. Once m is
known y can be determined from the Key point.
Key point The integrating factor method
If the linear differential equation is in the standard form
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)
dx
then the integrating factor is
m = e冮P(x) dx
and y is given by
冮
my = mQ(x) dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:47 PM Page 1007
3.3 Finding an integrating factor 1007 20
Example 3.4
Find the integrating factor for the equations
dy dy
(a) x + 2xy = xe-2x (b) - (tan x)y = 1
dx dx
Solution
In each case write the equation in standard form and identify P(x). The integrating
factor is found from m = e冮
P(x) dx
.
(a) P(x) = 2; m = e2x
(b) P(x) = - tan x; m = eln cos x = cos x
Example 3.5
Use the integrating factors found in Example 3.4 to find the general solutions to the
following differential equations:
dy dy
(a) x + 2xy = xe-2x (b) - (tan x)y = 1
dx dx
Solution
dy
(a) The standard form is + 2y = e-2x for which the integrating factor is m = e2x.
dx
Note that Q(x) = e-2x.
From the previous Key point we have
my = 冮 mQ(x) dx
so that
e2xy = 冮e e 2x -2x
dx
= 冮 1 dx
= x + C
Therefore
(x + C)
y =
e2x
= (x + C)e-2x
This is the general solution.
(b) The equation is in standard form. The integrating factor is m = cos x and
Q(x) = 1. From the Key point we have
my = 冮 mQ(x) dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:47 PM Page 1008
20 1008 Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an integrating factor
so that
(cos x) y = 冮 cos x dx
= sin x + C
giving
sin x C
y = +
cos x cos x
= tan x + C sec x
This is the general solution.
Example 3.6
dy y
(a) Use the integrating factor method to solve the equation + = 1.
dx x
(b) Find the particular solution where y(1) = 3.
Solution
(a) Refer to the standard form and identify P(x) and Q(x).
1
P(x) =
x
Q(x) = 1
The integrating factor is found from the formula m = e 冮P(x) dx
. Find the integrating
factor:
m = e冮(1>x) dx = eln x = x
Knowing the integrating factor y can be found using the previous Key point, then
my = 冮 mQ(x) dx
= 冮 x * 1 dx
x2
= + C
2
where C is the constant of integration. So
x2
my = xy = + C
2
so that
x C
y = +
2 x
is the general solution.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1009
3.3 Finding an integrating factor 1009 20
(b) We now apply the condition y(1) = 3 in order to find the constant C and thus
obtain the particular solution.
We know that when x = 1, y = 3, and so
1 C
3 = +
2 1
x 5
that is C = 52 . Thus the particular solution is y = + .
2 2x
Exercises
1 Solve the equation 5 The temperature u (measured in degrees) of a
body immersed in an atmosphere of varying
dy temperature satisfies the equation
x2 + xy = 1
dx
du
+ 0.1u = 5 - 2.5t
2 Find the solution of the equation dt
dy Find the temperature at time t if u = 60° when
x - y = x
dx t = 0.
subject to the condition y(1) = 2. 6 In an LR circuit with applied voltage
E = 10(1 - e-0.1t) the current i satisfies the
3 Find the general solution of the equation equation
dy di
+ (tan t)y = cos t L + Ri = 10(1 - e-0.1t )
dt dt
4 Solve the equation If the initial current is i0 find i subsequently.
dy
+ (cot t)y = sin t
dt
Solutions to exercises
1 C
1 y = ln x + 5 u = 300 - 25t - 240e-0.1t
x x
- a be-0.1t
10 100
2 y = x ln x + 2x 6 i =
R 10R - L
3 y = (t + C) cos t
>
+ ai0 + be-Rt L
10L
R(10R - L)
y = a t - sin 2t + C b cosec t
1 1
4
2 4
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1010
20 1010 Block 3 Solving first-order linear equations using an integrating factor
End of block exercises
1 Find the general solution of the following 2 Use an integrating factor to obtain the general
equations: di
solution of iR + L = sin vt where R, L and
dt
dy dy
(a) + y = 1 (b) + 2y = 6 v are constants.
dx dx
dx dy
(c) + 6x = 4 (d) - 3y = 2
dt dx
dy dx
(e) = 6y + 9 (f) = 3x - 8
dx dt
Solutions to exercises
L[(R>L)sin vt - v cos vt]
1 (a) y = 1 + ce-x (b) y = 3 + ce-2x 2 + ce-Rt >L
R2 + L2v2
2 2
(c) x = 3 + ce-6t (d) y = ce3x - 3
3 8
(e) y = ce6x - 2 (f) x = 3 + ce3t
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1011
Computational approaches to differential equations
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Computer software packages are readily available that can solve differential equations.
You may recall that when using software to perform integration the results produced
fall into two categories, symbolic and numerical. This is also true when we use
computers to solve differential equations.
For many equations it is possible for the computer to obtain a symbolic answer in
terms of common functions, and we shall illustrate this shortly. However, for many
equations it is impossible to obtain a symbolic answer and so techniques, known as
numerical methods, exist for obtaining approximate solutions. One technique for
solving first-order equations is Euler’s method. In general, numerical techniques are
laborious to perform by hand and so are best implemented using a computer. We
shall be content to illustrate Euler’s method using simple examples, and then rely
upon software to tackle more substantial problems.
4.2 Use of symbolic algebra packages to solve first-order differential
equations exactly
Many software packages designed for tackling mathematical problems have the
facility to solve first-order equations. You should enquire whether the package(s) to
which you have access can solve differential equations symbolically. You may need
to refer to local documentation. Some of the packages require additional software
to be loaded. For example, the standard version of Matlab does not come with a
symbolic processor, but requires a Symbolic Math Toolbox.
Example 4.1 Finding an exact, general solution
dy
Use a computer algebra package to solve the differential equation - xy = 0.
dx
This is a first-order equation, which can be solved using the method of separation of
variables.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1012
20 1012 Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Solution
Maple
In Maple the command dsolve can be used to find the general solution of a differential
equation with dependent variable y and independent variable x. y must be input as y(x),
and the derivative term is input as diff(y(x), x), which stands for the derivative of y(x)
dy
with respect to x. So, to solve the equation - xy = 0 the Maple command is
dx
dsolve(diff(y(x),x)⫺x*y(x) ⫽ 0);
and Maple outputs
y(x) = —C1eA2x B
1 2
The output —C1
1 2
is the arbitrary constant, and so we can interpret this general solution as
simply y = Ae2x .
Matlab
Assuming the Symbolic Math Toolbox is available, the function dsolve computes symbolic
solutions to differential equations. In Matlab the symbol D is used to denote the derivative.
The command
dsolve('Dy-x*y=0','x')
generates the result
C1*exp(1>2*xN2)
Note the requirement to put the differential equation and the independent variable
between apostrophes. Clearly the output is not as user-friendly as that provided by
Maple, although another Matlab command, pretty, can be applied to generate more
familiar output.
The power of software packages lies in their ability to handle symbolic constants in
problems. Consider the following example.
Example 4.2 Electrical Engineering – RL circuit with sinusoidal input
In question 2, End of block exercises, Block 3 the integrating factor method was
used to solve the equation
di
iR + L = sin vt
dt
where R, L and v are constants, in order to find the current i(t) in an RL circuit. Use
a computer algebra package to obtain the general solution of this equation.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1013
4.2 Use of symbolic algebra packages to solve first-order differential equations exactly 1013 20
Solution
Maple
In Maple the relevant command is
dsolve(i(t)*R+L*diff(i(t),t) = sin(w*t));
and Maple produces the following output:
Rt -L w cos(wt) + R sin(wt)
i(t) = e( - L ) –C1 +
R2 + w2L2
where – C1 represents the arbitrary constant in the general solution. Compare this
solution with the one stated analytically in question 2 on page 1010.
Matlab
In Matlab the symbol i is used to denote 2 -1 and so should not be used here. Instead
we use y as the dependent variable. The command
dsolve('y*R+L*Dy = sin(w*t)','t')
results in the output
(-L*w*cos(w*t) + R*sin(w*t) + exp(-1>L*R*t)*C1*R^2 +
exp(-1>L*R*t)*C1*w^2*L^2)>(R^2 + w^2*L^2)
This is equivalent to that produced by Maple, although the format is not so user-friendly.
Example 4.3 Finding an exact, particular solution
dy
Find the particular solution of - x2y = 0 that satisfies the initial condition
dx
y(0) = 3.
Solution
Software packages will have the facility to handle initial conditions.
Maple
In Maple the appropriate command is
dsolve({diff(y(x),x) - x^2*y(x) = 0,y(0) = 3});
and Maple outputs the particular solution\
y(x) = 3e13x 2
1 3
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1014
20 1014 Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Matlab
The command
dsolve('Dy-x^2*y=0','y(0) = 3','x')
results in the output
3*exp(1>3*x^3)
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Use a computer algebra package to find the 2 Use a computer algebra package to find the
general solutions of the following differential exact, particular solution of the following
equations: equations:
dy xy du
(a) = 2 (a) = -ku, u(0) = u0
dx x + 1 dt
dv di
(b) m = -v where m is a constant (b) iR + L = E, i(0) = 0, where R, L
dt dt
and E are constants
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) y(x) = C2x2 + 1 E Ee(-Rt>L)
2 (a) u(t) = u0 e-kt (b) i(t) = -
(b) v(t) = Ce-t>m R R
4.3 Euler’s method
Although symbolic algebra packages are extremely powerful, there are nevertheless
some differential equations that they cannot solve exactly. In such cases it may be
possible to use the computer to obtain an approximate solution. There are many
sophisticated techniques available for doing this, the details of which can be found in
textbooks on numerical methods. The simplest technique is Euler’s method, which
we explain here.
Euler’s method is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of
differential equations having the form
dy
= f (x, y), y(x0) = y0
dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1015
4.3 Euler’s method 1015 20
Note that to use this method we need to be given an initial condition y(x0) = y0.
dy
When solving this equation numerically we use the fact that is the gradient of the
dx
tangent to y(x). We know from the given equation that the point (x0, y0) lies on
dy
the graph of the solution. We also know that the gradient of the solution is , that is
dx
f (x, y). So, at the point (x0, y0) the graph of the solution has a tangent line with gradi-
ent f (x0, y0). This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
y
A tangent line is
used to obtain an
estimate of the true True solution
solution.
y (x1)
y1 Tangent line approximation
y0
h
x0 x1 x
The point (x0, y0) lies both on the solution curve and on the tangent line. Consider
moving to a nearby point on the tangent line. Let the nearby point be (x1, y1), where
x1 = x0 + h. The value of h and hence x1 is known. Then (x1, y1) is on the tangent
line, but not on the solution curve. When x = x1 the value of the solution is y(x1). We
do not know the value of y(x1). We can, however, use y1 as an approximation to y(x1).
y1 - y0
Referring to Figure 4.1 we note that the gradient of the tangent line is , and so
h
y1 - y0
= f (x0, y0)
h
It follows by rearrangement that y1 = y0 + hf (x0, y0). So, knowing the values
of x0, y0, the function f (x, y) and the value of h we can calculate y1. Note from
Figure 4.1 that y(x1) is the true, but unknown, solution, whereas y1 is now the known,
but approximate, solution.
We can use the point (x1, y1) as a new starting point to find an approximate solu-
tion at x2 = x1 + h, and using an identical argument this is y2 = y1 + hf(x1, y1).
The process is repeated using the general formula yn + 1 = yn + hf (xn, yn). The
result is a sequence of values, yn, which approximates the true solution y(x) at the
points where x = xn.
Key point Euler’s method
dy
An approximate solution of = f (x, y), subject to the initial condition
dx
y(x0) = y0, is given by
yn + 1 = yn + h f (xn, yn), y0 = y (x0)
where h is the step-size, or increment, in x.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1016
20 1016 Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Example 4.4
dy x
Use three steps of Euler’s method to obtain an approximate solution of = , subject
dx y
to the initial condition y(1) = 2, at the points where x = 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. Compare
the results with the exact solution.
Solution
We start from the given initial condition, x0 = 1, y0 = y(x0) = y(1) = 2. Then
x
applying Euler’s method with h = 0.1, and f(x, y) = , we find
y
y1 = y0 + h f (x0, y0)
= y0 + h a b
x0
y0
= 2 + 0.1 a b
1
2
= 2.05
So, at the point x1 = 1.1 the solution is approximated by y1 = 2.05. These values
are recorded in Table 4.1.
Applying the formula again:
y2 = y1 + hf (x1, y1 )
= y1 + h a b
x1
y1
= 2.05 + 0.1 a b
1.1
2.05
= 2.103659 (6 d.p.)
So, at the point x2 = 1.2 the solution is approximated by y2 = 2.103659.
Applying the formula one more time:
y3 = y2 + hf(x2, y2 ) = y2 + h a b =
x2
2.160702
y2
These results and the true solutions, for comparison, are given in Table 4.1. Note that
the true solution can be obtained by separation of variables and is y = 2x2 + 3.
Table 4.1
For Example 4.4. xn yn True: y(xn) (to 6 d.p.)
x0 = 1 y0 = 2 2
x1 = 1.1 y1 = 2.05 2.051828
x2 = 1.2 y2 = 2.103659 2.107131
x3 = 1.3 y3 = 2.160702 2.165641
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4.4 Use of software to find numerical solutions of differential equations 1017 20
Clearly this rather crude approach can be improved by taking a smaller
increment in x, but the price we pay is an increase in the number of calculations
required.
We have provided details of the simplest numerical method for solving a first-order
differential equation. More sophisticated formulae exist, but for a detailed treatment
you should refer to a textbook on numerical methods for engineers.
Exercises
1 Use five steps of Euler’s method to find an 2 Use five steps of Euler’s method to find an
approximate solution of the initial value approximate solution of the initial value
dy dx x + x2
problem = x sin y, y(0) = 2 using h = 0.2, problem = , x(1) = -5 using
dx dt t
for 0 … x … 1. Work throughout to six decimal h = 0.01. Work throughout to six decimal
places. Hence approximate y(1). places. Hence approximate x(1.05).
Solutions to exercises
1 y(1) L 2.339282 2 x(1.05) L -4.169132
4.4 Use of software to find numerical solutions of differential equations
As we stated in the previous section, symbolic algebra packages use sophisticated
techniques to find accurate, approximate solutions of initial value problems. For full
details of the underlying algorithms you will need to consult the documentation
accompanying your package. We shall be content to illustrate their application in a
simple example.
Example 4.5 Finding a numerical solution of a first-order equation
dy
Find a numerical solution of the differential equation of Example 4.3, - x2y = 0,
dx
subject to the initial condition y(0) = 3.
Solution
A numerical solution produces a sequence of values of the dependent variable, at
values of the independent variable specified by the user. For example, suppose we
wish to know the value of y when x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1018
20 1018 Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Maple
dsolve({diff(y(x),x)-x^2*y(x)=0,y(0)=3},
type=numeric,output=array([0,0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8,1]));
and Maple outputs an array containing the x and y values:
[x y(x)]
0 3.
.2 3.00801944725338
.4 3.06469041449842
.6 3.22396357678057
.8 3.55828609702334
1 4.18683969904184
You will find that producing a graph of the output using the software is straightforward.
Matlab
Using Matlab, it is first necessary to write and save a file, known as an m.file, to store the
dy
right-hand side of the differential equation = f (x, y). The second line below represents
dx
dy
the right-hand side of the equation = x2 y.
dx
function ode1=example1(x,y)
ode1=x^2*y
After saving this m.file the following command will obtain the numerical solution,
subject to the initial condition y(0) = 3:
[x,y]=ode45('example1',[0,0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8,1],3)
resulting in
3.0000
3.0080
3.0647
y = F V
3.2240
3.5583
4.1868
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:52 PM Page 1019
4.4 Use of software to find numerical solutions of differential equations 1019 20
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Use a computer algebra package to find an dx
(b) = sin(x2), x(0) = 1, at
approximate numerical solution of the dt
following initial value problems at the values t = 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.
of the independent variable specified:
dy 1
(a) - = 0, y(0) = 2,
dx ln y
at x = 0, 0.1, 0.2, . . ., 0.5.
Solutions to exercises
1 [x, y(x)] [t, x(t)]
0 2. 0 1.
.1 2.13759470217855 .25 1.23412636541130
.2 2.26437308827318 (b) E .5 1.47072990280928 U
(a) F V
.3 2.38299104649312 .75 1.63173824177242
.4 2.49515771401761 1 1.71208213688752
.5 2.60205536137248
End of block exercises
1 Using software, obtain a symbolic solution of 0 … x … 0.5. First take h = 0.1, then
di h = 0.05, and compare your answers at
L + Ri = 10(1 - e-0.1t) when i(0) = i0.
dt x = 0.5 with the exact solution obtained by
separating the variables. Work throughout to
2 Using software, obtain a symbolic solution of
six decimal places.
di
iR + L = E where R, L and E are constants
dt 5 Use Euler’s method to find a numerical solution
subject to the initial condition i(0) = 0. dy xy
of = 2 subject to y(1) = 3. Take
3 Use a package to find the general solution of dx x + 2
dT h = 0.1 and hence approximate y(1.5). Obtain
= m(T - K) where m and K are constants. the true solution using the method of
du
separation of variables. Work throughout to
six decimal places.
4 Use Euler’s method to find a numerical
dy
solution of = - 2y, y(0) = 1, for
dx
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1020
20 1020 Block 4 Computational approaches to differential equations
Solutions to exercises
- a be-0.1t
10 100 4 h = 0.1: y(0.5) L 0.327680.
1 i(t) =
R 10R - L h = 0.05: y(0.5) L 0.348678. True solution
+ ai0 + b e-Rt>L
10L y = e-2x: y(0.5) = 0.367879
R(10R - L)
5 3, 3.1, 3.206231, 3.318076, 3.434973,
E y(1.5) L 3.556411. True solution:
2 i(t) = (1 - e-Rt>L) y = 23(x2 + 2)1>2 , y(1.5) = 3.570714
R
3 T(u) = K + Aemu
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1021
Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
In this block we start to learn how to solve second-order differential equations of a
particular type – those that are linear and which have constant coefficients. Such
equations are used widely in the modelling of physical phenomena – for example, in
the analysis of vibrating systems, and the analysis of electric circuits.
The solution of these equations is achieved in stages. The first stage is to find what
is called a complementary function, and is the subject of this block. The second
stage is to find a particular integral. This is dealt with in the following block.
Finally, the sum of the complementary function and the particular integral forms the
general solution of a second-order linear differential equation. It is important that
you understand and use this terminology. A knowledge of complex numbers, and
particularly the exponential form, is essential.
Key point Solving a second-order linear equation
1 Find the complementary function, ycf.
2 Find a particular integral, ypi.
3 The general solution is the sum of the complementary function and the particular
integral:
y = ycf + ypi
5.2 Homogeneous equations and the complementary function, ycf
The general form of a second-order linear equation that has constant coefficients is
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x) (1)
dx dx
where a, b, c are constants. An example of such an equation is
d2y dy
3 2
- 2 + 4y = e-x sin x
dx dx
When f (x) is not identically zero, the equation is said to be inhomogeneous. An
important relative of this equation is found by replacing the function f (x) with zero
to give
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0 (2)
dx dx
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20 1022 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
This is the homogeneous form of equation (1). The homogeneous form is found by
ignoring the term that is independent of y, or its derivatives.
To find the general solution of equation (1), it is first necessary to solve equation
(2). The general solution of (2) is called the complementary function and will
always contain two arbitrary constants. We shall denote this solution by ycf.
The technique for finding the complementary function is described in this block.
Example 5.1
Which of the following are constant-coefficient equations? Which are homo-
geneous?
d2y dy d2y
(a) 2
+ 4+ 3y = e-2x (b) x + 2y = 0
dx dx dx2
d2x dx d2y dy
(c) 2 + 3 + 7x = 0 (d) + 4 + 4y = 0
dt dt dx2 dx
Solution
(a) const. coeff., not homogeneous
(b) not const. coeff., homogeneous
(c) const. coeff. and homogeneous
(d) const. coeff. and homogeneous
Example 5.2
What is a complementary function?
Solution
A complementary function is the
general solution of a homogeneous,
linear differential equation.
Example 5.3
The complementary function for the equation
d2y
+ y = 0
dx2
is y = A cos x + B sin x for any constants A and B. Verify that this is indeed a
solution.
Solution
The given equation is homogeneous, linear and constant coefficient. By differentiat-
ing y = A cos x + B sin x twice and substituting into the equation it is easy to verify
that this is a solution.
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5.3 Finding the complementary function 1023 20
dy d2y
Find and 2 .
dx dx
y¿ = -A sin x + B cos x, y– = -A cos x - B sin x
Substitute the expressions for y and y– into the left-hand side of the differential
equation and simplify your answer.
-A cos x - B sin x + A cos x + B sin x = 0
So the left-hand side simplifies to zero. The right-hand side of the differential
equation is zero. Hence y = A cos x + B sin x is a solution.
Note that y = A cos x + B sin x contains two arbitrary constants. It is the general
solution and therefore the complementary function for this homogeneous equation.
Exercises
1 Write down the homogeneous form of the d2x
(c) = -v2x, where v is a constant.
following equations: dt2
d2y dy
(a) 2 + 3 - 2y = sin x 2 State what is meant by the term ‘complementary
dx dx
function’.
d2x
(b) + 7x - et cos t = 0
dt2
Solutions to exercises
d2y dy d2x
1 (a) + 3 - 2y = 0 (b) 2 + 7x = 0 (c) is already homogeneous
dx2 dx dt
5.3 Finding the complementary function
To find the complementary function we must make use of the following property.
If y1(x) and y2(x) are any two (linearly independent) solutions of a linear, homo-
geneous second-order differential equation then the general solution ycf (x) is
ycf (x) = Ay1 (x) + By2 (x)
where A and B are constants.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1024
20 1024 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
We see that the second-order linear ordinary differential equation has two
arbitrary constants in its general solution. The functions y1(x) and y2 (x) are linearly
independent if one is not simply a multiple of the other.
This property gives us a method for constructing the complementary function. If
we can find two independent solutions of a homogeneous differential equation, we
can form the complementary function by simply adding constant multiples of the
two solutions.
Example 5.4
(a) Verify that y1 = e4x and y2 = e2x both satisfy the constant-coefficient
homogeneous equation
d2y dy
- 6 + 8y = 0 (3)
dx2 dx
(b) Write down the general solution of this equation and so form the
complementary function.
Solution
(a) If y1 = e4x, differentiation yields
dy1
= 4e4x
dx
and similarly,
d2y1
= 16e4x
dx2
Substitution into the left-hand side of equation (3) gives
16e4x - 6(4e4x ) + 8e4x
which simplifies to zero. The right-hand side is zero. So y1 = e4x is indeed a
solution. Similarly if y2 = e2x, then
dy2 d2y2
= 2e2x and = 4e2x
dx dx2
Substitution into the left-hand side of equation (3) gives
4e2x - 6(2e2x ) + 8e2x
which simplifies to zero, so y2 = e2x is also a solution of equation (3).
(b) So we know two independent solutions of the equation: these are e2x and e4x.
They are linearly independent because e2x is not a multiple of e4x. From the
property stated above we have
ycf (x) = Ae4x + Be2x
as the general solution of equation (3). This is the complementary function.
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5.3 Finding the complementary function 1025 20
Key point Finding a complementary function
If two independent solutions, y1 and y2, of a homogeneous second-order linear equation
can be found, the complementary function is found by adding constant multiples of
them:
ycf(x) = Ay1(x) + By2(x)
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
Example 5.5
Substitute y = ekx, where k is a constant, into the equation
d2y dy
2
- - 6y = 0
dx dx
in order to find the values of k that make y = ekx a solution. Hence state the general
solution.
Solution
As suggested we substitute y = ekx. Differentiating we find
dy d2y
= kekx and = k2ekx
dx dx2
Substitution into the given equation yields
k2ekx - kekx - 6ekx = 0
that is
(k2 - k - 6)ekx = 0
Since the function ekx can never be zero it follows that
k2 - k - 6 = 0 (4)
that is
(k - 3)(k + 2) = 0
so that k = 3 or k = -2. That is to say, if y = ekx is to be a solution of the differen-
tial equation k must be either 3 or -2. We therefore have found two solutions:
y1(x) = e3x and y2(x) = e-2x
These two functions are linearly independent because e-2x is not a multiple of e3x,
and therefore the general solution is
ycf (x) = Ae3x + Be-2x
This is the complementary function for the given differential equation. Equation (4)
for determining k is called the auxiliary equation.
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20 1026 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
Example 5.6
By substituting y = ekx, find values of k so that y is a solution of
d2y dy
2
- 3 + 2y = 0
dx dx
Hence write down two solutions and the general solution of this equation. Hence
state the complementary function.
Solution
By substituting y = ekx find the auxiliary equation:
k2 - 3k + 2 = 0
This can be factorised:
(k - 1)(k - 2) = 0
So the required values of k are 1 and 2. Write down the two solutions:
y = ex and y = e2x
Finally write down the general solution:
ycf (x) = Aex + Be2x
The complementary function is therefore ycf (x) = Aex + Be2x.
Example 5.7
Find the auxiliary equation of the differential equation
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx
where a, b and c are constants.
Solution
We try a solution of the form y = ekx so that
dy d2y
= kekx and = k2ekx
dx dx2
Substitution into the given differential equation yields
ak2ekx + bkekx + cekx = 0
that is
(ak2 + bk + c)ekx = 0
Because ekx cannot be zero it follows that
ak2 + bk + c = 0
This is the required auxiliary equation.
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5.3 Finding the complementary function 1027 20
Key point The auxiliary equation of
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx
is ak2 + bk + c = 0. The solutions of the auxiliary equation give values of k that make
y = ekx a solution of the differential equation.
Example 5.8
Write down, but do not solve, the auxiliary equations of the following differential
equations:
d2y dy d2y dy
(a) + + y = 0 (b) 2 2 + 7 - 3y = 0
dx2 dx dx dx
d2y d2y dy
(c) 4 2
+ 7y = 0 (d) 2
+ = 0
dx dx dx
Solution
(a) k2 + k + 1 = 0
(b) 2k2 + 7k - 3 = 0
(c) 4k2 + 7 = 0
(d) k2 + k = 0
Solution of the auxiliary equation gives the values of k that we seek. Note that the
auxiliary equation is a quadratic equation and so has two roots. Clearly the nature of
the roots will depend upon the values of a, b and c. If b2 7 4ac the roots will be real
and distinct. The two values of k thus obtained, k1 and k2, will allow us to write down
two independent solutions:
y1(x) = ek1x, y2 (x) = ek2x
and so the general solution of the differential equation will be
y(x) = Aek1x + Bek2x
Key point If the auxiliary equation has real, distinct roots k1 and k2, the complementary function
will be
ycf (x) = Aek1x + Bek2x
On the other hand, if b2 = 4ac the two roots of the auxiliary equation will be equal
and this method will therefore yield only one independent solution. In this case,
special treatment is required. If b2 6 4ac the two roots of the auxiliary equation will
be complex: that is, k1 and k2 will be complex numbers. The procedure for dealing
with such cases will become apparent in the following examples.
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20 1028 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
Example 5.9
Find the general solution of
d2y dy
2
+ 3 - 10y = 0
dx dx
Solution
Write down the auxiliary equation:
k2 + 3k - 10 = 0
Factorise to find the solutions:
1k - 221k + 52 = 0, k = 2 and k = -5
Thus there exist two solutions y1 = e2x and y2 = e-5x. We can write the general
solution as
y(x) = Ae2x + Be-5x
This is the complementary function.
Example 5.10
Find the general solution of
d2y
+ 4y = 0
dx2
Solution
Write down the auxiliary equation:
k2 + 4 = 0
It follows that
k2 = -4
so that
k = ;2j
that is, we have complex roots. The two independent solutions of the equation are
thus
y1(x) = e2jx, y2 (x) = e-2jx
so that the general solution can be written in the form
y(x) = Ae2jx + Be-2jx
However, in cases such as this, it is usual to rewrite the solution in the following way.
Recall that Euler’s relations (Chapter 11, Block 3) give
e2jx = cos 2x + j sin 2x and e-2jx = cos 2x - j sin 2x
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1029
5.3 Finding the complementary function 1029 20
so that
y(x) = A(cos 2x + j sin 2x) + B(cos 2x - j sin 2x)
= (A + B) cos 2x + (Aj - Bj) sin 2x
If we now relabel the constants such that
A + B = C and Aj - Bj = D
we can write the general solution in the form
y(x) = C cos 2x + D sin 2x
This is the complementary function.
Example 5.11
d2y dy
Given a 2
+ b + cy = 0, write down the auxiliary equation. If the roots of the
dx dx
auxiliary equation are complex (one root will always be the complex conjugate of
the other) and are denoted by
k1 = a + bj, k2 = a - bj
show that the general solution can be written as
y(x) = eax(C cos bx + D sin bx)
where C and D are arbitrary constants.
Solution
Write down the auxiliary equation:
ak2 + bk + c = 0
If k1 = a + bj, k2 = a - bj then the general solution is
y = Ae(a + bj)x + Be(a - bj)x
where A and B are arbitrary constants. Using the laws of indices this is rewritten as
y = Aeax ebjx + Beax e-bjx
= eax(Aebjx + Be-bjx )
Then, using Euler’s relations, we obtain
y = eax(A cos bx + Aj sin bx + B cos bx - Bj sin bx)
= eax[(A + B) cos bx + (Aj - Bj) sin bx]
Writing C = A + B and D = Aj - Bj, we find
y = eax(C cos bx + D sin bx)
This is the required solution.
Key point If the auxiliary equation has complex roots, a + bj and a - bj, then the
complementary function is
ycf = eax(C cos bx + D sin bx)
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20 1030 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
Example 5.12 d2y dy
Find the general solution of 2 + 2 + 4y = 0.
dx dx
Solution
The auxiliary equation is
k2 + 2k + 4 = 0
This equation has complex roots. Find them.
k = -1 ; 23j
Using the Key point above with a = -1 and b = 23 write down the general solution.
y = e-x(C cos23 x + D sin23 x)
Example 5.13 Mechanical Engineering – Simple harmonic motion
The behaviour of a wide range of oscillating and vibrating mechanical and electrical
systems is described by a differential equation of the form
d2x
= -v2x
dt2
where v is a constant. This is known as the simple harmonic motion equation. Find
its general solution.
Solution d2x
Writing the equation in the form 2 + v2 x = 0 we recognise it as second order,
dt
constant coefficient and homogeneous. Write down the auxiliary equation.
k2 + v2 = 0
This has solutions k = ; vj. So there are complex roots with real part 0 and imagi-
nary parts ; v. From the previous Key point write down the general solution.
x = C cos vt + D sin vt
The fact that the solution consists of a sine and a cosine wave is indicative of the fact
that the differential equation describes an oscillating or vibrating system.
Key point The simple harmonic motion equation and its solution are, respectively,
d2x
2
= -v2x
dt
and
x = C cos vt + D sin vt
It is often sufficient simply to quote this solution when faced with solving a simple
harmonic motion problem.
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5.3 Finding the complementary function 1031 20
When the auxiliary equation has equal roots special treatment is required. This is
because the auxiliary equation provides only one independent solution, and we seek
two to construct the general solution of any second-order differential equation. The
second solution is found by multiplying the first by x, as shown in the following
example.
Example 5.14 d2y dy
The auxiliary equation of a 2 + b + cy = 0 is ak2 + bk + c = 0. Suppose
dx dx
this equation has equal roots k = k1. Verify that y = xek1x is a solution of the differ-
ential equation. Hence state the general solution.
Solution dy d2y
We must check that y = xek1x is a solution. Using the product rule find and 2 .
dx dx
dy
= ek1x + xk1ek1x = ek1x(1 + k1x)
dx
d2y
=
dx2
11 + k1x2k1ek1 x + ek1 x k1 = ek1x1k21 x + 2k12
Substitution into the left-hand side of the differential equation yields
a(k21 x + 2k1)ek1x + b(1 + k1x)ek1x + cxek1x
that is
ek1x[a(k21 x + 2k1) + b(1 + k1x) + cx]
which can be rewritten as
ek1x[(ak21 + bk1 + c)x + 2ak1 + b] (5)
But ak21 + bk1 + c = 0 since k1 satisfies the auxiliary equation. Also,
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
k1 =
2a
b
but since the roots are equal, then b2 - 4ac = 0 and hence k1 = - . So 2ak1 +
2a
b = 0, and the expression (5) simplifies to zero. We conclude that y = xek1x is a solution
d2y dy
of a 2 + b + cy = 0 when the roots of the auxiliary equation are equal.
dx dx
Since k1 is a root of the auxiliary equation, y = ek1x is a solution of the differential
equation. The second independent solution is y = xek1x. So the general solution is
y = Aek1x + Bxek1x
= (A + Bx)ek1x
Key point If the auxiliary equation has two equal roots, k1, the complementary function is
ycf = (A + Bx)ek1x
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20 1032 Block 5 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations I
Example 5.15
Obtain the general solution of the equation
d2y dy
2
+ 8 + 16y = 0
dx dx
Solution
As before, a trial solution of the form y = ekx yields an auxiliary equation
k2 + 8k + 16 = 0
This equation factorises so that
(k + 4)(k + 4) = 0
and we obtain equal roots, that is k = -4 (twice). If we proceed as before, writing
y1(x) = e-4x and y2(x) = e-4x, it is clear that the two solutions are not independent.
We need to find a second independent solution. Using the result of the previous
example we conclude that, because the roots of the auxiliary equation are equal, the
second independent solution is y2 = xe-4x. The general solution is then
y(x) = (A + Bx)e-4x
This is the complementary function.
Key points Summary
Second-order linear constant-coefficient homogeneous equation:
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx
Auxiliary equation:
ak2 + bk + c = 0
Roots of auxiliary equation Complementary function
k1, k2, both real and different y = Ae k 1x + Be k 2x
a ; jb , complex conjugate pair y = eax(A cos bx + B sin bx)
k1 = k2 = k, equal roots y = (A + Bx)ekx
Exercises
1 Obtain the general solutions, that is the d2y dy
(d) 2
+ 2 + y = 0
complementary functions, of the following dt dt
homogeneous equations: d2y dy
d2y dy (e) - 4 + 4y = 0
(a) 2 - 3 + 2y = 0 dx2 dx
dx dx d2y dy
d 2y dy (f) + + 8y = 0
(b) 2 + 7 + 6y = 0 dt2 dt
dx dx
d2x dx
(c) 2 + 5 + 6x = 0
dt dt
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5.3 Finding the complementary function 1033 20
2 Find the auxiliary equation for the differential 3 Find the complementary function of the
equation equation
d2i di 1 d2y dy
L 2
+ R + i = 0 2
+ + y = 0
dt dt C dx dx
Hence write down the complementary function.
Solutions to exercises
13 x 13 x
1 (a) y = Aex + Be2x (b) y = Ae-x + Be-6x 3 e-x>2 aA cos + B sin b
(c) x = Ae-2t + Be-3t (d) y = Ae-t + Bte-t 2 2
(e) y = Ae2x + Bxe2x
(f) y = e-0.5t(A cos 2.78t + B sin 2.78t)
1
2 Lk2 + Rk + = 0;
C
i(t) = Aek1 t + Bek2 t,
R2 C - 4L
-R ;
A C
k1, k2 =
2L
End of block exercises
1 Obtain the general solutions, that is the d2y
(d) + 9y = 0
complementary functions, of the following dx2
homogeneous equations: d2y dy
2
(e) 2
- 2 = 0
dy dy dx dx
(a) + y = 0
- 2
dx dx 2
d2x
(f) - 16x = 0
d2y dy dt2
(b) 2 + + 5y = 0
dt dt Solutions to Solutions
d2y dy
(c) 2 + - 2y = 0
dx dx
Solutions to exercises
(d) y = A cos 3x + B sin 3x
1 (a) y = Aex + Bxex
(e) y = A + Be2x
(b) x = e-0.5t(A cos 2.18t + B sin 2.18t)
(f) x = Ae4t + Be-4t
(c) y = Ae-2x + Bex
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Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
We stated in Block 5 that the general solution of an inhomogeneous equation is the
sum of the complementary function and a particular integral. We have seen how to
find the complementary function in the case of a constant-coefficient equation. We
shall now deal with the problem of finding a particular integral.
The particular integral is any solution of the inhomogeneous equation. The
remarkable thing is that we need only find any solution of the inhomogeneous equa-
tion, and from it, together with the complementary function, the general solution can
be constructed.
There are a number of advanced techniques available for finding particular inte-
grals but we shall adopt a simpler strategy. Since any solution will do we shall try to
find one by a combination of educated guesswork and trial and error.
6.2 A particular integral
Given a second-order inhomogeneous differential equation
d2y
+ cy = f 1x2
dy
a 2
+ b (1)
dx dx
a particular integral is any function, which we will denote by ypi(x), which satisfies
the equation: that is, any function that, when substituted into the left-hand side and
simplified, results in the function on the right.
Example 6.1
Show that y = sin 2x is a particular integral of
d2y
+ 7y = 3 sin 2x
dx2
Solution
We substitute y = sin 2x into the given equation to see whether it is a solution. First
do the differentiation: if y = sin 2x then
dy
= 2 cos 2x
dx
d2y
= -4 sin 2x
dx2
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6.2 A particular integral 1035 20
d2y
Now substitute the expressions for y and into the left-hand side of the differential
dx2
d2y
equation + 7y, and simplify the result:
dx2
-4 sin 2x + 7(sin 2x) = 3 sin 2x
which is the same as the right-hand side of the differential equation. So y = sin 2x is
a solution of the inhomogeneous equation and so is a particular integral. We can
write ypi = sin 2x.
Example 6.2
Show that
1
y = - e2x
4
is a particular integral of
d2y dy
2
- - 6y = e2x (2)
dx dx
Solution
1 dy d2y
Starting with y = - e2x, find and 2 :
4 dx dx
dy 1 d2y
= - e2x, 2 = -e2x
dx 2 dx
dy d2y
Substitute the expressions for y, and 2 into the left-hand side of (2) to show
dx dx
that y satisfies the inhomogeneous equation.
-e2x - a - e2x b -6a - e2x b, which simplifies to e2x
1 1
2 4
1 1
Therefore y = - e2x is a particular integral and we can write ypi(x) = - e2x.
4 4
Example 6.3
What is a particular integral?
Solution
A particular integral is any
solution of an inhomogeneous
differential equation.
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20 1036 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Exercises
1 2t
1 Show that y = 4 is a particular integral of the 3 Show that x = e is a particular integral of
d2y dy 15
$ #
equation 2 - 5 + 6y = 24. the equation x + 4x + 3x = e2t.
dx dx
2 Explain what is meant by a particular integral.
6.3 Finding a particular integral
In the previous section we explained what is meant by a particular integral. Now we
look at how one is actually found. In fact our method is rather crude. It involves trial
and error and educated guesswork. We try solutions that are of the same general form
as the inhomogeneous term, f(x), on the right-hand side. As a guide, use Table 6.1.
The trial solutions all contain constants. These can be adjusted to force the trial solu-
tion to be an actual solution of the inhomogeneous equation.
Table 6.1
Trial solutions to Inhomogeneous term f(x) Trial solution
find the particular
Constant Constant
integral.
axr + . . . + bx + c axr + . . . + bx + g
a cos kx a cos kx + b sin kx
a sin kx a cos kx + b sin kx
aekx aekx
a cosh kx a cosh kx + b sinh kx
a sinh kx a cosh kx + b sinh kx
Example 6.4
In each case you are given the inhomogeneous term f (x). State the appropriate form
of solution to try when finding a particular integral.
(a) f (x) = 7e2x
(b) f (x) = 5
(c) f (x) = 7x - 3
(d) f (x) = cos 2x
Solution
Use Table 6.1 to select an appropriate trial solution.
(a) y = ae2x
(b) y = C, constant
(c) y = ax + b
(d) y = a cos 2x + b sin 2x
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6.3 Finding a particular integral 1037 20
Example 6.5
In each case you are given the inhomogeneous term f(x). State the appropriate form
of solution to try when finding a particular integral.
(a) f (x) = x
(b) f (x) = e2x
(c) f (x) = x + e2x
Solution
(a) y = ax + b
(b) y = ge2x
(c) This time the inhomogeneous term is a combination of an exponential and a
polynomial, so this is the form the trial solution should take.
y = ge2x + ax + b
Example 6.6
Find a particular integral of the equation
d2y dy
2
- - 6y = e2x (3)
dx dx
Solution
We shall attempt to find a solution of the inhomogeneous problem by trying a
function of the same form as that on the right-hand side. In particular, let us try
y(x) = ae2x, where a is a constant that we shall now determine. If y(x) = ae2x then
dy d2y
= 2ae2x and = 4ae2x
dx dx2
Substitution in equation (3) gives
4ae2x - 2ae2x - 6ae2x = e2x
that is
-4ae2x = e2x
1
so that y will be a solution if a is chosen so that - 4a = 1, that is a = - .
4
1
Therefore the particular integral is ypi(x) = - e2x.
4
Example 6.7
By trying a solution of the form y = ae-x find a particular integral of the equation
d2y dy
2
+ - 2y = 3e-x
dx dx
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20 1038 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Solution
dy d2y
If y = ae-x, write down expressions for and 2 .
dx dx
dy d2y
= -ae-x, 2 = ae-x
dx dx
Substitute into the given equation to find a, and hence the particular integral.
3 3
-2a = 3, a = - ; ypi(x) = - e-x
2 2
Example 6.8
Obtain a particular integral of the equation
d2y dy
2
- 6 + 8y = x
dx dx
Solution
In the last example, we found that a fruitful approach was to assume a solution in the
same form as that on the right-hand side. Suppose we assume a solution y(x) = ax
and proceed to determine a. This approach will actually fail, but let us see why. If
dy d2y
y(x) = ax then = a and 2 = 0. Substitution into the differential equation yields
dx dx
0 - 6a + 8ax = x
and a ought now to be chosen so that this expression is true for all x. If we equate the
coefficients of x we find 8a = 1 so that a = 18 , but with this value of a the constant
terms are inconsistent (i.e. - 68 on the left, but zero on the right). Clearly a particular
integral of the form ax is not possible. The problem arises because differentiation of
the term ax produces constant terms that are unbalanced on the right-hand side. So,
we try a solution of the form
y(x) = ax + b
with a and b constants. This is consistent with the recommendation in Table 6.1.
dy d2y
Proceeding as before, = a, 2 = 0. Substitution in the differential equation now
dx dx
gives
0 - 6a + 8(ax + b) = x
Equating coefficients of x we find
8a = 1 (4)
and equating constant terms we find
-6a + 8b = 0 (5)
1
From equation (4), a = and then from equation (5)
8
-6 a b + 8b = 0
1
8
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1039
6.3 Finding a particular integral 1039 20
so that
3
8b =
4
that is
3
b =
32
The required particular integral is
x 3
ypi(x) = +
8 32
Example 6.9
Find a particular integral for the equation
d2y dy
2
- 6 + 8y = 3cos x
dx dx
Solution
First try to decide on an appropriate form for the trial solution. Refer to Table 6.1 if
necessary.
y = a cos x + b sin x
We shall try a solution of the form
y(x) = a cos x + b sin x
Differentiating, we find
dy d2y
= -a sin x + b cos x, = -a cos x - b sin x
dx dx2
Substitution into the differential equation gives
(-a cos x - b sin x) - 6(-a sin x + b cos x) + 8(a cos x + b sin x) = 3 cos x
which simplifies to
sin x + cos x = 3 cos x
7b + 6a, 7a - 6b
Equating coefficients of sin x,
7b + 6a = 0
and equating coefficients of cos x, we find
7a - 6b = 3
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:57 PM Page 1040
20 1040 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Solve these simultaneously to find a and b , and hence the particular integral.
21 18
a = ,b = -
85 85
The particular integral is
21 18
ypi(x) = cos x - sin x
85 85
Exercises
1 Find a particular integral for the equation 2 Find a particular integral for the equation
dx 2
dx d 2x
- 3 + 2x = 5e3t - x = 4e-2t
dt 2 dt dt2
3 Find a particular integral for
y– + y¿ + y = 2 + x + cos x.
Solutions to exercises
1 xpi = 2.5e3t 3 ypi = 1 + x + sin x
4 -2t
2 xpi = e
3
6.4 Finding the general solution of a second-order
inhomogeneous equation
The general solution of a second-order linear inhomogeneous equation is the sum of
its complementary function and a particular integral. In Block 5 you learnt how to
find a complementary function, and in the previous section you learnt how to find a
particular integral. We now put these together to find the general solution.
Key point The general solution of a constant-coefficient ordinary differential equation
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx
is the sum of the particular integral and the complementary function:
y = ypi + ycf
ypi contains no arbitrary constants; ycf contains two arbitrary constants.
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1041
6.4 Finding the general solution of a second-order inhomogeneous equation 1041 20
Example 6.10
Find the general solution of
d2y dy
2
+ 3 - 10y = 3x2
dx dx
Solution
The complementary function has already been found in Example 5.9 to be
ycf = Ae2x + Be-5x
By noting that 3x2 is a polynomial of degree 2, the particular integral is found by
trying a solution of the form
y = ax2 + bx + c
Differentiate this trial solution twice:
dy d2y
= 2ax + b, 2 = 2a
dx dx
Substitute into the inhomogeneous equation and by equating coefficients of x2, x and
constants, write down the equations satisfied by a, b and c.
2a + 3(2ax + b) - 10(ax2 + bx + c) = 3x2
Equate coefficients of x2:
-10a = 3
Equate coefficients of x:
6a - 10b = 0
Equate constants:
2a + 3b - 10c = 0
Solve these to find a, b and c.
3 9 57
a = - ,b = - ,c = -
10 50 500
Hence write down the particular integral:
3 2 9 57
ypi (x) = - x - x-
10 50 500
Thus the general solution is
y = ypi(x) + ycf(x)
3 2 9 57
= - x - x - + Ae2x + Be-5x
10 50 500
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 1:57 PM Page 1042
20 1042 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Example 6.11
Find the particular solution of y– + y¿ - 12y = 4e2x that satisfies y(0) = 7 and
y¿(0) = 0.
Solution
The solution must be found in three parts:
1 Solve the homogeneous equation to find the complementary function.
2 Find a particular integral of the inhomogeneous equation, and add this to the
complementary function to find the general solution.
3 Apply the initial conditions to find the arbitrary constants.
First of all we find the complementary function. The homogeneous equation is y– +
y¿ - 12y = 0 and so the auxiliary equation is k2 + k - 12 = (k - 3)(k + 4) = 0.
Therefore k = 3 and k = - 4 and so the complementary function is
y = Ae3x + Be-4x
The particular integral is found by trying a solution of the form y = ae2x.
If y = ae2x, y¿ = 2ae2x and y– = 4ae2x. Substitute these expressions into the
differential equation
4ae2x + 2ae2x - 12ae2x = 4e2x
so that
4a + 2a - 12a = 4
2
from which -6a = 4, that is a = - . The general solution is then
3
2
y = Ae3x + Be-4x - e2x
3
The particular solution is found by applying the initial conditions.
Apply the condition y(0) = 7.
2
7 = A + B -
3
To apply the condition y¿(0) = 0 we must differentiate the general solution:
dy 4 2x
= 3Ae3x - 4Be-4x - e
dx 3
Now apply the condition y¿(0) = 0.
4
0 = 3A - 4B -
3
Solve these simultaneous equations.
32 65
A = and B =
7 21
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 2:00 PM Page 1043
6.4 Finding the general solution of a second-order inhomogeneous equation 1043 20
Finally, the particular solution is
32 3x 65 -4x 2
y = e + e - e2x
7 21 3
Example 6.12 Electrical Engineering – An LC circuit with
sinusoidal input
The differential equation governing the flow of current in the series LC circuit shown
in Figure 6.1 when subject to an applied voltage v(t) = V0 sin vt is
d2i 1
L + i = vV0 cos vt
dt2 C
Obtain its general solution.
Figure 6.1
A series LC circuit. V
L C
Solution
The homogeneous equation is
d2i i
L 2
+ = 0
dt C
1 1
Letting i = ekt we find the auxiliary equation is Lk2 + = 0 so that k2 = -
C LC
j
and so k = ; . Therefore the complementary function is
2LC
t t
icf = A cos + B sin
2LC 2LC
where A and B are arbitrary constants. To find a particular integral, try
i = E cos vt + F sin vt, where E and F are constants. We find
di
= - vE sin vt + vF cos vt
dt
d2i
= - v2E cos vt - v2F sin vt
dt2
Substitution into the inhomogeneous equation yields
1
L (-v2E cos vt - v2F sin vt) + (E cos vt + F sin vt) = vV0 cos vt
C
which is simplified to
sin vt + cos vt = vV0 cos vt
F E
-v2 LF + , -v2 LE +
C C
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1044
20 1044 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Equating coefficients of sin vt gives
F
-v2LF + = 0
C
from which F = 0.
Equating coefficients of cos vt gives
E
-v2LE + = vV0
C
from which
CV0 v
E =
1 - v2 LC
Hence the particular integral is
CV0 v
ipi = cos vt
1 - v2 LC
Finally, the general solution is
i = icf + ipi
t t CV0v
= A cos + B sin + cos vt
2LC 2LC 1 - v2LC
Exercises
1 Find the general solution of the following 2 Obtain the general solution of
equations:
y– - y¿ - 2y = 6
d2x dx
(a) 2 - 2 - 3x = 6
dt dt
3 Obtain the general solution of the equation
d 2y dy
(b) + 5 + 4y = 8 d2y dy
dx2 dx + 3 + 2y = 10 cos 2x
dx2 dx
d 2y dy
(c) 2
+ 5 + 6y = 2t
dt dt Find the particular solution satisfying
d2x dx dy
(d) + 11 + 30x = 8t y(0) = 1, (0) = 0
dt2 dt dx
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) x = Ae-t + Be3t - 2 2 y = Ae2x + Be-x - 3
(b) y = Ae-x + Be-4x + 2 3 1
t 5 3 y = Ae-2x + Be-x + 2 sin 2x - 2 cos 2x;
(c) y = Ae-2t + Be-3t + - 3 - 2x 3 1
3 18 2 e + 2 sin 2x - 2 cos 2x
(d) x = Ae-6t + Be-5t + 0.267t - 0.0978
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 12:45 PM Page 1045
6.5 Inhomogeneous term appears in the complementary function 1045 20
6.5 Inhomogeneous term appears in the complementary function
Occasionally you will come across a differential equation
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx
for which the inhomogeneous term, f(x), forms part of the complementary function.
One such example is the equation
d2y dy
2
- - 6y = e3x
dx dx
It is straightforward to check that the complementary function is ycf = Ae3x + Be-2x.
Note that the first of these terms has the same form as the inhomogeneous term, e3x,
on the right-hand side of the differential equation.
You should verify for yourself that trying a particular integral of the form
y(x) = ae3x will not work in a case like this. Can you see why?
Instead, try a particular integral of the form y(x) = axe3x. Verify that
dy d2y
= ae3x(3x + 1) and = ae3x(9x + 6)
dx dx2
Substitute these expressions into the differential equation to find a = 15 . Finally, the
particular integral is ypi(x) = 15 xe3x and so the general solution to the differential
equation is
1 3x
y = Ae3x + Be-2x + xe
5
In general, if f(x) is part of the complementary function we try y = axf(x) for the
particular integral.
End of block exercises
1 Find the general solution of the following 2 Find a particular integral for the equation
equations:
d2y dy d2y dy
(a) 2 + 2 + 3y = 2 sin 2x 2
+ + y = 1 + x
dx dx dx dx
d2y dy
(b) 2 + + y = 4 cos 3t 3 Find the general solution of
dt dt
d2y d2x dx
(c) 2 + 9y = 4e8x (a) 2
- 6
+ 5x = 3
dx dt dt
d2x d2x dx
(d) 2 - 16x = 9e6t (b) 2 - 2 + x = et
dt dt dt
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 11/28/18 7:49 PM Page 1046
20 1046 Block 6 Second-order linear constant-coefficient equations II
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) y = e-x(A sin 12x + B cos 12x) 2 ypi = x
8 2
- cos 2x - sin 2x 3
17 17 3 (a) x = Aet + Be5t +
5
(b) y = e-0.5t(A cos 0.866t + B sin 0.866t)
- 0.438 cos 3t + 0.164 sin 3t 1
(b) x = Aet + Btet + t2et
2
(c) y = A cos 3x + B sin 3x + 0.0548e8x
9 6t
(d) x = Ae4t + Be-4t + e
20
End of chapter exercises
1 Give one example each of a first-order linear 8 Two tanks containing a liquid are placed in
equation, first-order non-linear equation, series so that the first discharges into the
second-order linear equation, second-order second and the second discharges into a waste
non-linear equation. outlet. Let q1(t) and q2(t) be the flow rates out
of the two tanks respectively, and let the height
2 By integrating twice find the general solution of liquid in each of the tanks be h1(t) and h2(t)
of y– = 12x2. respectively. The two tanks are identical and
each has a constant cross-sectional area A. The
3 Find a first-order equation satisfied by x = Ae-2t. outflow from each tank is proportional to the
height of liquid in the tank. At t = 0 the height
4 Classify the following equations, specifying of liquid in the first tank is h0 and the second
the order and type (linear or non-linear): tank is empty.
(a) Derive and solve the differential equation
d2y dy
(a) 2
- = x2 for h1(t).
dx dx (b) Hence find q1(t).
dy (c) Derive and solve the differential equation
(b) + cos y = 0 for h2(t).
dt
(d) Hence find q2(t).
5 Find a second-order differential equation that
is satisfied by 9 The charge, q, on a capacitor in an LCR series
circuit satisfies the second-order differential
y = A cosh 2x + B sinh 2x
equation
6 Integrate twice the differential equation
d2q dq 1
2 L + R + q = E
dy w 2
= (lx - x2) dt dt C
dx2 2
where w and l are constants, to find a general where L, R, C and E are constants. Show
solution for y. that if 2L = CR2 the general solution of this
equation is
dy
7 Integrate the equation = 3x2 subject to the q =
dx
e-t>(CR) a A cos
condition y(1) = 4 in order to find the particular 1 1
t + B sin tb + CE
solution. CR CR
M20_CROF5939_04_SE_C20.QXD 9/27/18 2:04 PM Page 1047
End of chapter exercises 1047 20
dq 11 The equation governing the flow of current i
If i = = 0 and q = 0 when t = 0 show
dt in a series LR circuit with applied constant
that the current in the circuit is voltage E is
2E -t>(CR) 1
i = e sin t di
R CR L + Ri = E
dt
10 Obtain the general solution of the differential
equation (a) Solve this equation subject to the condition
i(0) = 0.
dT (b) State the final value of the current.
- mT = - mK
du (c) Find the time taken for the current to reach
where m and K are constants. 95% of its final value.
Solutions to exercises
2 y = x4 + Ax + B 7 y = x3 + 3
3 x¿ = -2x 8 (a) h1 = h0e-kt>A (b) q1 = kh0e-kt>A
kh0t -kt>A k2h0t -kt>A
4 (a) second-order linear (c) h2 = e (d) q2 = e
A A
(b) first-order non-linear due to term cos y
d2y 10 T = K + Aemu
A 1 - e-Rt>L B (b)
5 = 4y E E
dx2 11 (a) i =
R R
w lx3 x4
a b + Ax + B
3L
6 y = - (c) about
2 6 12 R
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 11/28/18 9:01 PM Page 1048
Chapter 21
Functions of more than one variable
and partial differentiation
In many engineering applications a physical quantity depends upon
several other quantities that can vary independently. For example, the
temperature at a point in a kiln will vary both with time and with the
position of the point in the kiln. Such quantities are described
mathematically using functions of more than one variable. In this
chapter we explain the notation used to represent such functions. We
go on to explain two ways in which these functions can be visualised.
The techniques of calculus, previously applied to functions of one
variable, are now extended to functions of several variables.
Differentiation involving several variables is called partial
differentiation. Finally we illustrate an application of partial
differentiation to finding maximum, minimum and saddle points of a
function of two variables.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1049
Chapter 21 contents
Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs
Block 2 Partial differentiation
Block 3 Higher-order derivatives
Block 4 Partial differential equations
Block 5 Stationary values of a function of two variables
End of chapter exercises
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1050
Functions of two independent variables,
BLOCK 1
and their graphs
1.1 Introduction
We have explained in Chapter 6 that a function is a mathematical rule that operates
upon an input to produce a single output. We saw that the input is referred to as the
independent variable because we are free, within reason, to choose its value. The
output is called the dependent variable because its value depends upon the value of
the input. Commonly we use the letter x to represent the input, y the output and f the
1
function, in which case we write y = f(x). Examples include y = 5x2, y = , and so
x
on. In such cases, there is a single independent variable, x.
We now move on to consider examples in which there are two independent
variables. This means that there will be two inputs to a function, each of which can
be chosen independently. Once these values have been chosen, the function rule will
be used to process them in order to produce a single output called the dependent vari-
able. Notice that whilst there is now more than one input, there is still a single output.
We then illustrate how these functions can be visualised in the form of contour
plots and three-dimensional graphs. User-friendly computer software can be used for
such visualisation, and you should enquire about packages available for your use.
1.2 Functions of two variables
The block diagram in Figure 1.1 depicts the function f(x, y) = 3x + 4y. This func-
tion has two independent inputs, denoted by x and y. The function rule is ‘multiply
the input x by 3, multiply the input y by 4, and add the results’. There is a single
output 3x + 4y.
Figure 1.1 Function, f
A block diagram Inputs
of the function x Output
f (x, y) = 3x + 4y 3×x+4×y f(x, y) = 3x + 4y
y
The notation f(x, y) = 3x + 4y indicates that, with inputs x and y, the function, f,
produces an output of 3x + 4y. The inputs to the function are placed in brackets,
after the f. The expression f(x, y) is read as ‘f is a function of x and y’. As before, the
inputs to a function are also known as the arguments of the function.
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1.2 Functions of two variables 1051 21
Key point A function of two variables is a rule that produces a single output when values of two
independent variables are chosen.
Example 1.1
A function f is defined by f(x, y) = 3x + 4y. Calculate the output when the input
values are x = 5 and y = 6.
Solution
Refer to the block diagram in Figure 1.1. When the input x takes the value 5, and the
input y takes the value 6, the output is 3 * 5 + 4 * 6 = 15 + 24 = 39. We could
write this as f(5, 6) = 39.
Example 1.2
A function f is defined by f(x, y) = 11x2 - 7y + 2. Calculate the output when the
inputs are x = -2 and y = 3.
Solution
In this example we are required to find f(-2, 3). This can be calculated directly from
the expression for f(x, y), without reference to a block diagram. Substitution into the
function rule produces
f(-2, 3) = 11 * (-2)2 - 7 * (3) + 2 = 44 - 21 + 2 = 25
Example 1.3
x
A function is defined by f (x, y) = . Calculate the output when the inputs are x = 12
y
and y = 3.
Solution
12
f (12, 3) = = 4
3
Example 1.4
A function is defined by f (x, y) = ex + y.
(a) Calculate the output when the inputs are x = -1 and y = 2.
(b) Show that this function can be written in the equivalent form f (x, y) = exey.
Solution
(a) f (-1, 2) = e-1 + 2 = e1 = e = 2.718 (3 d.p.)
(b) Using the first law of indices we can write ex + y as exey.
Note that in the previous examples both x and y are independent variables. We can
choose a value for y quite independently of the value we have chosen for x. This is
quite different from the case of a function of a single variable when, for example, if
we write y = 5x2, choosing x automatically determines y.
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21 1052 Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs
It is common to introduce another symbol to stand for the output. So, in
Example 1.1 we may write z = f (x, y) = 3x + 4y or simply z = 3x + 4y. In
Example 1.2 we can write simply z = 11x2 - 7y + 2. Here the value of z
depends upon the values chosen for x and y, and so z is referred to as the depen-
dent variable.
Functions of two variables are introduced because they arise naturally in engineer-
ing applications. Consider the following example, which illustrates this.
Example 1.5
The volume V of the cylinder shown in Figure 1.2 is given by the formula V = pr2h,
where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder. Suppose we choose a value
for the radius, and a value for the height. Note that we can choose these values inde-
pendently. We can then use the formula to determine the volume of the cylinder.
We can regard V as depending upon the two independent variables r and h and write
V = f (r, h) = pr2h. Here, the dependent variable is V since the value of the volume
depends upon the values chosen for the radius and the height.
Figure 1.2
The volume, V,
depends upon the V ⫽ πr2h
two independent
variables r and h, h
and is given by
V = pr2h.
r
1.3 Contour plots of functions of two variables
By now you will be familiar with the way in which a function of one variable is rep-
resented graphically. For example, you have seen in Chapter 6 how the graph of the
function y = f (x) is drawn by plotting the independent variable x on the horizontal
axis, and the dependent variable y on the vertical axis. Given a value of x, the func-
tion rule enables us to calculate a value for y, and the point with coordinates (x, y) is
then plotted. Joining all such points produces a graph of the function.
When two independent variables are involved, as in z = f (x, y), there are various
ways in which we can represent this graphically. One way is to use a contour plot,
as we shall show in Examples 1.6 and 1.7.
A contour plot is a two-dimensional visualisation of a function of two variables.
You may already be familiar with contour plots in the context of maps. Contours
are drawn on the map to show the location of points that are the same height above
sea level. In the example that follows, contours show the location of points that
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1.3 Contour plots of functions of two variables 1053 21
have the same temperature. This is analogous to the plotting of isotherms on a
weather map.
Example 1.6 Mechanical Engineering – Temperature distribution
in a metal plate
There are many occasions in the engineering design process when it is necessary
to analyse heat flow. For example, an engineer may be interested in the effect of
different insulation materials on heat losses through the roof of a building. In a
nuclear reactor heat is generated in the fuel rods, which are then often cooled by
water. It is critical to be able to calculate the rate of heat flow from the rods to the
water if a life-threatening situation such as meltdown of the reactor is to be
avoided. In applications like these an engineer will meet functions of more than
one variable.
As an example consider a two-dimensional metal plate, defined by the region
0 … x … 1, 0 … y … 1, which contains no internal sources of heat. Suppose the
temperature is maintained at 0 °C on three of the plate boundaries. Suppose it varies
with x along the fourth boundary at y = 1 according to T = sin px, as shown in
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
y T ⫽ sin p x
A metal plate with 1
temperatures 0.75
imposed on its 0.8
boundaries. 0.5
0.6
T ⫽ 0 °C 0.25 T ⫽ 0 °C
0.4
0.2
x
O
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
T ⫽ 0 °C
A typical problem is to use this information to determine the temperature at any
point in the plate. Knowing the equations for heat conduction, and some advanced
techniques in calculus, it is possible to show that the temperature, T, at any point (x, y)
is given by the function of two variables
sinh py sin px
T(x, y) =
sinh p
The function sinh py is a hyperbolic function, detailed in Chapter 8, Block 1. It is
straightforward, using a computer graphics package, to produce a contour plot
from this function that shows curves of constant temperature. In Figure 1.3 we
have plotted contours showing curves upon which the temperature is 0.25 °C, 0.5 °C
and 0.75 °C.
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21 1054 Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs
Example 1.7 Fluid Dynamics – Fluid flow around a corner
The analysis of the ways in which fluids flow around objects is essential in fields
such as aeronautical and marine engineering, and the study of renewable energy sys-
tems. A useful quantity is the streamfunction, c. Under particular conditions c is a
function of the two spatial variables x and y: that is, c = c(x, y). Plotting curves
upon which c is constant gives a useful visual representation because fluid flows
along these curves.
For example, the streamfunction c(x, y) = 4(x2 - y2) gives the streamlines for
flow around a corner. Curves along which c is constant are illustrated in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 y
The streamlines of 3
y⫽0
a flow around a y⫽5
corner are y ⫽ 10
described by a
function of two 2 y ⫽ 20
variables,
c = 4(x2 - y2).
y ⫽ 30
1
O x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
–1
–2
–3
Exercises
1 Given z = f (x, y) = 7x + 2y find the output 5 If z = f (x, y) = sin(x + y) find f (20°, 30°)
when x = 8 and y = 2. where the inputs are angles measured in degrees.
2 If z = f (x, y) = -11x + y find (a) f (2, 3), 6 If f (x, t) = e2xt find f (0.5, 3).
(b) f (11, 1).
7 Using the temperature distribution function
3 If z = f (x, y) = 3ex - 2ey + x2y3 find z(1, 1). sinh py sin px
T(x, y) = in Example 1.6,
sinh p
4 If w = g(x, y) = 7 - xy find the value of the evaluate the temperature at the centre of the
dependent variable w when x = -3 and plate.
y = -9.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1055
1.4 Three-dimensional graphs 1055 21
Solutions to exercises
1 60 5 0.766 (3 d.p.)
2 (a) -19 (b) -120 6 20.086 (3 d.p.)
3 e1 + 1 = 3.718 (3 d.p.) 7 0.199 °C (3 d.p.)
4 -20
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Matlab code that can be used to generate the 2 Maple code that can be used to generate
contour plot in Figure 1.3 is Figure 1.4 is
[x, y] = meshgrid (0:0.1:1, with (plots):
0:0.1:1); contourplot (4*(x^2 - y^2),
z = sinh (pi*y) # *sin(pi*x) / x = 0..3, y = - 3..3,
sinh (pi); contours = [0, 5, 10, 20, 30]);
contour (x, y, z, [0.25, 0.5,
0.75]); If you have access to Maple, reproduce this
figure and modify the code to produce the
If you have access to Matlab, reproduce this contour plot in Figure 1.3.
figure and then modify the code to produce a
b
1
contour plot of the function c = 4(x2 - y2) 3 The function c(x, y) = ya 1 -
x2 + y2
shown in Figure 1.4. Note that x2 will be represents the streamline pattern of fluid flow
coded as past a cylinder. Investigate whether a computer
graph-plotting package to which you have
x.^2
access can produce a contour plot of this flow.
1.4 Three-dimensional graphs
As an alternative to a contour plot, a graph can be drawn in three dimensions – a task
that is difficult to do in the two-dimensional plane of the paper. We now need two
axes for the independent variables and a third axis for the dependent variable. Com-
puter software is readily available for plotting graphs in three dimensions, so rather
than attempt this manually we shall be content with understanding the process
involved in producing the graph, and illustrating this with several examples.
Three axes are drawn at right angles and these are labelled x, y and z as shown in
Figure 1.5. There is more than one way of doing this, but the usual convention is
shown here. When labelled in this way the axes are said to form a right-handed set.
The axes intersect at the origin O.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1056
21 1056 Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs
Figure 1.5 z
Three
perpendicular axes,
labelled x, y and z.
O y
Example 1.8
Given the function of two variables z = f (x, y) = 3x + 4y calculate the value of the
function when x and y take the following values. Represent each point graphically.
(a) x = 3, y = 2 (b) x = 5, y = 0 (c) x = 0, y = 5
Solution
In each case we use the function rule z = f (x, y) = 3x + 4y to calculate the corre-
sponding value of z.
(a) z = 3(3) + 4(2) = 17 (b) z = 3(5) + 4(0) = 15 (c) z = 3(0) + 4(5) = 20
It is conventional to write the coordinates of the points in the form (x, y, z) so that the
three points in this example are (3, 2, 17), (5, 0, 15) and (0, 5, 20).
Each of the points can then be drawn as shown in Figure 1.6, where they have
been labelled A, B and C respectively. Notice that the z coordinate of point A, which
is 17, gives the height of A above the point (3, 2) in the x– y plane. Similar comments
apply to points B and C.
Figure 1.6 z
Three points in
three-dimensional 20 C
space with
coordinates 17
A(3, 2, 17), 15 A
B(5, 0, 15) and
C(0, 5, 20).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y
1
2
3
4
5
x
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1057
1.4 Three-dimensional graphs 1057 21
If we were to continue selecting more points and plotting them we would find
that all the points lie in a plane. This plane is shown in Figure 1.7. Notice that in
each case the z coordinate is the height of the plane above the point (x, y) in the x–y
plane.
For example, the point C is 20 units above the point (0, 5) in the x–y plane.
Figure 1.7
The plane
z = 3x + 4y.
In the previous example we saw that when we drew a graph of the function of two
variables z = 3x + 4y we obtained a plane. In more general cases the graph of
z = f (x, y) will be a curved surface, and the z coordinate is the height of the surface
above the point (x, y). Some more examples of functions of two variables and their
graphs are shown in Figures 1.8 and 1.9. It would be a useful exercise for you to try
to reproduce these graphs for yourself using computer software.
Figure 1.8 z
The function
z = x2 + y2.
x y
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1058
21 1058 Block 1 Functions of two independent variables, and their graphs
Figure 1.9 z
The function
z = sin(x2 + y2).
x y
Example 1.9 Mechanical Engineering – Temperature distribution
in a metal plate
sinh py sin px
In Example 1.6 we saw that the function T(x, y) = represents the
sinh p
temperature distribution in a metal plate when three of its boundaries are maintained
at 0 °C and the fourth has a temperature given by T = sin px. A graph of this func-
tion is shown in Figure 1.10. Observe the temperature distribution along the line
y = 1, given by T = sin px.
Figure 1.10 z
The function
sinh py sin px
T(x, y) = .
sinh p
x y
1
yⴝ
Exercises
1 Given the function z = 3x - 6y, find the z Plot the points on a three-dimensional graph.
coordinate corresponding to each of the
following points, which lie in the x–y plane:
(a) (4, 4) (b) (0, 3) (c) (5, 0)
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) -12 (b) -18 (c) 15
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1.4 Three-dimensional graphs 1059 21
Computer and calculator exercises
1 The following Matlab code can be used to 2 The Maple code
generate a three-dimensional plot as shown in
Figure 1.10. plot3d(x^2 + y^2,x = -3..3,
y = -3..3);
[x,y] = meshgrid (0:0.1:1,
0:0.1:1); can be used to plot the graph of z = x2 + y2 as
z = sinh(pi*y).*sin(pi*x)/ shown in Figure 1.8. Try to reproduce this
sinh(pi); graph for yourself.
mesh(z);
If you have access to Matlab generate a plot
for yourself. Plot a graph of the surface
z = sin(x2 + y2) as shown in Figure 1.9.
End of block exercises
1 Find the value of the function to functions of two variables. Suppose u(x, y, z)
f (x, y) = 2x2 + y2 when x = 2 and y = 6. is a function of the three independent variables
x, y and z, and is defined by
2 If f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy find f (2, 3).
1
u =
3 If V = ln(x2 + y2) find the value of V when 2x + y2 + z2
2
x = 3 and y = 7.
Find u when x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3. Can the
4 Functions of three (or more) independent value of u be determined when x = y = z = 0?
variables can be defined in an analogous way
Solutions to exercises
1 240 3 V = ln 58 = 4 .060 (3 d.p.)
1
2 22 4 u(1, 2, 3) = . No, because division by 0
2 14
is not allowed.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1060
Partial differentiation
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Before attempting this section it is essential that you have a thorough understanding of
differentiation of functions of one variable, and you should revise Chapters 15 and 16
if necessary. In particular, you may need to refer frequently to Table 2.1 in Chapter 15,
which gives the derivatives of some common functions.
In Chapter 15 we introduced differentiation of a function of a single variable
and showed how the derivative of such a function can be calculated. Recall that
this gives useful information about the gradient of the graph of the function at dif-
ferent points. In this section we explain how functions of two variables are differ-
entiated.
Also in Chapter 15 we differentiated y, which was a function of x, to obtain the
dy
derivative . Note that the dependent variable (in this case y) is differentiated with
dx
respect to the independent variable (in this case x).
Consider now z, which depends upon two variables x and y. Recall that z is then
the dependent variable, and x and y are the independent variables. Hence z can be
differentiated with respect to x to produce a derivative, and it can also be differenti-
ated with respect to y to produce another, different, derivative. So for functions of
two variables there are two derivatives: we can no longer talk about the derivative of z.
This is a fundamental difference between functions of one variable and functions of
two variables.
When differentiating functions of two variables we refer to this process as
dy
partial differentiation, and instead of using a normal letter d as in , we use a
dx
curly d instead and write 0 . Do not be put off by this notation – you will soon get
used to it. When we differentiate z with respect to (w.r.t.) x we denote the resulting
0z
derivative by . An alternative notation in common use is to write this derivative as
0x 0z
zx. When we differentiate z w.r.t. y we denote the derivative produced by . An
0y
alternative notation is to write this derivative as zy.
Key point If z = f (x, y) then
0z
the (first) partial derivative of z with respect to x is denoted or zx,
0x
0z
the (first) partial derivative of z with respect to y is denoted or zy.
0y
We now explain how these derivatives are calculated.
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2.2 Partial differentiation with respect to x 1061 21
2.2 Partial differentiation with respect to x
dz
Suppose we have a function z = 5x + 11. You will recall that its derivative is = 5.
dx
dz
Note that the derivative of the constant 11 is zero. Similarly if z = 6x + 12, = 6.
dx
Here the derivative of the constant 12 is zero. We are now ready to introduce partial
differentiation with respect to x.
Consider the function z = 5x + y. When we differentiate with respect to x we
treat any occurrence of the variable y as though it were a constant. Hence in this case
the derivative of y is zero, and we write
0z
if z = 5x + y then = 5 + 0 = 5
0x
Similarly,
0z
if z = 7x2 - y then = 14x - 0 = 14x
0x
If y is treated as a constant, then so too will be multiples of y, such as 7y and -3y.
Furthermore, any functions of y, such as y2 and ey, will also be regarded as constants.
Example 2.1
0z
Calculate when z = 9x + 2.
0x
Solution
We must differentiate z = 9x + 2 with respect to x. This function is particularly
simple because y does not appear at all. The derivative of 9x is 9, and the derivative
0z
of the constant 2 is zero. Hence = 9.
0x
Example 2.2
0z
Calculate when z = 9x + y.
0x
Solution
0z
To find we treat y as though it is a constant. Imagine it is just a number like
0x
0z
the ‘2’ in the previous example. Then = 9.
0x
Example 2.3
0z
Calculate when z = y - 19x.
0x
Solution
Treat y as though it is a constant.
0z
= -19
0x
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1062
21 1062 Block 2 Partial differentiation
Example 2.4
0z
Calculate when z = 3x + 4y + 11.
0x
Solution
In this case 11 is a constant and we treat y, and hence 4y, as a constant.
0z
= 3
0x
Example 2.5
0z
Calculate when z = 4x2 - 3y.
0x
Solution
0z
= 8x - 0 = 8x. The quantity -3y is treated as a constant.
0x
Example 2.6
0z
Calculate when z = x2 - y2.
0x
Solution
y and hence y2 are treated as a constant. When -y2 is differentiated with respect to x
0z
the result will be zero. Hence if z = x2 - y2 then = 2x.
0x
Example 2.7
0z
Calculate when z = 5y3 - x4.
0x
Solution
y and hence 5y3 are is treated as a constant.
0z
= -4x3
0x
Example 2.8
0z
Calculate when z = 3x - 4y3.
0x
Solution
0z
If z = 3x - 4y3, then = 3.
0x
Recall that:
• if 4x is differentiated with respect to x the result is 4,
• if 5x is differentiated with respect to x the result is 5.
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2.2 Partial differentiation with respect to x 1063 21
Extending this to the following function of two variables:
• if z = yx is differentiated with respect to x the result is y.
0z
We see that because y is treated as if it is a constant then = y.
0x
Example 2.9
0z
Calculate when z = yx2.
0x
Solution
0z
To find imagine that you were trying to differentiate 3x2 say. The result would be
0x
0z
3(2x) = 6x. Hence if z = yx2 then = y(2x) or simply 2xy.
0x
Example 2.10
0z
Calculate when z = 3yx2.
0x
Solution
Treating y as a constant we see that this function is of the form constant * x2 and so
0z
= (3y)(2x) = 6xy.
0x
Example 2.11
0z
(a) Calculate when z = 3x2 + 4xy + 11.
0x
0z
(b) Evaluate at the point (x, y) = (-2, 5).
0x
0z
(c) Evaluate at the point (x, y) = (9, -3).
0x
Solution
0z
(a) = 6x + 4y
0x
0z
(b) When x = -2 and y = 5, = 6(-2) + 4(5) = 8.
0x
(c) When x = 9 and y = -3
0z
= 42
0x
Example 2.12
0z
Calculate when (a) z = x2ey, (b) z = x2 + ey, (c) z = 3x2 cos y,
0x
(d) z = 3x2 + cos y, (e) z = 3x2 + 4x sin y.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/29/18 9:47 AM Page 1064
21 1064 Block 2 Partial differentiation
Solution
0z
(a) y and hence ey is treated as a constant. Then = 2xey.
0x
0z
(b) = 2x
0x
0z
(c) y and hence cos y is treated as a constant. Then = 6x cos y.
0x
0z
(d) = 6x
0x
0z
(e) = 6x + 4 sin y
0x
Example 2.13
0z
Calculate when (a) z = sin 3x, (b) z = sin yx.
0x
Solution
0z
(a) If z = sin 3x then = 3 cos 3x.
0x
0z
(b) If z = sin yx then = y cos yx because y is treated as a constant. Compare
0x
this result with that in part (a).
0z
Key point The (first) partial derivative with respect to x of a function z = f (x, y) is denoted by
0x
and is calculated by differentiating the function with respect to x and treating y as
though it were a constant.
Example 2.14
dF 0F
Find and given F1x2 = 3x2 + x.
dx 0x
Solution
Note that F is a function of one variable, x. So
dF
= 6x + 1
dx
0F
We now seek . When differentiating partially w.r.t. x we consider other variables
0x
to be constant. In this case, however, there are no other variables and so
0F
= 6x + 1
0x
We see that in this case
0F dF
=
0x dx
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1065
2.3 Partial differentiation with respect to y 1065 21
Key point If F is a function of x only, then
0F dF
=
0x dx
2.3 Partial differentiation with respect to y
When we differentiate a function f(x, y) with respect to y we treat any occurrence of
the variable x as though it were a constant. The partial derivative with respect to y of
0z
a function z = f(x, y) is denoted by . Consider the following examples.
0y
Example 2.15
0z
Find when z = 3y4 + 4x2 + 8.
0y
Solution
0z
When calculating we treat any occurrence of x as if it were a constant. So the term
0y
2
4x is treated as a constant and its partial derivative with respect to y is zero. That is,
0z
if z = 3y4 + 4x2 + 8 then = 12y3 + 0 + 0 = 12y3
0y
Example 2.16
0z
Find when z = 3x2y.
0y
Solution
Because x is treated as a constant, we are dealing with a function of the form
z = constant * y. The derivative with respect to y will be simply the constant factor.
That is,
0z
if z = 3x2y then = 3x2
0y
Example 2.17
0z
(a) Find when z = 4xy3.
0y
0z
(b) Evaluate when (x, y) = (6, 11).
0y
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1066
21 1066 Block 2 Partial differentiation
Solution
(a) Because 4x is treated as a constant, we are dealing with a function of the form
z = constant * y3.
0z
= 4x * (3y2) = 12xy2
0y
0z
(b) When x = 6 and y = 11, = 12(6)(112) = 8712
0y
0z
Key point The (first) partial derivative with respect to y of a function z = f(x, y) is denoted by
0y
and is calculated by differentiating the function with respect to y and treating x as
though it were a constant.
It will be necessary to work with symbols other than z, x and y. Consider the follow-
ing example.
Example 2.18
0w 0w
Consider the function w = f ( p, t). Find and when w = 3t7 + 4pt + p2.
0p 0t
Solution
When differentiating with respect to p, any occurrence of t is treated as if it were a
0w
constant. So = 4t + 2p.
0p
When differentiating with respect to t, any occurrence of p is treated as if it were a
0w
constant. So = 21t6 + 4p.
0t
Exercises
0z 0z 0z 0z
1 In each case, given z = f (x, y), find and . 3 If z = 9x + y2 evaluate and at the point
0x 0y (4, -2). 0x 0y
(a) z = 5x + 11y (b) z = -7y - 14x
(c) z = 8x (d) z = -5y 0z 0z
4 Find and when
(e) z = 3x + 8y - 2 (f) z = 17 - 3x + 2y 0x 0y
(g) z = 8 (h) z = 8 - 3y (a) z = e2x (b) z = e5y (c) z = exy
(i) z = 2x2 - 7y (j) z = 9 - 3y3 + 7x (d) z = 4e2y
(k) z = 9 - 9(x - y) (l) z = 9(x + y + 3)
0y 0y
5 If y = x sin t find and .
2 In each case, given z = f (x, y) find zx and zy. 0x 0t
(a) z = xy (b) z = 3xy (c) z = -9yx
(d) z = x2y (e) z = 9x2y (f) z = 8xy2
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1067
2.4 Partial derivatives requiring the product, quotient and chain rules 1067 21
Solutions to exercises
0z 0z
1 (a) = 5, = 11 (b) -14, -7 3 9, -4
0x 0y
0z 0z
(c) 8, 0 (d) 0, -5 (e) 3, 8 (f) -3, 2 4 (a) = 2e2x, = 0 (b) 0, 5e5y
(g) 0, 0 (h) 0, -3 (i) 4x, -7 0x 0y
(j) 7, -9y2 (k) -9, 9 (l) 9, 9 (c) yexy, xexy (d) 0, 8e2y
2 (a) zx = y, zy = x (b) 3y, 3x (c) -9y, -9x 0y 0y
5 = sin t, = x cos t
(d) 2xy, x2 (e) 18xy, 9x2 (f) 8y2, 16xy 0x 0t
2.4 Partial derivatives requiring the product, quotient and chain rules
Consider the following more demanding examples, which use the rules developed in
Chapter 16.
Example 2.19
0z 0z
Find and when z = yxe2x.
0x 0y
Solution
0z
To find we treat y as constant. We are dealing with a function of the form constant
0x
* xe2x. Note that this function itself contains a product of the functions x and e2x
and so we must use the product rule for differentiation. The derivative of xe2x is
e2x(1) + x(2e2x) = e2x(1 + 2x). Hence
0z
if z = yxe2x then = y(e2x(1 + 2x)) = ye2x(1 + 2x)
0x
0z
To find we treat x as constant. In turn, this means that xe2x is constant too. This
0y
time the calculation is much simpler because we are dealing with a function of the
form z = constant * y. So,
0z
if z = yxe2x then = xe2x
0y
Example 2.20
0z 0z yex
Find and when z = .
0x 0y x
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:52 AM Page 1068
21 1068 Block 2 Partial differentiation
Solution
0z
To find we treat y as constant. We are dealing with a function of the form constant
0x
ex
* . Note that this function itself contains a quotient of the functions ex and x and
x
ex
so we must use the quotient rule for differentiation. The derivative of is
x
exx - ex(1) ex(x - 1)
=
x2 x2
Hence
yex 0z yex (x - 1)
if z = then =
x 0x x2
0z ex
To find we treat x as constant. In turn, this means that is constant too. This
0y x
calculation is simple because we are dealing with a function of the form
z = constant * y. So,
yex 0z ex
if z = then =
x 0y x
Example 2.21
0z 0z
Find (a) and (b) given z = sin (3x - y2).
0x 0y
Solution
We use the chain rule. Let V = 3x - y2 so that z = sin V
(a) Now
0z dz 0V
= = cos V (3) = 3 cos(3x - y 2)
0x dV 0x
(b)
0z d z 0V
= = cos V (-2y) = -2y cos(3x - y2)
0y dV 0y
Exercises
0z 0z 1
1 Find and when 2 Find the first partial derivatives of u = .
0x 0y x2 + y2
(a) z = yxex (b) z = xyey (c) z = xexy x
(d) z = yexy (e) z = x2 sin(xy) 3 Find the first partial derivatives of u = .
x + y2
2
(f) z = y cos(xy) (g) z = x ln(xy)
(h) z = 3xy3ex
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:53 AM Page 1069
2.4 Partial derivatives requiring the product, quotient and chain rules 1069 21
Solutions to exercises
2x 2y
1 (a) yex(x + 1), xex (b) ye y, xe y(y + 1) 2 - ,-
(c) exy(xy + 1), x2exy (d) y2exy, exy(xy + 1) (x2 + y2)2 (x2 + y2)2
(e) x2y cos(xy) + 2x sin(xy), x3 cos(xy) y2 - x2 -2xy
(f) -y2 sin(xy), -yx sin(xy) + cos(xy) 3 2 2 2
,
(x + y ) (x + y2)2
2
x
(g) 1 + ln(xy), (h) 3exy3(x + 1), 9xy2ex
y
End of block exercises
1 The derivative of f (x) with respect to x is Use these definitions to find the first partial
df f (x + dx) - f (x) derivatives of (a) f (x, y) = x2y,
defined as = limdx:0 (b) f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy, from first principles.
dx dx
(see Chapter 15, Block 1). In an analogous 0r 0r
manner we define the partial derivatives of 2 If r = 2x2 + y2 find and .
f (x, y) by 0x 0y
f (x + dx, y) - f (x, y) k
0f 3 The derivative of f (x) = tan-1 kx is .
= lim 1 + k2x2
0x dx : 0 dx
0f f (x, y + dy) - f (x, y) y 0f
= lim If f = tan-1 find .
0y dy : 0 dy x 0y
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2xy, x2 (b) 2x + 3y, 3x 1>x x
3 =
1 + (1>x)2y2 x2 + y2
x y
2 2 2 1>2
,
(x + y ) (x + y2)1>2
2
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:53 AM Page 1070
Higher-order derivatives
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Just as a function of one variable has a second derivative found by differentiating the
first derivative, so too does a function of two variables. If z = f(x, y) the first partial
0z 0z
derivatives are and . The second partial derivatives are found by differentiating
0x 0y
the first partial derivatives. We can do this in various ways, as we show in the next
section.
3.2 Finding higher derivatives
We can differentiate first partial derivatives either with respect to x or with respect to
y to obtain various second partial derivatives, as summarised in the next Key point.
Key point differentiating
0z 0 0z 0 2z
w.r.t. x produces a b = 2
0x 0x 0x 0x
0 2z
w.r.t. y produces a b =
0z 0 0z
differentiating
0x 0y 0x 0y0x
0 2z
w.r.t. x produces a b =
0z 0 0z
differentiating
0y 0x 0y 0x0y
0 2z
w.r.t. y produces a b = 2
0z 0 0z
differentiating
0y 0y 0y 0y
The second partial derivatives of z are
0 2z 0 2z 0 2z 0 2z
, , ,
0x2 0y0x 0x0y 0y2
These are sometimes written in the alternative, briefer form
zxx, zxy, zyx, zyy
respectively.
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3.2 Finding higher derivatives 1071 21
Example 3.1
Given z = 3xy3 - 2xy find all the second partial derivatives of z.
Solution
First of all the first partial derivatives must be found.
0z 0z
= 3y3 - 2y, = 9xy2 - 2x
0x 0y
Then each of these is differentiated with respect to x:
0 2z
a b =
0 0z 0
(3y3 - 2y) = 0. Thus 2 = 0.
0x 0x 0x 0x
0 2z
a b =
0 0z 0
(9xy2 - 2x) = 9y2 - 2. Thus = 9y2 - 2.
0x 0y 0x 0x0y
Now, each of the first partial derivatives must be differentiated with respect to y.
0 2z
a b =
0 0z 0
(3y3 - 2y) = 9y2 - 2. Thus = 9y2 - 2.
0y 0x 0y 0y0x
0 2z
a b =
0 0z 0
(9xy2 - 2x) = 18xy. Thus 2 = 18xy.
0y 0y 0y 0y
0 2z 0 2z
Note that = . It is usually the case that the result is the same either way.
0y0x 0x0y
Example 3.2
Find all second partial derivatives of z = sin(xy).
Solution
First of all the first partial derivatives are found.
0z 0z
= y cos(xy), = x cos(xy)
0x 0y
Then each of these is differentiated with respect to x:
0 2z
a b = -y2 sin(xy)
0 0z
=
0x2 0x 0x
0 2z
a b = -xy sin(xy) + cos(xy)
0 0z
=
0x0y 0x 0y
Note here the need to use the product rule to differentiate x cos(xy) with respect to x.
Now, each of the first partial derivatives must be differentiated with respect to y.
0 2z
a b = -xy sin(xy) + cos(xy)
0 0z
=
0y0x 0y 0x
0 2z
a b = -x2 sin(xy)
0 0z
=
0y2 0y 0y
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21 1072 Block 3 Higher-order derivatives
Example 3.3
Consider the function f(x, y) = 2xy.
0f 0f 0 2f 0 2f
(a) Find , , 2 and 2 .
0x 0y 0x 0y
0 2f 0 2f
(b) Using the result of part (a) evaluate + .
0x2 0y2
Solution
0f 0f
(a) = , = 2y 2x
0x 0y
0 2f 0 2f
= , = 0 0
0x2 0y2
0 2f 0 2f
(b) + = 0
0x2 0y2
0 2f 0 2f
Note from the last result that f = 2xy satisfies the equation = 0. This +
0x2 0y2
equation is a partial differential equation. It occurs in the modelling of heat con-
duction, fluid flow and electrostatics problems, and is known as Laplace’s equation.
Example 3.4
d2F 0 2F
Given F1x2 = 3x2 + x, find 2 and 2 .
dx 0x
Solution
Clearly F is a function of one variable, x. So
dF d2F
= 6x + 1, = 6
dx dx2
In Example 2.14 (Section 2.2) we found
0F
= 6x + 1
0x
0F
Noting that is a function of x only and differentiating partially w.r.t. x we have
0x
0 2F
= 6
0x2
Hence, in this case
0 2F d2F
2
=
0x dx2
Key point If F is a function of x only, then
0 2F d2F
2
=
0x dx2
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3.2 Finding higher derivatives 1073 21
Example 3.5
Given u1x,t2 = F1x2 G1t2 where F1x2 = 3x2 + x, and G1t2 = t3 + 5t
0u 0u 0 2u 0 2u
(a) find , , ,
0x 0t 0x2 0t2
(b) confirm that
0 2u 0 2u
= F–1x2 G1t2 and = F1x2G–1t2
0x2 0t2
d2F d2G
where F–1x2 = 2
and G–1t2 = .
dx dt2
Solution
(a) Given u1x, t2 = F1x2G1t2 = 13x2 + x21t3 + 5t2 then
= 16x+121t3 +5t2
0u
0x
= 13x2 +x213t2 +52
0u
0t
0 2u
= 61t3 +5t2
0x2
0 2u
= 13x2 +x216t2
0t2
d2F d2G
(b) Observe that F–1x2 = = 6 and that G–1t2 = = 6t and hence
dx2 dt2
0 2u 0 2u
= F–1x2G1t2 and = F1x2G–1t2
0x2 0t2
as required.
Exercises
1 Find all the second partial derivatives in each of 3 Find all the second partial derivatives in each
the following cases: of the following cases:
(a) z = xy (b) z = 7xy (a) z = x sin y (b) z = y cos x
(c) z = 8x + 9y + 10 (c) z = ye2x (d) z = ye-x
(d) z = 8y2x + 11 (e) z = -2y3x2
(f) z = x + y 4 Find all the second partial derivatives in each
of the following cases:
2 Find all the second partial derivatives in each of (a) z = 8exy (b) z = -3ex sin y
the following cases: (c) z = 4ey cos x
1 y
(a) z = (b) z = 5 Find all the second partial derivatives in each
x x
x 1 1 of the following cases:
(c) z = (d) z = + (a) z = ln x (b) z = ln y (c) z = ln xy
y x y
(d) z = x ln y (e) z = y ln x
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:53 AM Page 1074
21 1074 Block 3 Higher-order derivatives
Solutions to exercises
0 2z 0 2z 0 2z 0 2z 4 (a) 8y2exy, 8exy(xy + 1), 8x2exy (b) -3ex sin y,
1 (a) = 0, = = 1, = 0
0x2 0x0y 0y0x 0y2 -3ex cos y, 3ex sin y (c) -4e y cos x,
(b) 0, 7, 0 (c) 0, 0, 0 (d) 0, 16y, 16x -4ey sin x, 4e y cos x
(e) -4y3, -12y2x, -12yx2 (f) 0, 0, 0 1 1 1 1
5 (a) - 2
, 0, 0 (b) 0, 0, - 2
(c) - 2
, 0, -
2 2y 1 1 2x x y x y2
2 (a) 3
, 0, 0 (b) 3
,- 2
, 0 (c) 0, - 2 , 3
x x x y y 1 x y 1
2 2 (d) 0, , - 2 (e) - 2 , ,0
(d) , 0, 3 y y x x
x3 y
3 (a) 0, cos y, -x sin y (b) -y cos x, -sin x, 0
(c) 4ye2x, 2e2x, 0 (d) ye-x, -e-x, 0
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1048-1079.QXD 9/28/18 10:53 AM Page 1075
Partial differential equations
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
Partial differential equations (p.d.e.s) are used in many areas of engineering to model
phenomena in which a single variable, u say, depends upon two or more independent
variables. The independent variables are often time, t, and space coordinates x, y and
z. The dependent variable could be, for example, temperature, electrostatic potential
or displacement, as we shall illustrate. To solve a p.d.e. means to find the dependent
variable, u, as a function of x, y, z and t, that is u = u(x, y, z, t).
The solution of p.d.e.s forms a vast subject of study in its own right. In practice,
numerical methods implemented with computer software are used to obtain and
provide visualisations of solutions. Here we provide an introduction to three main
types of equation met in engineering applications and one analytical technique –
separation of variables – that can be used to solve them.
The heat equation in one dimension
In the one-dimensional heat equation the independent variables are time t, and one
spatial dimension x:
0u 0 2u
= c2 2
0t 0x
The dependent variable, u(x, t), might represent the temperature at time t at a point
which is distance x from one end of a metal bar of length L, insulated along its length
(see Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1
The heat transfer u(0, t) u(L, t)
along a metal bar,
insulated along its
length, can be
described by a p.d.e. x
O L
Clearly, the temperature can vary with position and with time, and so is described
by a p.d.e. The constant c depends upon the properties of the material. Typically a
boundary condition will be imposed at each end which specifies the temperature
there at all times so that u(0, t) and u(L, t) are known quantities. Other types of
boundary conditions are possible. Sometimes an initial condition is given. This
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21 1076 Block 4 Partial differential equations
specifies the solution, that is the heat distribution, when t = 0. For example, we may
be told that u1x, 02 = sin x. Note that the heat equation is also referred to as the dif-
fusion equation.
The wave equation in one dimension
As with the heat equation, in the one-dimensional wave equation the independent
variables are time t, and one spatial dimension x:
0 2u 2
20 u
= c
0t2 0x2
Here, u might represent the displacement of a string (think of a guitar string as it is
plucked) which varies with position and time in the manner of a wave. The string is
fixed at both ends so the displacement is zero there, that is u10, t2 = u1L, t2 = 0,
but not necessarily elsewhere (see Figure 4.2). The constant, c, depends upon the
material properties of the string and the tension in it.
Figure 4.2
A wave on a
vibrating string u
can be described
by a p.d.e.
O x
L
Laplace’s equation – two dimensions
In Laplace’s equation there are two spatial dimensions, x and y. Time t does not
appear; this equation is often found in steady-state applications where there is no
time dependence:
0 2u 0 2u
+ = 0
0x2 0y2
A typical problem might involve a rectangular region, for example a metal plate, and
u1x, y2 might represent the steady-state temperature at the point with coordinates
1x, y2 (see Figure 4.3). The temperature would be specified on the boundaries and
the problem would be to find the temperature distribution throughout the plate.
Applications are wide-ranging and u can also represent electrical, gravitational or
fluid potentials, for example.
Whatever the equation, boundary and initial conditions will usually be specified
by the physical circumstances under consideration and it is these that enable us to
find constants that arise in the solution process.
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4.2 The solution of a p.d.e. 1077 21
Figure 4.3 y
The steady-state
temperature u = u(x, b)
distribution in a y=b
plate can be
described by a
p.d.e.
u = u(0, y) u = u(a, y)
O x=a x
u = u(x, 0)
4.2 The solution of a p.d.e.
A solution of a p.d.e. is a function of several variables that satisfies the equation.
There will be many such functions. The heat, wave and Laplace’s equation are all
linear equations. This means that if two or more solutions are known, then sums
and constant multiples of these are also solutions. We use this property, known as
superposition, to construct the general solution.
Example 4.1 Temperature of fluid in a pipe
Laplace’s equation is often used in the modelling of the temperature of a fluid that is
flowing in an insulated pipe. If T is the temperature of the fluid then under some sim-
plifying assumptions T satisfies the equation
0 2T 0 2T
+ = 0
0x2 0y2
This is known as Laplace’s equation.
Show that
T = k - ln(x2 + y2)
where k is a constant, is a solution.
Solution
0T -2x 0T -2y
= 2 , = 2 using the chain rule
0x x + y2 0y x + y2
0 2T -2(x2 + y2) + (2x)(2x) 2x2 - 2y2
= = using the quotient rule
0x2 (x2 + y2)2 (x2 + y2)2
Similarly
0 2T 2y2 - 2x2
=
0y2 (x2 + y2)2
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21 1078 Block 4 Partial differential equations
So
0 2T 0 2T 2x2 - 2y2 2y2 - 2x2
+ = + = 0
0x2 0y2 (x2 + y2)2 (x2 + y2)2
Hence T = k - ln(x2 + y2) is a solution of Laplace’s equation as required.
0u 0 2u
4.3 Separation of variables: the one-dimensional heat equation = c2 2
0t 0x
This method involves seeking a solution, u1x, t2, in which the independent variables
are ‘separated’ by writing u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2; that is, we look to see if u can be
written as a product of two functions, one a function of x and the other a function of
t. By doing this, it is possible to generate ordinary differential equations for X1x2 and
T1t2. These are solved using the techniques of Chapter 20, and then the solutions are
combined to give u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2.
The study of heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation forms an essen-
tial component of all chemical engineering degrees. Conduction through metal bars
(see Figure 4.1) can be analysed using the heat equation. In Examples 4.2–4.5 we
illustrate how this equation can be solved subject to specified boundary and initial
conditions. Consider the following example.
Example 4.2 Chemical Engineering – Heat transfer by conduction
0u 0 2u
By seeking a solution of = c2 2 in the form u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2, obtain and
0t 0x
solve ordinary differential equations satisfied by X1x2 and T1t2. Hence write down
possible solutions for u1x, t2.
Solution
0u
In order to substitute u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2 into the heat equation we need to find
0t
0 2u
and 2 . Differentiating u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2 gives
0x
0u 0 2u
= X1x2T¿1t2, = X–1x2T1t2
0t 0x2
dT d2X
where T¿1t2 = and X–1x2 = (see Example 3.5 on page 1073). Substitution
dt dx2
into the heat equation gives
X1x2T¿1t2 = c2 X–1x2T1t2
Rearranging, we can write this as follows:
1 T¿1t2 X–1x2
2 T1t2
=
c X1x2
Now here is the crux of the argument: the left-hand side is a function of t only. The
right-hand side is a function of x only. However, t and x are independent variables, so
the only way this is possible is if each side is equal to a constant. Thus we write
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4.3 Separation of variables: the one-dimensional heat equation
0u 0 2u
= c2 2 1079 21
0t 0x
p2
1 T¿1t2 X–1x2
= = constant = c -q2 where p, q 7 0
c2 T1t2 X1x2
0
We write it like this because it is possible that the constant could be positive, nega-
tive or zero. The physical situation dictates which choice should be made, as we shall
see. For now, choose the case
1 T¿1t2 X–1x2
2 T1t2
= = - q2
c X1x2
so we end up with two ordinary differential equations:
X– = - q2X and T¿ = -q2c2T
that is
d2X dT
2
= - q2X and = - q2c2T
dx dt
The general solutions of these differential equations are
2 2
X = A cos qx + B sin qx and T = C e-q c t
where A, B and C are constants, and thus we can write the solution of the heat
equation as
2 2
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) = (A cos qx + B sin qx)C e-q c t
The constant C can be absorbed into the constants A and B, and so can now be dis-
carded and we write
2 2
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) = (A cos qx + B sin qx)e-q c t (1)
In a similar manner, you should verify that the solutions for the cases when the sep-
aration constant is p2 or zero are
2 2
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) = (Ae px + Be-px) ep c t (2)
and
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) = Ax + B (3)
Applying the principle of superposition, further solutions can be obtained by adding
the solutions (1), (2) and (3). Values for the constants A, B, p and q are determined
by the physical situation under consideration and the boundary and initial condi-
tions, as we shall see in the following example.
Example 4.3 Chemical Engineering – Heat transfer by conduction –
applying the boundary conditions
For the heat equation in Example 4.2 suppose that both ends of the bar are main-
tained at zero temperature, that is the boundary conditions are u(0, t) = 0,
u(L, t) = 0 as shown in Figure 4.4. Suppose also that initially there is a given tem-
perature profile along the length of the bar u(x, 0) = f (x). Explore possible values of
the constants in the general solution.
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21 1080 Block 4 Partial differential equations
Figure 4.4
A metal bar, u(0, t) = 0 u(L, t) = 0
insulated along its
length, with zero
temperature
maintained at both O L x
ends.
Solution
Observe that the solution in equation (2) can be discounted at this stage because the
2 2
exponential term ep c t grows without bounds as t increases. The physical situation
tells us that this is impossible. Similarly, the solution in equation (3),
u1x, t2 = Ax + B, can be discounted because, as is easily verified, imposition of the
boundary conditions, u10, t2 = 0, u(L, t) = 0, leads to a solution which is zero for
all time, a so-called trivial solution. So we consider the solution given by equation
(1) and start to impose the boundary conditions.
u1x, t2 = 1A cos qx + B sin qx2e-q c t
2 2
Imposing the first condition u10, t2 = 0 gives
0 = 1A cos 0 + B sin 02e-q c t = Ae-q c t
2 2 2 2
for all t
and hence A = 0. Thus
2 2
u1x, t2 = B sin qx e-q c t (4)
Imposing the second condition, u1L, t2 = 0, gives
2 2
0 = B sin qL e-q c t for all t
and so B sin qL = 0. To avoid a trivial solution B cannot be zero and hence
sin qL = 0
and so qL = np for n = 1, 2, . . ., from which
np
q = , n = 1, 2, . . .
L
Thus there are an infinite number of possible values for n that allow the boundary
condition to be satisfied. Note that we have specified n = 1, 2, . . . and excluded the
case n = 0 which also satisfies sin np = 0. However, this case can be discarded
because if n = 0 then q = 0 and this leads to a trivial solution from equation (4).
Furthermore, we have already stated q 7 0. For each value of n we can calculate
the value of q. For each value of q there is a corresponding value of B. To show
there are many possible values of q we attach a subscript and write
np
qn = , n = 1, 2, . . . The corresponding values of B are written as Bn.
L
Then
npx -anpc b2t
u1x, t2 = Bn sin e L , n = 1, 2, . . .
L
By the principle of superposition, all of these solutions can be added to generate the
solution
q
npx -anpc b2t
u1x, t2 = a Bn sin e L (5)
n=1 L
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4.4 Separation of variables: the wave equation 1081 21
We see that the general solution is expressed as the sum of an infinite number of terms.
Some of these may not be needed. The specific values of n required and the corre-
sponding values of Bn are determined using the initial condition. See Example 4.4.
Example 4.4 Chemical Engineering – Heat transfer by conduction –
applying the initial conditions
For the heat equation in Examples 4.2 and 4.3, suppose that initially the temperature
px
profile is given by u1x, 02 = sin as shown in Figure 4.5. Obtain the particular
L
solution that satisfies this initial condition.
Figure 4.5 πx
The initial u(x, 0) = sin
L 1
temperature
distribution in the
bar, u1x, 02. O L x
Solution q
npx -anpc b2t
Imposing the initial condition on u1x, t2 = a Bn sin e L by setting t = 0
n=1 L
gives
q
px npx
sin = a Bn sin
L n=1 L
By observation, this can be satisfied by choosing B1 = 1 and Bn = 0 when n Z 1 so
only one term in the infinite series is necessary. Thus the final solution satisfying the
p.d.e., the boundary and initial conditions is
px -apc b2t
u1x, t2 = sin e L
L
giving the temperature at any point, x, at any time t 7 0. When the initial condition is
more complicated it can be necessary to use an infinite number of terms in equation (5).
This requires knowledge of Fourier series, which are explored along with further
examples of the solution of p.d.e.s in Chapter 24.
4.4 Separation of variables: the wave equation
All mechanical systems exhibit vibrations or oscillations, and engineers need to take
these into account, for example when designing components that will safely dissi-
pate energy and avoid unwanted fluctations. A useful starting point is the equation
that models the oscillations of a string that is fixed at both ends. In Examples 4.5 and
4.6 we illustrate how this equation can be solved.
Example 4.5 Mechanical Engineering – The wave equation
Consider the solution of the one-dimensional wave equation:
2
0 2u 2 0 u,
= c 0 … x … L, t 7 0
0t2 0x2
Here u1x, t2 is the displacement of a string of length L that is fixed at both ends (see
Figure 4.2).
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21 1082 Block 4 Partial differential equations
(a) Seek a solution, u1x, t2, of the form u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2. Obtain and solve the
ordinary differential equations for X1x2 and T1t2 and so deduce u1x, t2.
(b) Apply the boundary conditions u10, t2 = u1L, t2 = 0 for all t Ú 0.
Solution
(a) We seek a solution in the form u1x, t2 = X1x2 T1t2. Differentiating and
0 2u 2
20 u
substituting into the wave equation, = c , produces
0t2 0x2
X1x2T–1t2 = c2 X–1x2T1t2
Rearranging, we can write this as follows:
1 T–1t2 X–1x2
2 T1t2
=
c X1x2
d2X d2T
where X– = 2
and T– = . As before, t and x are independent variables, so
dx dt2
the only way this is possible is if each side is equal to a constant. Thus we write
p2
1 T–1t2 X–1x2
= = constant = c -q2 p, q 7 0
c2 T1t2 X1x2
0
As in the heat equation, at this stage, it is possible that the constant could be
negative, positive or zero. However, as we show below, we can discount the
possibilities that the constant is zero or positive by looking at the boundary
conditions X102 = X1L2 = 0. Hence we consider just
1 T–1t2 X–1x2
2 T1t2
= = -q2
c X1x2
from which we obtain the two ordinary differential equations
X– = -q2X and T– = -c2q2T
with general solutions
X = A cos qx + B sin qx, T = C cos cqt + D sin cqt
Combining these solutions gives
u1x, t2 = 1A cos qx + B sin qx21C cos cqt + D sin cqt2
(b) With the boundary condition u10, t2 = 0 for all t we find
0 = 1A cos 0 + B sin 021C cos cqt + D sin cqt2 = A1C cos cqt + D sin cqt2
from which A = 0. Imposing the second condition, u1L, t2 = 0 for all t gives
0 = B sin qL1C cos cqt + D sin cqt2
from which B sin qL = 0. To avoid a trivial solution B cannot be zero and hence
sin qL = 0
and thus qL = np for n = 1, 2, . . ., from which
np
q = , n = 1, 2, . . .
L
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4.4 Separation of variables: the wave equation 1083 21
We can exclude the case n = 0 which leads to a trivial solution. For each value
of n we can calculate the value of q. And for each value of q there is a corre-
sponding value of B. To show there are many possible values of q we attach a
np
subscript and write qn = , n = 1, 2, . . .. The corresponding values of B are
L
written as Bn (and likewise for Cn and Dn). Combining the solutions for X and T:
aCn cos a b + Dn sin a b b,
npx npct npct
u(x, t) = Bn sin n = 1, 2, . . .
L L L
We can incorporate the constants Bn into Cn and Dn and write
aCn cos a b + Dn sin a b b,
npx npct npct
u(x, t) = sin n = 1, 2, . . . (6)
L L L
There are an infinite number of solutions of the original p.d.e., one for each value of
n = 1, 2, . . . . Each satisfies the wave equation and the boundary conditions.
Using the principle of superposition all of these solution can be added to give
u1x, t2 = a aCn cos a b + Dn sin a b b sin
q
npct npct npx
(7)
n=1 L L L
To be able to find the constants Cn and Dn requires knowledge of Fourier series
(see Chapter 24, Block 4), except in some special cases. We consider one such
case in the following example.
Example 4.6 Mechanical Engineering – The wave equation – imposing
the initial conditions
Suppose the following initial conditions are imposed on the solution to Example 4.5:
0u 2px
= 0, u = 3 sin when t = 0, for all x
0t L
So, initially there is a sinusoidal displacement profile and the string is released from
rest.
Solution 0u
To impose the first condition, = 0 when t = 0, we must differentiate equation (7):
0t
= aa- Cn sin a b + b ≤ sin
q
0u npc npct npc npct npx
Dn cosa
0t n=1 L L L L L
Applying the condition,
q
npc npx
0 = a Dn sin for all x
n=1 L L
which implies Dn = 0 for all values of n. We thus have
u1x, t2 = a Cn cos a b sin
q
npct npx
n=1 L L
Imposing the second condition,
q
2px npx
3 sin = a Cn sin
L n=1 L
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C#5952 #3019 9/28/18 11:17 AM Page 1084
21 1084 Block 4 Partial differential equations
which, by observation, can be satisfied by choosing n = 2 and C2 = 3. No other
values of n are required, so Cn = 0 for n Z 2. Finally, the solution satisfying the
wave equation and all the given conditions is
u1x, t2 = 3 cos a b sin
2pct 2px
L L
This gives the displacement of the string at any position x, 0 6 x 6 L, at any time
t 7 0.
4.5 Separation of variables: Laplace’s equation and steady-state
heat conduction
In chemical engineering plants, heat exchangers are used to transfer heat, for exam-
ple from a solid to a fluid. This is frequently achieved using fins, which are plates of
metal having a large surface area. The analysis of the steady-state heat distribution
within a cross-section of the plate is a starting point for more complicated analysis.
Example 4.7 Chemical Engineering – Steady-state heat distribution
Figure 4.6 shows a cross-section of a metal plate. The temperature distribution
u1x, y2 satisfies Laplace’s equation
0 2u 0 2u
+ = 0 0 … x … d, 0 … y … b
0x2 0y2
Solve this equation subject to the boundary conditions u1x, y2 = 0, on x = 0, y = 0
and y = b, and u1d, y2 = f1y2 (a given function of y).
Figure 4.6
A cross-section of
y
a metal plate with
temperature u=0
y=b
distribution
u1x, y2.
u=0 u(d, y) = f(y)
O u=0 x=d x
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1080-1093.QXD 9/29/18 10:06 AM Page 1085
4.5 Separation of variables: Laplace’s equation and steady-state heat conduction 1085 21
Solution 0 2u 0 2u
We let u1x, y2 = X1x2 Y1y2. Differentiating and substituting into 2 + 2 = 0
gives 0x 0y
X–1x2Y1y2 + X1x2Y–1y2 = 0
2
dX d2Y
where X– = and Y– = . Rearranging we can write this as follows:
dx2 dy2
X–1x2 Y–1y2
= -
X1x2 Y1y2
As before, because x and y are independent variables the only way this is possible is
if each side is equal to a constant. Thus we write
p2
X–1x2 Y–1y2
= - = constant = c -q2 p, q 7 0
X1x2 Y1y2
0
The physical situation dictates which choice should be made, as we shall see. Con-
sider the boundary condition u1x, 02 = u1x, b2 = 0. It is left as an exercise to show
that in order to satisfy these conditions the separation constant must be positive, p2
say. Then
X–1x2 Y–1y2
= p2, = - p2
X1x2 Y1y2
with solution
X = Cepx + De-px, Y = A cos py + B sin py
Combining the solutions for X and Y gives
u1x, y2 = 1Cepx + De-px21A cos py + B sin py2
Application of the condition u10, y2 = 0 gives C + D = 0 so that D = - C. Thus
u1x, y2 = C1epx - e-px21A cos py + B sin py2
Application of the condition u1x, 02 = 0 gives A = 0. Application of u1x, b2 = 0
np
gives B sin pb = 0, so that pb = np, p = , for n = 1, 2, . . .. Combining these
b
results and superposing solutions gives
u1x, y2 = a Cn1e b - e - 2 sin
q
npx npx npy
b
n=1 b
Finally, we need to impose u1d, y2 = f1y2:
f1y2 = a Cn1e b - e- 2 sin
q
npd npd npy
b
n=1 b
To find the constants Cn requires knowledge of Fourier series (see Chapter 24).
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1080-1093.QXD 9/29/18 10:08 AM Page 1086
21 1086 Block 4 Partial differential equations
End of block exercises
1 0u 0 2u 0 2u 0 2u
If u1x, t2 = e-2t cos x find and 2 . Verify 6 Solve Laplace’s equation + = 0 to
0t 0x 0x2 0y2
0u 0 2u determine the steady-state temperature
that u satisfies the heat equation = 2 2. distribution u1x, y2 in the semi-infinite plate
0t 0x
0 … x … 1, y Ú 0. Assume that the left and
2 Verify that u = x2 + 4t2 satisfies the wave right sides are kept at the constant temperature
0 2u 0 2u of 0° and assume that the solution is bounded.
equation 2 = 4 2 . The temperature along the bottom side is given
0t 0x
by f1x2 = 3 sin 2px - sin px.
3 Find the value(s) of k such that u1x, t2 =
sin1x - kt2 is a solution of the 0V 0 2V
7 Solve the diffusion equation = 4 2,
0 2u 0 2u 0t 0x
one-dimensional wave equation 2 = 36 2 .
0t 0x 0 … x … 3, t Ú 0, subject to the conditions
V10, t2 = V(3, t) = 0 and V1x, 02 =
4 Solve the one-dimensional wave equation
x, 0 … x … 3. (Refer to Chapter 24 for details
0 2u 1 0 2u of how to complete the solution using Fourier
2
= for 0 … x … 2, t Ú 0.
0x 16 0t2 series.)
Assume that the boundary conditions are
u10, t2 = u12, t2 = 0 and that the initial 8 A square metal plate 0 … x … 1, 0 … y … 1
conditions are u1x, 02 = 6 sin px - 3 sin 4px, has the edge x = 0 maintained at an
unspecified non-zero temperature. The other
1x, 02 = 0.
0u
0t three edges have temperature 0°. Show that
the steady-state temperature distribution,
which satisfies Laplace’s equation,
5 Use the method of separation of variables to can be expressed in the form
0 2f 0 2f
u1x, y2 = a An sin npy1enpx - e2np e-npx2
q
obtain the solution of 2 + 2 = 0
0x 0y n=1
which is trigonometrical in x, finite as y : q where An are constants.
and gives f = 2 cos 5x when y = 0 for all x.
Solutions to exercises
0u 0 2u 5 f = 2e-5y cos 5x
1 = - 2e-2t cos x; 2 = - e-2t cos x
0t 0x
3 k = ;6 6 u = 3 sin 2px e-2py - sin px e-py
q 61-12n + 1
2 npx
4 u1x, t2 = 6 sin px cos 4pt - 7 V1x, t2 = a e-12np/32 t sin
n=1 np 3
3 sin 4px cos 16pt
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C#5952 #3019 9/28/18 11:17 AM Page 1087
Stationary values of a function of two variables
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
When studying functions of a single variable we used differentiation to locate
the positions of maximum and minimum points. We now extend this technique to
functions of two variables.
5.2 Maxima, minima and saddle points
Figure 5.1 shows a graph of the function z = f(x, y) = -x2 - y2. The point labelled
A is called a maximum point. If we were to move away from the maximum point in
any direction but remain on the surface, the value of the function would decrease.
Figure 5.1 z
A
0
Point A is a ⫺2
maximum point. It ⫺4
⫺6
is the highest point ⫺8
in its locality. ⫺10
⫺12
⫺14
⫺16
⫺18
3
2 3
1 2
0 1
⫺1 0
⫺1
⫺2 ⫺2
⫺3 ⫺3
Figure 5.2 shows a graph of the function z = f(x, y) = x2 + y2. The point labelled
B is called a minimum point. If we were to move away from the minimum point in
any direction but remain on the surface, the value of the function would increase.
Figure 5.2
Point B is a z
18
minimum point. It 16
is the lowest point 14
12
in its locality. 10
8
6
4
2
0
3
2 3
1
0 B 1
2
⫺1 0
⫺1
⫺2 ⫺2
⫺3 ⫺3
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C#5952 #3019 9/28/18 11:17 AM Page 1088
21 1088 Block 5 Stationary values of a function of two variables
Figure 5.3 shows a graph of the function z = f (x, y) = 3xy + x + y. The point
labelled C is called a saddle point. When leaving a saddle point in one direction, the
value of the function increases; when leaving in the perpendicular direction, the
value of the function decreases.
Figure 5.3 z
40
Point C is a saddle
30
point. 20
10
0 C
⫺10
⫺20
⫺30
3 2
1 3
2
0 1
0
⫺1 ⫺1
⫺2 ⫺2
⫺3 ⫺3
Collectively, maximum points, minimum points and saddle points are known as
stationary points of the function f.
5.3 Finding the location of stationary points
To locate stationary points both first partial derivatives are equated to zero: that is,
we solve
0f 0f
= 0 and = 0
0x 0y
Key point Stationary points are located by solving
0f 0f
= 0 and = 0
0x 0y
Example 5.1
Find the coordinates of any stationary points of the function f(x, y) = x2 + y2.
Solution 0f 0f
We begin by noting that stationary points are located by solving = 0 and = 0
0x 0f 0y
2 2
and so we find the first partial derivatives of f. If f = x + y then = 2x and
0f 0x
= 2y. Equating these to zero produces two simultaneous equations: 2x = 0 and
0y
2y = 0. Solving these we find x = 0 and y = 0. These are the x and y coordinates of
the stationary point. The z coordinate is obtained using z = x2 + y2 and so z = 0
also. The graph of this function is shown in Figure 5.2, from which we note that the
stationary point is a minimum.
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C#5952 #3019 9/28/18 11:17 AM Page 1089
5.3 Finding the location of stationary points 1089 21
Example 5.2
Find the coordinates of any stationary points of the function f(x, y) = x2 + xy - 7y.
Solution
First of all find the partial derivatives of f and equate both of these derivatives to
zero:
0f
= 2x + y = 0
0x
0f
= x - 7 = 0
0y
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations. From the second equation
x = 7
Substitution in the first equation gives y = -14.
Therefore a stationary point occurs at (7, -14). The z coordinate is found from
z = x2 + xy - 7y.
z = 49
Example 5.3
Find the coordinates of any stationary points of f(x, y) = 2x2 + 3xy - y2 - 2x.
Solution
First of all find the partial derivatives of f and equate these to zero.
0f
= 0 4x + 3y - 2 = 0
0x
0f
= 0 3x - 2y = 0
0y
Solving the simultaneous equations gives
4 6
x = ,y = 17 , 17
Therefore a stationary point occurs at A 174 , 176 B . The z coordinate is found from
z = 2x2 + 3xy - y2 - 2x.
z = -4冫17
Exercises
Locate the position of any stationary points of the
following functions:
1 f (x, y) = x2 + y3 - 3y 3 f (x, y) = -x - y3
x3 y2
2 f (x, y) = 4xy - 2x2y 4 f (x, y) = + 3x2 + xy + + 6y
3 2
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1080-1093.QXD 10/16/18 7:47 AM Page 1090
21 1090 Block 5 Stationary values of a function of two variables
Solutions to exercises
1 (0, 1) and (0, - 1) 3 none
2 (0, 0) and (2, 0) 4 (1, -7) and ( -6, 0)
5.4 The nature of stationary points
Equating the first partial derivatives to zero locates the stationary points but does not
identify them as maximum points, minimum points or saddle points. To distinguish
between such points we can make use of a test that involves second partial deriva-
tives.
We consider the expression
02f 02 f 02 f 2
- a b
0x2 0y2 0x0y
We evaluate this expression at each of the stationary points:
• If the result is negative the stationary point is a saddle point.
0 2f
• If the result is positive and if 2 is positive we have a minimum point.
0x
0 2f
• If the result is positive and if 2 is negative we have a maximum point.
0x
• If the result is zero, this test fails and further tests are required that are beyond the
scope of this book.
In summary:
Key point The nature of a stationary point is determined using the following test:
0 2f 0 2f 0 2f 2
- a b 6 0 saddle point
0x2 0y2 0x0y
2 2
0 2f 2 0 2f
- a b 7 0 and
0f 0f
7 0 minimum point
0x2 0y2 0x0y 0x2
0 2f 0 2f 0 2f 2 0 2f
- a b 7 0 and 6 0 maximum point
0x2 0y2 0x0y 0x2
Example 5.4
Locate and identify the nature of the stationary values of
f (x, y) = x2 + xy - 7y
Solution
This function has been discussed already in Example 5.2. We found that a stationary
point was located at (7, -14).
We now determine its nature. For this we need to calculate the second derivatives.
0f 0f
Recall that = 2x + y and = x - 7.
0x 0y
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5.4 The nature of stationary points 1091 21
0 2f
= 2
0x2
0 2f
= 0
0y2
0 2f
= 1
0x0y
02f 02f 02f 2
We then consider the quantity -a b . In this case we have
0x2 0y2 0x0y
02f 02f 02f 2
-a b = (2)(0) - (1)2 = -1
0x2 0y2 0x0y
Then, from the Key point immediately above we deduce that this stationary point is a
saddle point
Exercises
Determine the position and nature of the stationary
points of the following functions:
1 f (x, y) = 3xy + x + y 1 1 3
4 f (x, y) = + -
x y xy
2 f (x, y) = x2 + y2 - 3y
5 f (x, y) = exy
3 f (x, y) = x2 + y2 - 3xy
Solutions to exercises
1 Saddle at ( -1>3, -1>3) 4 Saddle at (3, 3)
2 Minimum at (0, 3> 2) 5 Saddle at (0, 0)
3 Saddle at (0, 0)
End of block exercises
Determine the position and nature of the stationary
points of the following functions:
1 f (x, y) = xy + x + y2 2 f (x, y) = -x2 - y2 - 3y
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C21_pages1080-1093.QXD 11/28/18 9:03 PM Page 1092
21 1092 Block 5 Stationary values of a function of two variables
3 f (x, y) = 7x - 2y2 - xy 5 f (x, y) = e - x(y - 1)
1 1 1
4 f (x, y) = + +
x y xy
Solutions to exercises
1 Saddle at (2, - 1) 4 Saddle at ( -1, -1)
2 Maximum at (0, - 3>2) 5 Saddle at (0, 1)
3 Saddle at ( - 28, 7)
End of chapter exercises
0z 0z 0z y x
1 If z = 14x - 13y state and . 11 Calculate when (a) z = 2 - 2 ,
0x 0y 0x x y
2
(b) z = ex - 4xy
.
0 2w 0 2w
2 If w = 5y - 2x state 2
and .
0x 0y2 0z x2 - 3y2
12 Calculate when z = 2 .
0y x + y2
0 2z 0 2z
3 If z = 3x2 + 7xy - y2 find and . pmÆhD3 0T 0T
0y0x 0x0y 13 If T = find and .
4c 0D 0c
0z 0z 02f 02f
4 If z = 14 - 4xy evaluate and at the 14 Given f(x, y) = sin 4x cos 3y find , and
0x 0y 0x2 0y2
point (1, 2). 02f
.
0x0y
0z 0z
5 If z = 4e5xy find and . 15 Determine the stationary points of f (x, y) =
0x 0y
2x2 + 3y2 + 5x + 12y + 19.
0y 0y
6 If y = x cos t find and . 16 Consider the function f (x, y) = 5x2y .
0x 0t
(a) Evaluate this function and its first
7 If w = 3xy2 + 2yz2 find all first partial partial derivatives at the point A(2, 3).
derivatives of w at the point with coordinates (b) Suppose we consider point A. Suppose
(1, 2, 3). small changes, dx, dy, are made in the
values of x and y so that we move to a
0V 0V nearby point B. It is possible to show that
8 If V = D1>4T -5>6 find and . the corresponding change in f is given
0T 0D 0f 0f
approximately by df L dx + dy,
0x 0y
RT 0p
9 If p = where R is a constant, find and where the partial derivatives are evaluated
V 0V at the original point A. Use this result to find
0p
. the approximate change in the value of f if
0T x is increased to 2.1 and y is increased to 3.2.
0f 0f 0 2 f 0 2 f 02f (c) Compare your answer in (b) to the value of
10 Find , , 2 , 2 and if f = (x - y)2. f at (2.1, 3.2).
0x 0y 0x 0y 0x0y
M21_CROF5939_04_SE_C#5952 #3019 9/28/18 11:17 AM Page 1093
End of chapter exercises 1093 21
Solutions to exercises
2y 1 2
1 14, -13 11 (a) - - (b) (2x - 4y)ex - 4xy
x3 y2
2 0, 0
8yx2
12 -
3 7, 7 (x + y2)2
2
3pmÆhD2 pmÆhD3
4 -8, -4 13 ,-
4c 4c2
5 20ye5xy, 20xe5xy 14 -16 sin 4x cos 3y, -9 sin 4x cos 3y,
-12 cos 4x sin 3y
6 cos t, -x sin t
15 Minimum at ( -5>4, -2)
7 12, 30, 24
16 (a) 60, 60, 20
8 - 56 D1>4 T -11>6, 14 D-3>4 T -5>6 (b) df = (60)(0.1) + (20)(0.2) = 10
(c) From part (b) the approximate value of f at
RT R the new point is 60 + 10 = 70. The exact
9 - ,
V2 V value is f (2.1, 3.2) = 70.56.
10 2(x - y), -2(x - y), 2, 2, -2
Computer and calculator exercises
1 Investigate how to find the first partial From your results show that u is a solution of
derivatives of the function f (x, y) = tan-1xy the equation
using a computer algebra package.
0 2u 0 2u 0u
+ =
2 Use a computer algebra package to find 0x2 0y2 0z
0 2u 0 2u 0u 1 1- x + y 2
2 2
2
, 2, when u(x, y, z) = e 4z
0x 0y 0z z
Solutions to exercises
1- x 4z 2 1- x 4z 2
y x 2 2 2 2
1x2 + y22e
+y +y
1 2 2
, 2 2 e
1 + x y 1 + x y 0u
= - +
1- x 4z 2 2
x2e1- 4z
2
+ y2 x2 + y2 0z z2 4z3
2
0 u e
2 = - + ,
0 x2 2z2 4z3
1- x 4z 2 1 x +y 2
2 2
+y 2 2
2
0 u e y2e - 4z
= - + ,
0y2 2z2 4z3
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 11/28/18 9:07 PM Page 1094
Chapter 22
The Laplace transform
The Laplace transform is an integral transform: that is, it is defined by
an integral. Given a function, f (t ), the Laplace transform of f (t ) is a
function F(s) defined by
冮
q
F(s) = e-st f (t) dt
0
The original function, f (t), has been transformed into a new function,
F(s).
As with differentiation and integration, most Laplace transforms are
calculated from a table of standard functions. This is covered in
Block 1. Block 2 deals with the inverse Laplace transform. Here we
know the transformed function, F(s), and we seek the original
function, f (t).
The chapter closes with Block 3, which illustrates the application of
the transform to the solution of differential equations. Both first- and
second-order linear constant-coefficient equations can be solved using
the Laplace transform. This method has the advantage that initial
conditions are automatically incorporated into the solution.
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1095
Chapter 22 contents
Block 1 The Laplace transform
Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform
Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
End of chapter exercises
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1096
The Laplace transform
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
In mathematics the word ‘transform’ has the same meaning as in everyday language.
The Laplace transform is one of a number of integral transforms used by engineers.
The Laplace transform can be used to solve a linear constant-coefficient differen-
tial equation by transforming it into an algebraic equation. The resulting algebraic
equation is solved and then the transform is reversed to find the solution of the
differential equation in terms of the original variable.
The Laplace transform can also be used to calculate transfer functions. These
functions describe the elements of an engineering system and are particularly
important in the design of control systems.
1.2 Definition of the Laplace transform
Let f(t) be a function of time, t. In many engineering problems t has only non-negative
values, that is t Ú 0. Hence f(t) will be given for t Ú 0, and for t 6 0, f(t) is assumed
to be zero.
Key point The Laplace transform of f(t) is F(s) and is defined by
q
F(s) = 冮
0
e-st f (t) dt
So, to find the Laplace transform of a function f(t), we multiply it by e-st and then
integrate between the limits 0 and q . Because of the infinite limit of integration,
restrictions sometimes need to be placed on s to ensure that the integral exists.
Throughout this chapter it is assumed that s has a value such that this condition is
satisfied.
Note that although f is a function of t, the Laplace transform is a function of a new
variable, s. It is conventional to use a lowercase letter for the function of t, as in f(t),
but an uppercase letter for the function of s, as in F(s). In addition, we often write
L5 f 1t26 to denote the Laplace transform of the function f(t).
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1.2 Definition of the Laplace transform 1097 22
Example 1.1
Calculate the Laplace transform of f(t) = 3.
Solution
q
F(s) = 冮 0
e-st 3 dt
q
= 3 冮 0
e-st dt
= 3c d
q
e-st
-s 0
= 3 c0 + d
1
s
3
=
s
3
Hence we may write L{3} = .
s
Exercises
1 Write down the definition of the Laplace 5 Use integration by parts to show that the
transform of a function f(t). 1
Laplace transform of f (t) = t is 2 .
s
2 Given a function f(t), write two ways in which
its Laplace transform might be expressed. 1
6 Show that L{et} = .
s - 1
3 If x is a function of t, that is x(t), how would (Hint: write ete-st as e(1-s)t.)
you write its Laplace transform?
4 If y is a function of t, that is y(t), how would
you write its Laplace transform?
Solutions to exercises
2 L{ f (t)} or F(s) 4 L{y(t)} or Y(s)
3 L{x(t)} or X(s)
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1098
22 1098 Block 1 The Laplace transform
1.3 Using a table of Laplace transforms
Although the Laplace transforms of most functions can be calculated from the defi-
nition, most engineers use a table. Table 1.1 lists some common functions and their
Laplace transforms.
Table 1.1
Laplace transform, Laplace transform,
Function, f(t) L{f (t)} = F(s) Function, f(t) L{f (t)} = F(s)
1 b
1 sinh bt
s s - b2
2
1 s
t cosh bt
s2 s2 - b2
2 b
t2 3
e-at sinh bt
s (s + a)2 - b2
n! s + a
tn e-at cosh bt
sn + 1 (s + a)2 - b2
1 2bs
eat t sin bt
s - a (s2 + b2)2
1 s2 - b2
e-at t cos bt
s + a (s2 + b2)2
n! 1
tne-at u(t), unit step
(s + a)n + 1 s
b e-sd
sin bt u(t - d)
s2 + b2 s
s
cos bt d(t) 1
s2 + b2
b
e-at sin bt d(t - d) e-sd
(s + a)2 + b2
s + a
e-at cos bt
(s + a)2 + b2
Example 1.2
Use Table 1.1 to find the Laplace transform of each of the following functions:
(a) t4 (b) e2t (c) e-3t (d) t2e3t (e) sin 2t (f) cos 5t (g) e-t sin t
Solution
(a) We use the result for f (t) = tn and put n = 4. The required Laplace transform
is then
4!
F(s) = 4+1
s
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1099
1.3 Using a table of Laplace transforms 1099 22
4!
=
s5
24
= 5
s
We may write
24
L{t4} =
s5
(b) Using the result for eat with a = 2 we find
1
L{e2t} =
s - 2
(c) Using the result for e-at with a = 3 we have
1
L{e - 3t} =
s + 3
(d) We use the result for tne-at when n = 2 and a = -3 to obtain
2! 2
L{t2e3t} = 3
=
(s - 3) (s - 3)3
2
(e) L{sin 2t} = 2
s + 4
s
(f) L{cos 5t} = 2
s + 25
1
(g) L{e - t sin t} =
(s + 1)2 + 1
Example 1.3
Find the Laplace transform of each of the following functions:
(a) et>2 (b) e2t cos t (c) t3e2t
Solution
1
(a) We use the result for eat and take a = 2.
1
L{et>2} = s - 1
2
(b) We use the result for e-at cos bt. We take
a = , b = -2 , 1
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 11:15 AM Page 1100
22 1100 Block 1 The Laplace transform
so
s-2
L{e2t cos t} =
(s - 2)2 + 1
(c) We use the result for t ne-at
We take
n = , a = 3 , -2
Hence
6
L{t3e2t} =
(s - 2)4
Maple and Matlab have built-in commands for finding the Laplace, and other, trans-
forms.
Example 1.4
Use software to define and plot a graph of the pulse function f (t) = e
1 0 … t 6 1
and find its Laplace transform, F(s). 0 otherwise
Solution
Maple
The pulse function can be constructed using the unit step function as was shown in
Chapter 6, Section 8.5. The Maple function Heaviside is the unit step function. The
required pulse function can be constructed by taking the unit step function and subtract-
ing a unit step function translated 1 unit to the right. The following Maple commands
construct this function and plot a graph.
> f:=t-> Heaviside(t) - Heaviside(t-1);
plot(f(t),t=-3..3);
The graph is shown in Figure 1.1. In order to find the Laplace transform, the ‘integral
transform’ package must first be loaded. The following commands do this and calculate
the required transform.
> with(inttrans):
laplace(f(t),t,s);
The output is
1 - e-s
s
1 - e-s
Thus L{f(t)} = F(s) = .
s
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 11/15/18 3:55 PM Page 1101
1.3 Using a table of Laplace transforms 1101 22
Figure 1.1 f (t)
A graph of the pulse
function 1
t
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3
Matlab
In Matlab the required pulse function can be defined in terms of Heaviside functions
(heaviside( )) and plotted.
>> syms t s
fplot(heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-1),[-3,3])
Then the command
f= heaviside(t) - heaviside(t-1)
laplace(f,t,s)
calculates the transform producing
1/s - exp(-s)/s
1 - e-s
Thus L{f(t)} = F(s) = as before.
s
In the next block we study the inverse Laplace transform: that is, how to find the
original time-domain function if we know its Laplace transform. The inverse Laplace
transform can be found using the Maple command invlaplace(F(s),s,t), or
the Matlab command ilaplace(F(s),s,t). You should check this out using the
software to which you have access.
Exercises
1 Use Table 1.1 to find the Laplace transform of 3 Find the Laplace transform of each of the
the following: following:
(a) t5 (b) cos 4t (c) e9t (d) e-6t (e) sin 5t t2 sin 5t t
(a) e2t>3 (b) 4t (c) 6t (d) et>2 cos
e e 2
2 Find the Laplace transform of each of the 4t 2t
following: (e) e sin
3
(a) e-3t sin 5t (b) e3t cos 2t
t
(c) t sin 4t (d) t cos (e) t2e-5t
2
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1102
22 1102 Block 1 The Laplace transform
Solutions to exercises
5! s 1 1 3 2 5
1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 3 (a) (b) (c)
s6 s2 + 16 s - 9 s + 6 3s - 2 (s + 4)3 (s + 6)2 + 25
s - 0.5 6
5 (d) (e)
(e) 2 (s - 0.5)2 + 0.25 9(s - 4)2 + 4
s + 25
5 s - 3
2 (a) 2
(b)
(s + 3) + 25 (s - 3)2 + 4
8s s2 - 0.25
(c) 2 2
(d)
(s + 16) (s2 + 0.25)2
2!
(e)
(s + 5)3
1.4 Properties of the Laplace transform
Since the Laplace transform is defined in terms of an integral it comes as no surprise
that some of the properties of integrals are also properties of the Laplace transform.
We note two of these properties.
Key point L{f + g} = L{f} + L{g}
L{kf } = kL{f} if k is a constant
The first property states that to find the Laplace transform of two functions added
together we simply find the transform of each individual function and then add
together these transforms.
The second property states that when a function, f, is multiplied by a constant, k,
the corresponding transform is also multiplied by the same constant.
Together, these properties mean that the Laplace transform is what is known as a
linear transform.
Example 1.5
Find the Laplace transform of each of the following functions:
(a) 3 (b) 3 + 2t (c) 3 + 2t - 5t2
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1.4 Properties of the Laplace transform 1103 22
Solution
(a) We think of 3 as 3(1). From Table 1.1
1
L{1} =
s
and so, by the second property,
L{3} = 3a b
1
s
3
=
s
(b) We note that
1
L{t} =
s2
and so, using the second property,
2
L{2t} =
s2
Finally, using the first property,
L{3 + 2t} = L{3} + L{2t}
3 2
= + 2
s s
(c) L{3 + 2t - 5t2} = L{3} + L{2t} - L{5t2}
3 2 10
= + 2 - 3
s s s
Example 1.6
e3t 1
Find the Laplace transform of (a) - 6 sin 2t, (b) cos 6t - 2e-t sin t.
2 3
Solution
(a) From Table 1.1
1
L{e3t} =
s - 3
and so
e3t
f =
1
Le
2 2(s - 3)
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1104
22 1104 Block 1 The Laplace transform
Similarly
2
L{sin 2t} = 2
s + 4
and so
12
L{6 sin 2t} = 2
s + 4
Finally
e3t
- 6 sin 2t f =
1 12
Le - 2
2 2(s - 3) s + 4
(b) We know from Table 1.1 that
s
L{cos 6t} = 2
s + 36
and hence
cos 6t f =
1 s
Le
3 3(s2 + 36)
Similarly
1
L{e-t sin t} =
(s + 1)2 + 1
and so
2
L{2e-t sin t} =
(s + 1)2 + 1
So
cos 6t - 2e-t sin t f =
1 s 2
Le 2
-
3 3(s + 36) (s + 1)2 + 1
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1.4 Properties of the Laplace transform 1105 22
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by stating that the 2et
(c) 1 - 3e-t + (d) 2tet - 3t2e-t
Laplace transform is a linear transform. Write 3
down the two linearity properties. (e) 2t - 3te-t + 4
2 Find the Laplace transform of 4 Find the Laplace transform of each of the
t2 following:
(a) 2 + 3t (b) 2t2 - 3 (c) - 6 (a) 3 sin 2t - 4t sin 3t
2
(b) 5 cos 3t + 3 sin 3t
(d) 2t - 3t + 5t - 6 (e) 2 - 4t3 + 5t5
3 2
2t
(c) 2 - 3 cos + 2t cos 2t
3 Find the Laplace transform of 3
(d) 2e cos 2t - 4et sin 2t
t
e3t
(a) 4e2t + 3e-2t (b) + 4et - 5e-t (e) 3e-2t sin 3t - 2e-2t cos 3t
2
Solutions to exercises
2 6
1 L{f + g} = L{f} + L{g}, L{kf} = kL{f} (d) -
2
if k is a constant. (s - 1) (s + 1)3
2 3 4 3 1 6 2 3 4
2 (a) + 2 (b) 3 - (c) 3 - (e) - +
s s s s s s 2 2 s
s (s + 1)
12 6 5
6 2 24 600 6 24s 5s 9
(d) 4 - 3 + 2 - (e) - 4 + 6 4 (a) - (b) +
s s s s s s s 2
s + 4 2
(s + 9) 2 2
s + 9 2
s + 9
2
2 3s 2(s - 4)
4 3 (c) - 4
+
3 (a) + s 2
s + (s2 + 4)2
s - 2 s + 2 9
2(s - 1) 8
1 4 5 (d) -
(b) + - (s - 1)2 + 4 (s - 1)2 + 4
2(s - 3) s - 1 s + 1
1 3 2 9 2(s + 2)
(c) - + (e) 2
-
s s + 1 3(s - 1) (s + 2) + 9 (s + 2)2 + 9
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1106
22 1106 Block 1 The Laplace transform
End of block exercises
1 Find the Laplace transform of each of the 3 Find the Laplace transform of the following:
following: (a) 2 - 3t2e-3t (b) t(2 - 3t + 4et)
2 2t - 1 (c) 2t(sin 3t - 2 cos 3t) (d) 3e2t(1 - t + et)
(a) 7 (b) (c) -0.25 (d) t - 2 (e)
3 3 (e) cos 2t(e-t + t - 2)
2 Find the Laplace transform of the following:
(a) 0.6t (b) 6 - 6t (c) 2(t + 1)
(d) (t + 1)(t - 1) (e) 3t4 - 2
Solutions to exercises
7 2 1 1 2 2 6 2 6 4
1 (a) (b) (c) - (d) 2 - 3 (a) - 3
(b) 2 - 3 +
s 3s 4s s s s (s + 3) s s (s - 1)2
2 1 (s2 - 9)
b
(e) 2 - 6s
3s 3s (c) 2a - 2
(s2 + 9)2 (s2 + 9)2
- 2 (c) 2 a 2 + b
0.6 6 6 1 1
2 (a) (b)
(d) 3 a b
2 s s 1 1 1
s s s - +
s - 2 (s - 2)2 s - 3
2 1 72 2
(d) 3 - (e) 5 - s + 1 s2 - 4 2s
s s s s (e) + 2 - 2
2
(s + 1) + 4 (s + 4)2 s + 4
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1107
The inverse Laplace transform
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
In Block 1 we saw how to use Table 1.1 to find the Laplace transform of a variety of
functions. Often, however, we know the Laplace transform of a function without
knowing the actual function. In such cases we need to calculate the original function
from knowledge of its Laplace transform: that is, we seek the inverse Laplace
transform. This is the subject of this block.
2.2 Using Table 1.1 to find inverse Laplace transforms
To find the inverse Laplace transform we use Table 1.1 in Block 1. We write any
given Laplace transform as the sum of standard expressions given in Table 1.1 and
then find the inverse from the table. We use the notation L-1 to denote an inverse
Laplace transform, so that
if L{f (t)} = F(s), then L-1{F(s)} = f (t)
In addition we shall make use of the following linearity properties:
Key point L-1{F + G} = L-1{F} + L-1{G}
L-1{kF} = kL-1{F} if k is a constant
The first property states that to find the inverse Laplace transform of two functions
added together we simply find the inverse transform of each individual function and
then add together these inverse transforms.
The second property states that when a function, F(s), is multiplied by a constant,
k, the corresponding inverse transform is also multiplied by the same constant.
The technique is illustrated by examples.
Example 2.1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
1 4 1
(a) (b) (c)
s s 2s
Solution
(a) From Table 1.1 we note that
1
L{1} =
s
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1108
22 1108 Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform
1
Hence the inverse Laplace transform of is 1. We may write this compactly as
s
L-1 e f = 1
1
s
1
Thus the function, f(t), whose Laplace transform is , is f(t) = 1.
s
(b) We write as 4a b. From (a) we know L e f = 1 and so
4 1 -1 1
s s s
L-1 e f = 4L-1 e f
4 1
s s
= 4(1)
= 4
Here we have made use of the second linearity property.
as a b and so
1 1 1
(c) We write
2s 2 s
L-1 e f =
1 1
2s 2
Example 2.2
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
1 3 3 7
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 -
s s s s
Solution 1
(a) From Table 1.1 we note that L{t} = 2 and so
s
L-1 e f = t
1
s2
1
The inverse Laplace transform of is t.
s2
L-1 e f = 3L-1 e 2 f
3 1
(b) 2
s s
= 3t
(c) First note that L-1 e f = 7. Then using the first linearity property we can
7
s
write
L-1 e - f = L-1 e 2 f - L-1 e f
3 7 3 7
s2 s s s
= 3t - 7
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2.2 Using Table 1.1 to find inverse Laplace transforms 1109 22
Example 2.3
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
2 4 3
(a) - (b)
s + 1 s - 2 (s + 1)6
Solution
(a) Using Table 1.1 we see that
L-1 e f = e-t
1
s + 1
and so
L-1 e f =
2
2e-t
s + 1
Similarly
L-1 e f =
4
4e2t
s - 2
Hence
L-1 e f =
2 4
- 2e-t - 4e2t
s + 1 s - 2
(b) We note that
L-1 e f =
5!
t 5e-t
(s + 1)6
Noting that 5! = 120, then
t 5e-t
L-1 e f =
3
(s + 1)6 40
Sometimes it is necessary to carry out some preliminary rewriting of a transform in
order to be able to use Table 1.1. The best way to proceed is not always obvious, but
doing plenty of practice exercises will help. Consider Example 2.4.
Example 2.4
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
5 s + 2 s + 7
(a) 2
(b) 2
(c)
(s + 2) + 9 (s + 2) + 9 (s + 2)2 + 9
Solution
(a) From Table 1.1 we see that
3
L{e-2t sin 3t} = (s + 2)2 + 9
so that
L-1 e f = e-2t sin 3t
3
(s + 2)2 + 9
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1110
22 1110 Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform
Hence
L-1 e f =
5 5 -2t
e sin 3t
(s + 2)2 + 9 3
(b) L-1 e f =
s + 2
e-2t cos 3t
(s + 2)2 + 9
s + 7
(c) We think of as
(s + 2)2 + 9
5 s + 2
+
(s + 2)2 + 9 (s + 2)2 + 9
So
L-1 e f =
s + 7 5 -2t
e sin 3t + e-2t cos 3t
(s + 2)2 + 9 3
Exercises
1 Find the inverse Laplace transform of each of 3 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
the following: 1 1 3s
4 3 5 3 2 (a) (b) (c) 2
(a) 2 (b) - (c) 3 (d) 5 - 4 2(s + 3) 2s + 3 s + 1
s s s s s -6 s + 2
1 2 (d) 2
(e)
(e) 5 - 2 s + 9 s2 + 4
3s 3s
4 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
2 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s - 1 3
3 -2 2 (a) (b)
(a) (b) (c) (s - 1)2 + 36 (s + 2)2 + 9
s + 2 s - 1 (s + 2)3
-1 s + 5
1 1 1 1 (c) (d)
(d) + (e) 2
+ (s - 1) + 42
(s + 2)2 + 9
s s + 1 (s - 3) (s - 3)3
s + 5
(e)
(s + 3)2 + 4
Solutions to exercises
5t2 t4 t3 e-3t e-1.5t
1 (a) 4t (b) -3 (c) (d) - 3 (a) (b) (c) 3 cos t (d) -2 sin 3t
2 8 3 2 2
t4 2t (e) cos 2t + sin 2t
(e) -
72 3 et sin 2t
-2t t 2 -2t -t 4 (a) et cos 6t (b) e-2t sin 3t (c) -
2 (a) 3e (b) -2e (c) t e (d) 1 + e 2
2 3t
te (d) e-2t cos 3t + e-2t sin 3t
(e) te3t +
2 (e) e-3t cos 2t + e-3t sin 2t
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2.3 Inversions requiring completing the square 1111 22
2.3 Inversions requiring completing the square
The technique of completing the square, which was described in Chapter 7, Block 2,
is often used to rewrite Laplace transforms in alternative forms so that they can be
inverted. Consider the following examples.
Example 2.5 1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
.
s - 2s + 5
Solution
By completing the square we write s2 - 2s + 5 as (s - 1)2 + 4, which is the same
as (s - 1)2 + 22. From Table 1.1
2
L{et sin 2t} =
(s - 1)2 + 22
and so
L-1 e f = et sin 2t
1 1
(s - 1)2 + 22 2
Example 2.6
2s - 1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
.
s + 6s + 10
Solution
By completing the square we see that
s2 + 6s + 10 = (s + 3)2 + 12
From Table 1.1, the results with (s + 3)2 + 12 in the denominator are
1 s + 3
L{e-3t sin t} = , L{e-3t cos t} =
(s + 3)2 + 12 (s + 3)2 + 12
We need to rewrite the given transform in terms of these two results.
2s - 1 2s - 1
2
=
s + 6s + 10 (s + 3)2 + 12
2s + 6 - 7
=
(s + 3)2 + 12
2s + 6 7
= 2 2
-
(s + 3) + 1 (s + 3)2 + 12
s + 3 1
= 2 -7
(s + 3)2 + 12 (s + 3)2 + 12
Now
L-1 e 2 f = 2e-3t cos t, L-1 e 7 f = 7e-3t sin t
s + 3 1
(s + 3)2 + 12 (s + 3)2 + 12
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1112
22 1112 Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform
and so
L-1 e f = 2e-3t cos t - 7e-3t sin t
2s - 1
2
s + 6s + 10
Example 2.7
9 - 4s
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
.
2s + 8s + 40
Solution
We write 2s2 + 8s + 40 as 2(s2 + 4s + 20) and then complete the square to obtain
2(s2 + 4s + 20) = 2[(s + 2)2 + 42]
The relevant parts of Table 1.1 are
4
L{e-2t sin 4t} =
(s + 2)2 + 42
s + 2
L{e-2t cos 4t} =
(s + 2)2 + 42
The given transform is rewritten so that these results can be used.
9 - 4s 9 - 4s
=
2s2 + 8s + 40 2[(s + 2)2 + 42]
17 - 4(s + 2)
=
2[(s + 2)2 + 42]
8.5 - 2(s + 2)
=
(s + 2)2 + 42
8.5 s + 2
= 2 2
- 2
(s + 2) + 4 (s + 2)2 + 42
Now
L-1 e f =
8.5
2.125e-2t sin 4t
(s + 2)2 + 42
and
L-1 e 2 f =
s + 2
2e-2t cos 4t
(s + 2)2 + 42
Hence
L-1 e f = 2.125e-2t sin 4t - 2e-2t cos 4t
9 - 4s
2
2s + 8s + 40
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2.4 Using partial fractions to find an inverse Laplace transform 1113 22
Exercises
1 Find the inverse Laplace transform of each of 2 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
the following: 6 + s s 1 + s
1 3s - 5 3 - 2s (a) 2 (b) 2 (c)
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 2s - 4s + 4 2s + 0.5 s2
s + 4s + 5 s + 1 s - 4s + 8
3s + 7 2s - 5
1 - 2s 1 (d) (e)
(d) 2 (e) 2 9 + 3s2 s2 + 4s + 13
s + 4 s - 6s + 9
Solutions to exercises
1 7 1 t
1 (a) e - 2t sin t (b) 3 cos t - 5 sin t 2 (a) 2 et cos t + 2 et sin t (b) 2 cos (c) t + 1
2
1 2t 7
(c) -2e2t cos 2t - e sin 2t (d) cos23t + sin 23t
2 323
1
(d) sin 2t - 2 cos 2t (e) te3t (e) 2e - 2t cos 3t - 3e - 2t sin 3t
2
2.4 Using partial fractions to find an inverse Laplace transform
The method of partial fractions was met in Chapter 7. It is a technique for expressing
an algebraic fraction as a sum of simpler fractions. It is also used as an intermediate
step when finding the inverse Laplace transform.
Example 2.8
5s + 4
Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
s2 + 2s
Solution
The algebraic fraction is expressed as a sum of partial fractions.
5s + 4 2 3
2
= +
s + 2s s s + 2
The inverse Laplace transform of each partial fraction is found.
L-1 e f = 2, L-1 e f = 3e-2t
2 3
s s + 2
and so
L-1 e f = 2 + 3e-2t
5s + 4
s2 + 2s
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22 1114 Block 2 The inverse Laplace transform
Example 2.9
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s + 7
s2 + 4s + 3
Solution
The algebraic fraction is expressed as its partial fractions.
s + 7 3 2
2
= -
s + 4s + 3 s + 1 s + 3
The inverse Laplace transform of each partial fraction can now be found.
L-1 e f = 3e-t, L-1 e f = 2e-3t
3 2
s + 1 s + 3
and so
L-1 e 2 f = 3e-t - 2e-3t
s + 7
s + 4s + 3
Example 2.10
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s2 + 6s + 1
s3 + 2s2 + s
Solution
The fraction is expressed as its partial fractions.
s2 + 6s + 1 1 4
= +
s3 + 2s2 + s s (s + 1)2
The inverse Laplace transform of each partial fraction is found.
L-1 e f = L-1 e f =
1 4
, , 1, 4te-t
s (s + 1)2
and so
s2 + 6s + 1
L-1 e f = 1 + 4te-t
s3 + 2s2 + s
Exercises
1 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the 2 Find the inverse Laplace transform of each of
following: the following:
3s + 1 7s + 11 3s + 2 2s2 - 3s + 1 -(s + 6)
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) (a) (b)
s - 1 s + s - 6 s2 2
(s - 3)(s + 1) 2
2(s + 6s + 8)
2
s + 4 3s + 2s + 5 -8s - 2 s2 + 3s + 2
(d) 2 (e) (c) 3 (d) 3
s + 4s + 4 (s + 1)(s2 + 1) s - s2 - 2s s + 2s2 + 2s
2
5s - 1
(e) 4
s - 1
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2.4 Using partial fractions to find an inverse Laplace transform 1115 22
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 2et + e-t (b) 5e2t + 2e-3t (c) 3 + 2t 2 (a) e3t + cos t (b) 12e-4t - e-2t
(d) e-2t + 2te-2t (e) 2 sin t + 3e - t (c) 1 + 2e - t - 3e2t (d) 1 + e - t sin t
(e) 2 sinh t + 3 sin t
End of block exercises
1 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the 3 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the
following: following:
3 4 2 1 2 12 6 6 s 2
(a) 2 - (b) 3 + 2 - (c) 4 - 3 (a) 2 - (b)
s s s s s s s s + 9 2(s2 + 9) (s + 4)2 + 4
(d) a 4 - 3 + b
1 18 8 2 2(s + 1)
3
5 s s s (c) 2
-
(s + 1) + 9 (s + 1)2 + 9
6a 2b g
(e) - 3 + 2, a, b, g constants 1 2
s4 s s (d) 2
+
23(s + 2) + 0.254 s3
2 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the
following: s - 2
(e)
3 5 (s - 2)2 + 16
(a) + 4 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the
s + 1 s + 2
1 1 1 following:
(b) + - 3s - 3 5s + 6 3s + 5
s - 1 s - 2 s - 3 (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2
4 1 s - s - 2 s + 9 s + 2s + 5
(c) +
(s + 1)3 (s + 2)2 4s2 + 7s + 6 4s + 5
(d) 3 2
(e) 2
2 1 2s + 4s 2s + 5s + 2
(d) 4
+ 3
(s - 2) (s + 2)
1 1 2
(e) + -
s s + 1 s + 2
Solutions to exercises
t
1 (a) 3t - 4 (b) t 2 + t - 2 (c) 2t 3 - 3t 2 (c) e - t sin 3t - 2e - t cos 3t (d) e - 2t sin + t2
2
3t 3 - 4t 2 + 2
(d) (e) at 3 - bt 2 + gt (e) e2t cos 4t
5
2 (a) 3e-t + 5e-2t (b) et + e2t - e3t 4 (a) e2t + 2e - t (b) 2 sin 3t + 5 cos 3t
t 3e2t t 2e-2t (c) e - t(sin 2t + 3 cos 2t)
(c) 2t 2e-t + te-2t (d) +
3 2 3t
(e) 1 + e-t - 2e-2t (d) 1 + + e-2t
2
cos 3t
3 (a) 2 sin 3t - (b) e - 4t sin 2t (e) e-t>2 + e-2t
2
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:31 AM Page 1116
Solving differential equations using
BLOCK 3
the Laplace transform
3.1 Introduction
In Blocks 1 and 2 we have seen how to find the Laplace transform and its inverse.
These techniques are now applied to finding the solution to differential equations.
Linear constant-coefficient differential equations may be solved using the Laplace
transform. By applying the transform, the differential equation is converted into an
algebraic equation. This algebraic equation is solved and then the inverse Laplace
transform is applied to yield the solution to the differential equation. One advantage
of using the Laplace transform is that initial conditions are automatically incorpor-
ated into the solution.
3.2 The Laplace transform of a derivative
Let f (t) be a function of t and let F(s) be the Laplace transform of f. The value of f
and its derivatives when t = 0 are denoted by f (0), f ¿(0), f –(0), and so on. The nth
derivative of f is denoted by f (n)(t). Then it can be shown that the Laplace transform
of f (n)(t) is given by
Key point L{ f (n)(t)} = s nF(s) - s n - 1 f (0) - s n - 2 f ¿(0) - Á - f (n - 1) (0)
Two common cases are given when n = 1 and n = 2. In these cases
Key point L{ f ¿(t)} = sF(s) - f (0)
L{ f –(t)} = s2F(s) - sf (0) - f ¿(0)
Example 3.1
The Laplace transform of f(t) is F(s). Given f(0) = 3 and f ¿(0) = -2 write expres-
sions for the Laplace transform of
(a) f ¿(t) (b) f –(t) (c) 2f – - 3f ¿ + f
Solution
(a) L{f ¿(t)} = sF(s) - f (0)
= sF(s) - 3
(b) L{f ¿¿(t)} = s2 F(s) - sf(0) - f ¿(0)
= s2 F(s) - 3s + 2
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3.2 The Laplace transform of a derivative 1117 22
(c) L{2f – - 3f ¿ + f} = 2L{f –} - 3L{f ¿} + L{f}
= 2[s2F(s) - 3s + 2] - 3[sF(s) - 3] + F(s)
= (2s2 - 3s + 1) F(s) - 6s + 13
Example 3.2
Obtain an expression for the Laplace transform of 3x–(t) + 2x¿(t) - 2x(t) where
L{x(t)} = X(s), x(0) = -4 and x¿(0) = 3.
Solution
L{x¿(t)} = sX(s) + 4
L{x–(t)} = s2X(s) + 4s - 3
so
L{3x– + 2x¿ - 2x} = 3L{x–} + 2L{x¿} - 2L{x}
= 3(s2X + 4s - 3) + 2(sX + 4) - 2X
(3s2 + 2s - 2)X + 12s - 1
Exercises
1 The Laplace transform of y(t) is Y(s), y(0) = 2 (d) x‡ + 2x– + 3x¿ - 4x
and y¿(0) = -1. Find the Laplace transform of (e) 2x‡ - 3x– - 7x¿ + 6x
the following expressions:
(a) y¿ (b) y– (c) 2y– - y¿ + 3y 3 From the definition of the Laplace transform,
(d) -y– + 4y¿ - 6y and using integration by parts, show that
y–
(e) + 3y¿ - y L{ f ¿(t)} = sF(s) - f(0)
2
4 From the definition of the Laplace transform,
2 The Laplace transform of x(t) is X(s),
x(0) = 2, x¿(0) = 3, x–(0) = -1. Find the and using integration by parts, show that
Laplace transform of L{ f –(t)} = s2F(s) - sf (0) - f ¿(0)
(a) 2x¿ - 3x (b) x– - 2x¿ + 3x (c) x‡
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) sY-2 2 (a) (2s - 3)X - 4
2
(b) s Y - 2s + 1 (b) (s2 - 2s + 3)X - 2s + 1
(c) (2s2 - s + 3)Y - 4s + 4 (c) s3X - 2s2 - 3s + 1
(d) (-s2 + 4s - 6)Y + 2s - 9 (d) (s3 + 2s2 + 3s - 4)X - 2s2 - 7s - 11
s2 (e) (2s3 - 3s2 - 7s + 6)X - 4s2 + 25
(e) a + 3s - 1bY - s -
11
2 2
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22 1118 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
3.3 Solving differential equations
We are now in a position to solve linear constant-coefficient differential equations
using the Laplace transform method. The method consists of three distinct phases:
1 Take the Laplace transform of the given differential equation.
2 Make the transformed variable (usually X or Y) the subject.
3 Apply the inverse Laplace transform to find x(t) (or y(t)).
Example 3.3
Solve
dx
- 2x = 2e3t, x(0) = 2
dt
Solution
The Laplace transform of every term is found, noting that the transform of x(t) is X(s).
In what follows we write X(s) as simply X in the knowledge that X is a function of s.
f = sX - x(0)
dx
Le
dt
= sX - 2
L{2x} = 2X
2
L{2e3t} =
s - 3
So, by taking the Laplace transform of each term, the differential equation becomes
2
sX - 2 - 2X =
s - 3
Note that this is no longer a differential equation but an algebraic equation for X.
This equation is rearranged so that X is made the subject.
2
(s - 2)X - 2 =
s - 3
2
(s - 2)X = + 2
s - 3
2 2
X = +
(s - 3)(s - 2) s - 2
2 + 2(s - 3)
=
(s - 3)(s - 2)
2s - 4
=
(s - 3)(s - 2)
2
=
s - 3
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3.3 Solving differential equations 1119 22
The inverse Laplace transform is now found.
L-1 e f = 2e3t
2
s - 3
so
x(t) = 2e3t
Thus x(t) = 2e3t is the solution to the given differential equation. Note that the
initial condition, x(0) = 2, is automatically incorporated into the solution.
Example 3.4 Dynamics – Change in pressure
The pressure, p, of a gas varies with altitude, x, according to
dp
= -Kp
dx
where K is a constant. The pressure at ground level (i.e. x = 0) is known to be p0.
Solve the equation to find p in terms of x.
Note that, in this example, the independent variable is x; the dependent variable is p.
Solution
We are given
dp
= -Kp, p(0) = p0
dx
Let the Laplace transform of p be P(s).
dp
Taking the Laplace transform of :
dx
La b = sP - p(0)
dp
dx
= sP - p0
Taking the Laplace transform of Kp:
L(Kp) = KL(p) = KP
So taking the Laplace transform of the entire equation gives
sP - p0 = -KP
This equation is rearranged to make P the subject.
sP + KP = p0
P(s + K ) = p0
p0
P =
s + K
We now apply the inverse Laplace transform to find p(x).
L - 1(P) = L - 1 a b
p0
s + K
p(x) = p0L a b
1
s + K
= p0e -Kx
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 10/3/18 7:55 AM Page 1120
22 1120 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
The pressure exhibits an exponential decay as height, x, is increased.
Note that the differential equation has the same form as those in Examples 2.6 and
2.7 in Chapter 20 (Differential equations) which were solved using a separation of
variables method. They could equally well have been solved using the Laplace
transform method.
Example 3.5
Solve
d2 y
- y = 2, y(0) = y¿(0) = 0
dt 2
Solution
Write L{y} = Y(s) and take the Laplace transform of each term. We write Y(s)
concisely as Y.
d2y
Le f = s2Y
dt2
L{y} = Y
2
L{2} =
s
The differential equation then becomes
2
(s2 - 1)Y =
s
from which
2 2
Y = =
s(s2 - 1) s(s + 1)(s - 1)
Expressing Y as partial fractions yields
1 1 2
Y = + -
s - 1 s + 1 s
Taking the inverse Laplace transform produces
y(t) = et + e-t - 2
Example 3.6
Solve
y– - y¿ + y = t, y(0) = y¿(0) = 1
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3.3 Solving differential equations 1121 22
Solution
We take the Laplace transform of all the terms.
L5y6 = Y
L5y¿6 = sY - 1
L5y–6 = s2Y - s - 1
1
L5t6 =
s2
Hence the equation becomes
1
s2Y - s - 1 - (sY - 1) + Y =
s2
1
Y(s2 - s + 1) = s +
s2
3
s + 1
=
s2
(s + 1)(s2 - s + 1)
Y(s2 - s + 1) =
s2
So, cancelling (s2 - s + 1) from both sides we obtain
s + 1
Y =
s2
Written as partial fractions we have
1 1
Y = + 2
s s
from which
y(t) = 1 + t
Example 3.7 Electrical Engineering – Current in a circuit
The current, i(t), in a circuit is given by
di
L + Ri = E sin t
dt
where L, R and E are constants and the initial current is 0 (i.e. i(0) = 0). Find i(t).
Solution
Taking the Laplace transform of each component of the equation gives
f = LLe f = L(sI - i(0)) = LsI
di di
Le L
dt dt
L{Ri} = RI
b = 2
1 E
L{E sin t} = EL{sin t} = Ea 2
s + 1 s + 1
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:32 AM Page 1122
22 1122 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
So
E
LsI + RI = 2
s + 1
Rearranging for I yields
E
I(Ls + R) = 2
s + 1
E
I = 2
(s + 1)(Ls + R)
The right-hand side of this equation must now be written, using partial fractions, in a
form suitable for taking the inverse Laplace transform.
a 2 b
E E 1
2
=
(s + 1)(Ls + R) L (s + 1)(s + R>L)
a b
E As + B C
= +
L s2 + 1 s + R>L
The constants A, B and C can be found to be
-L2 RL L2
A = , B = , C =
R2 + L2 R + L2
2
R2 + L2
The expression is further written in a form suitable for inversion.
a b
E As + B C
I = +
L s2 + 1 s + R>L
a b
E As B C
= + 2 +
L s2 + 1 s + 1 s + R>L
a 2 b + a 2 b + a b
EA s EB 1 EC 1
=
L s + 1 L s + 1 L s + R>L
Note that the inverse Laplace transform of each expression in brackets can be found
using Table 1.1 in Block 1. Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields
EA EB EC -Rt>L
i(t) = cost + sin t + e
L L L
With the previously calculated values of A, B and C, i(t) could also be written as
aR sin t - L cost + Le-Rt>L b
E
i(t) =
R + L2
2
Example 3.8
Solve
d2x dx
2
- + 2x = cos 3t - 17 sin 3t, x (0) = -1, x¿(0) = 6
dt dt
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3.3 Solving differential equations 1123 22
Solution
L{x} = X
f =
dx
Le sX + 1
dt
d2x
Le f = s2X + s - 6
dt2
d2x
+ 2x f =
dx
Le 2
- (s2 - s + 2)X + s - 7
dt dt
s 51
L{cos 3t - 17 sin 3t} = 2
- 2
s + 9 s + 9
s - 51
=
s2 + 9
Hence on taking the Laplace transform of the differential equation we have
s - 51
(s2 - s + 2)X + s - 7 =
s2 + 9
s - 51
(s2 - s + 2)X = 2 - s + 7
s + 9
-s3 + 7 - 8 s + 12 -s3 + 7s2 - 8s + 12
= 2
s + 9
(s2 - s + 2)(6 - s)
=
s2 + 9
So, on cancelling (s2 - s + 2) we obtain
6 - s
X =
s2 + 9
6 s
= 2
- 2
s + 9 s + 9
Hence
x(t) = 2 sin 3t - cos 3t
Example 3.9 Mechanical vibration – Mass–spring–damper system
In this example we establish a model of a mass–spring–damper system. Such sys-
tems are common in machines where vibration occurs.
A mass, M, is attached to a solid wall by a spring and damper. Figure 3.1 illus-
trates this.
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 10:32 AM Page 1124
22 1124 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
Figure 3.1
A mass–spring–damper
system.
Spring Damper
Mass
Displacement
x
The force FS in the spring obeys Hooke’s law: that is, the force is proportional to
the spring extension. Note that this is an assumption about the spring. For many
springs which operate within their limits of elasticity this assumption is accepted as
being reasonable.
When the mass is at rest let the spring extension be e. This position is known as
the equilibrium position. Then the force in the spring is ke (where k is a constant of
proportionality known as the spring stiffness) and this exactly equals the force on the
mass due to gravity, Mg, that is
ke = Mg
In subsequent motion we measure all distances, x, from the equilibrium position.
FS r (x + e)
FS = k(x + e)
dx
The force, Fd, due to the damper is proportional to the velocity, , of the mass.
dt
dx
Fd r
dt
dx
Fd = B
dt
where B is a constant of proportionality known as the damping coefficient. Again,
we are making another assumption: that the restraining force in the damper is pro-
portional to the velocity of the mass.
If the mass is pulled from its equilibrium position and then released, the move-
ment of the mass is governed by Newton’s second law of motion: that is,
force = mass * acceleration. This is expressed mathematically as
dx d2x
Mg - ke - kx - B = M 2
dt dt
from which
d2x dx
M 2
+ B + kx = 0
dt dt
As assumptions have been made, this differential equation will provide an approxi-
mate description of the actual situation.
dx
Given that M 1, B 4, k 8, x (0) 1 and (0) = 0, find the displacement
dt
of the mass in terms of time t.
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3.3 Solving differential equations 1125 22
Solution
The equation and initial conditions are
d2x dx dx(0)
2
+ 4 + 8x = 0, x(0) = 1, = 0
dt dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform of the equation produces
s2X - s + 4(sX - 1) + 8X = 0
from which
s + 4
X = 2
s + 4s + 8
Completing the square and expressing X in a form suitable for taking the inverse
Laplace transform yields
s + 2 2
X = 2 2
+
(s + 2) + 2 (s + 2)2 + 22
Taking the inverse Laplace transform produces
x(t) = e-2t cos 2t + e-2t sin 2t = e-2t(cos 2t + sin 2t)
Note that cos 2t ⫹ sin 2t may be expressed in the form 22 sin12t + p
4 2 (see Chap-
ter 9, Section 7.8) and so
x(t) = 22e-2t sin a2t + b
p
4
This is a sine wave with an amplitude of 22e-2t that is decaying exponentially with
time. A typical graph showing a sine wave with exponentially decaying amplitude is
shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 x(t)
Sine wave with 1
exponentially decaying
amplitude and
exponential envelope.
O t
Exercises
1 Solve the following differential equations 2 Solve the following equations using the
using the Laplace transform technique: Laplace transform method:
(a) y¿ - y = 0, y(0) = 3 (a) x– + 3x¿ - 4x = 5et, x(0) = 0, x¿(0) = 1
(b) y¿ + y = 2et, y(0) = 2 (b) x– - 4x¿ + 5x = 0, x(0) = 0, x¿(0) = 1
(c) y¿ + 4y = 3e2t, y(0) = 0.5 (c) y– + y¿ + 4y = 4t2 + 2t + 2 + 2 cos 2t,
(d) y¿ + y = 2 cos t, y(0) = 1 y(0) = 0, y¿(0) = 2
(e) y¿ - y = 2 - t 2, y(0) = 0 (d) y– + 2y¿ + 9y = 2(3 cos 3t + sin 3t
+ 3t cos 3t), y(0) = y¿(0) = 0
(e) x– + 2x¿ + x = 2e-t, x(0) = x¿(0) = 0
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22 1126 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) y = 3et (b) y = et + e-t (c) y = 0.5e2t 2 (a) x = tet (b) x = e2t sin t (c) y = t 2 + sin 2t
(d) y = sin t + cos t (e) y = 2t + t 2 (d) y = t sin 3t (e) x = t 2e-t
End of block exercises
1 Given L {y} = Y, y(0) = 2, y¿(0) = -3 write (b) x¿ + x = 1 + t + 2 cos t, x(0) = 1
expressions for the Laplace transform of the (c) 4x– + x = 3, x(0) = 3, x¿(0) = -0.5
following: (d) x– + 4x = 0, x(0) = 2, x¿(0) = 0
(a) y¿ (b) y– (c) y– + y¿ (d) y– + 3y¿ - 2y (e) x– + x¿ - 2x = cos t - 3 sin t, x(0) = 2,
(e) 2y– - y¿ + 3y x¿(0) = -3
2 Given L {x} = X, x(0) = x¿(0) = 2, x–(0) = -1 4 Solve using the Laplace transform method:
write down the Laplace transform of the (a) y– + y = 2 cos t, y(0) = 0, y¿(0) = 1
following expressions: (b) y– - 2y¿ = 2e2t, y(0) = 0, y¿(0) = 1
(a) x¿ (b) x– (c) x‡ (d) 2x‡ + 3x– - x¿ + 2x (c) y–¿ + y– + y¿ + y = 1 + t, y(0) = 1,
(e) -x‡ - 2x– + 3x¿ + 7x y¿(0) = 0, y–(0) = 1
(d) y– + y = 2 (cos t - sin t), y(0) = 0,
3 Use the Laplace transform technique to solve y¿(0) = 1
(a) x¿ - 2x = 1 - 2t2, x(0) = (0) (e) y– + 2y¿ + 5y = 0, y(0) = 1, y¿(0) = -1
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) sY - 2 (d) (2s3 + 3s2 - s + 2)X - 4s2 - 10s - 2
(b) s2Y - 2s + 3 (e) (-s3 - 2s2 + 3s + 7)X + 2s2 + 6s - 3
(c) (s2 + s)Y - 2s + 1 t
(d) (s2 + 3s - 2)Y - 2s - 3 3 (a) t 2 + t (b) t + sin t + cos t (c) 3 - sin
2
(e) (2s2 - s + 3)Y - 4s + 8 (d) 2 cos 2t (e) 2e-2t + sin t
2 (a) sX - 2 (b) s2X - 2s - 2 4 (a) sin t + t sin t (b) te2t (c) e-t + t
(c) s3X - 2s2 - 2s + 1 (d) t cos t + t sin t (e) e-t cos 2t
End of chapter exercises
1 Find the Laplace transform of each of the 2 Find the Laplace transform of each of the
following expressions: following expressions:
(a) t - 3 (b) 2t 3 + 5t (c) 7 - 3t 4 (a) 2te2t (b) 1 - t 3e3t
(d) sin 2t + 2 sin t (e) cos t + t (c) et(1 + sin t) (d) e-2t(sin 3t + 2 cos 3t)
(e) t(cos 2t - 3 sin 2t)
M22_CROF5939_04_SE_C22.QXD 9/29/18 11:21 AM Page 1127
End of chapter exercises 1127 22
3 Find the Laplace transform of each of the 8 Find the inverse Laplace transform of each of
following expressions: the following expressions:
sin 4t 4 s + 5
(a) (t + 1)2 (b) (et + t)2 (c) (a) 2 (b) 2
2e3t s + 4s + 5 s + 10s + 29
2t2
(d) 2 sin t cos t (e) 2t 2s - 3 s2 + 6s - 4
1s2 + 422
3e (c) 2 (d)
s + 6s + 10
1
4 The first shift theorem states that if (e) 2
L{f(t)} = F(s), then 4s + 4s + 1
L{e-at f(t)} = F(s + a) 9 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the
following expressions:
where a is a constant. 3s + 5 s + 2
(a) 2 (b) 2
(a) From the definition of the Laplace s + 4s + 3 s + s
transform show that
s2 - s + 4
1s - 121s2 - 2s + 52
q (c)
L{e-at f(t)} = 冮 0
e-(s + a)t f(t) dt
2s3 - 3s2 + 8s - 3
1s2 + 121s2 + 42
and hence prove the first shift theorem. (d)
(b) Use Table 1.1 in Block 1 and the first shift
theorem to find L{u(t - 3)e - 7t} where 6s2 - 12s + 2
1s2 - 4s + 1321s2 + 12
(e)
u(t) is the unit step function.
5 Given 10 Given L{x} = X, x(0) = 2, x¿(0) = 3 find the
s + 6 Laplace transform of each of the following
L{g(t)} = expressions:
s2 + 3
(a) x¿ (b) x– (c) 2x¿ - x (d) 3x– + 2x¿ - x
use the result from question 4 to find the (e) - 2x– + x¿ + 3x
Laplace transform of
(a) e-tg(t) (b) 2e-2tg(t) (c) e2tg(t) 11 Given L{y} = Y, y(0) = 1, y¿(0) = 0,
y–(0) = - 1, y‡(0) = 2 write an expression for
6 The second shift theorem states that if L{y(4) (t)}.
L{f(t)} = F(s) then
12 Solve the following differential equations
L{u(t - d ) f (t - d )} = e -sd
F(s), d 7 0 using the Laplace transform method:
(a) x¿ - x = et, x(0) = 0
where u(t) is the unit step function. (b) x– + x¿ + 2x = 4 cos 2t, x(0) = - 1,
(a) Prove this theorem. x¿(0) = 2
(b) Find the Laplace transform of (c) x– + x¿ - 6x = 1 + 7t - 6t 3,
u(t - 3)(t - 3)5. x(0) = x¿(0) = 0
(c) Find the inverse Laplace transform of (d) x– - 4x = 4t, x(0) = x¿(0) = 1
(e) x– + x = 2 sin t, x(0) = x¿(0) = 0
e-4s 4!
s5
7 Find the inverse Laplace transform of each of
the following expressions:
3 2 16 3s
(a) - 2 (b) 4 (c) 2
s s s s + 9
s + 3 10
1s + 32 + 1 1s + 2)3
(d) 2
(e)
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22 1128 Block 3 Solving differential equations using the Laplace transform
Solutions to exercises
1 3 12 5 7 72 e - 3s 5!
1 (a) 2
-(b) 4 + 2 (c) - 5 6 (b) (c) u(t - 4)(t - 4)4
s s s s s s s6
2 2 s 1 8t 3
(d) 2 + 2 (e) 2 + 2 7 (a) 3 - 2t (b) (c) 3 cos 3t (d) e-3t cos t
s + 4 s + 1 s + 1 s 3
2 1 6 (e) 5t2e - 2t
2 (a) 2
(b) -
(s - 2) s (s - 3)4 8 (a) 4e-2t sin t (b) e-5t cos 2t
1 1 2s + 7 (c) 2e-3t cos t - 9e-3t sin t
(c) + 2
(d)
s - 1 (s - 1) + 1 (s + 2)2 + 9 (d) t cos 2t + 1.5t sin 2t (e) 0.25te-0.5t
s2 - 12s - 4 9 (a) e-t + 2e-3t (b) 2 - e-t (c) 0.5et sin 2t + et
(e) 2 2
(s + 4) (d) 2 cos t - 1.5 sin 2t
2 2 1 1 2 2 4
3 (a) 3 + 2 + (b) + + 3 (e) e2t cos 3t + e2t sin 3t - cos t
s s s s - 2 (s - 1) 2
s 3
2 2 4 10 (a) sX - 2 (b) s2X - 2s - 3
(c) (d) 2 (e) (c) (2s - 1)X - 4
(s + 3)2 + 16 s + 4 3(s + 2)3
(d) (3s2 + 2s - 1)X - 6s - 13
e-3(s + 7) (e) (-2s2 + s + 3)X + 4s + 4
4 (b)
s + 7
2(s + 8) 11 s4X - s3 + s - 2
s + 7
5 (a) (b)
(s + 1)2 + 3 (s + 2)2 + 3 12 (a) x = tet (b) x = sin 2t - cos 2t
s + 4 t2
(c) (c) x = + t 3 (d) x = e2t - t
(s - 2)2 + 3 2
(e) x = sin t - t cos t
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 10/3/18 8:20 PM Page 1129
Chapter 23
Statistics and probability
Most experimental work in engineering involves the use of statistics
and probability. When an experiment is carried out, data are collected
and analysed. Data may be classified as either discrete or continuous.
This distinction is explained in Block 1. Two key parameters, the centre
and the variation, are useful in describing a set of data, and comparing
it with other sets. Various ways in which these parameters can be
calculated are covered in Blocks 2 and 3.
The second part of the chapter focuses on probability. The probability
of an event is the likelihood of its occurring, measured on a scale from
0 to 1, where 0 represents impossibility and 1 represents certainty. In
any particular trial or experiment there are usually several possible
outcomes, each with a different probability. It is useful to think of the
total probability, that is 1, being spread out or distributed amongst the
various possibilities. This idea gives rise to probability distributions for
discrete data and probability density functions for continuous data. The
common probability distributions and density functions – binomial,
Poisson and normal – are covered in Blocks 7, 8 and 9.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:57 AM Page 1130
Chapter 23 contents
Block 1 Data
Block 2 Data averages
Block 3 Variation of data
Block 4 Elementary probability
Block 5 Laws of probability
Block 6 Probability distributions
Block 7 The binomial distribution
Block 8 The Poisson distribution
Block 9 The normal distribution
End of chapter exercises
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:57 AM Page 1131
Data
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
When a new engineering component is developed, there will be extensive testing at
each stage. Much data will be gathered and analysed. It is useful to classify data as
either discrete or continuous.
1.2 Discrete data
Sometimes a variable must take on a value from a set of individually specified values
and no other values are possible. Such a variable is then called a discrete variable.
Consider a quality control engineer who selects five silicon chips at random and tests
each one to see whether it works or not. The engineer is interested in the number of
chips that work. Let this variable be n. Then n must be a number from the set {0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5}. It is impossible for n to have any other values.
As another example, consider the number of people living in a household. This
could be 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., and so on. It is impossible to have 2.3 or 1.7 people living in
a household.
These are just two examples of variables that are discrete. When a discrete variable
is measured several times, the data so generated are called discrete data. Discrete
data can have only a limited number of values. Other examples of discrete data are
• the number of cars produced in a factory in a week;
• the shoe sizes of people in an office block;
• the number of times a machine breaks down in 1 year.
1.3 Continuous data
Sometimes a variable can take on any value within a specified range. Such a variable
is called continuous. For example, consider the weight of a pack of butter produced
in a factory. A pack could have any weight between, say, 230 g and 270 g. The
weight will be recorded to a particular accuracy, which depends upon the measuring
device and the use to which the data will be put. However, the actual weight could be
any value in the given range. When a continuous variable is measured several times
the data generated are continuous data.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:57 AM Page 1132
23 1132 Block 1 Data
Examples of continuous data are
• the diameters of pistons produced in a factory;
• the volume of gas produced in a chemical reaction;
• the current in a branch of a circuit.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by (a) discrete data, (b) the time between breakdowns of a machine
(b) continuous data. (c) the capacitance of a capacitor
(d) the amount of money in your pocket
2 Give two examples of (a) discrete data, (e) the number of hairs on your head.
(b) continuous data.
3 Classify the following variables as discrete or
continuous:
(a) the number of times a machine breaks
down in 12 months
Solutions to exercises
2 (a) number of employees of a firm, the number 3 (a) discrete (b) continuous (c) continuous
of cars passing a given point in 12 hours (d) discrete (e) discrete
(b) the length of a metal bar, the volume of
petrol used on a journey
End of block exercises
1 Classify the following variables as discrete or 2 Classify each of the following as discrete or
continuous: continuous:
(a) the distance travelled before a set of tyres (a) the number of pages in a book
needs replacing (b) the weight of a book
(b) the intensity of light in a room (c) the area of paper needed to make the pages
(c) the force needed to extend a spring by a set of a book
amount (d) the price of a book
(d) the number of bearings in a machine (e) the number of copies of a book that are
(e) the percentage mark obtained in an sold.
examination.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) continuous (b) continuous 2 (a) discrete (b) continuous (c) continuous
(c) continuous (d) discrete (e) discrete (d) discrete (e) discrete
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:57 AM Page 1133
Data averages
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
We are often presented with a large amount of data. It may be useful if we can look
at a single number that typifies the data. For example, we measure the force at which
a certain gauge of wire breaks. If this experiment is repeated many times the force
required for breaking will vary: some values will be low, some will be high, and of
course there will be some in between. We aim to find a single force that in some way
summarises or typifies the measurements that we have made.
A value that typifies a set of data is called an average. In statistics there are three
important averages: the arithmetic mean, the median and the mode.
2.2 The arithmetic mean
The arithmetic mean is also referred to simply as the mean. The mean is found by
adding up all the data values and then dividing this total by the number of values:
Key point sum of values
mean =
number of values
Example 2.1 Mechanical Engineering – Breaking force
The force, in newtons, needed to break a wire was measured and the experiment
repeated 10 times. The breaking forces are
26 19 17 23 25 20 23 18 20 21
Find the mean breaking force.
Solution
The sum of the values is 212. The number of values is 10. Thus
sum of values
mean =
number of values
212
=
10
= 21.2
To the nearest whole number, the mean breaking force is 21 newtons.
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23 1134 Block 2 Data averages
Example 2.2
The temperature, in °C, at which a liquid boils is measured several times. The results
are
93.7 91.4 95.3 94.9 92.3 95.8
Find the mean temperature.
Solution
Sum of values = 563.4
Number of values = 6
563.4
Mean temperature = = 93.9
6
A special notation is often used when calculating a mean. Suppose we have nn values
and we label these x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn. The sum of these values is denoted by a i = 1xi, or
more simply as a x. The mean is denoted by x, pronounced ‘x bar’. Hence
Key point n
a i = 1 xi
mean = x =
n
Exercises
1 The diameters in mm of some ball bearings 3 The temperature, in °C, at which a liquid froze
were measured; the results are was recorded several times. The results are
5.1 4.9 5.0 5.2 5.1 4.8 5.2 -7 -4 -1 -6 -3 -2 -3 -4
Calculate the mean diameter, giving your Calculate the mean temperature at which the
answer to 1 d.p. liquid freezes. Give your answer to the nearest
integer.
2 The current, in amps, in a wire was measured
several times and the results noted as follows:
13.1 12.9 13.1 12.8 12.7 12.6 13.2 13.1
Calculate the mean current, giving your
answer to 1 d.p.
Solutions to exercises
1 5.0 mm 3 -4 °C
2 12.9 amps
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2.3 Calculating the mean of a frequency distribution 1135 23
2.3 Calculating the mean of a frequency distribution
The frequency of a value is the number of times it occurs. A set of numbers, together
with their frequency, is called a frequency distribution. For example, suppose the
force, in newtons, needed to break a wire is measured and the experiment repeated
several times. The results are recorded in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Force (N) Frequency, f
17 3
18 4
19 9
20 11
21 6
22 2
Thus a force of 17 N was recorded three times, a force of 18 N was recorded four
times, and so on. Table 2.1 is an example of a frequency distribution. Note that the
sum of the frequencies gives the total number of measurements made.
When data are presented in the form of a frequency distribution, the mean can still
be calculated. Example 2.3 illustrates the method.
Example 2.3
Table 2.2 is a frequency distribution for the variable x.
Table 2.2
x Frequency, f
5 2
6 3
7 4
8 2
9 1
Calculate the mean of x: that is, x.
Solution
The value 5 occurs twice and so contributes 5 * 2 to the sum of the x values. The
value 6 occurs three times and so this contributes 6 * 3 to the sum of the x values.
The remaining contributions are 7 * 4, 8 * 2 and 9 * 1. Hence
sum of values = (5 * 2) + (6 * 3) + (7 * 4) + (8 * 2) + (9 * 1)
= 10 + 18 + 28 + 16 + 9
= 81
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23 1136 Block 2 Data averages
The number of values is 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 12, that is the sum of the frequencies.
Finally
sum of values
mean = x =
number of values
81
=
12
= 6.75
The mean of the frequency distribution is 6.75.
By referring to Example 2.3 we see that the sum of the values is found by adding the
products x * f. The number of values is found by adding up all the frequencies.
If the values are denoted by x1, x2, . . . , xn and the corresponding frequencies
by f1, f2, . . . , fn then we see that
n
sum of values = a i = 1 xi fi
n
number of values = a i = 1 fi
These are often written respectively in the more compact form as gxf and gf, where
the limits are assumed.
The mean can now be stated:
Key point n
a i = 1 xi fi
mean = n
a i = 1 fi
a xf
=
af
When calculating the mean of the frequency distribution as given in Table 2.2
usually we would extend the table as follows:
x f xf
5 2 10
6 3 18
7 4 28
8 2 16
9 1 9
g f = 12 gxf = 81
Example 2.4
Find the mean of the data given in Table 2.1.
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2.3 Calculating the mean of a frequency distribution 1137 23
Solution
The table is extended.
Force, x (N) Frequency, f xf
17 3 51
18 4 72
19 9 171
20 11 220
21 6 126
22 2 44
gf = 35 gxf = 684
©xf
mean = x =
©f
684
=
35
= 19.54
Exercises
1 Calculate the mean of the frequency Calculate the mean value of the resistance,
distribution giving your answer to 1 d.p.
x f 3 The lifetimes of a set of components are
measured to the nearest 100 hours. The
17 4 results are
18 11
19 14
Lifetime (h) Frequency
20 9
21 5 0 1
100 1
200 4
2 The resistance, in ohms, of a certain type of 300 10
resistor is measured many times. The 400 17
results are 500 3
600 2
Resistance ( Æ ) Frequency 700 10
4.7 6
4.8 11 Calculate the mean lifetime.
4.9 4
5.0 8
5.1 3
5.2 7
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23 1138 Block 2 Data averages
4 The temperature of ignition of a certain Temperature (°C) Frequency
mixture of gases is recorded to the nearest
10 °C as follows: 170 2
180 11
190 10
200 6
210 1
220 2
230 1
Calculate the mean temperature of ignition.
Solutions to exercises
1 19 3 425 hours
2 4.9 ohms 4 190 °C to the nearest 10 °C
2.4 The median
The median of a set of numbers is found by listing all the numbers in ascending
order and selecting the number that is half-way along the list.
Example 2.5
Find the median of the numbers
6 8 3 11 10 12 7 9 7
Solution
The numbers are arranged in ascending order.
3 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12
There are nine numbers in the list. The middle number is the fifth one, that is 8.
Therefore, the median is 8.
When there is an even number of values in the list, the median is the mean of the two
middle values.
Example 2.6
Find the median of the following temperatures:
49 50 40 38 41 57 56 52
Solution
The numbers are arranged in ascending order:
38 40 41 49 50 52 56 57
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2.5 The mode 1139 23
There are eight numbers in the list. The middle two values are 49 and 50. The mean
of these is 49 +2 50 = 49.5 and so the median temperature is 49.5.
Exercises
1 Calculate the median of each of the following (c) -4 0 -1 2 3 2 -3 -1
sets of numbers: (d) 76 79 81 70 64 62 75 70 71 63 69
(a) 63 47 51 59 56 50 61 55 58 61
(b) 10 12 16 11 14 11 10 7 13
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 57 (b) 11 (c) -0.5 (d) 70
2.5 The mode
The mode of a set of values is the value that occurs most often.
Example 2.7
Find the mode of the set of numbers
2 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 8 11
Solution
The number 6 occurs three times; this is more than any other number. Hence the
mode is 6.
Example 2.8
Find the mode of the set of numbers
2 2 2 3 3 5 6 11 14 14 14 16
Solution
In this example there is no single number that occurs most frequently. The numbers
2 and 14 both occur three times. There are two modes. The data are said to be
bimodal.
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23 1140 Block 2 Data averages
Exercises
1 State the mode of each of the following sets of (b) 4 1 3 6 4 5 1 4 5 3 2
data: (c) 4 0 1 3 2 0 2 0 1 3 0 2
(a) 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 9 9 9 11 11
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 7 (b) 4 (c) 0
End of block exercises
1 Find the mean, median and mode of each of 4 Find the mean of the data set
the following sets of values:
2 2 2 2 2 2 20
(a) 6 9 5 7 6 8 10
(b) 0 -3 0 -2 1 2 -2 -1 -2 0 Explain why the mean does not represent the
(c) 2 3 1 5 2 5 1 4 3 1 6 data adequately. Which average would have
been more appropriate to use?
2 The resistance of several resistors was
measured. The results are 5 The force needed to buckle a support beam is
measured several times. The results are
Resistance ( Æ ) Frequency tabulated thus
5.0 3
5.5 4 Force (*103 N) Frequency
6.0 9
6.5 17 2.00 4
7.0 11 2.25 1
7.5 1 2.50 2
2.75 5
(a) Calculate the mean resistance. 3.00 2
(b) Calculate the median. 3.25 2
(c) Calculate the mode.
3 The mean of the set of values Calculate the mean buckling force.
5 3 X 10 2 11
is 8.3. Find X.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 7.29, 7, 6 (b) -0.7, -0.5, -2 and 0 4 Mean = 4.57. Mode would be more
(bimodal) (c) 3, 3, 1 appropriate.
2 (a) 6.36 Æ (b) 6.5 Æ (c) 6.5 Æ 5 2.59 * 103 N
3 18.8
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Variation of data
BLOCK 3
3.1 Introduction
Block 2 illustrated different ways of describing the central location of a data set. We
now look at the variation in a data set.
Consider the mean of the two sets of data: 4 4 4 and 1 3 8. The means are
4 + 4 + 4 1 + 3 + 8
= 4 and = 4
3 3
Both data sets have the same mean although the values in the first data set are all the
same whereas those in the second set are spread widely. Clearly the mean value does
not reflect the variability of the values in a data set. We need additional parameters to
describe variability of data. These additional parameters are the variance and the
standard deviation.
3.2 Variance and standard deviation
Both the variance and the standard deviation quantify the variation of a set of data
values.
Suppose we have a set of n values: x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn. The mean of these values is
found and labelled as x. Then the variance is given by
Key point n 2
a i = 1 (xi - x )
variance =
n
Example 3.1
Find the variance of
(a) 4 4 4
(b) 1 3 8
Solution
(a) We have x1 = 4, x2 = 4, x3 = 4. The mean, x, is calculated to be 4. So
x1 - x = 0, x2 - x = 0, x3 - x = 0
and so
3 2
a i = 1 (xi - x )
variance =
3
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23 1142 Block 3 Variation of data
02 + 02 + 02
=
3
= 0
The variance is zero. Since there is no variation in the data values it is not
surprising that the variance is zero.
(b) Here we have x1 = 1, x2 = 3, x3 = 8 and x = 4. Then
x1 - x = - 3, x2 - x = - 1, x3 - x = 4
and so
3 2
a i = 1(xi - x)
variance =
3
(- 3)2 + (-1)2 + 42
=
3
26
=
3
= 8.67
The variance is 8.67.
The standard deviation is found from
Key point standard deviation = 2variance
Note that the standard deviation has the same units as the given data, and as such is a
useful measure of variation.
From Example 3.1 we see that the standard deviation of 4, 4, 4 is 20 = 0. The
standard deviation of 1, 3, 8 is 28.67 = 2.94.
Example 3.2
Calculate the variance and standard deviation of
11 6 9.6 10.2
Solution
11 + 6 + 9.6 + 10.2
mean =
4
= 9.2
The calculation of the variance is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
xi xi - x (xi - x )2
11 11 - 9.2 = 1.8 (1.8)2 = 3.24
6 6 - 9.2 = - 3.2 (-3.2)2 = 10.24
9.6 9.6 - 9.2 = 0.4 (0.4)2 = 0.16
10.2 10.2 - 9.2 = 1.0 1.02 = 1.00
g(xi - x )2 = 14.64
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3.2 Variance and standard deviation 1143 23
2
a (xi - x)
variance =
n
14.64
=
4
= 3.66
standard deviation = 2variance
= 23.66
= 1.91
Example 3.3
Calculate the variance and standard deviation of
0 2 3 6 6 10
Solution
mean = 4.5
Complete the calculation started in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
xi xi - x (xi - x )2
0 -4.5, 20.25
2 -2.5, 6.25
3 -1.5, 2.25
6 1.5, 2.25
6 1.5, 2.25
10 5.5, 30.25
2
a (xi - x) = 63.5
63.5
variance = = 10.58
6
standard deviation = 210.58 = 3.25
When data are presented in the form of a frequency distribution the variance and
standard deviation can still be found. Example 3.4 illustrates this.
Example 3.4
The number of hardware faults for each computer in a laboratory containing 30 com-
puters is recorded over a 12-month period. The results, in the form of a frequency
distribution, are given in Table 3.3.
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23 1144 Block 3 Variation of data
Table 3.3
Number of faults, x Frequency, f
0 11
1 4
2 3
3 7
4 5
So 11 of the computers had no faults during the 12-month period, 4 had one fault,
3 had two faults, and so on. Note that the sum of the frequencies gives the total
number of computers, that is 30.
Calculate the variance and standard deviation.
Solution
The mean, x, is found to be 1.7. The remainder of the calculation is set out in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4
xi fi xi - x (xi - x)2 fi (xi - x )2
0 11 ⫺1.7 2.89 31.79
1 4 ⫺0.7 0.49 1.96
2 3 0.3 0.09 0.27
3 7 1.3 1.69 11.83
4 5 2.3 5.29 26.45
2
a i
f = 30 a i i x ) = 72.3
f (x -
Then
2
a fi (xi - x)
variance =
n
72.3
=
30
= 2.41
and
standard deviation = 2variance
= 1.55
Example 3.4 illustrates the formula for calculating the variance of a frequency
distribution.
2
Key point a fi (xi - x)
variance =
n
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3.2 Variance and standard deviation 1145 23
End of block exercises
1 Find the variance and standard deviation of the 3 The resistances of 50 resistors are measured
following sets of data: and the results recorded as follows:
(a) 6 11 10 9 7 8 9
(b) 5.3 7.2 9.1 8.6 5.9 7.3
Resistance (Æ) Frequency
(c) - 6 - 6 - 5 -1 0 2 1 0 - 2
Which set has the greatest variation? 5.0 17
5.5 12
2 Find the variance and standard deviation of the 6.0 10
following frequency distribution: 6.5 6
7.0 5
x f
Calculate the standard deviation of the
6 7 measurements.
7 3
8 2 4 The standard deviation of the values
9 4 x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn is s. Calculate the standard
10 2 deviation of the values kx1, kx2, kx3, . . . , kxn
where k is a constant.
5 Calculate the variance and standard deviation
of the values
-6 -11 4 0 1 -5 6 3
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) variance = 2.53, standard deviation = 1.59 4 ks
(b) 1.81, 1.35 (c) 8.32, 2.88. Set (c) has the
greatest variation. 5 variance = 29.50, standard deviation = 5.43
2 variance = 2.14, standard deviation = 1.46
3 variance = 0.44, standard deviation = 0.66
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Elementary probability
BLOCK 4
4.1 Introduction
When an event is impossible we say the probability of its happening is 0. When an event
is certain, we say the probability of its happening is 1. For example, it is impossible for
us to live without oxygen and so the probability of doing this is 0. It is certain that a
metal bar will sink when placed in water and so the probability of this happening is 1.
Most events are neither impossible nor certain. They have varying degrees of
likelihood. The probability of such events lies between 0 and 1. Events that are likely
to happen have probabilities close to 1; events that are unlikely to happen have
probabilities close to 0. An event that is as likely to happen as not has a probability
of 0.5. For example, the probability of throwing a head with a fair coin is 0.5.
4.2 Experimental and theoretical probabilities
We introduce the notation used in probability theory and calculations.
We let E denote an event and P(E) denote the probability of the event E happening.
For example, suppose E is the event ‘A 4 is obtained on throwing a die’. The
probability of this is 61 . We would write this as P(E) = 16 .
Since all probabilities lie between 0 and 1 we know that for any event,
E, 0 … P(E) … 1.
Key point For any event, E,
0 … P(E) … 1
There are two ways in which we ascertain the probability of a particular event:
theoretically and experimentally.
To calculate a theoretical probability we need to have knowledge of the event. For
example, suppose we toss a fair coin and let H be the event that it lands with the head
facing uppermost. Clearly P(H) = 0.5. Similarly suppose we roll a fair die and E is
the event that a 4 is obtained; then P(E) = 16 . These probabilities have been calcu-
lated from knowledge of the physical situation. When any experiment is carried out
there are usually several possible outcomes, or events as we call them. For example,
when throwing a coin there are two possible events: the coin lands with the tail
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4.2 Experimental and theoretical probabilities 1147 23
uppermost or lands with the head uppermost. Often the possible events have equal
probabilities. In the case of throwing a coin, there are two equally likely events. So if
H: the coin lands with the head uppermost
T: the coin lands with the tail uppermost
then clearly
P(H) = P(T) = 0.5
Example 4.1
A die is rolled. Calculate the probability that a 4 is uppermost.
Solution
When a die is rolled there are six possible events: a 1 is uppermost, a 2 is uppermost,
and so on. Each of the six events is equally likely to happen and so the probability of
each event is 61 . In particular, the probability that a 4 is uppermost is 16 .
In some circumstances we do not have sufficient information to calculate a
theoretical probability. We know that if a coin is unbiased the probability of obtain-
ing a head is 12 . However, suppose the coin is biased so that it is more likely to land
with the head uppermost than with its tail uppermost. We can experiment by tossing
the coin a large number of times and counting the number of heads obtained.
Suppose we toss the coin 1000 times and obtain 650 heads. We can estimate the
650
probability of obtaining a head as 1000 = 0.65. Such a probability is known as an
experimental probability. It is accurate only if a large number of experiments have
been performed.
Example 4.2
A biased die is thrown 1000 times and a 6 is obtained on 330 occasions. Calculate
the probability of obtaining a 6 on a single throw of the die.
Solution
330
probability of throwing a 6 =
1000
= 0.33
Exercises
1 A company manufactures precision bearings. 2 A pack of 52 cards is shuffled and a single
On an inspection 3 batches out of 500 were card is drawn. Calculate the probability that it
rejected. Calculate the probability that a batch is the queen of hearts.
is rejected.
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23 1148 Block 4 Elementary probability
3 A television manufacturer sold 36000 TV sets (b) A store buys 500 TV sets from the
of which 297 were returned within 12 months manufacturer. How many can be expected
with faults. to develop faults within 12 months?
(a) Calculate the probability that a TV set,
chosen at random, is returned within
12 months.
Solutions to exercises
1 0.006 3 (a) 0.00825 (b) 4.125, that is four sets.
1
2
52
4.3 Compound events
Suppose we roll a fair die and we wish to calculate the probability that the number
showing is 3 or higher. To obtain a score of 3 or more, we could throw a 3, 4, 5 or 6:
that is, there are four ways of obtaining such a score. When the die is rolled there are
six possible outcomes, of which four result in a score of 3 or more. So
4
P(obtaining a score of 3 or more) =
6
2
=
3
An event such as ‘score 3 or higher’ is an example of a compound event. When all
the outcomes of an experiment are equally likely then we can calculate the probabil-
ity of a compound event, E, using
Key point number of ways that E can happen
P(E) =
total number of possible outcomes
Example 4.3
A fair die is rolled. Calculate the probability of obtaining an odd score.
Solution
The chosen event is throwing an odd score: that is, a 1, 3 or 5. Thus there are three
ways in which the chosen event can occur out of a total of six equally likely
outcomes. So
3
P(odd score) =
6
1
=
2
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4.3 Compound events 1149 23
Example 4.4
Two fair coins are tossed.
(a) Write down all the possible outcomes.
(b) Calculate the probability of obtaining one or more heads.
Solution
(a) Letting H stand for head and T for tail, the possible outcomes are
HH HT TH TT
All outcomes are equally likely.
(b)
number of ways of obtaining one or more heads = 3
total number of possible outcomes = 4
3
probability of obtaining one or more heads =
4
Exercises
1 A pack of 52 cards is shuffled and a card is 3 A fair die is rolled. Calculate the probability
selected. Calculate the probability that the that the number showing is
card is (a) odd
(a) black (b) 2 or more
(b) red (c) less than 4
(c) a club
(d) a jack 4 Two fair dice are thrown. Calculate the
(e) a red queen probability that the total is
(a) 6 (b) 8 (c) more than 10
2 Three fair coins are tossed.
(a) List the eight possible outcomes.
(b) Calculate the probability of obtaining
(i) exactly two heads, (ii) at least two
heads, (iii) no heads.
Solutions to exercises
1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1
1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 3 (a) (b) (c)
2 2 4 13 26 2 6 2
2 (a) HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, 5 5 1
4 (a) (b) (c)
TTH, TTT 36 36 12
3 1 1
(b) (i) (ii) (iii)
8 2 8
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23 1150 Block 4 Elementary probability
4.4 Complementary events
Consider the following situation. A component is tested. Either it works or it does
not work, so there are two possible events. When the component is tested one of
these events must happen. In addition, each event excludes the other. We say that the
two events are complementary.
In general, two events are complementary if one of them must happen and, when
it does, the other event cannot happen. If A is an event, then the corresponding com-
plementary event is denoted by A. The sum of probabilities of two complementary
events is always one. For example, if the probability that the component works is
0.92, then the probability that it does not work is 1 - 0.92 = 0.08.
Example 4.5
The events A and B are defined by
A: a score of 5 is rolled with a fair die
B: the box contains more than 10 components
State the complementary events, A and B.
Solution
A is the event: a score other than 5 is obtained when the die is rolled.
B is the event: the box contains 10 or fewer components.
Exercises
(d) the machine is not working
1 State the complement of the following events:
(e) all components have been tested
(a) the component is reliable
(f) at least four components from the batch
(b) the digit is greater than 7
are unreliable.
(c) the volume is less than or equal to 1 litre
Solutions to exercises
(e) some components have not been tested
1 (a) the component is not reliable
(f) three or fewer components from the batch
(b) the digit is 7 or less
are unreliable.
(c) the volume is more than 1 litre
(d) the machine is working
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4.5 Use of tree diagrams to calculate probabilities 1151 23
4.5 Use of tree diagrams to calculate probabilities
When a problem involving probabilities is complex, it is sometimes useful to
introduce a tree diagram. Tree diagrams enable information to be presented in a
clear way and aid understanding.
Example 4.6 Reliability Engineering
Machines A and B make components. Of those made by machine A, 95% are
reliable; of those made by machine B, 92% are reliable. Machine A makes 70% of
the components with machine B making the rest. Calculate the probability that a
component picked at random is
(a) made by machine B
(b) made by machine A and is reliable
(c) made by machine B and is unreliable
(d) reliable.
Solution
(a) Since machine A makes 70% of the components then machine B makes the
remaining 30%. Hence the probability that a component is made by machine B
is 0.3.
To answer (b), (c) and (d) we introduce the tree diagram.
Consider 100 components: 70 are made by machine A and 30 are made by
machine B. This is represented as in Figure 4.1.
Consider the 70 components made by machine A: 95% of these are reliable
and so 5% are unreliable. Now 95% of 70 = 66.5, 5% of 70 = 3.5, and this
information is represented by Figure 4.2.
Similarly, of the 30 components made by machine B, 92% are reliable and
so 8% are unreliable. We know that 92% of 30 = 27.6 and 8% of 30 = 2.4.
This information is represented by Figure 4.3.
Putting together Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 we obtain the tree diagram shown
in Figure 4.4.
We use Figure 4.4 to answer (b), (c) and (d).
A 70 66.5 (reliable)
100 70
B 30 3.5 (unreliable)
Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2
66.5 (reliable)
A 70
3.5 (unreliable)
27.6 (reliable) 100
27.6 (reliable)
30 B 30
2.4 (unreliable) 2.4 (unreliable)
Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4
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23 1152 Block 4 Elementary probability
(b) We see that there are 66.5 components made by machine A that are reliable
from the original 100 components. So
66.5
P(component is made by A and is reliable) =
100
= 0.665
(c) We see from Figure 4.4 that there are 2.4 components made by machine B that
are unreliable. So
2.4
P(component made by B and is unreliable) =
100
= 0.024
(d) There are 66.5 + 27.6 = 94.1 reliable components from the original 100. So
94.1
P(component is reliable) =
100
= 0.941
Example 4.7 Reliability Engineering
Machines A, B and C make components. Machine A makes 30% of the components,
machine B makes 50% of the components, and machine C makes the remainder. Of
those components made by machine A, 93% are reliable, of those made by machine
B, 89% are reliable, and of those made by machine C, 96% are reliable.
A component is picked at random. Calculate the probability that it is
(a) made by machine C
(b) made by machine B and is unreliable
(c) made by either machine A or machine B
(d) reliable.
Solution
Consider 100 components. A tree diagram that illustrates the information is shown in
Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 27.9 (reliable)
30
A 2.1 (unreliable)
44.5 (reliable)
B
100 50
5.5 (unreliable)
C 19.2 (reliable)
20
0.8 (unreliable)
(a) Machine A makes 30% of the components, machine B makes 50% of the
components and so machine C makes (100 - 30 - 50)% = 20% of the
components. So
P(component is made by machine C) = 0.20
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4.5 Use of tree diagrams to calculate probabilities 1153 23
(b) From Figure 4.5, the number of components made by machine B that are
unreliable is
5.5
So
5.5
P(component is made by B and is unreliable) = = 0.055
100
(c) Out of 100 components, machine A makes 30 and machine B makes 50. So
30 + 50
P(component is made by either A or B) = = 0.8
100
(d) Out of 100 components there are reliable ones. 91.6
So
91.6
P(component is reliable) = = 0.916
100
Exercises
A silicon chip is selected at random. Calculate
1 Components are made by machines A and B.
the probability that it is
Machine A makes twice as many components
(a) made by machine C and is faulty
as machine B. When made by machine A, 3%
(b) made by machine A and is not faulty
of the components are faulty; when made by
(c) faulty.
machine B, 5% are faulty. Calculate the
probability that a component picked at
3 Precision components are made by machines
random is
A, B and C. Machines A and C each make
(a) made by machine B
30% of the components with machine B
(b) made by machine A and is faulty
making the rest. The probability that a
(c) made by machine B and is not faulty
component is acceptable is 0.91 when made by
(d) faulty.
machine A, 0.95 when made by machine B
and 0.88 when made by machine C.
2 Silicon chips are manufactured by four
(a) Calculate the probability that a component
machines, A, B, C and D. Machines A, B, C
selected at random is acceptable.
and D manufacture 20%, 25%, 35% and 20%
(b) A batch of 2000 components is examined.
of the components respectively. Of those
Calculate the number of components you
silicon chips manufactured by machine A,
expect are not acceptable.
2.1% are faulty. The respective figures for
machines B, C and D are 3%, 1.6% and 2.5%.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.3333 (b) 0.02 (c) 0.3167 (d) 0.0367 3 (a) 0.917 (b) 166
2 (a) 0.0056 (b) 0.1958 (c) 0.0223
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23 1154 Block 4 Elementary probability
End of block exercises
1 Which of the following numbers cannot 4 The probability of throwing a ‘6’ with a fair
represent probabilities? die is 16 . A student makes the following
argument.
2 1 2 3 9 7
, ,- , , , , If I throw the die once, the probability of
3 11 3 7 7 9 obtaining a ‘6’ is 16 . So if I throw the die twice,
0.000, 1.010, 1 then the probability of throwing a ‘6’ must be
2 * 16 = 13 . If I throw the die three times then
2 A company manufactures resistors. During a the probability of throwing a ‘6’ must be
quality control check, 36 out of 2500 resistors 3 * 16 = 12 , and so on.
failed to perform to the required standard. Is the argument sound? If not, why not?
(a) Calculate the probability that a resistor
picked at random will fail to perform to the 5 Components are made by machines A, B and
required standard. C. Machines A and B each make 36% of the
(b) In a batch of 700 resistors how many components with machine C making the rest.
would you expect to fail? For machine A, 2% of the components made
are faulty, for machine B, 6% are faulty, and
3 Resistors are manufactured by machines A and for machine C, 7% are faulty.
B. Machine A makes 60% of the resistors with A component is picked at random.
machine B making the rest. When made by Calculate the probability that it is
machine A, 3% of the resistors are faulty; (a) faulty and made by machine C
when made by machine B, 7% are faulty. (b) not faulty.
A resistor is picked at random. Calculate
the probability it is 6 State the complement of the events:
(a) made by machine B (a) the machine is ready
(b) made by machine A and is not faulty (b) the assignment was delivered on time
(c) made by machine B and is faulty (c) both printers are working
(d) faulty. (d) at least one person is absent today.
Solutions to exercises
2 9
1 - , , 1.010 5 (a) 0.0196 (b) 0.9516
3 7
6 (a) the machine is not ready
2 (a) 0.0144 (b) 10 (b) the assignment was not delivered on time
(c) at least one of the printers is not working
3 (a) 0.4 (b) 0.582 (c) 0.028 (d) 0.046 (d) no one is absent today.
4 The argument is unsound. Using this
argument, when the die is thrown seven times,
the probability of throwing a ‘6’ is 7 * 16 = 76 ,
which is clearly nonsense.
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Laws of probability
BLOCK 5
5.1 Introduction
In this block we extend the knowledge of probability gained in Block 4. The concept
of mutually exclusive events leads naturally to the addition law of probability.
The probability of an event happening depends upon the conditions that prevail at
the time. This gives rise to the idea of conditional probability. Finally, once we
understand the meaning of independent events we can see when to apply the
multiplication law of probability.
5.2 Mutually exclusive events
The quality control department of a manufacturing unit examines components and
places them into one of three categories:
A: acceptable quality
B: substandard quality
C: reject quality
A component can be placed in only one category. If it is placed in A then this
excludes the possibility of its being placed anywhere else. Similarly, if it is placed in
B, it cannot possibly belong to A or C. We say the categories are mutually
exclusive. The events ‘The component is placed in category A’, ‘The component is
placed in category B’ and ‘The component is placed in category C’ are mutually
exclusive events.
After examining many components, the quality control manager calculates the
experimental probabilities of a component belonging in category A, B or C as 0.85,
0.10 and 0.05 respectively. Since a component must be placed in one of the three
categories, then the three probabilities must add to 1.
If E1, E2, . . . , En are n mutually exclusive events then the occurrence of any one
of these events excludes the occurrence of all other events.
Example 5.1
A fair die is rolled. Events E1, E2, E3, E4, E5 are defined by
E1: the score is even
E2: the score is more than 3
E3: the score is odd
E4: the score is 1
E5: the score is 3
Which events are mutually exclusive?
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23 1156 Block 5 Laws of probability
Solution
E1 and E3 are mutually exclusive.
E1, E4 and E5 are mutually exclusive.
E2, E4 and E5 are mutually exclusive.
Exercises
1 Two fair coins are tossed. State the events that E1: the score is less than 2
are mutually exclusive. E2: the score is divisible by 3
E3: the score is even
E1: both show heads E4: the score is 5
E2: both show tails
E3: there is one head and one tail State which events are mutually exclusive.
E4: there is at least one tail
2 A fair die is rolled. The events E1, E2, E3 and
E4 are given by
Solutions to exercises
1 E1, E2 and E3 are mutually exclusive. E1 and E4 2 E1, E2 and E4 are mutually exclusive. E1, E3
are mutually exclusive. and E4 are also mutually exclusive.
5.3 Addition law of probability
Suppose E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive events with probabilities P(E1) and P(E2).
We consider the event ‘E1 or E2’.
Key point Suppose E1 and E2 are two mutually exclusive events. The addition law of probability states
P(E1 or E2) = P(E1) + P(E2)
This idea can be generalised.
Key point Suppose E1, E2, . . . , En are n mutually exclusive events. Then the addition law of
probability states
P(E1 or E2 or Á or En) = P(E1) + P(E2) + . . . + P(En)
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5.3 Addition law of probability 1157 23
Example 5.2 Reliability Engineering
A machine makes chips that are then classified as one of the following: top quality,
standard quality or substandard. An examination of 3000 chips showed 2700 were
top quality, 240 were standard quality and 60 were substandard. A chip is selected at
random. Calculate the experimental probability that it is
(a) (i) top quality, (ii) standard quality, (iii) substandard
(b) top quality or standard quality
(c) standard quality or substandard
Solution
Let the events E1, E2 and E3 be given by
E1: the chip selected is top quality
E2: the chip selected is standard quality
E3: the chip selected is substandard
These events are mutually exclusive.
2700
(a) (i) probability chip is top quality = P(E1) =
3000
= 0.9
240
(ii) probability chip is standard quality = P(E2) =
3000
= 0.08
60
(iii) probability chip is substandard = P(E3) =
3000
= 0.02
(b) The events are mutually exclusive and so the addition law of probability can be
applied.
probability chip is top or standard quality = P(E1 or E2)
= P(E1) + P(E2)
= 0.90 + 0.08
= 0.98
(c) probability chip is standard quality or substandard = P(E2 or E3)
= P(E2) + P(E3)
= 0.08 + 0.02
= 0.10
Example 5.3 Reliability Engineering
The lifespan, L, of each of 4000 motors was measured and is given in Table 5.1.
A motor is randomly selected. Calculate the probability that it had a lifespan of
(a) between 1000 and 2000 hours
(b) between 2000 and 3000 hours
(c) between 1000 and 3000 hours
(d) less than or equal to 4000 hours.
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23 1158 Block 5 Laws of probability
Table 5.1
The lifespan of Lifespan of motor (h) Number
4000 motors.
L … 1000 20
1000 6 L … 2000 75
2000 6 L … 3000 100
3000 6 L … 4000 420
4000 6 L … 5000 585
L 7 5000 2800
Solution
Let E1 and E2 be the events:
E1: the lifespan is between 1000 and 2000 hours
E2: the lifespan is between 2000 and 3000 hours
75
(a) P(E1) = = 0.01875
4000
100
(b) P(E2) = = 0.025
4000
(c) The events E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive and so the addition law of
probability can be applied.
P(1000 6 L … 3000) = P(E1 or E2)
= P(E1) + P(E2) = 0.04375
(d) If the lifespan, L, is less than or equal to 4000 hours then L lies between 3000
and 4000 hours, or between 2000 and 3000 hours, or between 1000 and 2000
hours, or is less than 1000 hours. So
P(L … 4000) = P(3000 6 L … 4000) + P(2000 6 L … 3000)
+ P(1000 6 L … 2000) + P(L … 1000)
420 100 75 20
+ + +
4000 4000 4000 4000
= 0.1538
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5.4 Conditional probability 1159 23
Exercises
with machine B making the rest. When made
1 Components are made by machines A, B, C and
by machine A, 6% of the components are
D. Machine A makes 30% of the components,
substandard, 2% are standard and the rest
machine B makes 17%, machine C makes 21%
are superior. When made by machine B,
and machine D makes the rest. Calculate the
3% are substandard, 1% are standard and the
probability that a component is made by
rest are superior. A component is picked at
(a) machine A or machine B
random. Calculate the probability it is
(b) machine B or machine D
(a) substandard
(c) machine A or machine B or machine D.
(b) standard
(c) substandard or standard
2 Components are made by machines A and B.
(d) standard or superior.
Machine A makes 75% of the components
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.47 (b) 0.49 (c) 0.79 2 (a) 0.0525 (b) 0.0175 (c) 0.07 (d) 0.9475
5.4 Conditional probability
Consider components that are manufactured by two machines X and Y. When made
by machine X, 93% of the components are acceptable; when made by machine Y,
89% are acceptable. Let the event E be
E: a component is acceptable
If all the components are made by machine X then P(E) = 0.93. If all the
components are made by machine Y then P(E) = 0.89. Clearly the probability of
the event depends upon the prevailing conditions. This is intuitive and leads to the
idea of conditional probability.
Let the events A and B be
A: the component is manufactured by machine X
B: the component is manufactured by machine Y
There is a notation for writing conditional probabilities. The probability that the
component is acceptable given it is manufactured by machine X is written P(E | A).
Similarly, P(E | B) is the probability that the component is acceptable given it is
manufactured by machine Y: that is, the probability of event E happening given that
event B has already happened.
In general
Key point P(R | S) is the probability of event R happening given that event S has already happened.
P(R | S) is the conditional probability of R given S.
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23 1160 Block 5 Laws of probability
Example 5.4 Reliability Engineering
Machines X and Y manufacture components. Machine X makes 65% of the
components and machine Y makes the rest. When made by machine X, 95% of
the components are acceptable; when made by machine Y, 91% are acceptable. A
component is picked at random. Calculate the probability that it is
(a) acceptable, given that it is made by machine Y
(b) acceptable
(c) not acceptable, given that it is made by machine X
(d) made by machine X, given that it is acceptable.
Solution
Consider 100 components. The tree diagram in Figure 5.1 illustrates the given
information.
Let the events A, B, E and E be defined by
A: the component is made by machine X
B: the component is made by machine Y
E: the component is acceptable
E: the component is not acceptable
Figure 5.1 61.75 acceptable
65
X
3.25 not acceptable
100
31.85 acceptable
Y
35
3.15 not acceptable
93.6 acceptable, 6.4 not acceptable
(a) When made by machine Y, 91% of the components are acceptable. So
P(E | B) = 0.91
(b) From Figure 5.1 we see that there are 93.6 acceptable components from the
original 100. So
P(E) = 0.936
(c) When made by machine X, 95% of the components are acceptable and so 5%
are not acceptable. Hence
P(E | A) = 0.05
(d) From Figure 5.1 there are 93.6 acceptable components, of which 61.75 are
made by machine X. So
P(component is made by machine X given that it is acceptable) = P(A | E)
61.75
=
93.6
= 0.6597
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5.4 Conditional probability 1161 23
Example 5.5 Reliability Engineering
A quality control manager records the lifespan, L, of 1000 components of a particular
kind. The results are shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2
Lifespan of 1000 Lifespan (h) Number of components
components
L 6 1000 69
(hours).
1000 … L 6 2000 113
2000 … L 6 3000 516
3000 … L 6 4000 201
L Ú 4000 101
A component is picked at random. Calculate the probability that it has
(a) a lifespan between 2000 and 3000 hours
(b) a lifespan of 3000 to 4000 hours, given that it is still working after 2000 hours.
Solution
A tree diagram representing the information is shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 69
Tree diagram L ⬍ 1000
representing the
information of 1000 113
1000 ⭐ L ⬍ 2000
Example 5.5.
L ⭓ 1000
931 516
2000 ⭐ L ⬍ 3000
L ⭓ 2000
818 201
3000 ⭐ L ⬍ 4000
L ⭓ 3000
302
L ⭓ 4000
101
(a) Out of 1000 components, 516 have a lifespan of between 2000 and 3000 hours.
So
516
P(2000 … L 6 3000) = = 0.516
1000
(b) There are components still working after 2000 hours.
516 + 201 + 101 = 818
Of these, have a lifespan of between 3000 and 4000 hours. 201
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23 1162 Block 5 Laws of probability
The probability that the lifespan is between 3000 and 4000 hours, given that the
201
component is still working after 2000 hours, is = 0.2457
818
Exercises
(d) faulty, given it is made by machine B
1 Table 5.3 shows the lifespan, L, of 3958 car
(e) made by machine B, given it is faulty
batteries.
(f) made by machine A, given it is not faulty
(g) not made by machine B given it is not
Table 5.3 faulty.
Lifespan (months) Number of batteries 3 The lifespan, L, of 3000 components is shown
L 6 12 56 in Table 5.4.
12 … L 6 24 219
Table 5.4
24 … L 6 36 436
36 … L 6 48 1621 Lifespan (weeks) Frequency
48 … L 6 60 1319
L Ú 60 307 0 … L 6 50 93
50 … L 6 100 317
100 … L 6 150 1102
Calculate the probability that a battery picked 150 … L 6 200 1376
at random 200 … L 6 250 112
(a) has a lifespan of between 24 and
36 months A component is chosen at random. Calculate
(b) has a lifespan of between 12 and the probability that its lifespan is
48 months (a) between 50 and 200 weeks
(c) fails to work more than 48 months (b) more than 100 weeks
(d) has a lifespan of between 36 and 48 months (c) less than 150 weeks
given it is working after 24 months (d) between 150 and 200 weeks given it is still
(e) has a lifespan greater than 60 months given working after 50 weeks
it is working after 48 months (e) more than 200 weeks given it is still
(f) fails to last more than 48 months given it working after 100 weeks.
has lasted 36 months.
4 Components are manufactured by machines A,
2 Resistors are manufactured by machines A, B B, C and D in equal numbers. When made by
and C. Machine A manufactures 32% of the machine A, 2% of the components are faulty.
production, machine B manufactures 28% of The figures for machines B, C and D are 3%,
the production and machine C makes the rest. 2.5% and 3.5%, respectively. A component is
When made by machine A, 3% of the resistors picked at random. Calculate the probability
are faulty, when made by machine B, 4.5% are that it is
faulty, and when made by machine C, 2.7% are (a) faulty and made by machine C or faulty
faulty. A resistor is picked at random. and made by machine D
Calculate the probability that it is (b) faulty
(a) made by machine C (c) made by machine A given it is faulty
(b) made by machine A or machine C (d) faulty given it is made by machine C
(c) faulty (e) made by machine B given it is not faulty.
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5.5 Independent events 1163 23
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.1102 (b) 0.5750 (c) 0.5892 (d) 0.4401 3 (a) 0.9317 (b) 0.8633 (c) 0.504 (d) 0.4733
(e) 0.1888 (f) 0.4992 (e) 0.0432
2 (a) 0.4 (b) 0.72 (c) 0.033 (d) 0.045 4 (a) 0.015 (b) 0.0275 (c) 0.1818 (d) 0.025
(e) 0.3818 (f) 0.3210 (g) 0.7235 (e) 0.2494
5.5 Independent events
Key point Two events are independent if the occurrence of either event does not change the
probability of the other event occurring.
For independent events we can apply the multiplication law of probability.
Key point The multiplication law of probability
If E1 and E2 are two independent events then
P(E1 and E2) = P(E1) P(E2)
The multiplication law states that when E1 and E2 are independent, then the probability
of both events happening is the product of the individual probabilities.
The law can be extended to three or more independent events. For example, if E1,
E2 and E3 are independent events then
P(E1 and E2 and E3) = P(E1) P(E2) P(E3)
Example 5.6 Reliability Engineering
A machine manufactures components, 90% of which are not faulty and 10% of
which are faulty. Two components are picked at random. Calculate the probability
that
(a) both components are not faulty
(b) both components are faulty.
Solution
Let the events E1 and E2 be
E1: the first component is not faulty
E2: the second component is not faulty
Note that P(E1) = P(E2) = 0.9. The events are independent.
(a) For both components to be not faulty we require E1 and E2 to happen. These
events are independent: that is, whether or not E1 happens does not change the
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23 1164 Block 5 Laws of probability
probability of E2 happening and vice versa. Hence the multiplication law can
be applied.
P (both components are not faulty) = P(E1 and E2)
= P(E1) P(E2)
= (0.9)(0.9)
= 0.81
(b) The events that are complementary to E1 and E2 are
E1: the first component is faulty
E2: the second component is faulty
Note that P(E1) = P(E2) = 0.1.
P(both components are faulty) = P(E1 and E2)
= P(E1) P(E2)
= (0.1)(0.1)
= 0.01
Example 5.7 Reliability Engineering
The probability that a component is faulty is 0.05. Two components are picked at
random. Calculate the probability that
(a) both are faulty
(b) both are not faulty
(c) one of the components is not faulty
(d) at least one component is faulty.
Solution
We define events E1 and E2 to be
E1: the first component is faulty
E2: the second component is faulty
The events are independent and P(E1) = P(E2) = 0.05.
The complementary events, E1 and E2, are given by
E1: the first component is not faulty
E2: the second component is not faulty
Then P(E1) = P(E2) = 1 - 0.05 = 0.95
(a) P(E1 and E2) = (0.05)(0.05) = 0.0025
(b) P(E1 and E2) = (0.95)(0.95) = 0.9025
(c) If one component is not faulty, then the other component must be faulty. So we
have either ‘E1 and E2’ or ‘E1 and E2’.
P(E1 and E2) (0.05)(0.95) = 0.0475
P(E1 and E2) (0.95)(0.05) = 0.0475
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5.5 Independent events 1165 23
Now the events ‘E1 and E2’ and ‘E1 and E2’ are mutually exclusive and so the
addition law of probability can be used.
P(‘E1 and E2’ or ‘E1 and E2’) = P(‘E1 and E2’) + P(‘E1 and E2’)
= 0.0475 + 0.0475
= 0.095
An alternative way to view this is as follows. We can consider three possible
outcomes, X1, X2 and X3, as follows:
X1: two components are not faulty
X2: one component is not faulty
X3: there are no components that are not faulty
The probability of X1 has been calculated in (b), that is P(X1) = 0.9025.
The event X3 may be reworded to
X3: both components are faulty
and so, by (a), P(X3) = 0.0025.
Now, since X1, X2 and X3 together cover every possible outcome, we know that
P(X1) + P(X2) + P(X3) = 1
and so
P(X2) = 1 - P(X1) - P(X3)
= 1 - 0.9025 - 0.0025
= 0.095
(d) ‘At least one component is faulty’ means that either ‘one component is faulty’
or ‘both components are faulty’. Now
P(one component is faulty) = 0.095
P(both components are faulty) = 0.0025
and these events are mutually exclusive. So
P(at least one component is faulty) =
0.095 + 0.0025 = 0.0975
Example 5.8
Three coins are tossed. Calculate the probability that all the coins show heads.
Solution
Let the events E1, E2 and E3 be
E1: first coin shows a head
E2: second coin shows a head
E3: third coin shows a head
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:58 AM Page 1166
23 1166 Block 5 Laws of probability
Clearly, P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = 0.5 and all the events are independent. So
P(E1 and E2 and E3) = P(E1) P(E2) P(E3)
= (0.5) (0.5) (0.5)
= 0.125
Exercises
1 A and B are independent events with P(A) = machine B makes 25% and machine C makes
0.75 and P(B) = 0 .9. The compound event ‘A the rest. Two components are picked at
occurs, then A occurs, then B occurs’ is random. Calculate the probability that
denoted by AAB. Other compound events are (a) both are made by machine C
denoted in a similar way. Calculate the (b) one is made by machine A and one is
probability of the following compound events made by machine B
occurring: (c) exactly one is made by machine A
(a) AAB (b) BBA (c) AABB (d) at least one is made by machine B
(e) both are made by the same machine.
2 A fair die is thrown three times. Calculate the
probability of obtaining 4 A machine makes resistors of which 96% are
(a) three 6s acceptable and 4% are unacceptable. Three
(b) three 1s resistors are picked at random. Calculate the
(c) two 6s given the first number is a 1 probability that
(d) two 6s given the first number is a 6. (a) all are acceptable
(b) all are unacceptable
3 Components are made by machines A, B and (c) at least one is unacceptable.
C. Machine A makes 35% of the components,
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.5063 (b) 0.6075 (c) 0.4556 3 (a) 0.16 (b) 0.175 (c) 0.455 (d) 0.4375
(e) 0.345
2 (a) 0.0046 (b) 0.0046 (c) 0.0278
(d) 0.2778 4 (a) 0.8847 (b) 0.000064 (c) 0.1153
End of block exercises
1 The probability that a component is reliable is 2 A machine makes three components, A, B and
0.89. Four components are picked at random. C. For every 1000 components made, 400 are
Calculate the probability that component A, 250 are component B and the
(a) all are reliable rest are component C. Three components are
(b) all are unreliable picked at random. Calculate the probability that
(c) at least one is unreliable (a) all are component B
(d) at least one is reliable. (b) all are of the same type
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5.5 Independent events 1167 23
(c) all are of a different type
5 A box contains 10 red, 12 blue and 8 yellow
(d) two of the components are of type A.
blocks.
(a) A block is picked at random. Calculate the
3 Three machines A, B and C manufacture a
probability that it is blue.
component. Machine A makes 30% of the
(b) A block is picked at random, its colour is
components, machine B makes 35% of
noted and then it is replaced. This is
the components and machine C makes the rest.
repeated. Calculate the probability that
Components are classified as either acceptable
(i) both blocks are yellow
or faulty: 3% of those made by machine A are
(ii) one block is yellow and one is red
faulty, 4% of those made by machine B are
(iii) both blocks are the same colour
faulty, and 3.5% of those made by machine C
(iv) the blocks have different colours.
are faulty.
(a) Find the probability that a component is
6 A simple circuit is shown in Figure 5.3.
made either by machine A or by machine C.
(b) Find the probability that it is made by
machine B given that it is faulty.
S1 S2
(c) Find the probability that it is not made by
machine B given that it is not faulty.
(d) Two components are picked at random. A B
Calculate the probability that exactly one
of them is made by machine A. S3
(e) Three components are picked at random.
Figure 5.3
Calculate the probability that they are
made by different machines.
(f) Three components are picked at random. S1, S2 and S3 are switches. The probabilities
Calculate the probability that they are all that S1, S2 and S3 are closed are 0.86, 0.91 and
acceptable. 0.70 respectively. The switches open and close
independently.
4 The lifespans, L, of 807 components were (a) Calculate the probability that S1 and S2 are
measured and the results recorded in Table 5.5. both closed.
(b) Calculate the probability that a current can
flow from A to B.
Table 5.5
Lifespans of 807 components. 7 Two machines A and B manufacture
components, with machine A making 55% and
Lifespan (days) Number
machine B making the rest. Of those made by
0 … L 6 200 19 machine A, 7% are defective; of those made
200 … L 6 300 86 by machine B, 5% are defective.
300 … L 6 400 417 (a) A component is picked at random.
400 … L 6 500 210 Calculate the probability that it is made by
L Ú 500 75 machine A given that it is defective.
(b) Two components are picked at random.
Calculate the probability that neither is
defective.
(a) Calculate the probability that a component (c) Two components are picked at random.
has a lifespan of at least 400 days given Calculate the probability that they are
that it is still working after 200 days. made by different machines.
(b) Calculate the probability of a component
failing before reaching 500 days given that 8 An aeroplane has four engines that all work
it is still working after 300 days. independently of each other. The probability of
(c) Calculate the probability of a component an engine failing during a flight is 3 * 10-6. If
failing between 300 and 500 days given the plane can fly on two engines, calculate the
that it is still working after 200 days. probability that the plane is unable to fly.
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23 1168 Block 5 Laws of probability
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.6274 (b) 0.0001 (c) 0.3726 (d) 0.9999 5 (a) 0.4 (b) (i) 0.0711 (ii) 0.1778 (iii) 0.3422
(iv) 0.6578
2 (a) 0.0156 (b) 0.1225 (c) 0.21 (d) 0.288
6 (a) 0.7826 (b) 0.9348
3 (a) 0.65 (b) 0.3972 (c) 0.6517 (d) 0.42
(e) 0.2205 (f) 0.8979 7 (a) 0.6311 (b) 0.8817 (c) 0.495
4 (a) 0.3617 (b) 0.8932 (c) 0.7957 8 1.08 * 10-16
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Probability distributions
BLOCK 6
6.1 Introduction
There are usually several possible outcomes for any given experiment. For example,
when a component is tested it may be classified as substandard, satisfactory or first
class. Here there are three possible outcomes. The outcome is a discrete variable. As
another example, consider measuring the diameter of a piston. It may be 10.101 cm,
10.093 cm, 10.102 cm, and so on. Here the outcome is a continuous variable, which
can have any value within a specified range.
Probability distributions are used to assign probabilities to the various possible
outcomes of an experiment. If the variable is discrete we use a probability distribu-
tion; if the variable is continuous we use a modified form of a distribution, called a
probability density function (p.d.f.).
6.2 Probability distributions
Key point The probability distribution of a discrete variable, X, gives the probabilities of all the
possible values of X.
Example 6.1
Components produced in a factory are graded as substandard, satisfactory or first
class. The percentage of each is 10%, 85% and 5% respectively. Thus the probability
distribution is as follows:
Component description Probability
Substandard 0.10
Satisfactory 0.85
First class 0.05
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23 1170 Block 6 Probability distributions
Example 6.2
A service engineer records the number of calls received in an 8-hour period for 300
similar periods. The results are given as
Number of calls Frequency
0 2
1 7
2 26
3 97
4 101
5 53
6 14
Construct a probability distribution for the number of calls.
Solution
Let X be the number of calls received. Note that X is a discrete variable that takes on
values 0, 1, 2, . . . , 6. The probability of each different value of X occurring is
calculated.
2
P(X = 0) =
300
= 0.0067
7
P(X = 1) =
300
= 0.0233
26
P(X = 2) = = 0.0867
300
97
P(X = 3) = = 0.3233
300
101
P(X = 4) = = 0.3367
300
53
P(X = 5) = = 0.1767
300
14
P(X = 6) = = 0.0467
300
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6.2 Probability distributions 1171 23
The probability distribution is
Number of calls, X Probability
0 0.0067
1 0.0233
2 0.0867
3 0.3233
4 0.3367
5 0.1767
6 0.0467
A probability distribution may be represented graphically in the form of a bar chart.
Figure 6.1 is a bar chart that represents the probability distribution of Example 6.2.
Figure 6.1 Probability
Bar chart for 0.4
probability
distribution of
Example 6.2. 0.3
0.2
0.1
O 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
Note that when all the possible values of a variable have been considered, then the
sum of the probabilities is 1.
To find the probability of several outcomes, the individual probabilities are added.
Example 6.3 illustrates this.
Example 6.3
Using the data from Example 6.2, calculate the probability that the service engineer
receives five or six calls in an 8-hour period.
Solution
The individual probabilities are noted: P(X = 5) = 0.1767, P(X = 6) = 0.0467.
So adding the probabilities we find the probability of receiving five or six calls.
P(X = 5 or 6) = P(X = 5) + P(X = 6)
= 0.1767 + 0.0467
= 0.2234
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23 1172 Block 6 Probability distributions
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by a probability (a) Calculate the corresponding probability
distribution. distribution.
(b) Calculate the probability there are five or
2 The number of employees absent each day in a more absent employees on a day chosen at
particular firm is recorded over a 200-day random.
period. The results are as follows:
Number absent Frequency
2 12
3 36
4 81
5 10
6 15
7 46
Solutions to exercises
2 (a) Number absent Probability (b) 0.355
2 0.06
3 0.18
4 0.405
5 0.05
6 0.075
7 0.23
6.3 Probability density functions
Consider a continuous variable, X, which can take on any value between some pre-
scribed limits. The probability that X lies somewhere between values, say, a and b is
found from a probability density function (p.d.f.), f (x).
Key point The probability that the continuous variable, X, lies between a and b, that is
P(a 6 X 6 b), is given by
b
P(a 6 X 6 b) = 冮 f (x) dx
a
where f(x) is the probability density function of X.
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6.3 Probability density functions 1173 23
Thus the area under the p.d.f. between x = a and x = b gives the probability that the
variable X lies between a and b. Figure 6.2 illustrates this.
Figure 6.2 f (x)
b
P(a 6 X 6 b) = 1a f (x) dx. b
兰 f (x) dx
a
a b x
For a function to be a valid p.d.f. it must
1 never be negative;
2 have a total area under the curve of 1, representing total probability.
Example 6.4
Given that X is a continuous variable, interpret the following expressions.
(a) P(15 6 X 6 20)
(b) P(X 6 1.7)
(c) P(X 7 9.6)
(d) P(X = 2.6)
Solution
(a) This represents the probability that X lies between 15 and 20.
(b) This is the probability that X is less than 1.7.
(c) This is the probability that X is greater that 9.6.
(d) P(X = 2.6) is not a valid statement for a continuous variable. Probability
statements for continuous variables must always be in terms of intervals. We
could calculate P(2.59 6 X 6 2.61) for example, but not P(X = 2.6).
Example 6.5
A p.d.f. for the continuous variable X is given by
f(x) = 2x, 0 6 x 6 1
(a) Check that f(x) is a valid p.d.f.
(b) Calculate P(0.1 6 X 6 0.7).
Solution
(a) The function, f(x), is defined only on the interval 0 6 x 6 1 and on this
interval it is never negative. Also
1 1
冮0
f(x) dx = 冮
0
2x dx
= 3x2410
= 1
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23 1174 Block 6 Probability distributions
and so the total area under f(x) is 1. Hence f(x) is a valid p.d.f.
冮
0.7
(b) P(0.1 6 X 6 0.7) = 2x dx
0.1
= 3x240.7
0.1
= 0.48
The probability that X lies between 0.1 and 0.7 is 0.48.
Example 6.6
A p.d.f., f(x), for a continuous variable X is given by
3
f(x) = (4 - x2), 0 6 x 6 2
16
Calculate
(a) P(0.5 6 X 6 1.5) (b) P(X 6 1) (c) P(X = 1.6)
Solution
(a) P(0.5 6 X 6 1.5) =
1.5
冮
3
4 - x2 dx = 0.5469
16 0.5
冮 4 - x dx = 0.6875
3 2
(b) P(X 6 1) =
16 0
(c) P(X = 1.6) is not a meaningful statement for a continuous variable.
Exercises
1 Explain what is meant by a probability density (a) Verify that f(x) can be a p.d.f.
function. (b) Find P(1.7 6 X 6 2).
(c) Find P(X 6 1.5).
2 State two properties that a function must have (d) Find P(X 7 1.25).
in order to be a probability density function.
4 A p.d.f. for a continuous variable X is given by
3 A p.d.f., f(x), for a continuous variable X is
given by f (x) = ex, x 6 0
3 2
f (x) = (x + 1), 1 6 x 6 2
10
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6.3 Probability density functions 1175 23
Calculate 5 A p.d.f. for the continuous variable X is given by
(a) P(-1 6 X 6 0)
(b) P(-3.5 6 X 6 -3) f (x) = e-x, x 7 0
(c) P(X 6 -1)
(d) P(X 7 -2) If P(0 6 X 6 a) = 0.5, find a.
Solutions to exercises
3 (b) 0.3987 (c) 0.3875 (d) 0.8297 5 0.6931
4 (a) 0.6321 (b) 0.0196 (c) 0.3679 (d) 0.8647
End of block exercises
1 A p.d.f., f(x), has the form
Table 6.2
f (x) = a(x + 1), 0 6 x 6 1
Number of rejects per box Frequency
Calculate a.
0 117
2 Table 6.1 is a probability distribution. 1 123
2 236
3 147
Table 6.1 4 63
5 14
x P(x)
6.0 0.13
6.5 0.10 4 A p.d.f. for the continuous variable X is given
7.0 0.09 by
7.5 0.02
x2
8.0 0.23 f (x) = , 1 6 x 6 4
8.5 0.43 21
Calculate
(a) P(2 6 X 6 3) (b) P(X 7 2.5)
Find (c) P(X 6 3.5)
(a) P(x Ú 7.0) (b) P(x 7 7.5)
5 A p.d.f. for the continuous variable X is given
(c) P(x … 8.0) (d) P(x 6 7.5)
by
(e) P(6.5 6 x … 8.0)
f (x) = 2e-2x, x 7 0
3 The number of reject components in each of
700 boxes is counted and recorded in Table 6.2. Calculate
(a) Construct a frequency distribution from (a) P(1 6 X 6 5)
the given data. (b) P(X 7 1)
(b) Calculate the probability that the number (c) P(X 6 2)
of reject components is between 1 and 4 (d) the value of a such that 90% of the X
inclusive. values are less than a.
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23 1176 Block 6 Probability distributions
Solutions to exercises
2
1 3 4 (a) 0.3016 (b) 0.7679 (c) 0.6647
2 (a) 0.77 (b) 0.66 (c) 0.57 (d) 0.32 (e) 0.34 5 (a) 0.1353 (b) 0.1353 (c) 0.9871 (d) 1.1513
3 (a)
Number of rejects per box P(x)
0 0.1671
1 0.1757
2 0.3371
3 0.2100
4 0.0900
5 0.0200
(b) 0.813
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:58 AM Page 1177
The binomial distribution
BLOCK 7
7.1 Introduction
Consider an experiment in which a particular result may or may not occur. For exam-
ple, a component is tested and it may be acceptable or not be acceptable, a circuit
may work or not work. Such outcomes are complementary, and so their probabilities
sum to 1. In general, we consider an experiment with possible outcomes of A and its
complement A. We let P(A) = p and P(A) = q where clearly p + q = 1.
Suppose the experiment is repeated n times. We wish to calculate the probability
of A occurring k times and A occurring n - k times. For example, in testing a sample
of 10 components, a quality control engineer may wish to know the probability of
finding eight working components and two non-working components. The calcula-
tion of probabilities such as these uses the binomial distribution.
7.2 The binomial distribution
We consider an experiment, or trial as it is sometimes known, that is repeated n
times. On each occasion the event A may occur with probability p, or its comple-
ment, A, may occur with probability q = 1 - p. We assume that p and q are
constants. If A occurs k times then A must occur n - k times.
We can calculate the probability of no occurrences of A and n occurrences of A, of
one occurrence of A and n - 1 occurrences of A, of two occurrences of A and n - 2
occurrences of A, and so on. Thus we can calculate a probability corresponding to
every possible outcome. These probabilities are known as a binomial distribution.
The number of occurrences of A is known as a binomial random variable.
Example 7.1 Reliability Engineering
A machine manufactures components, 90% of which are acceptable. Three compo-
nents are picked. Calculate the probability that the number of acceptable compo-
nents is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
Solution
We define A and A by
A: the component is acceptable
A: the component is not acceptable
Then clearly, P(A) = 0.9 and P(A) = 0.1.
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23 1178 Block 7 The binomial distribution
(a) If there are no acceptable components then all three components are not
acceptable. We denote this by A A A . Since the events are independent the
multiplication law can be applied.
P(A A A) = P(A) P(A) P(A)
= (0.1)(0.1)(0.1)
= 0.001
(b) Here one of the three components is acceptable. We denote by AA A the event:
the first component is acceptable, the second is not acceptable, the third is not
acceptable. Events AAA and A AA have obvious meanings.
If one component is acceptable, then AA A or AAA or A AA occurs. These
compound events are mutually exclusive and so the addition law can be applied.
P(one component is acceptable) = P(AA A or A AA or A A A)
= P(AA A) + P(AAA) + P(A A A)
= (0.9)(0.1)(0.1) + (0.1)(0.9)(0.1)
+ (0.1)(0.1)(0.9)
= 0.027
(c) Two of the three components are acceptable. The various possibilities are
AAA, AAA, AAA
These compound events are mutually exclusive.
P(AAA or AAA or A AA) = P(AAA) + P(AAA) + P(A AA)
= (0.9)(0.9)(0.1) + (0.9)(0.1)(0.9)
+ (0.1)(0.9)(0.9)
= 0.243
(d) All three components are acceptable. In this case there is only one possibility,
AAA.
P(AAA) = (0.9)3
= 0.729
The results of Example 7.1 are summarised in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
Number of acceptable
components Probability
0 0.001
1 0.027
2 0.243
3 0.729
1.000
Since all possibilities have been covered the probabilities sum to 1. Let the num-
ber of acceptable components be x. Clearly x is a variable that can have values 0, 1,
2 and 3 with varying likelihood. Table 7.1 shows how the total probability, 1, is
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7.3 Combination notation 1179 23
distributed between the various possible values of x. It is known as a probability
distribution of the variable x. Since there are two possible outcomes for each event
the distribution is referred to as a binomial distribution.
Exercises
1 The probability that a component is acceptable 2 The probability that a silicon chip works is
is 0.95. Four components are picked at 0.97. Five such chips are tested. Calculate the
random. Calculate the probability that probability that
(a) all four are acceptable (a) all five chips work
(b) exactly three are acceptable (b) one chip does not work.
(c) all four are unacceptable.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.8145 (b) 0.1715 (c) 6.25 * 10-6 2 (a) 0.8587 (b) 0.1328
7.3 Combination notation
Before we can make progress and study a general binomial distribution we need to
introduce combination notation.
Recall the factorial notation: 2! = 2 * 1, 3! = 3 * 2 * 1, 4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1,
and so on. We define the combination notation as follows:
Key point
a b =
n n!
r r!(n - r)!
For example, with n = 5, r = 3 we have
a b =
5 5!
3 3!(5 - 3)!
5!
=
3!2!
= 10
The quantity a b is the number of ways of selecting r objects from n distinct objects,
n
r
with the order of selection being unimportant.
Example 7.2
Calculate the number of ways of selecting 3 digits from 10 digits.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:58 AM Page 1180
23 1180 Block 7 The binomial distribution
Solution
There are a b ways of making the selection.
10
3
a b =
10 10!
3 3!7!
= 120
Exercises
1 Evaluate commissioned to select a shortlist of three
sites. Calculate the number of ways this may
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b
10 8 9 be done.
5 7 9
4 Prove that
2 Calculate the number of ways of choosing
7 objects from 26 distinct objects.
a b = a b
n n
r n - r
3 A nuclear power station is to be built. There
are 15 possible sites. A team of engineers is
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 252 (b) 8 (c) 1 3 455
2 657800
7.4 Probability of k occurrences from n trials
We are now able to consider the problem posed in Section 7.1.
An experiment, or trial, has two possible outcomes, A and A, with respective prob-
abilities of p and q where p + q = 1. The trial is repeated n times.
Key point The binomial distribution
The probability of k occurrences of A and n - k occurrences of A in a sequence of n
independent trials is
a bpkqn - k
n
k
where P(A) = p, P(A) = q = 1 - p.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:58 AM Page 1181
7.4 Probability of k occurrences from n trials 1181 23
Example 7.3 Reliability Engineering
The probability that a component is acceptable is 0.97. Ten components are picked at
random. Calculate the probability that
(a) nine are acceptable
(b) three are unacceptable.
Solution
Let A and A be defined:
A: the component is acceptable
A: the component is unacceptable
Then P(A) = p = 0.97, P(A) = q = 1 - 0.97 = 0.03. Ten components are exam-
ined, that is n = 10.
P(nine acceptable components) = a bp q
10 9 10 - 9
(a)
9
= a b(0.97)9(0.03)1
10
9
= 10(0.97)9(0.03)
= 0.2281
(b) If three components are unacceptable, then seven are acceptable.
P(three unacceptable) = P(seven acceptable) = a bp q
10 7 3
7
= 120(0.97)7(0.03)3
= 0.0026
Example 7.4 Reliability Engineering
The probability that a component is acceptable is 0.91. Twelve components are
selected at random. Calculate the probability that at least 10 are acceptable.
Solution
At least 10 components being acceptable means that 10 or 11 or 12 components are
acceptable. These three compound events are mutually exclusive. We calculate the
probability of each.
We have p = ,q = ,n = 0.91, 0.09, 12
a b(0.91)10(0.09)2
12
P(10 acceptable components) =
10
= 0.2082
a b(0.91)11(0.09)
12
P(11 acceptable components) =
11
= 0.3827
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23 1182 Block 7 The binomial distribution
a b(0.91)12(0.09)0
12
P(12 acceptable components) =
12
= 0.3225
Since the events are mutually exclusive, the addition law is used.
P(10 or more acceptable components) =
0.2082 + 0.3827 + 0.3225
= 0.9134
There is a 91.34% chance that the 12 components contain 10 or more acceptable ones.
Exercises
1 The probability that a car will not develop a probability that a micro-chip works is 0.99.
major fault within the first 3 years of its life is Calculate the probability that the machine
0.997. Calculate the probability that of 20 cars works.
selected at random
(a) 19 will not develop any major faults in the 4 The probability that a bearing meets a
first 3 years specification is 0.92. Six bearings are picked at
(b) 19 or more will not develop any major random. Calculate the probability that
faults in the first 3 years. (a) all six meet the specification
(b) more than four meet the specification
2 The probability that a machine has a lifespan of (c) one or none meets the specification
more than 7 years is 0.85. Twelve machines are (d) exactly four meet the specification.
chosen at random. Calculate the probability
that 5 The probability of passing a module on the
(a) 10 have a lifespan of more than 7 years first attempt is 0.9. A student takes six
(b) 11 have a lifespan of more than 7 years modules. Calculate the probability that the
(c) 10 or more have a lifespan of more than 7 student
years. (a) passes five modules
(b) passes all modules
3 A machine needs all five of its micro-chips to (c) is required to take two or more resits.
be functional in order to work correctly. The
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.0567 (b) 0.9984 4 (a) 0.6064 (b) 0.9227 (c) 1.835 ⫻ 10⫺5
(d) 6.877 ⫻ 10⫺2
2 (a) 0.2924 (b) 0.3012 (c) 0.7358
5 (a) 0.3543 (b) 0.5314 (c) 0.1143
3 0.9510
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7.5 Mean and variance 1183 23
7.5 Mean and variance
Key point The mean and variance of a binomial random variable, X, are given by
mean = m = np
variance = s 2 = np(1 - p)
where n is the number of trials and p is the probability of an occurrence of X in a single
trial.
Example 7.5 Reliability Engineering
The probability that a component is acceptable is 0.96. Fifty components are tested.
The number of acceptable components is X. Calculate (a) the mean, (b) the variance
of X.
Solution
Here n = 50 and p = 0.96.
(a) Mean = np = 50(0.96) = 48.
(b) Variance = np(1 - p) = 1.92.
End of block exercises
1 Evaluate 5 A fair die is thrown eight times. Calculate the
probability that
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b (d) a b
10 10 12 100 (a) a 6 occurs six times
7 1 9 99 (b) a 6 never occurs
(c) an odd number of 6s is thrown.
2 Write a simple expression for
6 A fair coin is tossed five times. Calculate the
probability that
(a) a b (b) a b (c) a b
n n n
(a) five heads are obtained
1 n n - 1 (b) four heads are obtained
(c) three heads are obtained
3 The probability that a component is acceptable
(d) two heads are obtained
is 0.92. Ten components are selected at
(e) one head is obtained.
random. Calculate the probability that
(a) all 10 are acceptable 7 A batch of 1500 components is examined and
(b) eight are acceptable 1411 are found to be acceptable. Five
(c) one is unacceptable components are picked at random from the
(d) eight or more are acceptable. production line. Calculate the probability that
(a) all are acceptable
4 The probability that a component has a (b) four are acceptable
lifespan of more than 6 years is 0.85. Out of 10 (c) two are unacceptable.
components calculate the probability that
(a) nine have a lifespan of more than 6 years 8 The probability that a component is reliable is
(b) two have a lifespan of less than 6 years. 0.92. An engineer wants to collect a number of
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23 1184 Block 7 The binomial distribution
components to be at least 95% certain that 9 The probability that a component is acceptable
there are at least seven components that are is 0.93. An engineer picks 200 components at
reliable. Calculate the number of components random. If X is the number of acceptable
the engineer should collect. components calculate (a) the mean, (b) the
variance of X.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 120 (b) 10 (c) 220 (d) 100 6 (a) 0.03125 (b) 0.15625 (c) 0.3125
(d) 0.3125 (e) 0.15625
2 (a) n (b) 1 (c) n
7 (a) 0.7365 (b) 0.2323 (c) 0.0293
3 (a) 0.4344 (b) 0.1478 (c) 0.3777 (d) 0.9599
8 9
4 (a) 0.3474 (b) 0.2759
9 (a) 186 (b) 13.02
5 (a) 4.1676 * 10-4 (b) 0.2326 (c) 0.4805
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 12:42 PM Page 1185
The Poisson distribution
BLOCK 8
8.1 Introduction
We consider a fixed time interval, during which an event may happen 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
times. For example, during a 12-hour period, a fire department may receive 0, 1, 2, 3
or more calls. The department will know from experience that it is likely to receive,
say, two or three calls, but on some days it may receive only one, or even none. On
other days it will receive four or more calls. It would be useful to the fire department
if it knew how likely it was to receive various numbers of calls. The Poisson distribution
serves this purpose.
8.2 The Poisson distribution
The Poisson distribution models the number of occurrences of an event in a given
time interval. It allows us to calculate the probability of the number of occurrences
being 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. Note that in the Poisson distribution the number of occur-
rences can be infinite. In contrast, the number of occurrences in a binomial distribu-
tion is limited to the number of trials.
The number of occurrences of an event, E, in a given time interval is a discrete
variable, which we denote by X. If E does not occur then X = 0, if E occurs once
then X = 1, if E occurs twice then X = 2, and so on. If the occurrence of E in any
time interval is not affected by its occurrence in any preceding interval, then
the probability of X having a particular value can be modelled using the Poisson
distribution.
Suppose the number of occurrences, X, in the given time interval is measured
many times. The mean of X can then be found; we denote this mean by l. The prob-
ability that X has a value r is given by the Poisson distribution.
Key point Poisson distribution
e-l lr
P(X = r) = , r = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
r!
where l is the mean of the distribution.
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23 1186 Block 8 The Poisson distribution
Example 8.1
In a particular Poisson distribution l = 2. Calculate the probability that (a) X = 1,
(b) X = 2, (c) X = 3.
Solution
We are given l = 2 and so the distribution is
e-2 2r
P(X = r) =
r!
(a) We evaluate the probability expression with r = 1.
e-2 21
P(X = 1) =
1!
= 0.2707
e-2 22
(b) P(X = 2) =
2!
= 0.2707
e-2 23
(c) P(X = 3) =
3!
= 0.1804
Example 8.2 Reliability Engineering
A service engineer receives four emergency calls per day on average. Calculate the
probability that on a particular day the engineer will receive (a) no calls, (b) one
call, (c) two calls, (d) two or fewer calls, (e) more than four calls.
Solution
The average number of calls per day is four, that is l = 4. Let X be the number of
emergency calls received in 1 day. Then X is a variable with a Poisson distribution
given by
e-44r
P(X = r) =
r!
e-440
(a) P(X = 0) =
0!
= 0.0183
Thus there will be no calls on less than 2 days in 100.
e-441
(b) P(X = 1) =
1!
= 0.0733
There will be one call per day in just over 7 days in a 100.
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8.2 The Poisson distribution 1187 23
e-442
(c) P(X = 2) =
2!
= 0.1465
(d) ‘Two or fewer calls’ means that the engineer receives two calls, one call or no
calls. These events are mutually exclusive and so the addition law can be used.
P(X = 0 or X = 1 or X = 2) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
= 0.0183 + 0.0733 + 0.1465
= 0.2381
(e) Let E be the event
E: the engineer receives more than four calls in a day
Then the complement of E is E given by
E: the engineer receives four or fewer calls in a day
We calculate P(E).
P(E) = P(X … 4)
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) + P(X = 3) + P(X = 4)
e-440 e-441 e-442 e-443 e-444
= + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
= 0.6288
Since E and E are complementary events then
P(E) + P(E) = 1
and so
P(E) = 1 - P(E )
= 1 - 0.6288
= 0.3712
Example 8.3 Reliability Engineering
A service engineer mends washing machines. In a typical week, five machines will
break down. Calculate the probability that in a week
(a) three machines break down
(b) six machines break down
(c) fewer than three machines break down
(d) more than three machines break down.
Solution
On average, five machines break down in a week, that is l = 5. Let X be the number
of machines that break down in a week. Then X follows a Poisson distribution given by
e-55r
P(X = r) =
r!
e-553
(a) P(X = 3) =
3!
= 0.1404
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23 1188 Block 8 The Poisson distribution
e-556
(b) P(X = 6) =
6!
= 0.1462
(c) ‘Fewer than three breakdowns’ means that X = 0 or X = 1 or X = 2. Since
these events are mutually exclusive we can use the addition law of probability.
Hence
P(X 6 3) = P(X = 0 or X = 1 or X = 2)
P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
e-550 e-551 e-552
= + +
0! 1! 2!
= 0.1247
(d) Let E be the event
E: more than three machines break down
The complementary event, E , is
E =
three or fewer machines break down
We calculate P(E).
P(E) = P(X … 3)
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) + P(X = 3)
= 0.1247 + P(X = 3) using (c)
= 0.2651
Now
P(E) = 1 - P(E)
= 0.7349
So far we have looked at the probability of a number of occurrences during a time
period. Sometimes, however, we consider the probability of a number of occurrences
over a length as Example 8.4 illustrates.
Example 8.4 Reliability Engineering
A machine manufactures high-quality pipes. Experience has shown that on average
there are three faults per 100 m of pipe. Calculate the probability that in 100 m of
pipe there will be (a) no faults, (b) three faults.
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8.3 Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution 1189 23
Solution
The average number of faults per 100 m is three, that is l = 3. Let X be the number
of faults per 100 m of pipe. Then X has a Poisson distribution given by
e-33r
P(X = r) =
r!
-3 0
e 3
(a) P(X = 0) =
0!
= 0.0498
e-333
(b) P(X = 3) =
3!
= 0.2240
Exercises
1 In a computer laboratory, on average three 3 A Poisson distribution is given by
drives malfunction every month. Calculate the
probability that in a particular month e-33r
(a) two drives malfunction P(X = r) =
r!
(b) one drive malfunctions
(c) more than three drives malfunction. Calculate
(a) P(X = 2) (b) P(X 6 2) (c) P(X Ú 2)
2 A firm has on average seven people absent due
to illness per day. Calculate the probability that 4 An engineer receives, on average, five
on a particular day there are emergency calls in an 8-hour period. Calculate
(a) five people absent the probability that in an 8-hour period the
(b) eight people absent engineer receives
(c) more than three people absent. (a) exactly five calls
(b) fewer than three calls
(c) more than four calls.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.2240 (b) 0.1494 (c) 0.3528 3 (a) 0.2240 (b) 0.1991 (c) 0.8009
2 (a) 0.1277 (b) 0.1304 (c) 0.9182 4 (a) 0.1755 (b) 0.1247 (c) 0.5595
8.3 Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution
The Poisson and binomial distributions are related. Consider a binomial distribution
in which n trials take place. Note that n is fixed. Suppose the probability of an event
A occurring on a single trial is p. Let X be the number of occurrences of A in n trials.
Also consider a Poisson distribution with mean l.
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23 1190 Block 8 The Poisson distribution
If n is large and p is small and l = np then the Poisson and binomial distributions
are very similar. Table 8.1 lists the probabilities for both distributions where n = 20,
p = 0.05 and l = 20(0.05) = 1.
Table 8.1
Probabilities Binomial Poisson
for binomial P(X = r); n = 20, p = 0.05 P(X = r), l = 1
and Poisson
distributions. r = 0 0.3585 0.3679
r = 1 0.3774 0.3679
r = 2 0.1887 0.1839
r = 3 0.0596 0.0613
r = 4 0.0133 0.0153
r = 5 0.0022 0.0031
Example 8.5 Reliability Engineering
A computer room contains 100 PCs. The probability that a PC breaks down in a
week is 0.005. Calculate the probability that in a week
(a) one machine breaks down
(b) no machine breaks down.
Solution
We solve the problem with both the binomial and the Poisson distribution.
Binomial distribution
E: the machine breaks down in a week
n = number of trials = 100
p = probability that E occurs in a single trial = 0.005
X = number of occurrences of E
The binomial distribution is then
P(X = r) = a b(0.005)r (0.995)n - r
100
r
P(X = 1) = a b(0.005)1 (0.995)99
100
(a)
1
= 0.3044
P(X = 0) = a b(0.005)0 (0.995)100
100
(b)
0
= 0.6058
Poisson distribution
Strictly speaking, to calculate the probabilities we should use the binomial distribu-
tion because the number of occurrences is finite. However, since n, the number of
trials, is large, 100, and the probability of breakdown small, 0.005, then a Poisson
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8.3 Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution 1191 23
distribution can approximate closely to the binomial distribution. The mean of the
Poisson distribution is l where l = np = 0.5. The Poisson distribution is then
e-0.5(0.5)r
P(X = r) =
r!
e-0.5(0.5)1
(a) P(X = 1) =
1!
= 0.3033
e-0.5(0.5)0
(b) P(X = 0) =
0!
= 0.6065
Example 8.6 Reliability Engineering
The probability that a disk drive fails in any month is 0.004. An engineer is respon-
sible for 500 drives. Calculate the probability that in a month the number of drives
failing is (a) none, (b) one, (c) more than two.
Use the Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution.
Solution
Number of drives = n = 500
Probability of failure = p = 0.004
l = np = 2
The Poisson distribution we use is
e-22r
P(X = r) =
r!
e-220
(a) P(X = 0) =
0!
= 0.1353
e-221
(b) P(X = 1) =
1!
= 0.2707
(c) P(X 7 2) = 1 - 3P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)4
= 0.3233
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23 1192 Block 8 The Poisson distribution
Exercises
1 On any day, the probability that a person is 3 A machine manufactures 350 micro-chips per
absent due to illness is 0.001. In a workforce of hour. The probability that a chip is faulty is
600 people, calculate the probability that on any 0.012. Calculate the probability that in a
day the number of people absent is (a) none, particular hour there are (a) one, (b) three,
(b) one, (c) more than one, (d) less than three. (c) more than three faulty chips manufactured.
2 The probability that a component fails within a
month is 0.009. If 800 components are
examined calculate the probability that the
number failing within a month is (a) nine,
(b) five, (c) less than three, (d) four or more.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.5488 (b) 0.3293 (c) 0.1219 3 (a) 0.0630 (b) 0.1852 (c) 0.6046
(d) 0.9769
2 (a) 0.1070 (b) 0.1204 (c) 0.0255
(d) 0.9281
End of block exercises
1 A Poisson distribution is given by (a) four call-outs
(b) seven call-outs
e-44r (c) between three and five call-outs inclusive.
P(X = r) =
r!
(a) State the mean value of X. 4 A medium-sized firm has, on average, five
(b) Calculate the probability that X = 5. people absent on any day. Calculate the
(c) Calculate the probability that X = 2. probability that on a particular day there are
(d) Calculate the probability that X Ú 2. (a) four people absent
(b) more than four people absent.
2 In a computer laboratory, a technician
replaces, on average, four drives per month. 5 A Poisson distribution is given by
Calculate the probability that in a particular
month the technician replaces e-44r
P(X = r) =
(a) four drives r!
(b) more than four drives
Calculate
(c) less than four drives.
(a) P(X 6 3) (b) P(X … 3) (c) P(X Ú 3)
3 A service engineer receives on average six
call-outs in an 8-hour period. Calculate the
probability that in an 8-hour period the
engineer receives
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8.3 Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution 1193 23
6 A workforce comprises 750 people. During 7 The probability that a component fails within
any week the probability that a person is 2 weeks is 0.0075. If 500 components are
absent is 0.01. Use the Poisson approximation examined calculate the probability that the
to the binomial distribution to calculate the number failing within 2 weeks is (a) three,
probability that there are (b) four, (c) less than three.
(a) seven absent people
(b) five absent people
(c) more than four absent people.
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 4 (b) 0.1563 (c) 0.1465 (d) 0.9084 5 (a) 0.2381 (b) 0.4335 (c) 0.7619
2 (a) 0.1954 (b) 0.3712 (c) 0.4335 6 (a) 0.1465 (b) 0.1094 (c) 0.8679
3 (a) 0.1339 (b) 0.1377 (c) 0.3837 7 (a) 0.2067 (b) 0.1938 (c) 0.2771
4 (a) 0.1755 (b) 0.5595
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 12:59 PM Page 1194
The normal distribution
BLOCK 9
9.1 Introduction
A variable that can take on any value within a given range is called a continuous
variable. Examples of continuous variables include the weights of packets of
sugar produced in a factory, the diameter of ball bearings and the heights of people.
The normal distribution allows us to calculate the probability of a continuous
variable falling within a particular range of values. Many variables such as weight,
volume and density have been found to be modelled by a normal distribution, which
is the reason why it has become one of the most important distributions needed by
engineers.
In this block we describe the normal distribution and show how it is used to calcu-
late probabilities. An understanding of probability density functions is essential;
these were introduced in Block 6 of this chapter.
9.2 The normal probability density function
Suppose a factory produces pistons for a particular model of car. The diameters of
the pistons must lie within a given range of values to be acceptable. The quality con-
trol manager measures the diameter of several hundred pistons. From these measure-
ments the mean and standard deviation can be calculated.
For a normal distribution we denote the mean by m and the standard deviation by
s. It is these two values that characterise a normal distribution. Suppose x is a vari-
able, such as length or weight. Then the normal probability density function, N(x),
is a bell-shaped curve, illustrated in Figure 9.1. Note that N(x) is symmetrical about
Figure 9.1 N(x)
A typical normal
probability density
function.
µ x
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9.2 The normal probability density function 1195 23
a vertical line placed at x = m, the mean of the distribution. This means that a vari-
able that is normally distributed is as likely to lie above as below the mean. Further-
more, it is more likely to have a value close to the mean than further from the mean.
The symmetry of the normal distribution will be very important when we come to
calculate probabilities.
A formula for the normal probability density function N(x) is as follows.
Key point Normal probability density function
e-(x - m) >2s , - q 6 x 6 q
1 2 2
N(x) =
s 22p
Note that the expression for N(x) involves both m and s.
As the values of m and s change, the curve, N(x), changes but still retains the bell-
shaped feature and the symmetry about x = m. Figure 9.2 shows two graphs of N(x),
both with the same value of s but with different values of m.
As m increases the effect on N(x) is to ‘move’ it to the right, along the x axis.
Figure 9.3 shows two graphs of N(x), with the same value of m, but different
values of s.
In Figure 9.3, s2 is greater than s1. Clearly the spread of the distribution increases
as s increases.
In summary, the value of m, the mean, determines where the centre of the distribu-
tion lies. The value of s, the standard deviation, determines how far spread out the
distribution is.
Figure 9.2 N(x)
As m increases, the
curve moves to the
right.
μ1 μ2 x
Figure 9.3 N(x)
As s increases, σ1
the spread of the
normal distribution σ2 > σ1
increases.
σ2
x
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 1:08 PM Page 1196
23 1196 Block 9 The normal distribution
Exercises
1 Figure 9.4 shows two normal distributions, 2 Figure 9.5 shows two normal distributions,
A and B. A and B.
N(x) N(x)
B A
A
B
x x
Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5
(a) Which distribution has the higher mean? (a) Which distribution has the higher mean?
(b) Which distribution has the higher standard (b) Which distribution has the higher standard
deviation? deviation?
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) B (b) A 2 (a) B (b) B
9.3 The standard normal distribution
We have seen how a normal distribution, N(x), depends upon the mean, m, and the
standard deviation, s. We now look at a particular normal distribution with mean 0
and standard deviation 1. Such a distribution is called a standard normal distribu-
e-x >2.
1 2
tion. Its probability density function is N(x) =
22p
Key point The standard normal distribution has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Suppose we have a continuous variable, x, which has a standard normal distribution.
Since x is continuous, it can take on any value. We can calculate the probability that
x will lie within a given interval, say (a, b).
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1197
9.3 The standard normal distribution 1197 23
Key point If x has a standard normal distribution, N(x), then the probability that x lies within the
interval (a, b) is
b
P (a 6 x 6 b) = 冮a
N(x) dx
b
The quantity 1a N(x) dx is illustrated in Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.6 N(x)
The shaded area
represents the
probability that x
lies in the interval
(a, b).
a O b x
Because N(x) is a probability density function it can be shown that the total area
under N(x) is 1, that is
q
冮
-q
N(x) dx = 1
This represents total probability.
However, we are immediately presented with a problem because N(x) cannot be
integrated exactly.
To make numerical calculations easier we introduce a new function A(z) defined
by
A(z) = P(x 6 z)
Thus A(z) is the probability that x is less than z. Being a probability, A(z) must lie
between 0 and 1. In terms of an integral we have
z
A(z) = P(x 6 z) = 冮 -q
N(x) dx
The shaded area in Figure 9.7 represents A(z), so it will be helpful to think of A(z) as
the area under the graph of N(x) up to the point where x = z.
Figure 9.7 N(x)
The shaded area
represents the
value of A(z).
O z x
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1198
23 1198 Block 9 The normal distribution
Consider the case where z = 0. Then A(z = 0) is illustrated in Figure 9.8.
Recall that N(x) is symmetrical about the mean, which for a standard normal is 0.
The total area under the curve is 1. Hence the shaded area in Figure 9.8 is 0.5, that is
A(z = 0) = 0.5.
Figure 9.8 N(x)
Owing to
symmetry
A(z = 0) = 0.5.
O x
Values of A(z) for other values of z cannot be found by simply inspecting the graph.
z
A(z) must be found by evaluating the integral 1- q N(x) dx. This is difficult and must
be done numerically. Fortunately tables of A(z) are commonly available so that inte-
gration is not necessary. Values of A(z) for various values of z are given in Table 9.1
below.
Using Table 9.1 we are able to calculate the probability that x lies within a given
interval.
9.4 Calculating probabilities using Table 9.1
Table 9.1 can be used to calculate the probability that x lies within a given interval.
Recall that x follows a standard normal distribution: that is, it has a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1. The values of A(z) in Table 9.1 give the probability that x is
less than z, that is
A(z) = P(x 6 z)
Example 9.1
The continuous variable, x, has a standard normal distribution. Calculate the prob-
ability that
(a) x 6 0.86 (b) x 7 0.86 (c) x 6 -0.86 (d) x 7 -0.86
Solution
(a) This case is illustrated in Figure 9.9.
P(x 6 0.86) = A(0.86)
From Table 9.1, A(0.86) = 0.8051. Hence
P(x 6 0.86) = 0.8051
There is a probability of 0.8051 that the variable x is less than 0.86.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1199
9.4 Calculating probabilities using Table 9.1 1199 23
Figure 9.9 N(x)
P(x 6 0 .86) = 0.8051.
O 0.86 x
(b) This case is illustrated in Figure 9.10. Since the total area under the curve is 1,
we have
P(x 7 0.86) = 1 - P(x 6 0.86)
= 1 - 0.8051
= 0.1949
Figure 9.10 N(x)
P(x 7 0 .86) = 1 - 0.8051 = 0 .1949.
O 0.86 x
(c) Figure 9.11 illustrates the required area.
Figure 9.11 N(x)
By symmetry P(x 6 -0.86) = P(x 7 0.86).
⫺0.86 O x
Using the symmetry of the normal distribution we see that
P(x 6 -0.86) = P(x 7 0.86)
= 1 - P(x 6 0.86)
= 0.1949
(d) Figure 9.12 illustrates the area.
Again by the symmetry we see that
P(x 7 -0.86) = P(x 6 0.86)
and so
P(x 7 -0.86) = 0.8051
23
Table 9.1 Cumulative normal probabilities
1200
z A(z) z A(z) z A(z) z A(z) z A(z) z A(z)
0.00 0.5000000 0.30 0.6179114 0.60 0.7257469 0.90 0.8159399 1.20 0.8849303 1.50 0.9331928
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD
0.01 0.5039894 0.31 0.6217195 0.61 0.7290691 0.91 0.8185887 1.21 0.8868606 1.51 0.9344783
0.02 0.5079783 0.32 0.6255158 0.62 0.7323711 0.92 0.8212136 1.22 0.8887676 1.52 0.9357445
0.03 0.5119665 0.33 0.6293000 0.63 0.7356527 0.93 0.8238145 1.23 0.8906514 1.53 0.9369916
0.04 0.5159534 0.34 0.6330717 0.64 0.7389137 0.94 0.8263912 1.24 0.8925123 1.54 0.9382198
11/14/18
0.05 0.5199388 0.35 0.6368307 0.65 0.7421539 0.95 0.8289439 1.25 0.8943502 1.55 0.9394292
0.06 0.5239222 0.36 0.6405764 0.66 0.7453731 0.96 0.8314724 1.26 0.8961653 1.56 0.9406201
Block 9 The normal distribution
0.07 0.5279032 0.37 0.6443088 0.67 0.7485711 0.97 0.8339768 1.27 0.8979577 1.57 0.9417924
0.08 0.5318814 0.38 0.6480273 0.68 0.7517478 0.98 0.8364569 1.28 0.8997274 1.58 0.9429466
8:05 PM
0.09 0.5358564 0.39 0.6517317 0.69 0.7549029 0.99 0.8389129 1.29 0.9014747 1.59 0.9440826
0.10 0.5398278 0.40 0.6554217 0.70 0.7580363 1.00 0.8413447 1.30 0.9031995 1.60 0.9452007
0.11 0.5437953 0.41 0.6590970 0.71 0.7611479 1.01 0.8437524 1.31 0.9049021 1.61 0.9463011
0.12 0.5477584 0.42 0.6627573 0.72 0.7642375 1.02 0.8461358 1.32 0.9065825 1.62 0.9473839
Page 1200
0.13 0.5517168 0.43 0.6664022 0.73 0.7673049 1.03 0.8484950 1.33 0.9082409 1.63 0.9484493
0.14 0.5556700 0.44 0.6700314 0.74 0.7703500 1.04 0.8508300 1.34 0.9098773 1.64 0.9494974
0.15 0.5596177 0.45 0.6736448 0.75 0.7733726 1.05 0.8531409 1.35 0.9114920 1.65 0.9505285
0.16 0.5635595 0.46 0.6772419 0.76 0.7763727 1.06 0.8554277 1.36 0.9130850 1.66 0.9515428
0.17 0.5674949 0.47 0.6808225 0.77 0.7793501 1.07 0.8576903 1.37 0.9146565 1.67 0.9525403
0.18 0.5714237 0.48 0.6843863 0.78 0.7823046 1.08 0.8599289 1.38 0.9162067 1.68 0.9535213
0.19 0.5753454 0.49 0.6879331 0.79 0.7852361 1.09 0.8621434 1.39 0.9177356 1.69 0.9544860
0.20 0.5792597 0.50 0.6914625 0.80 0.7881446 1.10 0.8643339 1.40 0.9192433 1.70 0.9554345
0.21 0.5831662 0.51 0.6949743 0.81 0.7910299 1.11 0.8665005 1.41 0.9207302 1.71 0.9563671
0.22 0.5870644 0.52 0.6984682 0.82 0.7938919 1.12 0.8686431 1.42 0.9221962 1.72 0.9572838
0.23 0.5909541 0.53 0.7019440 0.83 0.7967306 1.13 0.8707619 1.43 0.9236415 1.73 0.9581849
0.24 0.5948349 0.54 0.7054015 0.84 0.7995458 1.14 0.8728568 1.44 0.9250663 1.74 0.9590705
0.25 0.5987063 0.55 0.7088403 0.85 0.8023375 1.15 0.8749281 1.45 0.9264707 1.75 0.9599408
0.26 0.6025681 0.56 0.7122603 0.86 0.8051055 1.16 0.8769756 1.46 0.9278550 1.76 0.9607961
0.27 0.6064199 0.57 0.7156612 0.87 0.8078498 1.17 0.8789995 1.47 0.9292191 1.77 0.9616364
0.28 0.6102612 0.58 0.7190427 0.88 0.8105703 1.18 0.8809999 1.48 0.9305634 1.78 0.9624620
0.29 0.6140919 0.59 0.7224047 0.89 0.8132671 1.19 0.8829768 1.49 0.9318879 1.79 0.9632730
1.80 0.9640697 1.95 0.9744119 2.10 0.9821356 2.25 0.9877755 2.40 0.9918025 2.55 0.9946139
1.81 0.9648521 1.96 0.9750021 2.11 0.9825708 2.26 0.9880894 2.41 0.9920237 2.56 0.9947664
1.82 0.9656205 1.97 0.9755808 2.12 0.9829970 2.27 0.9883962 2.42 0.9922397 2.57 0.9949151
1.83 0.9663750 1.98 0.9761482 2.13 0.9834142 2.28 0.9886962 2.43 0.9924506 2.58 0.9950600
1.84 0.9671159 1.99 0.9767045 2.14 0.9838226 2.29 0.9889893 2.44 0.9926564 2.59 0.9952012
1.85 0.9678432 2.00 0.9772499 2.15 0.9842224 2.30 0.9892759 2.45 0.9928572 2.60 0.9953388
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD
1.86 0.9685572 2.01 0.9777844 2.16 0.9846137 2.31 0.9895559 2.46 0.9930531 2.70 0.9965330
1.87 0.9692581 2.02 0.9783083 2.17 0.9849966 2.32 0.9898296 2.47 0.9932443 2.80 0.9974449
1.88 0.9699460 2.03 0.9788217 2.18 0.9853713 2.33 0.9900969 2.48 0.9934309 2.90 0.9981342
1.89 0.9706210 2.04 0.9793248 2.19 0.9857379 2.34 0.9903581 2.49 0.9936128 3.00 0.9986501
10/26/18
1.90 0.9712834 2.05 0.9798178 2.20 0.9860966 2.35 0.9906133 2.50 0.9937903 3.20 0.9993129
1.91 0.9719334 2.06 0.9803007 2.21 0.9864474 2.36 0.9908625 2.51 0.9939634 3.40 0.9996631
1.92 0.9725711 2.07 0.9807738 2.22 0.9867906 2.37 0.9911060 2.52 0.9941323 3.60 0.9998409
2:05 PM
1.93 0.9731966 2.08 0.9812372 2.23 0.9871263 2.38 0.9913437 2.53 0.9942969 3.80 0.9999277
1.94 0.9738102 2.09 0.9816911 2.24 0.9874545 2.39 0.9915758 2.54 0.9944574 4.00 0.9999683
4.50 0.9999966
5.00 0.9999997
Page 1201
5.50 0.9999999
z
1 2
This table has been calculated numerically from A(z) = 冮 e - x /2 d x
22p
-q
9.4 Calculating probabilities using Table 9.1 1201
23
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1202
23 1202 Block 9 The normal distribution
Figure 9.12 N(x)
P(x 7 -0.86) = P(x 6 0.86).
⫺0.86 O x
Example 9.2
The variable x has a standard normal distribution. Calculate the probability that
(a) x 6 2.06 (b) x 6 -1.17 (c) x 7 0.5 (d) x 7 -0.75
Solution
(a) Figure 9.13 illustrates the area.
Figure 9.13 N(x)
The shaded area
represents
P(x 6 2.06).
O 2.06 x
Using Table 9.1 we see
P(x 6 2.06) = 0.9803
(b) Figure 9.14 illustrates the area.
Figure 9.14 N(x)
The shaded area
represents
P(x 6 -1.17).
⫺1.17 O x
Using the symmetry of the distribution we have
P(x 6 -1.17) = P(x 7 1.17)
= 1 - P(x 6 1.17)
= 1 - 0.8790 = 0.1210
(c) Figure 9.15 illustrates the area.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1203
9.4 Calculating probabilities using Table 9.1 1203 23
Figure 9.15 N(x)
The shaded area
represents
P(x 7 0.5).
O 0.5 x
P(x 7 0.5) = 1 - P(x 6 0.5)
= 1 - 0.6915 = 0.3085
(d) Figure 9.16 illustrates the required area.
Figure 9.16 N(x)
The shaded area
represents
P(x 7 -0.75).
⫺0.75 O x
P(x 7 -0.75) = P(x 6 0.75)
= 0.7734
Example 9.3
A variable, x, has a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of
1: that is, it has a standard normal distribution. Calculate
(a) P(0.6 6 x 6 1.9) (b) P(-0.86 6 x 6 0.3) (c) P(-1.5 6 x 6 -0.7)
Solution
(a) Figure 9.17 illustrates the required area.
Recall that Table 9.1 gives values of A(z) where
A(z) = P(x 6 z)
Figure 9.17 N(x)
The shaded area
represents
P(0.6 6 x 6 1.9).
O 0.6 1.9 x
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1204
23 1204 Block 9 The normal distribution
that is, the probability that x is less than some specified value, z. We can view
the shaded area in Figure 9.17 as A(1.9) - A(0.6). Figure 9.18 illustrates this.
Figure 9.18 N(x) N(x) N(x)
A(1.9) - A(0.6)
gives the area
between x = 0.6 ⫺ ⫽
and x = 1.9.
O 1.9 x O 0.6 x O 0.6 1.9 x
So
P(0.6 6 x 6 1.9) = P(x 6 1.9) - P(x 6 0.6)
= A(1.9) - A(0.6)
= 0.9713 - 0.7257
= 0.2456
There is a probability of 0.2456 that x lies between 0.6 and 1.9.
(b) Using the same reasoning as in (a) we have
P(-0.86 6 x 6 0.3) = P(x 6 0.3) - P(x 6 -0.86)
Now
P(x 6 -0.86) = P(x 7 0.86)
= 1 - P(x 6 0.86)
= 0.1949
So
P(-0.86 6 x 6 0.3) = P(x 6 0.3) - P(x 6 -0.86)
= 0.6179 - 0.1949
= 0.4230
(c) P(-1.5 6 x 6 -0.7) = P(x 6 -0.7) - P(x 6 -1.5)
= [1 - P(x 6 0.7)] - [1 - P(x 6 1.5)]
= P(x 6 1.5) - P(x 6 0.7)
= 0.9332 - 0.7580
= 0.1752
Example 9.4
Given that x has a standard normal distribution calculate
(a) P(1 6 x 6 2) (b) P(-1.5 6 x 6 1) (c) P(-1.2 6 x 6 -0.5)
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1205
9.4 Calculating probabilities using Table 9.1 1205 23
Solution
(a) P(1 6 x 6 2) = P(x 6 2) - P(x 6 1)
= - 0.9772, 0.8413
= 0.1359
(b) P(-1.5 6 x 6 1) = P(x 6 1) - P(x 6 -1.5)
= P(x 6 1) - a1 - b P(x 6 1.5)
= 0.8413 - 0.0668
= 0.7745
(c) P(-1.2 6 x 6 -0.5) = P(x 6 -0.5) - P(x 6 -1.2)
= a1 - b - a1 - b
P(x 6 0.5), P(x 6 1.2)
= - 0.3085, 0.1151
= 0.1934
Exercises
1 Given that y has a standard normal distribution (b) z lies more than one standard deviation
calculate from the mean.
(a) P( y 6 1.36) (b) P(y 7 1.36)
(c) P(y 6 -0.9) (d) P(y 7 -0.57) 4 The temperature in a fridge follows a normal
(e) P(0.56 6 y 6 1.82) distribution with a mean of 0° and a standard
(f) P(-0.15 6 y 6 0) deviation of 1°. Calculate the probability that
(g) P(-2.1 6 y 6 -1.7) the temperature is (a) more than 2°, (b) less
than 1°, (c) between -2° and 1°.
2 Given that x has a standard normal distribution
calculate
(a) P(1 6 x 6 2) (b) P(-1.2 6 x 6 1.2)
(c) P(x 6 0) (d) P(-1.75 6 x 6 -0.75)
(e) P(x 7 0) (f) P(|x| 6 1)
(g) P( ƒ x ƒ 7 1.5)
3 Given that z has a standard normal distribution
calculate the probability that
(a) z lies within two standard deviations of the
mean
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 1:10 PM Page 1206
23 1206 Block 9 The normal distribution
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.9131 (b) 0.0869 (c) 0.1841 (d) 0.7157 3 (a) 0.9545 (b) 0.3173
(e) 0.2534 (f) 0.0596 (g) 0.0267
4 (a) 0.02275 (b) 0.8413 (c) 0.8186
2 (a) 0.1359 (b) 0.7699 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.1866
(e) 0.5 (f) 0.6827 (g) 0.1336
9.5 Non-standard normal distribution
So far we have calculated probabilities for a standard normal distribution. We now
consider non-standard normal distributions. In a non-standard normal distribution,
the mean is non-zero and/or the standard deviation is not 1.
Recall that Table 9.1 lists probabilities for a standard normal distribution. In order to
use Table 9.1 for problems involving non-standard normal distributions we introduce a
way of ‘standardising’ a variable.
Key point Suppose a variable, x, has a normal distribution with mean m and standard deviation s .
We standardise x to Z using the formula
x - m
Z =
s
x - m
The variable Z = now has a standard normal distribution and so Table 9.1
s
can be used.
Example 9.5
A variable, x, has a normal distribution with mean 5 and standard deviation 2.
Calculate the probability that
(a) x 6 7 (b) x 7 4 (c) 2 6 x 6 6
Solution
(a) We standardise 7 to
7 - m
Z =
s
7 - 5
=
2
= 1
So x 6 7 has the same probability as Z 6 7 where Z follows a standard normal
distribution.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1207
9.5 Non-standard normal distribution 1207 23
P(x 6 7) = P(Z 6 1)
= 0.8413
(b) Applying the standardisation to 4 gives
4 - 5
Z =
2
= -0.5
So x 7 4 has the same probability as Z 7 -0.5:
P(x 7 4) = P(Z 7 -0.5)
= P(Z 6 0.5)
= 0.6915
(c) Both 2 and 6 are standardised.
2 - 5 6 - 5
Z = = -1.5, Z = = 0.5
2 2
So
P(2 6 x 6 6) = P(-1.5 6 Z 6 0.5)
= P(Z 6 0.5) - P(Z 6 -1.5)
= P(Z 6 0.5) - [1 - P(Z 6 1.5)]
= P(Z 6 0.5) + P(Z 6 1.5) - 1
= 0.6247
Example 9.6
The number of miles travelled on 5 litres of petrol by a particular model of car
follows a normal distribution with mean 47 and standard deviation 4.3. Calculate the
probability that on 5 litres of petrol a car can travel
(a) more than 50 miles
(b) between 45 and 55 miles.
Solution
We let M be the number of miles travelled on 5 litres of petrol. Then M has a normal
distribution with mean 47 miles and standard deviation 4.3 miles.
(a) We require the probability that M 7 50. Using the standardisation we have
50 - 47
Z = = 0.70
4.3
So
P(M 7 50) = P(Z 7 0.70) =
1 - P(Z 6 0.70) = 0.2420
(b) We standardise 45 and 55.
Z = ,Z = -0.47, 1.86
So
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1208
23 1208 Block 9 The normal distribution
P(45 6 M 6 55) = P(-0.47 6 Z 6 1.86)
= P(Z 6 1.86) + P(Z 6 0.47) - 1
= 0.6494
Exercises
1 A variable, x, has a normal distribution with legally follows a normal distribution with
mean 6 and standard deviation 1.5. Calculate mean 38000 miles and standard deviation
the probability that 2500 miles. The manufacturers claim that
(a) x 6 7.5 (b) x 6 5 (c) x 7 7 (d) x 7 5 .5 ‘9 out of 10 of our tyres last more than
(e) 5 6 x 6 8 35000 miles’. Is the claim justified?
(f) x lies within one standard deviation of the
mean 4 The diameters of ball bearings produced in
(g) x lies more than two standard deviations a factory follow a normal distribution with
from the mean. mean 6 mm and standard deviation 0.04 mm.
Calculate the probability that a diameter is
2 The temperature, T °C, of a freezer follows a (a) more than 6.05 mm, (b) less than 5.96 mm,
normal distribution with mean -6 °C and (c) between 5.98 and 6.01 mm.
standard deviation of 2 °C. Calculate the
probability that 5 A normally distributed variable has mean 2
(a) T 7 -5 (b) T 6 -7 (c) -6 6 T 6 -3 and standard deviation 2.5. Calculate the
probability that the variable is negative.
3 Studies of a particular type of car tyre show
that the mileage for which it can be used
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.8413 (b) 0.2514 (c) 0.2514 (d) 0.6293 4 (a) 0.1056 (b) 0.1587 (c) 0.2902
(e) 0.6568 (f) 0.6829 (g) 0.0455
5 0.2119
2 (a) 0.3085 (b) 0.3085 (c) 0.4332
3 Only 88.49% of tyres last more than 35000
miles and so the claim is unjustified.
End of block exercises
1 The variable, z, has a standard normal 2 The variable, x, has a standard normal
distribution. Calculate the probability that distribution. Calculate the probability that
(a) z 6 1.42 (b) z 6 -0.75 (c) z 7 0.55 (a) x is within 1.5 standard deviations of the
(d) z 7 -1.36 (e) 0.52 6 z 6 1.42 mean
(f) -1.38 6 z 6 0.75 (b) x is more than 1.75 standard deviations
(g) -1.06 6 z 6 0.08 from the mean.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1209
9.5 Non-standard normal distribution 1209 23
3 The variable, X, has a normal distribution with 9 The random variable, x, has a normal
a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 3. distribution. How many standard deviations
Calculate the probability that above the mean must the point P be placed if
(a) X 7 10 (b) X 7 0 (c) X 6 2 the tail-end is to represent (a) 10%, (b) 5%,
(d) X 6 1.75 (e) 1 6 X 6 9 (c) 1% of the total area? (See Figure 9.19.)
4 The lifespan of bulbs has a normal distribution
with mean of 10000 hours and a standard N(x)
deviation of 1200 hours. Calculate
(a) the percentage of bulbs that last more than
11000 hours
(b) the probability that the lifespan of a bulb is
between 8000 and 11000 hours
(c) the percentage of bulbs that fail before
P x
8000 hours. ?
5 The lifespan of car batteries follows a normal Figure 9.19
distribution with a mean of 5 years and a
standard deviation of 10 months. Calculate
(a) the probability that a car battery lasts more 10 Consider Figure 9.20.
than 6 years
(b) the percentage of batteries that fail before
they are 3 years old. N(x)
6 The scores from IQ tests have a normal
distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard
deviation of 15.
(a) Calculate the probability that a person has
an IQ of more than 120. x
A B
(b) Calculate the probability that a person has
an IQ of more than 130. Figure 9.20
(c) What should a person score in order to be
described as being in the top 10% of the
population? The two tail-ends have equal area. How many
standard deviations from the mean must A and
7 A factory produces metal bars used in the B be placed if the tail-ends are (a) 10%, (b) 5%,
steering columns of cars. The car manufacturer (c) 1% of the total area?
requires that the bars are 60 ⫾ 0.2 cm long.
The lengths of the bars produced in the factory
follow a normal distribution with mean
60.2 cm and standard deviation 0.2 cm. What
percentage of bars produced by the factory are
acceptable to the car manufacturer?
8 A normally distributed variable, Y, has a mean
of 30 and a standard deviation of 4. Calculate
(a) P(Y 7 31.6) (b) P(Y 6 28.2)
(c) P(31 6 Y 6 35) (d) P(25 6 Y 6 29)
(e) P(Y is more than 1.25 standard deviations
from the mean).
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1210
23 1210 Block 9 The normal distribution
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 0.9222 (b) 0.2266 (c) 0.2912 (d) 0.9131 6 (a) 0.0918 (b) 0.0228 (c) 119
(e) 0.2237 (f) 0.6896 (g) 0.3873
7 47.72%
2 (a) 0.8664 (b) 0.0801
8 (a) 0.3446 (b) 0.3264 (c) 0.2956 (d) 0.2956
3 (a) 0.0475 (b) 0.9525 (c) 0.1587 (d) 0.1401 (e) 0.2113
(e) 0.8165
9 (a) 1.28 (b) 1.64 (c) 2.33
4 (a) 20.33% (b) 0.7493 (c) 4.75%
10 (a) 1.64 (b) 1.96 (c) 2.57
5 (a) 11.51% (b) 0.82%
End of chapter exercises
1 Calculate (a) the mean and (b) the standard 6 The data set A = {x1, x2, x3, . . ., xn} has a
deviation of the data set mean of x and a standard deviation of s . The
data set B is {kx1, kx2, kx3, . . ., kxn}, the data
17, 26, 31, 19, 25, 20, 19, 29, 11, 27
set C is {x1 + k, x2 + k, x3 + k, . . ., xn + k}
where k is a constant.
2 State (a) the median and (b) the mode of the
(a) State the mean of set B.
data in question 1.
(b) State the mean of set C.
(c) State the standard deviation of set B.
3 Two identical data points are added to the data
(d) State the standard deviation of set C.
set of question 1. The mean of the new data set
is 29. Calculate the value of the additional data
7 Out of 6000 components, 39 fail within
points.
12 months of manufacture.
(a) Calculate the probability that a component
4 Table 1 shows the results of measuring the
picked at random fails within 12 months of
petrol consumption of a car over 90 trials.
manufacture.
(b) A batch contains 2000 components. How
many of these would you expect to fail
Table 1 within 12 months?
Miles per gallon Frequency
8 A fair die is rolled. Calculate the probability
42 17 that the score is
43 18 (a) 4 (b) 4 or more (c) more than 4 (d) not 4
44 12
45 20 9 Two fair dice are thrown. Calculate the
46 23 probability that the total is
(a) 9 (b) 13 (c) more than 9
10 State the complement of the following
(a) Calculate the mean consumption. statements.
(b) Calculate the standard deviation. (a) the score is more than 4
(b) all of the components are working
5 State (a) the median and (b) the mode of the (c) at least two of the machines are not working
distribution of question 4. (d) none of the machines are switched on.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 9/28/18 11:59 AM Page 1211
End of chapter exercises 1211 23
11 Components are manufactured by machines (c) of more than 10000 hours given that it has
A and B. Machine A makes 55% of the already lasted for at least 8000 hours
components. Of those components made by (d) of between 11000 and 12000 hours given
machine A, 7% are unacceptable; of those that it has already lasted for at least 9000
made by machine B, 5% are unacceptable. A hours.
component is picked at random. Calculate the
probability that it is 14 The probability that a component is acceptable
(a) made by machine B is 0.91. Ten components are picked at random.
(b) acceptable Calculate the probability that
(c) acceptable and made by machine A (a) eight are acceptable
(d) unacceptable given it is made by machine B (b) more than eight are acceptable
(e) made by machine A given it is unacceptable. (c) three are not acceptable.
12 Components are manufactured by three 15 The probability that a motor will malfunction
machines, A, B and C. Machine A makes 30% within 5 years of manufacture is 0.03. Out of
of the components, machine B makes 25% of eight motors calculate the probability that
the components and machine C makes the rest. within 5 years of manufacture
Of those components made by machine A, 6% (a) all eight will malfunction
are substandard; when made by machine B, (b) six will malfunction
3% are substandard; and when made by (c) none will malfunction.
machine C, 5% are substandard. A component
is picked at random. Calculate the probability 16 The probability that a component works is
that it is 0.92. An engineer wants to be at least 99%
(a) substandard certain of carrying six working components.
(b) made by machine B given it is substandard Calculate the minimum number of components
(c) made by either machine A or machine B that the engineer needs to carry.
(d) substandard and made by machine B
(e) substandard, given it is made by machine A 17 A service engineer receives on average seven
(f) made by machine A or is substandard. calls in a 24-hour period. Calculate the
probability that in a 24-hour period the
13 The lifespans, L, of 2500 components were engineer receives
monitored and recorded in Table 2. (a) seven calls (b) eight calls (c) six calls
(d) fewer than three calls
Table 2
18 A firm has 1400 employees. The probability
Lifespan, L (hours) Frequency that an employee is absent on any day is 0.006.
Use the Poisson approximation to the binomial
0 … L … 5000 16 distribution to calculate the probability that the
5000 6 L … 8000 132 number of absent employees is
8000 6 L … 9000 219 (a) eight (b) nine
9000 6 L … 10000 496
10000 6 L … 11000 1012 19 The lengths of components have a normal
11000 6 L … 12000 480 distribution, with a mean of 7 cm and a
L 7 12000 145 standard deviation of 0.03 cm. Calculate the
probability that a component chosen at random
has a length
Calculate the probability that a component (a) between 6.95 cm and 7.02 cm
picked at random has a lifespan (b) more than 7.05 cm
(a) of between 8000 and 11000 hours (c) less than 6.96 cm
(b) of more than 11000 hours (d) between 6.95 cm and 6.99 cm.
M23_CROF5939_04_SE_C23.QXD 11/28/18 8:48 PM Page 1212
23 1212 Block 9 The normal distribution
20 The diameters of bearings have a normal (c) between 8.01 mm and 8.06 mm
distribution with a mean of 8 mm and a (d) more than 2.5 standard deviations from the
standard deviation of 0.04 mm. In a batch of mean?
6000 bearings how many would you expect to
have a diameter of
(a) more than 8.03 mm
(b) less than 7.95 mm
Solutions to exercises
1 (a) 22.4 (b) 5.886 11 (a) 0.45 (b) 0.939 (c) 0.5115 (d) 0.05
(e) 0.6311
2 (a) 22.5 (b) 19
12 (a) 0.048 (b) 0.1563 (c) 0.55 (d) 0.0075
3 62 (e) 0.06 (f) 0.33
4 (a) 44.2 (b) 1.475 13 (a) 0.6908 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.6960 (d) 0.2250
5 (a) 44 (b) 46 14 (a) 0.1714 (b) 0.7746 (c) 0.0452
6 (a) kx (b) x + k (c) ks (d) s 15 (a) 6.561 * 10-13 (b) 1.921 * 10-8
(c) 0.7837
7 (a) 0.0065 (b) 13
1 1 1 5 16 12
8 (a) (b) (c) (d)
6 2 3 6 17 (a) 0.1490 (b) 0.1304 (c) 0.1490 (d) 0.0296
1 1
9 (a) (b) 0 (c) 18 (a) 0.1382 (b) 0.1290
9 6
10 (a) the score is 4 or less 19 (a) 0.7011 (b) 0.0475 (c) 0.0918 (d) 0.3232
(b) at least one of the components is not
working 20 (a) 1360 (b) 634 (c) 2007 (d) 75
(c) fewer than two of the machines are not
working
(d) some of the machines are switched on.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/8/18 7:35 PM Page 1213
Chapter 24
An introduction to Fourier series and the
Fourier transform
The ability to analyse waveforms of various types is an important
engineering skill. Fourier analysis provides a set of mathematical tools
that enable the engineer to break down a wave into its various
frequency components. It is then possible to predict the effect that a
particular waveform may have from knowledge of the effects of its
individual frequency components. Often an engineer finds it useful to
think of a signal in terms of its frequency components rather than in
terms of its time-domain representation. This alternative view is called
a frequency-domain representation. It is particularly useful when trying
to understand the effect of a filter on a signal. Filters are used
extensively in many areas of engineering. In particular, communication
engineers use them in signal reception equipment for filtering out
unwanted frequencies in the received signal.
When a signal or waveform is periodic, it is possible to represent it as
a sum of sine and/or cosine functions of different frequencies and
amplitudes. Such a frequency-domain representation is called a
Fourier series. Calculating a Fourier series is essentially an exercise in
integration, in particular the integration of trigonometrical functions. In
Block 1 of this chapter you will have the opportunity to calculate
several Fourier series. When a signal is not periodic the equivalent
frequency-domain representation is found by using a Fourier
transform. In Block 2, this important transform will be introduced.
This chapter is intended to provide an introduction to these topics
rather than give a thorough and rigorous treatment.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1214
Chapter 24 contents
Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform
End of chapter exercises
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1215
Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
BLOCK 1
1.1 Introduction
Suppose we have a periodic function f(t). Under certain conditions, which will be given
at the end of Section 1.2 of this block, it can be expressed as the sum of an infinite num-
ber of sine and/or cosine functions. This infinite sum is known as a Fourier series.
For example, Figure 1.1(a) shows a graph of the function 2 sin t. Figure 1.1(b)
shows a graph of 2 sin t - sin 2t. Notice that we have now included a second sine
function that has twice the frequency of the first and a different amplitude. Figures 1.1(c)
and 1.1(d) are generated by adding still more sine functions, again with decreasing
amplitude and increasing frequency.
t t
(a) (b)
t t
(c) (d)
Figure 1.1
2
Figures 1.1(c) and 1.1(d) show graphs of 2 sin t - sin 2t + 3 sin 3t
2 1
and 2 sin t - sin 2t + 3 sin 3t - 2 sin 4t.
As more and more sine terms are included the graph appears to resemble more and
more closely the periodic sawtooth waveform shown in Figure 1.2.
By using an infinite series of sine functions it can be shown that the sawtooth
waveform of Figure 1.2 can be represented exactly.
Figure 1.2 π
A periodic
sawtooth
waveform. O
π 3π t
⫺π
The infinite series of sine functions is the Fourier series of the sawtooth wave-
form. You will notice that the Fourier series is built up of sine functions of increasing
frequencies, and with decreasing amplitudes. In this block you will learn how to
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1216
24 1216 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
calculate the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes for yourself, so that, given any
periodic function, you will be able to calculate its corresponding Fourier series.
In the example above it was necessary only to include sine functions to construct
the Fourier series, but in general you will need both sine and cosine functions, unless
the periodic function under consideration takes rather special forms.
Exercises
1 The Fourier series of the sawtooth waveform 2 A Fourier series is given by
can be expressed concisely in the form q
1 2
f (t) = + a sin (2n - 1)t
f (t) = a a b sin nt
q
-2 cos np 2 n = 1 (2n - 1)p
n=1 n Write out the first four terms of this infinite
series.
Noting that cos p = -1, cos 2p = 1,
cos 3p = -1, and so on, use this form to
write out the first few terms in the infinite
series explicitly.
Solutions to exercises
1 2 2 2
1 f (t) = 2 sin t - sin 2t 2 + sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + Á
2 p 3p 5p
+ 23 sin 3t - 12 sin 4t + Á
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series
To find a Fourier series for yourself you will make use of several formulae that
involve the integration of trigonometrical functions. You will also need the technique
of integration by parts. You may wish to revise these topics before proceeding.
Given a periodic function f(t), with period T, calculate the quantities a0, an and bn
from the following formulae. These quantities are known as Fourier coefficients:
Key point Fourier coefficients
T
冮 f (t) dt
2
a0 =
T 0
T
冮 f (t) cos
2 2npt
an = dt, n = 1, 2, 3, Á
T 0 T
T
冮 f (t) sin
2 2npt
bn = dt, n = 1, 2, 3, Á
T 0 T
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1217
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series 1217 24
When these quantities have been calculated the Fourier series is given by the
following:
Key point Fourier series
+ a a an cos b
q
a0 2npt 2npt
f (t) = + bn sin
2 n=1 T T
If we write out the first few terms of the infinite series explicitly we find
a0 2pt 2pt 4pt 4pt Á
f (t) = + a1 cos + b1 sin + a2 cos + b2 sin +
2 T T T T
In this form we see that the Fourier coefficients an are the amplitudes of the cosine
terms in the series, and the bn are the amplitudes of the sine terms in the series.
These formulae can look quite intimidating when first met, but we shall lead
you carefully through the various stages of the calculation in order that you develop
confidence in their use. However, you should always sketch a graph of the periodic
function before doing anything else.
Example 1.1
Sketch a graph of the periodic function
f (t) = e
0 -5 6 t 6 0
1 0 6 t 6 5
of period T = 10, from t = -10 to t = 15.
Solution
Sketch the function for yourself.
f (t)
1
⫺10 ⫺5 5 10 15 t
Example 1.2
For the function
f (t) = e
-5 6 t 6 0
0
0 6 t 6 5
1
2 T
of period T = 10, in Example 1.1, evaluate
coefficient a0.
T 0 冮
f (t) dt: that is, calculate the Fourier
Solution
First identify the period, T.
T = 10
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1218
24 1218 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
2 10
We need to find 10 10 f (t) dt. We are required to integrate f (t) between t = 0 and
t = 10. However, by studying the graph of f (t) you will see that f (t) is zero for t
between 5 and 10, and so we only need integrate between 0 and 5, and over this
interval the function takes the value 1. Now write down the required integral:
冮 1 dt
2
a0 =
10 0
Perform the integration to find a0.
3t4 = 1
1 5
5 0
We conclude that the Fourier coefficient, a0, is equal to 1.
Example 1.3
For the function
f (t) = e
0 -5 6 t 6 0
1 0 6 t 6 5
T
冮 f (t) cos
2 2npt
of period T = 10, in Example 1.1, evaluate dt: that is, calculate
T 0 T
the Fourier coefficients an.
Solution
As in Example 1.2, because f (t) is zero between t = 5 and t = 10 we need only
perform the integration over the interval t = 0 to t = 5.
Write down the required integral:
5
冮 1 cos
2 2npt
an = dt
10 0 10
Perform the integration and complete the calculation:
npt 5
sin
1 5
an = D T
5 np
5 0
If you substitute the limits of integration you will find that all terms are zero since
sin np = 0 for all integers n. Hence an = 0. You have found that all the Fourier coef-
ficients, an, are zero. This means that there will be no cosine terms in the Fourier series.
Example 1.4
For the function
f (t) = e
0 -5 6 t 6 0
1 0 6 t 6 5
T
冮 f (t) sin
2 2npt
of period T = 10, in Example 1.1, evaluate dt: that is, calculate the
T 0 T
Fourier coefficients bn.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1219
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series 1219 24
Solution
As in Examples 1.2 and 1.3, because f (t) is zero between t = 5 and t = 10 we need
only perform the integration over the interval t = 0 to t = 5.
5
冮 1 sin
2 2npt
bn = dt
10 0 10
Perform the integration:
npt 5
cos
1 5
bn = D- T
5 np
5 0
Insert the limits of integration and so complete the calculation of bn:
1
- (cos np - 1)
np
This result gives us a formula for calculating each Fourier coefficient, bn. Evaluate
the formula when n = 1, n = 2, and so on:
1 2
When n = 1, b1 = - (cos p - 1) =
p p
1
When n = 2, b2 = - (cos 2p - 1) = 0
2p
2
When n = 3, b3 =
3p
2
Continuing in this way you will find b4 = 0, b5 = , and so on. These are the
5p
Fourier coefficients, bn.
Example 1.5
Combine the results of Examples 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 to write down the Fourier series for
f (t) = e
0 -5 6 t 6 0
1 0 6 t 6 5
of period 10.
Solution
Using the Key point above for the Fourier series,
+ a aan cos b
q
a0 2npt 2npt
f (t) = + bn sin
2 n=1 T T
In this example an = 0 and T = 10 so the series reduces to
q
a0 npt
f (t) = + a bn sin
2 n=1 5
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1220
24 1220 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
where the numbers a0 and bn are those obtained in Examples 1.2 and 1.4. If we write
the series out explicitly we find
1 2 pt 2 3pt 2 5pt Á
f (t) = + sin + sin + sin +
2 p 5 3p 5 5p 5
A graph of the first four terms in this series is shown in Figure 1.3. Notice how
closely, even with only four terms, it resembles the original graph obtained in
Example 1.1.
Figure 1.3
The first four
terms in the
Fourier series
of f (t). ⫺10 ⫺5 5 10 15 t
The Fourier series of f (t) has now been found.
Integration over any convenient period
Although the integrals given in the formulae for the Fourier coefficients have limits
0 and T, they can in fact be performed over any complete period. On occasions it
T T
may be more convenient to integrate over a different interval, say from - to .
2 2
This is the case in the following example.
Example 1.6
(a) Sketch a graph of the function
f (t) = e
-t -p 6 t 6 0
0 0 6 t 6 p
of period 2p, over the interval from -3p to 3p.
(b) Find the Fourier series for f (t).
Solution
(a) First draw the required graph over the interval stated.
t
⫺3π Ο 3π
(b) State the value of T:
T = 2p
Because the period is 2p the Fourier series formulae simplify somewhat. For
2npt
example, terms like sin become simply sin nt.
T
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1221
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series 1221 24
Because the function f (t) is given over the interval from -p to p it is
convenient to use this complete period in the Fourier coefficient integrals.
Noting that f (t) = 0 between 0 and p write down the required integrals:
0
冮
1
a0 = -t dt
p -p
冮
1
an = -t cos nt dt
p -p
冮
1
bn = -t sin nt dt
p -p
Now evaluate a0:
t2 0
c- d =
1 p
a0 =
p 2 -p 2
To find an we note that the integrand is a product and we use integration by parts:
0 0
sin nt 0
冮 e c -t d + 冮 dt f
1 1 sin nt
an = -t cos nt dt =
p -p p n -p -p n
cos nt 0
c- 2 d
1
=
p n -p
a - 2b
1 cos np 1
=
p n 2
n
To achieve this result we have made use of the following facts: sin 0 = 0, sin (-np) = 0
for all n, and cos (-np) = cos np since the cosine function is even.
Use this result to find a1, a2 and a3 explicitly:
2
a1 = -
p
a2 = 0
2
a3 = -
9p
To find bn note that the integrand is a product and use integration by parts in the
same way as we did when finding an:
bn =
0 0 0
冮 e c(-t)a - bd - 冮 (-1) dt f
1 1 cos nt cos nt
-t sin nt dt = -
p -p p n -p -p n
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1222
24 1222 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Simplify this.
0
t cos nt 0
ec d - 冮 dt f
1 cos nt
bn =
p n -p -p n
0 0
冮 dt = c d , which vanishes.
cos nt sin nt
The remaining integral is
-p
n n2 -p
Complete the calculation:
e0 - f = cos np
1 -p cos(-np) 1
bn =
p n n
Explicitly, b1 = -1, b2 = 12 , b3 = - 13 , and so on.
Putting all these results together we can write the first few terms in the Fourier
series as
p 2 1 2 1
f (t) = - cos t - sin t + sin 2t - cos 3t - sin 3t + Á
4 p 2 9p 3
A graph of these first few terms is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 π
t
⫺3π Ο 3π
Maple and Matlab can be used to calculate Fourier series. In fact, there are built-in
packages for doing this and you should explore what is available. In the following
example we demonstrate one way in which a Fourier series can be found using more
basic commands.
Example 1.7
p/2 -p 6 t 6 -p/2
Consider the function f (t) = μ ƒ t ƒ -p/2 6 t 6 p/2 period = 2p.
p/2 p/2 6 t 6 p
(a) Use software to plot a graph of this function in the interval (-p, p).
(b) Use software to calculate the coefficients in the Fourier series expansion of f (t).
(c) Plot the Fourier series expansion in the interval (-4p, 4p) using a finite
number of terms, N, and by increasing N observe the convergence of the series
towards the original function f (t).
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/17/18 9:21 PM Page 1223
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series 1223 24
Solution
Maple
(a) This piecewise function can be defined in Maple using the piecewise function and
plotted as follows:
> f:=t->piecewise(-Pi<t and t<-Pi/2,Pi/2,-Pi/2<t and t<Pi/2,
abs(t), Pi/2<t and t<Pi,Pi/2); plot(f(t),t=-Pi..Pi);
The graph is shown in Figure 1.5.
π
2
−π π t
−π
2 O 2
π
Figure 1.5
A graph of the piecewise function f (t).
(b) The Fourier coefficients can be calculated using the integration command int in con-
junction with the formulae in the Key point on page 1216.
T:=2*Pi; # the period of the function
a0:=(2/T)*int(f(t),t=-Pi..Pi);
a:=n->(2/T)*int(f(t)*cos(2*n*Pi*t/T),t=-Pi..Pi);
b:=n->(2/T)*int(f(t)*sin(2*n*Pi*t/T),t=-Pi..Pi);
a0
(c) The sum function is then used to add to the first N terms in the series and the result
2
is plotted over the interval (- 4p, 4p). (Here N = 10.)
N:=10; # the number of terms in the series
plot(a0/2 + sum( a(n)*cos(2*n*Pi*t/T) +
b(n)*sin(2*n*Pi*t/T),n=1..N),t=-4*Pi..4*Pi);
The result of calculating the Fourier series with N = 10 terms is shown in Figure 1.6.
You should use the software to which you have access to experiment with different val-
ues of N. You should also try to reproduce the graphs in Examples 1.5 and 1.6.
π
2
Figure 1.6
A graph of the Fourier series,
generated by Maple and calculated
with 10 terms. t
−4π − 2π O 2π 4π
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 11:28 AM Page 1224
24 1224 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Matlab
There are numerous ways of finding Fourier series in Matlab, some numerical and some
symbolic. The following code will find the Fourier series of f (t), having period T. It then
displays N terms of the series and plots a graph of the approximation together with the
original function for comparison. Rather than typing all this code into the Matlab Com-
mand Window, it is preferable to store it in a text file, known as an m-file, which can then
be reused and amended easily. You should refer to the Matlab on-line help for more
details and alternatives.
Here, by way of example, we have defined the given function in terms of unit step
functions, which in Matlab are referred to as heaviside() functions (see Section 8.5,
page 202).
syms t n T N % creates these as symbolic variables as
opposed to numbers.
evalin(symengine, 'assume(n,Type::Integer)'); % informs
Matlab that n is an integer;
% this enables simplification.
%
a = @(f,t,n,T) (2/T)* int(f*cos(2*n*pi*t/T),t,-T/2,T/2);%
calculates coefficients a_n for function f(t).
b = @(f,t,n,T) (2/T)*int(f*sin(2*n*pi*t/T),t,-T/2,T/2); %
calculates coefficients b_n for function f(t).
% Here T is the period.
%
% The following calculates the Fourier series of f(t) with
N terms:
fourierseries = @(f,t,N,T) a(f,t,0,T)/2 + symsum(a(f,t,n,T)*
cos(2*n*pi*t/T) +
b(f,t,n,T)*sin(2*n*pi*t/T), n, 1, N)
%
% now define the function whose Fourier series we are inter-
ested in:
f = (heaviside(t+pi)-heaviside(t+pi/2))*pi/2 + (heaviside(t+pi/2)-
heaviside(t-pi/2))*abs(t)
+ (heaviside(t-pi/2)-heaviside(t-pi))*pi/2
% display the Fourier series nicely, showing 5 terms
% set precision to 4dp to avoid clumsy display
digits(4)
vpa(fourierseries(f,t,5,2*pi))
%
% plot a graph using 5 terms and the original function for
comparison
%
fplot(f,[-pi,pi])
hold on
fplot(fourierseries(f,t,5,2*pi),[-pi,pi])
This yields the following series as output:
1.178 - 0.02546*cos(5.0*t) - 0.07074*cos(3.0*t) -
0.6366*cos(t) - 0.3183*cos(2.0*t)
and the graph shown in Figure 1.7.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/17/18 9:21 PM Page 1225
1.2 Calculating a Fourier series 1225 24
π
2
−π π π π
− O
2 2
Figure 1.7
Graphs of f (t) and its Fourier series, generated by Matlab,
calculated with five terms.
Fourier series of odd functions and even functions
When a function is odd, its Fourier series will contain no cosine or constant terms.
Consequently an = 0 for all n.
When a function is even, its Fourier series will contain no sine terms. Conse-
quently bn = 0 for all n.
These facts will enable you to save considerable effort during the calculation of a
Fourier series.
Convergence of the Fourier series
There are certain conditions that must be satisfied before we can be sure that a
Fourier series truly represents the function f (t). These conditions, which are called
the Dirichlet conditions, state that the integral 1 ƒ f (t) ƒ dt over a complete period
must be finite, and f (t) may have no more than a finite number of discontinuities in
any finite interval. Fortunately, most functions of interest to engineers satisfy these
conditions. At any point where f (t) is continuous, the Fourier series converges to f (t).
At any point where f (t) is discontinuous, the Fourier series converges to the average
of the two function values at either side of the discontinuity. So, referring to the
graph shown in Example 1.1, the Fourier series converges to the value 1 when x = 2
say, because f (t) is continuous there and equal to 1, but converges to the value 12
when x = 5, the point of discontinuity, and 12 is the average of the function values on
either side of x = 5.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:40 AM Page 1226
24 1226 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Exercises
1 (a) Sketch a graph of the function with period 3 Find the Fourier series representation of the
2p defined by function
-p 6 t 6 - p2 f (t) = e
0 2(1 + t) -1 … t … 0
f (t) = c 4 - p2 … t … p2 0 0 6 t 6 1
p
0 2 6 t 6 p of period 2.
(b) Find the Fourier series for this function.
2 Find the Fourier series representation of the
function
f (t) = e
-4 -p 6 t … 0
4 0 6 t 6 p
of period 2p.
Solutions to exercises
8 np
a2 sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + . . . b
8 2 2
1 (b) a0 = 4, an = sin , bn = 0 2
np 2 p 3 5
8 8
a cos pt - sin pt - sin 2pt
f (t) = 2 + cos t - cos 3t 1 2 2 1
p 3p 3 +
2 p p 2
8
cos 5t . . . cos 3pt - sin 3pt . . . b
+ 2 1
5p +
9p 3
1.3 Half-range Fourier series
T
When a function is not periodic but is defined only over a finite interval, 0 6 t 6
say, as shown in Figure 1.8, a Fourier series can still be calculated. 2
Figure 1.8 f(t)
A function defined
over the interval
T t
0 6 t 6 . O T
2 2
We perform a periodic extension of the function. This can be done in several
ways, but two useful extensions generate an even or an odd function as shown in
Figures 1.9(a) and (b). As noted earlier this simplifies the calculation of a Fourier
series.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/16/18 9:22 AM Page 1227
1.3 Half-range Fourier series 1227 24
Figure 1.9 (a)
(a) An even f(t)
periodic extension.
(b) An odd
t
periodic extension. − T2 O T
2
(b) f(t)
t
− T2 O T
2
Whichever extension we choose the resulting Fourier series gives a representation
T
of the original function in the interval 0 6 t 6 . If the extension is even we obtain
2
a so-called half-range cosine series; if the extension is odd, the result is a half-range
sine series. The Fourier series formulae given on pages 1216–1217 can still be used
but it can be shown that they can be simplifed as follows:
T
Key point For f (t) defined on the interval 0 6 t 6 :
2
Half-range sine series
q T/2
2npt 4 2npt
f (t) = a bn sin where bn = f (t) sin dt
n=1 T T L0 T
Half-range cosine series
q T/2 T/2
a0 2npt 4 4 2npt
f (t) = + a an cos where a0 = f (t)dt, an = f (t) cos dt
2 n=1 T T L0 T L0 T
Example 1.8
0 6 t 6 12
L 2 - 2t
2t
Consider the function defined by f (t) = 1
2 6 t 6 1.
(a) Sketch f (t), 0 6 t 6 1.
(b) Sketch an odd periodic extension of f (t) having period 2, and show three full
periods.
(c) Determine the half-range sine series of f (t) and write out explicitly the first
three non-zero terms.
Solution
(a) Figure 1.10(a) shows a graph of f (t).
(b) Figure 1.10(b) illustrates the odd periodic extension. Note that the period is
T = 2.
24 1228 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Figure 1.10
(a) f(t)
(a) The function 1
f(t). (b) The odd
periodic extension, O 1 t
period 2.
(b)
−1 O 1 t
T =2
(c) We use the formulae on page 1227 with T = 2.
4 T/2 2npt
bn = f (t) sin dt
T L0 T
1
= 2 f (t) sin npt dt
L0
1/2 1
= 2a 2t sin npt dt + (2 - 2t) sin npt dtb
L0 L1/2
1/2
cos npt 1/2
= 2a c2ta - bd - b dtb
cos npt
2a -
np 0 L0 np
1
cos npt 1
+ c(2 - 2t)a - bd - (- 2) a - b dtb
cos npt
np 1/2 L1/2 np
2 sin npt 1/2 2 sin npt 1
+ c d c d b
cos(np/2) cos(np/2)
= 2a - + -
np (np)2 0 np (np)2 1/2
b
2 sin(np/2) 2 sin np 2 sin(np/2)
= 2a 2
- 2
+
(np) (np) (np)2
8 sin(np/2)
=
n2p2
Then the half-range Fourier sine series is
q
8 sin(np/2)
f (t) = a sin npt
n=1 n2p2
The first few coefficients are calculated as
8 8 8
b1 = , b2 = 0, b3 = - , b4 = 0, b5 = , ...
p2 9p2 25p2
and so the half-range sine series can be written as
8 8 8
f (t) = sin pt - sin 3pt + sin 5pt - . . .
p2 9p2 25p2
For 0 … t … 1, the Fourier series returns the value of f (t). For values of t outside of
this range, the Fourier series returns the value of the odd extension of f (t).
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1229
1.4 Fourier series in the solution of partial differential equations 1229 24
Exercises
1 Find the half-range cosine series of the 3 Find the half-range sine series representation
function defined in Example 1.8. of f (t) = 2 - t, 0 6 t 6 2.
2 Graph an appropriate periodic extension of
f (t) = 3t, 0 6 t 6 p, and hence find its
half-range cosine series.
Solutions to exercises
8 cos(np/2) - 4 - 4 cos np
+ aa b cos nt
q
3p 6 cos np - 1
1 a0 = 1, an = , 2
n2p2 2 pn=1 n2
q
a0
f (t) = + a an cos npt 4
q
sin npt/2
2
p na
n=1 3
=1 n
1.4 Fourier series in the solution of partial differential equations
An important application of Fourier series arises in the solution of partial differential equations.
In Examples 4.2–4.3 (pages 1078, 1079) we obtained the solution of the heat equation,
0u 0 2u
= c2 2 , subject to the boundary conditions u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0 in the form
npx - 1npc 22 t
0t 0x
q
u(x, t) = a Bn sin e L (1)
n=1 L
This arises in the modelling of the heat distribution in a metal bar, length L, when
both ends are maintained at temperature 0º. In order to determine the constants Bn we
need to impose a condition that prescribes the initial temperature distribution in the
bar. Suppose the initial temperature, u0(x), is given by
2 L
x 0 6 x …
u0(x) = u(x, 0) = μ
L 2
2 L
2 - x 6 x 6 L
L 2
as shown in Figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11
The metal bar and
its initial O L x
temperature u0 (x) = u(x, 0)
distribution, u0(x). 1
O L L x
2
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 11:35 AM Page 1230
24 1230 Block 1 Periodic waveforms and their Fourier representation
Then, applying the initial condition (t = 0) in equation (1) gives
q
npx
u0(x) = a Bn sin
n=1 L
Comparison with the Fourier series formulae in the Key point on page 1227, taking
T
L = and using the independent variable x instead of t, shows that u0(x) is
2
expressed as a half-range Fourier sine series
q L
npx 2 npx
u0(x) = a Bn sin where Bn = u (x) sin dx
n=1 L L L0 0 L
This integral is similar to that in Example 1.8 and can be found in the same way. It is
left as an exercise for the reader to show that
8 sin(np/2)
Bn =
n2p2
so that the solution of the p.d.e. is
npx - 1npc 22 t
q
8 sin(np/2)
u(x, t) = a sin e L
n=1 n2p2 L
This gives the temperature in the bar at any position x, 0 … x … L, at any time
t Ú 0.
Exercises
1 In Examples 4.5 and 4.6 (Chapter 21, Block 4) 2 In the End of block Exercises on page 1086
we obtained the solution of the wave (Chapter 21, block 4) the steady-state
0 2u 0 2u temperature distribution in a square plate of
equation, 2
= c2 , subject to the boundary side 1 was shown to be
0t 0x2
u(x, y) = a An sin npy 1enpx - e2npe - npx2
q
conditions u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0 in the form
q n=1
npct npx
u(x, t) = a Cn cos sin . Here u(x, t),
n=1 L L
Given that the temperature on the edge x = 0
0 … x … L, represents the displacement of a is maintained at
string of length L that is fixed at both ends. We
have assumed the string is released from rest.
u10, y2 = e
y 0 6 y 6 1/2
In order to determine the constants Cn we need
1 - y 1/2 6 y 6 1
to impose a condition describing the initial
position of the string. Show that if we impose with the temperature on the other three edges 0°,
4 L 1 4 np
x 0 6 x 6 show that An = 2np 2 2
sin .
2
u(x, 0) = μ
L 4 1 - e np
4 L
(L - x) 6 x 6 L
3L 4
32 np
then Cn = sin .
3n2p2 4
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1231
1.4 Fourier series in the solution of partial differential equations 1231 24
End of block exercises
1 Find the Fourier series representation of the 5 (a) Find the Fourier series expansion of
function f (t) = t2, 0 6 t … 2p, of period 2p.
f (t) = e
0 -p 6 t 6 0
2 Find the Fourier series representation of t2 0 6 t 6 p
t
f (t) = , 0 6 t 6 2p, of period 2p. of period 2p.
2 (b) Use the series to show that
3 Find the first four non-zero terms in the p2
q
1
Fourier series representation of a 2
=
6
n=1 n
0 -p 6 t 6 - p2 (Hint: let t = p and read the comments
f (t) = c 1 - p2 6 t 6 p2 concerning convergence at the end of
p
0 2 6 t 6 p
Section 1.2 of this block.)
(c) Use the series to show that
of period 2p.
p2
q
n+1 1
4 Show that the Fourier series representation of a (-1) =
f (x) = x, -p 6 x 6 p, of period 2p, can be n=1 n2 12
written (Hint: let t = 0.)
q 1-12n + 1
2a sin nx
n=1 n
Solutions to exercises
8p2 4 4p p2 2 cos np
1 a0 = , an = 2 , bn = - 5 (a) a0 = , an = ,
3 n n 3 n2
-1
2 a0 = p, an = 0, n Ú 1, bn = p 2
n bn = - cos np + (cos np - 1)
n pn3
acos t - cos 3t
1 2 1
3 f (t) = +
2 p 3
cos 5t - . . . b
1
+
5
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1232
Introducing the Fourier transform
BLOCK 2
2.1 Introduction
Many practical signals are not periodic. Examples are pulse signals, such as that shown
in Figure 2.1, and noise signals. Under certain conditions it can be shown that a non-
periodic function f(t) can be expressed not as a sum of sine and cosine waves but as an
integral. This idea gives rise to the Fourier transform, which is described in this block.
Figure 2.1 f (t)
A pulse signal.
2.2 Calculating a Fourier transform
The Fourier transform of a function f(t) is a function of a new variable v, which is
found from the following formula.
Key point The Fourier transform of f(t) is a function F(v) defined by
q
F{ f (t)} = F(v) = 冮-q
f (t)e-jvt dt
Some authors use alternative definitions of the Fourier transform, but the one used
here is widely accepted. However, when consulting other texts be aware of possible
variations.
It is frequently the case that when a Fourier transform is calculated the result is a
complex function, as you will see in the examples below.
Example 2.1
Find the Fourier transform of the function defined by
f (t) = e
3 -1 6 t 6 1
0 otherwise
Solution
A graph of f(t) is shown in Figure 2.2.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/16/18 11:02 AM Page 1233
2.2 Calculating a Fourier transform 1233 24
Figure 2.2 f (t)
A pulse signal.
3
t
⫺1 1
We apply the formula for finding the Fourier transform:
q
F{f (t)} = F(v) = 冮 -q
f (t)e-jvt dt
Note that in this example f (t) is defined to be zero outside the interval -1 6 t 6 1,
and so the integral reduces to
1
F{ f (t)} = F(v) = 冮 3e
-1
-jvt
dt
3e-jvt 1
= c d
-jv -1
3e-jv 3e jv
= -
-jv -jv
3e jv - 3e-jv
=
jv
sin v
This can be written as F(v) = 6 , by making use of Euler’s relations (Chapter 11,
v sin v
Block 3). Its graph is shown in Figure 2.3. The function occurs frequently and
v
is often referred to as the sinc function.
Figure 2.3 F(w)
A sinc function.
Example 2.2
Find the Fourier transform of the function f (t) = u(t)e-t where u(t) is the unit step
function.
Solution
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 2.4. Notice that it is zero when t is
negative.
Figure 2.4 f (t)
t
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1234
24 1234 Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform
The Fourier transform is
q
F(v) = 冮 -q
u(t)e-t e-jvt dt
Because u(t)e-t is zero when t is negative, the limits of integration can be altered as
follows:
q
F(v) = 冮 0
u(t)e-t e-jvt dt
Further, since u(t) = 1 when t Ú 0 the integral becomes
q
F(v) = 冮
0
e-t e-jvt dt
Carry out this integration by combining the two exponential terms into a single term:
q
e-(1 + jv)t
冮 e-(1 + jv)t dt = c d
q
F(v) =
0 -(1 + jv) 0
Complete the integration by noting that the contribution from the upper limit is zero,
because e-t tends to zero as t tends to infinity.
1
F(v) =
1 + jv
This is the required Fourier transform. Unlike the function in Example 2.1 this is
complex.
Because the Fourier transform in Example 2.2 is a complex function we cannot
immediately plot its graph. However, it is possible to find its modulus and argument,
and plot graphs of these against v. Such plots are called amplitude spectra and
phase spectra respectively.
1
The amplitude spectrum of f (t) = u(t)e-t is the modulus of which equals
1 1 + jv
. A graph of this function is shown in Figure 2.5.
21 + v2
Figure 2.5 |F(ω)|
The amplitude
spectrum of 1
f (t) = u(t)e-t.
ω
⫺10 ⫺5 5 10
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1235
2.2 Calculating a Fourier transform 1235 24
It is usual practice to make use of tables of transforms such as those shown in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Table of common Fourier transforms.
f(t) F(v)
A
Au(t)e-at, a 7 0
a + jv
e
1 -a … t … a 2 sin va
0 otherwise v
A, constant 2pAd(v)
b
j
Au(t) Aapd(v) -
v
d(t) 1
d(t - a) e-jva
cos at p3d(v + a) + d(v - a)4
3d(v - a) - d(v + a)4
p
sin at
j
2a
e-a|t|, a 7 0
a2 + v2
Maple and Matlab have built-in commands for finding Fourier, and other, trans-
forms.
Example 2.3
Use software to define and plot a graph of the two-sided decaying exponential
function f (t) = e - ƒtƒ and find its Fourier transform, F(v).
Solution
Maple
The function f (t) can be defined and plotted (here for - 4 … t … 4) using the following
command. Note that the modulus function in Maple is abs, for absolute value.
> f:=t-> exp(-abs(t));
plot(f(t),t=-4..4);
The graph is shown in Figure 2.6. In order to find the Fourier transform, the ‘integral
transform’ package must first be loaded. The following commands do this and calculate
the required transform.
> with(inttrans):
fourier(f(t),t,w);
and the output is
2
2
v + 1
2
Thus F{ f (t)} = F(v) = .
v2 + 1
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 10/17/18 9:22 PM Page 1236
24 1236 Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform
Figure 2.6 f(t)
1
A graph of the
two-sided
decaying
exponential
function.
t
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4
Matlab
>> syms t w
fplot(exp(-abs(t)),[-4,4])
then the command
f=exp(-abs(t))
fourier(f,t,w)
calculates the transform producing
2/(w^2+1)
2
Thus F{ f (t)} = F(v) = as before.
v2 + 1
Example 2.4 Electronic Engineering – Fourier analysis
and digital audio
The mechanism by which sounds can be heard is as follows. A source of sound, for
example a singer or a musical instrument, causes the air pressure in its vicinity to rise
and fall rapidly. This in turn causes a sound wave to travel through the air until
it reaches the ears of a listener, or maybe a microphone. The number of times that
the air pressure rises and falls each second is the frequency of the sound wave,
measured in cycles per second, or hertz.
If a sound wave has a frequency of 440 Hz then a listener will hear a single note,
A. If the frequency is higher than this, the pitch of the note will be higher too. If the
frequency is lower, then a lower-pitched note will be produced. Musical pieces and
songs will be made up from sounds at many different frequencies. Most human
beings can hear frequencies only in the range 20 Hz up to 20000 Hz. Sounds with
frequencies outside this range will not be heard by humans, although they may be
heard by other creatures.
When a sound wave arrives at a microphone it causes a thin diaphragm to vibrate
at the same frequency. This motion is converted into an electrical voltage within the
microphone. This electrical voltage is a time-domain signal. The voltage will vary
with time just as the frequency of the sound varies as the musical pitch is changed
during the course of a song or piece of music. To store this continuous voltage signal
on a digital computer or CD we take samples of it and store these instead. To obtain
a high-quality recording we need to take a large number of samples every second.
Then, by taking the Fourier transform we can determine which sound frequencies
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1237
2.2 Calculating a Fourier transform 1237 24
are being sung or played. A form of Fourier transform especially adapted to deal
with sampled signals is known as the discrete Fourier transform, or DFT.
For a good introduction to the mathematics underlying the DFT the reader is referred to
Engineering Mathematics: A Foundation for Electronic, Electrical, Communications and
Systems Engineers, 5th edn by A. Croft, R. Davison, M. Hargreaves and J. Flint (Pearson
Education).
One of the technical difficulties associated with storing digital audio is the
enormous volume of data that has to be stored. If some of these data can be dis-
carded then this problem can be reduced. One way this can be achieved is to
ignore any sounds having frequencies greater than 22000 Hz. An important result
in digital audio theory is called the Nyquist sampling theorem. This states that a
signal needs to be sampled at a rate that is twice the highest signal we want to
record. Hence if we want to record a signal as high as 22 kHz we need to sample
at 44 kHz. It is for this reason that, for CD purposes, an audio signal is sampled at
44100 times each second. We have already shown in Chapter 5, Section 2.8, that
with 16-bit technology, and at this sampling rate, we need around 10 megabytes
to store a 1-minute stereo recording.
An extremely important modern application of mathematics is to find ways in
which these large files can be reduced in size or compressed. PC users will know
that there are techniques for compressing binary data files. Some of these techniques
are known as loss-less. This means that none of the original information is lost in the
compression process. Audio .wav files are produced by loss-less compression.
Unfortunately such files are still enormous. The key to achieving substantial savings
in file size is to introduce so-called lossy compression. The most widely known lossy
compression technique is MP3. This technique works by dividing the frequency
range into a large number of different bands. Within each band some of the fre-
quency components are discarded. This is possible because of the way the human ear
works. For example, suppose two very close frequencies are being sounded, one
played loudly and one played quietly. The quieter sound is masked by the louder one
and so its corresponding frequency component can be discarded without a noticeable
effect on the sound heard.
To understand compression techniques such as MP3 thoroughly requires not only
a knowledge of the physiology of the human ear but also a good understanding of the
Fourier transform and related techniques.
Exercises
1 Find, using Table 2.1, the Fourier transform of 3 Find, using Table 2.1, the Fourier transform of
f (t) = 4.
f (t) = e
1 -1 … t … 1
0 otherwise 4 Find, using Table 2.1, the Fourier transform of
f (t) = e-3t if t 7 0 and 0 otherwise.
2 Find, by direct integration, the Fourier
transform of
f (t) = e
e-t tÚ0
et t … 0
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1238
24 1238 Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform
Solutions to exercises
2 sin v
1 3 8pd(v)
v
2 1
2 4
1 + v2 3 + jv
2.3 The frequency-domain representation of a non-periodic function
Under certain conditions a non-periodic function f (t) can be expressed in the following
form:
q
冮
1
f (t) = F(v) e jvt dv
2p -q
where F(v) is the Fourier transform of f (t). Such a representation is called a Fourier
integral representation.
Example 2.5
Find the Fourier integral representation of the function f (t) given in Example 2.1.
Solution
In Example 2.1 the pulse function was shown to have Fourier transform
6 sin v
F(v) = . Hence the Fourier integral representation of the pulse is
v
q
冮
1 6 sin v jvt
f (t) = e dv
2p -q v
2.4 Linearity of the Fourier transform
The Fourier transform possesses a property known as linearity, which can be used to
find transforms of a wider range of functions than those already discussed.
Key point The Fourier transform is a linear transform. This means that if k is a constant:
F{ f (t) + g(t)} = F{ f (t)} + F{g(t)}
F{kf (t)} = kF{ f (t)}
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1239
2.4 Linearity of the Fourier transform 1239 24
Example 2.6
Use the linearity properties and the table of transforms to find the Fourier transform
of u(t)e-t + u(t)e-2t.
Solution
The transforms of u(t)e-t and u(t)e-2t can be obtained separately from the table.
1
F{u(t)e-t} =
1 + jv
1
F{u(t)e-2t} =
2 + jv
Now write down the required Fourier transform:
1 1
+
1 + jv 2 + jv
Exercises
1 Find the Fourier transform of
3u(t) - 7u(t)e-3t.
Solutions to exercises
3 apd(v) - b -
j 7
1
v 3 + jv
End of block exercises
1 Find the Fourier transform of 6u(t)e-3t. where a is a constant. Use this theorem to find
the Fourier transform of
2 Find the Fourier transform of f (t) = 5 for
e2jt
g(t) = e
-3 … t … 3
-2 … t … 2, and 0 otherwise.
0 otherwise
3 Find the function f (t) that has Fourier
transform 5 The second shift theorem states that if F(v) is
the Fourier transform of f (t) then
3 7
F(v) = - F{ f (t - a)} = e-jav F(v)
2 + jv 1 + jv
(a) Prove this theorem from the definition of
the Fourier transform.
4 The first shift theorem states that if F(v) is (b) Given that
the Fourier transform of f (t) then
1
F{e jat f (t)} = F(v - a) F{u(t)e-t} =
1 + jv
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1240
24 1240 Block 2 Introducing the Fourier transform
use the second shift theorem to find 6 Find the Fourier transform of f (t) = 7 for
F{u(t + 4)e -(t + 4)
} -3 … t … 3, and 0 otherwise.
(c) Verify the result in (b) by direct
integration.
Solutions to exercises
6 2 sin 3(v - 2)
1 4
3 + jv v - 2
e4jv
10 sin 2v 5 (b)
2 1 + jv
v
14 sin 3v
3 3u(t)e-2t - 7u(t)e-t 6
v
End of chapter exercises
1 (a) Sketch a graph of the function f (t) = e-|t|. 5 (a) Sketch a graph of three cycles of the
(b) Show from the definition of the Fourier function with period 2p given by
transform that
ƒtƒ
2 f (t) = 1 - , -p … t 6 p
p
F{f (t)} = F(v) = 2
1 + v (b) Find its Fourier series representation.
(c) Show that the Fourier transform of f (t) is
6 Find the Fourier series representation of the
an even function of v.
function with period 2 given by
f (t) = e
2 Sketch a graph of f (t) = e-|3t| and find its 3t 0 6 t 6 1
Fourier transform. 3 1 6 t 6 2
3 (a) Sketch a graph of 7 Find the Fourier series representation of the
function with period 0.02 defined by
f (t) = e
-2t
e t 7 0
f (t) = e
-e2t t 6 0 1 0 … t 6 0.01
0 0.01 … t 6 0.02
(b) Find the Fourier transform of f (t).
(c) Show that this Fourier transform is purely 8 Find the Fourier series representation of the
imaginary. function with period 1 given by
0 6 t 6 12
f (t) = e
t
4 (a) Sketch a graph of u (-t) where u(t) is the 1
0 2 6 t 6 1
unit step function.
(b) Sketch a graph of f (t) = 7e2tu(-t). 9 From the definition of the Fourier transform
(c) Find the Fourier transform of f (t). find F (v) when f (t) = u(t)te-3t.
M24_CROF5939_04_SE_C24.QXD 9/29/18 10:41 AM Page 1241
End of chapter exercises 1241 24
Solutions to exercises
6 3 3
2 6 a0 = 92, an = (cos np - 1), bn = -
9 + v2 n2p2 np
31 - (-1)n]
-2jv 1
3 (b) 7 a0 = 1, an = 0, for n Ú 1, bn =
np
4 + v2
(-1)n + 1
3(-1)n - 1], bn =
1
7 8 a0 = 14, an =
4 (c) 2p2n2 2pn
2 - jv
1
9
4 (3 + jv)2
5 (b) bn = 0, a0 = 1, an = 2 2
if n is odd and
np
zero if n is even.
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1242
Typical examination papers
This section contains two typical examination papers, with questions
drawn from a wide range of topics within the book.
Full solutions are available on the Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.co.uk/croft.
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1243
Paper 1
1 (a) Express as partial fractions
x - 8
2x2 + 3x - 2
(b) Solve the equation
2v2 - v + 6 = 0
(c) Simplify the following expression as much as possible:
sin 2A(tan A + cot A)
2 (a) Consider the function
2x
f(x) =
x2 - x - 2
(i) State any poles of f.
(ii) Sketch f.
(iii) State the equations of any asymptotes of f.
(b) The function g is defined by
g(t) = 5(3 - 2e-t ), t Ú 0
(i) State the domain of g.
(ii) State the range of g.
(iii) Calculate the maximum possible value of g.
(iv) Calculate the value of t at which g = 10.
3 (a) Given
A = a b, B = a b, C = a b
1 -2 0 4 2 3 1
4 3 -3 2 -1 0 4
find, if possible,
(i) AB (ii) CB (iii) ƒ B ƒ (iv) B-1 (v) the transpose of C
If a calculation is not possible then state this clearly.
(b) Consider the system
4x - 3y = 7
x + 6y = -32
(i) Write the system in the form
DX = E
where D and E are matrices and X = a b .
x
y
-1
(ii) Calculate D .
(iii) Use matrix multiplication to find X and hence state the values of x and y.
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1244
1244 Typical examination papers
4 (a) The vectors a and b are given by
a = (4, 2, -1) b = (2, -3, 1)
Calculate
(i) a # b
(ii) ƒ a ƒ and ƒ b ƒ
(iii) the angle between a and b.
(b) Vectors c and d are given by
c = (5, 3, -2) d = (-1, 4, 1)
Calculate
(i) a unit vector that is perpendicular to c
(ii) a unit vector that is perpendicular to d
(iii) a unit vector that is perpendicular to both c and d.
(c) Given vectors u, v and w the triple scalar product is u # (v * w).
Show that
u # (v * w) = (u * v) # w
5 The function y is defined by
y(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 - 36x + 9
(a) Determine dy
dx .
2y
(b) Determine ddx2.
(c) Locate and identify all maximum and minimum points of y.
(d) Locate all the points of inflexion of y.
6 (a) Evaluate
2 3
冮 冮 ae b dx
-2x 2
(i) (cos 3x - 1) dx (ii) +
0 1 x
(b) Use a suitable substitution to evaluate
2
冮
0
x2 2x3 + 9 dx
(c) Evaluate
2
冮 3xe
1
2x
dx
7 (a) The complex numbers z1, z2 and z3 are defined by
z1 = 3 + 2j z2 = 1 - 3j z3 = -2 + j
(i) Calculate ƒ z2 ƒ .
(ii) Calculate z1z2 in cartesian form.
(iii) Calculate zz2 in cartesian form.
3
(iv) Express z1 in polar form.
(b) Form the quadratic equation whose roots are z = -3 + 2j and z = -3 - 2j.
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1245
Paper 2
1 (a) Solve the following trigonometrical equation, stating all the solutions
between 0° and 360°:
4 sin u = 3 cos u
(b) Express 4 sin 2t - 3 cos 2t in the form R cos(2t + a), a Ú 0°. Hence find
the smallest positive value of t for which
4 sin 2t - 3 cos 2t = 4
(c) Figure Q1 shows three forces acting at the origin. Find the resultant force.
Figure Q1 y
7N
5N
50° 40°
30° x
9N
2 (a) If
1 0 1
(7A) -1
= £1 1 0≥
1 0 0
find A.
(b) Determine the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of the system
9x + 4y = lx
-2x + 3y = ly
3 (a) Find all values of z such that
z3 = j
State your solutions in polar form.
(b) An LCR circuit has a voltage source of 2 V applied with a frequency of 103 Hz,
a capacitor of 1.5 * 10-4 F, an inductor of 3 * 10-3 H and a 6 Æ resistor.
Calculate the complex impedance in cartesian form.
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1246
1246 Typical examination papers
(c) Describe the path traced out by a point represented by the complex number
z = 2e ju
as u varies from 0 to p.
4 A uniform lamina is enclosed by the curve y = 2x2 + 1, x = 1, x = 2 and the
x axis.
(a) Sketch the lamina.
(b) Calculate the volume generated when the lamina is rotated about the x axis.
(c) Show that the moment of inertia of the lamina about the y axis is 13M
5 where
M is the mass of the lamina.
5 (a) The sequence x3k4 is defined by
2k + 1
x[k] = , k = 2, 3, 4, . . .
3k + 1
(i) State the third term.
(ii) State the limit of x3k4 as k tends to infinity.
(iii) State a sequence g3k4 that has identical terms to x3k4 but which starts at
k = 0.
(b) A function f (x) is such that f (0) = 3, f ¿(0) = -2, f –(0) = 1 and f ‡(0) = 4.
Using the Maclaurin series state a cubic approximation to f (x). Hence find an
approximation to f (0.5).
(c) Find the first three non-zero terms in the binomial expansion of f (x) = 21 + x2.
State the range of validity of your approximation.
6 (a) Consider the differential equation
dy
x = x + y, y(1) = 2
dx
(i) Write the equation in standard form
dy
+ Py = Q
dx
(ii) Determine the integrating factor.
(iii) Find the general solution.
(iv) Find the particular solution satisfying y(1) = 2.
(b) Solve
d2y dy
- - 2y = x + e2x, y(0) = 0, y¿(0) = 0
dx2 dx
7 (a) State the Laplace transform of (i) t sin 3t, (ii) e-2tt sin 3t. [Hint: Use the first
shift theorem.]
1 s
(b) Calculate the inverse Laplace transform of (i) 2 , (ii) 2 .
s + 4s + 5 s + 4s + 5
(c) Solve the following differential equation using Laplace transforms:
dx
+ 3x = 1 + t, x(0) = 0
dt
Z01_CROF5939_04_SE_Z01.QXD 10/3/18 7:45 AM Page 1247
Paper 2 1247
8 (a) The lifetimes of 50 experimental batteries are measured to the nearest
10 hours and recorded as follows:
Lifetime of cell Number of batteries
40 13
50 12
60 9
70 13
80 2
90 1
(i) Calculate the mean lifetime.
(ii) State the median lifetime.
(iii) Calculate the standard deviation.
(b) Metal bars are subject to one of three hardening processes, A, B and C, before
being used in the manufacture of measuring gauges.
After hardening each bar is examined for surface defects. Any bar with
surface defects is rejected. Of 650 bars, 250 are hardened using process A,
200 by process B and 200 by process C. Of those undergoing process A, 230
are accepted, of those undergoing process B, 185 are accepted, and of those
undergoing process C, 178 are accepted.
(i) Out of 100 bars picked at random, calculate the number expected to be
rejected.
(ii) If a bar selected at random is rejected, calculate the probability that it
was hardened by process A.
(iii) The length of time for which bars are subjected to the hardening process
is carefully controlled and follows a normal distribution with a mean of
450 minutes and a standard deviation of 12 minutes. Of the 650 bars,
calculate the number whose hardening time lies between 440 minutes
and 455 minutes.
9 (a) A function, f (t), has a period of 2p and is defined on (0, 2p) by
f (t) = e
t 0 … t … p
0 p 6 t 6 2p
Calculate the Fourier series of f (t). State the first four non-zero terms.
(b) Calculate the Fourier transform of f (t) defined by
0 t 6 0
f (t) = μ
t 0… t … 1
2 - t 16 t … 2
0 t 7 2
Z02_CROF5939_04_SE_Z02.QXD 10/3/18 8:29 PM Page 1248
Appendix 1
SI units and prefixes
Throughout the book SI units have been used. Below is a list of these units together
with their symbols.
Quantity SI unit Symbol Prefix Symbol
length metre m 1018 exa E
mass kilogram kg 1015 peta P
time second s 1012 tera T
frequency hertz Hz 109 giga G
electric current ampere A 106 mega M
temperature kelvin K 103 kilo k
energy joule J 102 hecto h
force newton N 101 deca da
power watt W 10-1 deci d
electric charge coulomb C 10-2 centi c
potential difference volt V 10-3 milli m
resistance ohm ⍀ 10-6 micro m
capacitance farad F 10-9 nano n
inductance henry H 10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1249
Index
alloys, composition of 53, 55 asymptotes 198, 199
A amplifiers 319, 321–2 attenuation 321
amplitude augmented matrices 615, 617–19
acceleration 139, 673 modulation 375–6 row-echelon form of 620–1, 624–5
constant 143, 194, 213 of trigonometrical functions 364–5 auxetic materials 55
addition 3, 65 of waves 387 auxiliary equations of differential
of algebraic fractions 114–16 amplitude spectra 1234 equations 1025–32
associativity of 3 analytical methods 977 average rate of change 743–4
of vectors 678 angles 337–40 average values of functions 842, 935–8
commutativity of 3 of depression 426–7 averages
of vectors 678 of elevation 425–6, 427–9 mean 1133–4
of complex numbers 456–7 between line and plane 735–6 of binomial random variables 1183
of fractions 25–6 phase 393–4 of frequency distributions 1135–7
of like terms 88–9 between two vectors 709–10 median 1138–9
of logarithms 309 units 337–40, 424–5 mode 1139
of matrices 526–7 angular frequency 387–90, 394–7 axes
of vectors 677–80, 688–9, 696 approximations, small-angle 969–70 real and imaginary 465–6
addition law of probability 1156–8 arbitrary constants 987 right-handed set 1055–6
adjoint matrices 566–8 areas 673 three-dimensional 1055–6
admittance 277–8, 518 bounded by curves 847–55 x and y 147–8
aerofoil 484 parts of which lie below x axis projections onto 353–4
algebra 852–5 reflections in 580–3
algebraic expressions 65–9 of circles 120–1, 145 volumes of revolution 903–8
arguments of functions 144 of surfaces of revolution 932–3 axial direction 54–5
collecting like terms 88–9 of triangles 722–3
factorisation 99–100 under velocity–time graphs 850–1
removing brackets 91–7 Argand diagrams 465–6
algebraic fractions 66, 106 arguments B
addition 114–16 of complex numbers 469–70
cancelling common factors 106–9 of functions 143–4 back substitution 618
division 110–13 arithmetic mean see mean banking of an aircraft 749–51
multiplication of 110–13 arithmetic sequences 951–3 bar charts 1171
reciprocals of 66–8 arithmetic series 952 bases 72, 85–6
subtraction 114–16 arrangements 62–3 of exponential functions 293
formulae 68, 119 arrays 530 of logarithms 306–8
rearranging 125–31 associativity basis vectors 685
substitution 119–23 of addition 3 beams
solving inequalities 264–5 of vectors 678 bending moments in 194–6, 232–3,
see also indices; symbolic algebra of multiplication 4, 65–6 837–8
packages of matrices 535
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1250
1250 Index
bending of 991–3 chords 743 subtraction 456–7
shear forces in 182–3 circuit voltages 604–5 complex planes 465–6
bearings 429–32 circles, areas of 120–1, 145 complex roots 235–6
bending moments 194–6, 232–3, 837–8 closed intervals 60 components of vector 687
Bessel function 973, 974 coding theory 62–3 composite functions 155–6
of order zero 973 coefficients composite transformations, in computer
binary digit 85 damping 1124 graphics 589–92
binary numbers 85–6 discharge 151 compound events 1148–9
binomial distribution 1177–9, 1180–2, equating 244–5 compression techniques, digital audio
1189–91 Fourier 1216–17 86, 1237
binomial expansion 961 of linear equations 218 computer-aided design (CAD) 256
binomial random variables 1177, 1183 of linear functions 177, 179 computer-aided manufacture (CAM)
binomial theorem 961–6 of polynomial expressions 77 256
bits 85–6 of quadratic expressions 101 computer algebra packages 70
block diagrams 140–1, 155 of restitution 128–9, 131 differential equations 1011–14,
Bode plots 331 of stiffness 182 1017–18
BODMAS rule 6–7, 73 cofactors of matrix elements 549 integration 857–60, 864–5
boundary conditions 1075, 1079–81, column vectors 687 plotting graphs of functions 152–3
1229 combination notation 1179–80 computer graphics and matrices 572
brackets 7–8, 73, 91–7 common denominators 25 composite transformations 589–92
branch currents 51, 224, 655 lowest 114–16 reflection 580–3
breakdown rates 5 common differences of arithmetic representation of points 572–3
breaking forces 1133 sequences 951 rotation 578–80
Brinell hardness 123, 124 common factors 100 scaling 576–7
byte 86 cancelling 106–9 shearing 584–5
highest 13–14 transformation matrices 575
common ratios of geometric sequences transformations of lines 575–6
953–5 translation 586–8
C communication networks, reliability concave down curve 819, 820
96–7, 122 concave up curve 819, 820
cables, tension in 345–6 commutativity concavity 819–20
capacitance 513 of addition 3 conditional probability 1159–62
capacitors of vectors 678 conductance 67–8
complex impedance 515–17 of multiplication 4, 65 cones, volumes of 213
discharge of 296 of scalar product of vectors 706 constant-coefficient linear differential
phase relationships 513 see also non-commutativity equations 983–5
reactance of 67–8, 212–13 compact disc technology 86, 1236–7 constant terms
voltage across 744 complementary events 1150 of linear equations 218
car crash testing 181–2 complementary functions of differential of linear functions 177, 178–9, 180
car suspension 224–6 equations 1021–32, 1045 of polynomial expressions 77
cartesian form completing the square 238–40, 1111–12 of quadratic expressions 101
of functions 165 complex conjugates 455–6, 492 constants 64, 77
of vectors 685 complex impedance 515–17 arbitrary 987
direction ratios and cosines 693–4, complex numbers 450 engineering 84
698–9 addition 456–7 exponential 291, 293
equations of lines 729–30 Argand diagrams 465–6 of integration 829
equations of planes 732 arguments of 469–70 of proportionality 128, 151, 282, 283,
in n dimensions 700–1 De Moivre’s theorem 480, 496–9 1124
in three dimensions 695–9 division of 459–62, 477–80 spring 641
in two dimensions 685–94 equal 455 continuous data 1131–2
catenary curves 173, 301 exponential form of 492–4 continuous functions 168–70
centigrade, converting to kelvin 141 in form r(cos u + j sin u) 474–6 contour plots 1052–4
centres of mass Joukowski transformation 484–8 convergence criteria 950
of collections of point masses 910–15 locus of a point 480–3 convergence of Fourier series 1225
of plane lamina 915–22 modulus of 467–9 converging sequences 947–8, 950
chain rule 779–82, 1067–8 multiplication of 458–9, 477–80 cooling
change phasors 514–17 Newton’s law of 297–8
(delta) notation 68–9, 746–7 polar form 470–2, 477–80 temperature of cooling liquids 22–3,
percentage 49 real and imaginary parts 452, 454–6 34
rates of 743–8 roots of 510 coordinates 148
see also differentiation solving polynomial equations 504–10 homogeneous 586–8
characteristic equations 634–6 square roots of negative numbers cosecant 348
452–4 hyperbolic 299–301
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1251
Index 1251
cosine with infinite limits 845, 860 by separation of variables
definitions 342, 354–6 and integration by substitution 877–8 995–1001
direction cosines of vectors 693–4, as limit of a sum 898–9 writing in standard form 1003–4
698–9 degrees (angles) 337, 424–5 differentiation 771, 742
hyperbolic 173, 299–303, 837 degrees of polynomials 78, 193, 243–4 chain rule 779–82, 1067–8
inverse 349–50, 377 degrees (temperature) 141 equations of normals 805–6
power series expansion 490, 491, 492 delta functions 207 equations of tangents 799–801
properties 342–7 (delta) notation 68–9, 746–7 evaluating derivatives 761–2
see also trigonometry denominators 4, 20, 66 finding higher derivatives 764–7,
cosine rule 419–23 common 25 1070–3
cosine series, half-range 1227 lowest common 114–16 implicit 785–9
cosine waves 375–6, 390 of rational functions 197, 200 integration as reverse of 828–9
see also engineering waves of transfer functions 248–9 logarithmic 795–7
cotangent 348 dependent variables 148, 149, 980–1 Newton–Raphson method 801–4
hyperbolic 299–301 depression, angles of 426–7 parametric 791–3
Cramer’s rule 603–5 derivatives 748–9 partial 1060
cross product see vector product of evaluating 761–2 higher derivatives 1070–3
vectors higher 764–7, 1070–3 with product, quotient or chain rule
crush 181 Laplace transform of 1116–17 1067–8
cryptography 10 partial 1060, 1064, 1065, 1070–3 with respect to x 1061–5
cube roots 81 tables of 755–8, 759–60 with respect to y 1065–6
cubic expressions 78, 244 see also differentiation stationary values of functions of
currents, electrical 284, 604, 611 determinants 544 two variables 1087–91
branch currents 51, 224, 655 of 2 x 2 matrices 544–7 points of inflexion 819–22
decay of 297, 305 of 3 x 3 matrices 550–2 product rule 773–5, 1067–8
and differential equations 984–5, of 4 x 4 matrices 553–4 quotient rule 776–7, 1067–8
1004 Cramer’s rule 603–5 stationary points 809–10
Kirchhoff’s current law 224 evaluating vector products 721–3 first-derivative test 810–16
and Laplace transform 1121–3 expanding along rows or columns of functions of two variables
mesh currents 655–60 550 1087–91
Ohm’s law 119, 138, 139, 515–16 and minors of elements 548 second-derivative test 816–18
phase relationships 512–13 properties of 555–9 tables of derivatives 755–8, 759–60
rate of change of 762 DFT (discrete Fourier transform) 1237 digital audio technology 86, 1236–7
root-mean-square value of sinusoidal diagonal dominance in matrices 653 digital image processing 524
939–40 difference 3, 65 digital signals 700–1, 712–13
through diodes 318–19 difference of two squares 103–4 diodes 318–19
curve fitting 256–7 differential equations 977–8, 980, 1076 directed line segments 673–6
curves auxiliary equations of 1025–32 direction cosines of vectors 693–4,
areas bounded by 847–55 complementary functions of 698–9
catenary 173, 301 1021–32, 1045 direction of vectors 671
lengths of 929–31 computer packages 1011–14, direction ratios of vectors 693, 698–9
cycles of functions 171 1017–18 Dirichlet conditions 1225
cycloids 934 conditions 987 discharge coefficients 151
cylinders, volumes of 121, 1052 constant-coefficient linear 983–5 discontinuities 168, 203
dependent and independent variables discontinuous functions 168–70
980–1 discrete data 1131
homogeneous form 1021–3 discrete Fourier transform (DFT) 1236
D linearity of 982–3 displacement 672, 673
order of 981–2 distance 672, 673
damping coefficient 1124 partial 1075–6 distinct real roots 235–6
data see statistics particular integrals of 1034–40 distributivity
De Moivre’s theorem 480, 496–9 solving 985–7 laws of 91
decay, exponential 294 with computer packages 1011–14, of scalar product of vectors 706
decibels (dB) 319, 321–2 1017–18 of vector product of vectors 718–19
decimal numbers 37–43, 85 by direct integration 988–93 diverging sequences 948
decimal places 37, 40 by Euler’s method 1014–17 division 4, 66
rounding 40 general solutions 987, 1011–12, of algebraic fractions 110–13
significant figures 42–3 1040–4 of complex numbers 459–62, 477–80
decimal points 37 with integrating factors 1003, of fractions 31–2
definite integrals 1005–9 domains of functions 148–50
evaluating 840–3 with Laplace transform 1118–25 maximal 212
finding exactly 858–60 particular solutions 1013–14 dot product see scalar product of vectors
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1252
1252 Index
double roots 233, 235–6 exponentiation 72–4 for vector product of vectors 719–20
dynamic systems 978 exponents 72–4, 291 Fourier coefficients 1216–17
extension Fourier integral representation 1238
of metal wires 30 Fourier series 973, 1215–25
of springs 49, 189, 213, 282–3 half-range 1226–8
E in solution of partial differential
equations 1229–30
eigenvalues 632–6 waveform synthesis using 974
eigenvectors 637–43 F Fourier transform 1232–9
elementary row operations on matrices discrete (DFT) 1237
622–5 factorials 61–3 Fourier’s law of heat conduction 753
elevation, angles of 425–6, 427–9 factorisation 10, 99–104 fractional indices 80–3
elimination methods 252–7 by equating coefficients 244–5 fractions 4, 20
Gaussian 623–5 prime 10–16 algebraic 66, 106
energy 120, 673 solving quadratic equations 231–3 addition 114–16
engineering constants 84 factors 99 cancelling common factors 106–9
engineering waves common 100 division 110–13
adding 394–7 cancelling 106–9 multiplication 110–13
amplitude of 387 highest 13–14 reciprocals of 66–8
angular frequency of 387–8, 394–7 integrating 1003, 1005–9 subtraction 114–16
frequency of 391–2 linear 271–5 equivalent 21–3
oscilloscope traces 389–90 quadratic 271, 276–8 improper 20, 270–1
period of 368–9, 388–90 finite sequences 947 partial fractions of 278–80
phase of 393–4 first-derivative test 810–16 inverted 31
rectified half sine waves 368–9 first derivatives 764 mixed 27
time displacement of 392–4 first-order differential equations 981 operations on 25–32
time-varying waves 386 solving partial 270
see also periodic waveforms with integrating factors 1003, 1005–9 finding inverse Laplace transform
equals sign 68 by separation of 995–1001 1113–14
equating coefficients 244–5 writing in standard form 1003–4 of improper fractions 278–80
equations 68 first shift theorem integration using 885–6
characteristic 634–6 Fourier transform 1239 of proper fractions 271–8
curve, normal to 805–6 Laplace transform 1127 percentages 47–9
involving logarithms and fluids proper 20, 270–1
exponentials 316–19 composition of 56 partial fractions of 271–8
linear 218–26 discharge from tanks 151, 983–4 simplest form of 21–3
of straight lines 187–9 flow rate 284 see also ratios
of tangents 799–801 flow round corners 1054 free variables 256, 617
trigonometrical 377–84 head of tank 1000 free vectors 676
vector equations of lines 726–30 heat flow in insulated pipes 130–1 frequency 391–2
vector equations of planes 731–2 temperature of cooling liquids 22–3, 34 angular 387–8, 394–7
see also differential equations; temperature, in pipe 1077–8 of sound wave 1236
polynomial equations; quadratic see also gases frequency distributions 1135–7
equations; simultaneous equations forces 435, 673, 674–5 functions 138
equilibrium position 1124 on bars 22 arguments of 143–4
equivalent fractions 21–3 breaking forces 1133 average values of 842, 935–8
Euler’s method 1014–17 moments of 722 Bessel 973
Euler’s relations 491–2 in pulley systems 611–12 complementary 1021–32
even functions 172–4, 1225 resolution of 435–8, 679–80 composition of 155–6
examination papers 1242–7 resolution of forces 435–8 continuous 168–70
experimental probability 1147 resolution on inclined plane 438–40 delta 207
exponential constant 291, 293 resultant of forces 440–4, 678–9 dependent and independent variables
exponential decay 294 shear forces in beams 182–3 148, 149, 980–1
exponential expressions 291–2 on tank walls 843 discontinuous 168–70
simplifying 292 in trusses 346–7 domains of 148–50
solving equations involving 316–19 formulae 68, 119 maximal 212
exponential form of complex numbers integration by parts 867–71 even 172–4, 1225
492–4 rearranging 125–31 exponential 291, 293–8
exponential functions 291, 293–8 reduction 873 power series expansions 490–2, 968
power series expansions 490–2, 968 for scalar product of vectors 708–9 two-sided decaying 1235
two-sided decaying 1235 solving quadratic equations 234–7 Fourier integral representation 1238
exponential growth 294 substitution in 119–23 Fourier series 1215–25
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1253
Index 1253
Fourier transform 1232–9 Gauss–Seidel method 650–3 heat transfer
graphs of 147–51 Gaussian elimination 623–5 by conduction 1078–81, 1084–5
hyperbolic 173, 299–303, 837 general solutions during quenching 1000–1
inputs and outputs of 140–1, 142 of differential equations 987, heights of towers 426, 427–9
inverse 161–3 1011–12, 1040–4 hertz (Hz) 391–2
limits of 169–70 of partial differential equation 1077 higher derivatives 764–7
linear 177–83 geometric sequences 953–5 higher partial derivatives 1070–3
linear independence of 1024 geometric series 955 highest common factors 13–14
logarithmic 314 gradients homogeneous coordinates 586–8
Maclaurin series 967–70 of straight lines 179–81, 181–4, homogeneous differential equations
many-to-one 159–61 187–8 1021–3
mathematical modelling 138–40 of tangents 745–8, 755 Hooke’s law 186, 282, 1124
modulus 201–2 graph paper 326–30 horizontal asymptotes 198, 199
odd 174–5, 1225 graphs 147–51 hyperbolic functions 173, 299–303, 837
one-to-one 160–1 amplitude spectra 1234 hyperbolic identities 301–3
parametric representations of 165–7 areas bounded by curves 847–55 hypotenuse 341
periodic 171 Bode plots 331
points of inflexion 819–22 computer packages for 152–3
polynomial 192–6 contour plots 1052–4
Maclaurin 968–9 discontinuities 168, 203 I
Taylor 972 of even functions 172–3
probability density 1172–4 of exponential functions 293–5 identities 68
normal 1194–5 of functions of two variables 1052–4, hyperbolic 301–3
ramp 212 1055–8 trigonometrical 372–6, 500–2,
ranges of 148–50 of linear functions 177–83 888–90
rational 196–200 log–linear 323–4, 326–9, 330–1 identity matrices 525, 538, 563–4
root-mean-square values of 938–40 log–log 324–6, 329–31 imaginary axes 465–6
as rules 140–2 of logarithmic functions 314 imaginary numbers 452, 454–6
signum 212 of modulus functions 201–2 see also complex numbers
sinc 1233 of odd functions 174–5 impedance, complex 515–17
stationary points 809–10 phase spectra 1234 implicit differentiation 785–9
first-derivative test 810–16 of polynomial functions 193 improper fractions 20, 270–1
of functions of two variables of rational functions 197–9 partial fractions of 278–80
1087–91 solving inequalities 267–8 impulse functions 207
second-derivative test 816–18 solving polynomial equations 249–50 inconsistent equations 255
Taylor series 971–2 solving quadratic equations 241 increments 68–9
transfer 68 solving simultaneous equations indefinite integrals 829
poles of 248–9 257–9 finding exactly 857–8
trigonometrical 360–70 three-dimensional 1055–8 tables of 830–3
amplitude of 364–5 of trigonometrical functions 360, 361, independent events 1163–6
graphs of 360, 361, 362, 363–4 362, 363–4 independent variables 148, 149, 980–1
integration of 888–91 of unit step functions 202–6 indices 72–86
periodic properties 365, 366–70 velocity–time 850–1 fractional 80–3
of two variables 1050–2 Greek alphabet 64 index notation 72–4
contour plots of 1052–4 growth, exponential 294 laws of 74–7, 291, 292
stationary points of 1087–91 negative 79–80
three-dimensional graphs of polynomial expressions 77–8, 192,
1055–8 193
unit impulse 207 H powers and bases 85–6
unit step 202–6 scientific notation 83–4
see also Laplace transform; straight half-range cosine series 1227 inductance 513
lines half-range sine series 1227 inductors
hardness complex impedance 515–17
Brinell 123, 124 phase relationships 513
Vickers 409–11 inequalities
G head, of liquid in tank 983, 1000 solving algebraically 264–5
heat conduction, Fourier’s law of 753 solving using graphs 267–8
gains, signal 319, 321–2 heat equation 753, 1075–6 symbols 261–3
gases one-dimensional 1078–81 inertia, moments of 124, 923–6
composition of 53–4 heat flow parallel axis theorem 927
compression of 50 in insulated pipes 130–1 perpendicular axis theorem 927
expansion of 851 through a window 753–4 infinite limits of integrals 845, 860
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1254
1254 Index
infinite sequences 947–8 root-mean-square values of functions properties of 1102–4
infinite series 949–51 938–40 second shift theorem 1127
infinity 60 rules of 835–8 solving differential equations
sum to 950–1 solving differential equations by 1118–25
inflexion, points of 819–22 988–93 tables of 1098–101
inhomogeneous differential equations by substitution 874–83 Laplace’s equation 1072–3
1021 tables of integrals 830–3 steady-state heat conduction and
general solutions of 1040–4 of trigonometrical functions 888–91 1084–5
particular integrals of 1034–40 volumes of revolution 903–8 two dimensions 1076–7
initial conditions 1075 inter-arrival times 5 law of conservation of mass 984
of differential equations 987 inter-breakdown times 5 laws of distributivity 91
initial value problems 987 Internet security 10 law of heat conduction (Fourier) 753
inputs to functions 140–1, 142 intersection laws of indices 74–7, 291, 292
integers 3 of line and plane 733 laws of logarithms 309–12
see also positive integers of two planes 734–5 laws of probability 1156–8, 1163–6
integral sign 829 intervals 60 LCR circuits 512, 516, 984–5
integrals inverse functions 161–3 leading diagonals of square matrices
definite inverse Laplace transform 1107–14 597
evaluating 840–3 completing the square 1111–12 length of a curve 929–31
finding exactly 858–60 using partial fractions 1113–14 limit of a sum, integration as 895,
with infinite limits 845, 860 inverse matrices 544, 563–8, 609–12 897–901
and integration by substitution of 2 x 2 matrices 564–6 limits
877–8 general case 566–8 of functions 169–70
as limit of a sum 898–9 inverse proportion 284–5 of infinite sequences 947–8
indefinite 829 inverse trigonometrical ratios 349–50, of integrals 840
finding exactly 857–8 377 infinite 845, 860
tables of 830–3 inverted fractions 31 linear differential equations 982–3
particular 1034–40 inverted numbers 60–1 linear equations 218–26, 1077
see also Laplace transform iterative techniques solving 220–6
integrands 829 Gauss–Seidel method 650–3 see also simultaneous equations
integrating factors 1003, 1005–9 Jacobi’s iterative method 646–9 linear expressions 78, 243–4
integration 826 linear factors 271–5
areas bounded by curves 847–55 linear functions 177–83
areas of surfaces of revolution 932–3 linear inequalities 264–5
average values of functions 935–8 J linear transforms 1102
centres of mass Fourier 1232–9
of collections of point masses Jacobi’s iterative method 646–9 see also Laplace transform
910–15 Joukowski aerofoil 487–8 linearity
of laminae 915–22 Joukowski transformation 484–8 of differential equations 982–3
computer packages 857–60, 864–5 of Fourier transform 1238–9
constants of 829 of Laplace transform 1107–8
definite integrals linearly independent functions 1024
evaluating 840–3 lines see straight lines
finding exactly 858–60 K liquids see fluids
with infinite limits 845, 860 local maxima 809
and integration by substitution kelvin, converting centigrade to 141 local minima 809
877–8 kinetic energy 120 locus of a point 480–3
as limit of a sum 898–9 Kirchhoff’s current law 224 log–linear graphs 323–4, 326–9,
as differentiation in reverse 828–9 Kirchhoff’s voltage law 655–60, 985 330–1
Fourier series 1215–25 log–log graphs 324–6, 329–30
indefinite integrals 829 logarithmic differentiation 795–7
finding exactly 857–8 logarithmic functions 314
tables of 830–3 L logarithms 306–14
lengths of curves 929–31 bases of 306–8
as limit of a sum 895, 897–901 laminae laws of 309–12
moments of inertia 923–6 centres of mass 915–22 log–linear graphs 323–4, 326–9,
numerical methods moments of inertia 923–6 330–1
Simpson’s rule 863–5 laminar flow 151 log–log graphs 324–6, 329–31
trapezium rule 861–3 Laplace transform 1096–7 natural 307
with partial fractions 885–6 of derivatives 1116–17 signal gains 319, 321–2
by parts 867–71 first shift theorem 1127 solving equations involving 316–19
by reduction formulae 873 inverse 1101, 1107–14 lossy and loss-less compression 1236
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1255
Index 1255
lower limit of integral 840 and minors of elements 548 parallel axis theorem 927
lowest common denominator 114–16 properties of 555–9 perpendicular axis theorem 927
lowest common multiples 14–16 diagonal dominance 653 MP3 technology 1237
eigenvalues 632–6 multiplication 3–4, 65–6
eigenvectors 637–43 of algebraic fractions 110–13
electrical networks 655–60 associativity of 4, 65–6
M elementary row operations 622–5 of matrices 535
elements 523 commutativity of 4, 65
Maclaurin polynomials 968–9 cofactors 549 of complex numbers 458–9,
Maclaurin series 967–70 minors 548–9 477–80
magnitude place signs 549 of fractions 28–30
of complex numbers 467–8 identity 525, 538, 563–4 of matrices 534–40
of vectors 671, 675 inverse 544, 563–8, 609–12 by numbers 528–30
main diagonals of square matrices 525 modal 645 of polynomial expressions 243–4
many-to-one functions 159–61 multiplication of 534–40 of vectors by scalars 682–3, 689
Maple software 70 by numbers 528–30 see also scalar product of vectors;
complex numbers 461, 462 orthogonal 597 vector product of vectors
differential equations 1012, 1013, singular 546, 564 multiplication law of probability
1018 skew symmetric 597 1163–6
differentiation, higher derivatives solving simultaneous equations music technology 86, 1236–7
766–7 Cramer’s rule 603–5 mutually exclusive events 1155–6
eigenvectors 641, 643 Gauss–Seidel method 650–3 mutually perpendicular axes 695
integration 858, 859, 860, 864 Gaussian elimination 623–5
for matrix calculations 530–1, 540 inverse matrix method 609–12
partial fractions 280 Jacobi’s iterative method 646–9
plotting graphs of functions 152–3 square 525, 538 N
prime numbers 11, 12 subtraction 526–7
mass 672, 673 symmetric 597 n-dimensional vectors 700–1
centres of transpose of 525–6, 527, 539 natural logarithms 307
of collections of point masses see also computer graphics and negative indices 79–80
910–15 matrices negative numbers 3
of plane lamina 915–22 matrix form of simultaneous equations and inequalities 262
law of conservation of 984 607–9 square roots of 452–4
per unit area 916–18 augmented matrices 615, 617–19 negative vectors 676
mass–spring–damper systems 1123–4 maximal domains of functions 212 Newton–Raphson method 801–4
mathematical modelling 138–40 maximum points see stationary points Newton’s law of cooling 297–8
mathematical notation 59–69 maximum power transfer 815–16 newtons (N) 435
Matlab software 70 mean 1133–4 nodes, in electrical circuits 224
complex numbers 461, 462 of binomial random variables 1183 non-commutativity
differential equations 1011, 1012, of frequency distributions 1135–7 of matrix multiplication 535
1013, 1014, 1018 mean values of functions 842, 935–8 of vector product of vectors 718
differentiation, higher derivatives 767 mean-square values 939 non-linear differential equations 982–3
eigenvectors 643 median 1138–9 non-standard normal distribution
integration 858, 859, 860, 865 mesh currents 655–60 1206–8
for matrix calculations 530–1, 540 method of sections 346–7 non-trivial solutions 628
partial fractions 280 minimum points see stationary points normal distribution 1194–5
plotting graphs of functions 153 minors of matrix elements 548–9 non-standard 1206–8
prime numbers 12 minutes (angles) 424–5 standard 1196–205
matrices 523–4 mixed fractions 27 tables of probabilities 1198–205
addition 526–7 modal matrices 645 normal probability density function
adjoint 566–8 mode 1139 1194–5
augmented 615, 617–19 modulus 61, 263 normalised vectors 713
row-echelon form of 620–1, 617–19 of complex numbers 467–9 see also unit vectors
determinants 544 of vectors 673 675, 682–3 normals to curves 799, 805–6
of 2 x 2 matrices 544–7 in n dimensions 700–1 norms of vector 700–1
of 3 x 3 matrices 550–2 in three dimensions 697 not equals sign 68
of 4 x 4 matrices 553–4 in two dimensions 691–2 notation 59–63
Cramer’s rule 603–5 modulus functions 201–2 combination 1179–80
evaluating vector products 721–3 moments 910, 911–12 (delta) notation 68–9, 746–7
expanding along rows or columns bending 194–6, 232–3, 837–8 differentiation 748–9
550–2 of forces 722 higher derivatives 764–6
of inertia 124, 923–6
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1256
1256 Index
factorial 61–3 complex 465–6
functions 141 P intersection of line and 733
index 72–4 intersection of two 734–5
inequalities 261–3 parallel axis theorem 927 vector equations of 731–2
integration 829 parallel lines 178, 180 plus or minus sign 60
logarithms 307 parameters 165 points of contact of tangents 799–801
modulus 61, 263 parametric differentiation 791–3 points of inflexion 819–22
scientific 83–4 parametric representations of functions Poisson distribution 1185–91
sigma 69, 946 165–7 Poisson ratio 54–5
symbols 60, 64–9 partial derivatives 1060, 1064, 1066, polar form of complex numbers 470–2,
trigonometrical equations 377–8 1070–3 477–80
number lines 59–60, 261 partial differential equations 1072–3, poles
numbers 1075–7 of rational functions 200
bases 85–6 Fourier series in solution of 1229–30 of systems 546
binary 85–6 solution of 1077–8 of transfer functions 248–9
decimal 37–43, 85 partial differentiation 1060 polynomial equations 243, 246
decimal places 37, 40 higher derivatives 1070–3 solving
rounding 40 with product, quotient or chain rule with complex numbers 504–10
significant figures 42–3 1067–8 graphical methods 249–50
factorials 61–2 with respect to x 1061–5 when one solution is known 247–9
highest common factors 13–14 with respect to y 1065–6 see also linear equations; quadratic
imaginary 452, 454–6 stationary values of functions of two equations
lowest common multiples 14–16 variables 1088–9 polynomial expressions 77–8, 192, 193,
modulus of 61 partial fractions 270 243
negative 3 finding inverse Laplace transform factorisation 101–4, 244–5
and inequalities 262 1113–14 multiplication of 243–4
square roots of 452–4 of improper fractions 278–80 in rational functions 196–200
notation 59–63 integration using 885–6 polynomial functions 192–6
operations on 3–8 of proper fractions 271–8 Maclaurin 968–9
prime 10–16 partial sums, sequences of 949–51 Taylor 972
reciprocals of 60–1 particular integrals of differential position matrices 572
roots of 81–3 equations 1034–40 position vectors 572, 689–90, 695–6
see also complex numbers; particular solutions of differential positive displacement pumps 121–2,
fractions equations 1013–14 128
numerators 4, 20, 66 parts, integration by 867–71 positive integers 3
of rational functions 197 Pascal’s triangle 961–2 sum of cubes of first n 959
numerical integration 861 percentage change 49 sum of first n 958
numerical methods 857, 1011, 977 percentages 47–9 sum of squares of first n 958–9
Euler’s method 1014–17 periodic expressions 357 postmultiplication of matrices 535
Newton–Raphson method 801–4 periodic extension 1226 power, electrical
Simpson’s rule 863–5 periodic functions 171 gain 321–2
trapezium rule 861–3 periodic square wave 206 loss during transmission 50
Nyquist sampling theorem 1237 periodic waveforms 1215–16 maximum transfer of 815–16
Fourier series 1215–25 in resistors 283–4
see also engineering waves power of signals 701
periods power series expansions 490–2, 968–70,
O of functions 171 973
of waves 368–9, 388–90 powers see indices
octal numbers 87 permutations 63 precedence rules 6–7
odd functions 174–5, 1225 perpendicular axis theorem 927 prefixes, SI 1248
Ohm’s law 119, 138, 139, 515–16 perpendicular components of forces premultiplication of matrices 535
one-to-many rules 158–9 679–80 pressure 673
one-to-one functions 159–60 phase changes in 1119–20
open intervals 60 in electrical circuits 512–13 and fluid flow 284
order of differential equations of waves 393–4 in vessels 34
981–2 phase spectra 1234 prime factorisation 10–16
order of operations 6–8 phasors 514–17 prime numbers 10–12
origins of graphs 147 pistons 121–2 probability
orthogonal matrices 597 place signs of matrix elements 549 addition law of 1156–8
oscilloscope traces 389–90 planes complementary events 1150
outputs of functions 140–1 angle between line and 735–6 compound events 1148–9
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1257
Index 1257
conditional 1159–62 see also differentiation
experimental and theoretical 1146–7 rational functions 196–200 S
independent events 1163–6 ratios 51–5
of k occurrences from n trials 1180–2 Poisson 54–5 saddle points 1087–8
multiplication law of 1163–6 RC circuit 516–17 sawtooth pulses 205–6
mutually exclusive events 1155–6 reactance 67–8, 212 sawtooth waves 185–6, 1215
tables of 1198–205 real number lines 59–60 scalar product of vectors 703–5
tree diagrams 1151–3 real parts of complex numbers 454–6 angle between two vectors 709–10
probability density functions 1172–4 reciprocals components of vectors 711–13
normal 1194–5 of algebraic fractions 66–8 formulae for 708–9
probability distributions 1169–71 and negative indices 79 properties of 706–7
binomial 1177–9, 1180–2, 1189–91 of numbers 60–1 scalars 671–3, 706–7
normal 1194–5 of trigonometrical ratios 348 multiplication of vectors by 682–3,
non-standard 1206–8 rectified half sine waves 368–9 689
standard 1196–205 reduction formulae 873 scaling, in computer graphics 576–7
tables of probabilities 1198–205 reflection, in computer graphics 580–3 scientific notation 83–4
Poisson 1185–91 reliability 97 secant 348
product rule 773–5, 1067–8 removing brackets 91–7 hyperbolic 299–301
products 3–4, 65 repeated linear factors 274–5 second-derivative test 816–18
projectiles 893, 990–1 repeated roots 233, 235–6 second derivatives 764
projections 353–4 resistance, electrical 283, 284, 612 second-order differential equations 981
proper fractions 20, 270–1 equivalent 129–30 complementary functions of
partial fractions of 271–8 phase relationships 512–13 1021–32, 1045
proportionality 282–5 resistivity 283 general solutions of 1040–4
constants of 128, 151, 282, 283, 1124 resistors particular integrals of 1034–40
pulley systems 611–12 complex impedance 515–17 second partial derivatives 1070–3
pulse waves 205 equivalent resistance 1219–30 second shift theorem
pumps, positive displacement 121–2, maximum and minimum values 50 Fourier transform 1239
128 Ohm’s law 119, 138, 139, 515–16 Laplace transform 1127
Pythagoras’s theorem 403–4 in parallel 127 seconds (angles) 424–5
phase relationships 512–13 sections, method of 346–7
power in 283–4 separation of variables method
tolerance bands 130 995–1001
Q voltage across 130, 119 one dimensional heat equation
resolution of forces 435–8, 679–80 1078–81
quadrants 352–3 on inclined plane 438–40 wave equation 1081–4
quadratic equations 230–1 restitution, coefficient of 128–9, 131 sequences 943, 945
solving resultant of forces 440–4, 678–9 arithmetic 951–3
by completing the square 238–40 revolution, surfaces of 932–3 converging 947–8, 950
with complex numbers 504–5 revolution, volumes of 903–8 geometric 953–5
by factorisation 231–3 right-angled triangles 341, 403 infinite 947–8
by formulae 234–7 Pythagoras’s theorem 403–4 of partial sums 949–51
graphical methods 241 solving 405–11 series 943, 946
quadratic expressions 78, 243–4 right-handed screw rule 715–16 arithmetic 952
factorisation 101–4 root-mean-square values of functions first n positive integers
quadratic factors 271, 276–8 938–40 sum of 958
quality control 23, 48–9, 50 roots 81–3 sum of cubes of 959
quantisation 86 complex 235–6 sum of squares of 958–9
quenching, heat transfer during 1000–1 of complex numbers 510 Fourier 973, 1215–25
quotient rule 776–7, 1067–8 distinct real 235–6 half-range 1226–8
quotients 4, 66 of equations 219, 231, 246 geometric 955
of negative numbers 452–4 infinite 949–51
repeated 233, 235–6 Maclaurin 967–70
surd form 222, 236 power series expansions 490–2,
rotation, in computer graphics 578–80 968–70
R rounding 40 Taylor 971–2
row-echelon form of augmented shear forces in beams 182–3
radians 338–40 matrices 620–1, 624–5 shearing, in computer graphics 584–5
ramp functions 212 row vectors 687 SI units and prefixes 1248
ranges of functions 148–50 sigma notation 69, 946
rates of change 743–8 signal gains 319, 321–2
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1258
1258 Index
signal modulation 375–6 square, completing the 238–40, angles of elevation and depression
signal ratio 321–2 1113–14 425–9
significant figures 42–3 square matrices 525, 538 bearings 429–32
signum functions 212 square roots 81–3 Symbolic Math Toolbox 1011, 1012
simple harmonic motion 999, 1031–2 of negative numbers 452–4 symbols 60, 64–9
simply supported beams 182–3 squares, difference of two 103–4 symmetric matrices 597
Simpson’s rule 863–5 stability of systems 493–4, 546 system poles 546
simultaneous equations 188, 252 standard deviation 1141–4 systems of linear equations see
with infinite number of solutions standard normal distribution 1196–205 simultaneous equations
255–6, 617, 619 state matrices 546
matrix form of 607–9 stationary points 809–10
augmented matrices 615, 617–19 first-derivative test 810–16
with no solution 255, 617–18 of functions of two variables 1087–91 T
solving nature of 1090–1
Cramer’s rule 603–5 second-derivative test 816–18 tail of a vector 674
elimination methods 252–7 statistics taking logs 316–19
Gauss–Seidel method 650–3 continuous data 1131–2 tangent (trigonometry)
Gaussian elimination 623–5 discrete data 1131 definitions 342, 354–6
graphical methods 257–9 mean 1133–4 hyperbolic 299–301
inverse matrix method 609–12 of frequency distributions 1135–7 inverse 349–50, 377
Jacobi’s iterative method 646–9 median 1138–9 properties 342–7
trivial and non-trivial solutions mode 1139 see also trigonometry
628–31 standard deviation 1141–4 tangents
types of solution 255–6, 617–19 variance 1141–4 equations of 799–801
sinc function 1233 stiffness coefficient 182 gradients of 745–8, 755
sine straight lines 177 Newton–Raphson method 801–4
definitions 341, 354–6 angle between plane and 735–6 Taylor polynomials 972
hyperbolic 299–303, 837 distance between two points 189–90 Taylor series 971–2
inverse 349–50, 377 equations of 187–9 temperature 673
power series expansion 490, 491, gradients of 179–81, 184–6, 187–8 converting centigrade to kelvin 141
492, 969 intersection of plane and 733 of cooling liquids 22–3, 34
properties 342–7 linear functions 177–83 distribution in metal plates 1053,
see also trigonometry transformations of 575–6 1058
sine rule 413–18 vector equations of 726–30 expansion of metal with 50
sine series, half-range 1227 strain 39, 54–5 of fluid in pipe 1077–8
sine waves 360, 389–90 streamfunction 1054 gradients as derivatives 751–2
rectified half 368–9 stroke, piston 121 heat flow in insulated pipes 130–1
see also engineering waves subscripts 64 heat transfer during quenching
singular matrices 546, 564 substitution 1000–1
skew symmetric matrices 597 back 618 of metal bars 23
small-angle approximations 969–70 in formulae 119–23 Newton’s law of cooling 297–8
software see Maple software; Matlap integration by 874–83 tensile strength 39
software; symbolic algebra subtraction 3, 65 tension
packages of algebraic fractions 114–16 in cables 345–6
solids of revolution 903–8 of complex numbers 456–7 in springs 186
volumes generated by rotating areas of fractions 25–6 theoretical probability 1146–7
about y axis 906–8 of like terms 88–9 theoretical pump delivery 121–2, 128
solutions 68 of logarithms 309–10 thermal conductivity 753
of partial differential equation 1077–8 of matrices 526–7 third derivatives 764
sound wave, frequency of 1236 of vectors 680–1, 696 three-dimensional graphs 1055–8
surd form 222, 236 sums 3, 65 three-dimensional vectors 695–9
spectral matrices 645 of infinite series 949–51 thrust 225
speed 672 sequences of partial sums 949–51 thyristors 937–8
spheres, volumes of 145 sigma notation 69, 946 time displacement of waves 392–4
spring constant 641 to infinity of geometric series 955 time-varying waves 386
spring stiffness 225, 1124 see also addition; series towers, heights of 426, 427–9
springs superposition 1077 transfer functions 68
extension of 49, 189, 213, 282–3 superscripts 64 poles of 248–9
mass–spring–damper systems surd form 222, 236 transformation matrices 575
1123–4 surfaces of revolution, areas of 932–3 translation, in computer graphics 586–8
tension in 186 surveying 424–32 transpose, of a matrix 525–6, 527, 539
Z03_CROF5939_04_SE_Z03.QXD 10/3/18 8:34 PM Page 1259
Index 1259
transposition units, SI 1248 components of vectors 711–13
of formulae 125–31 unstable systems 494, 547 formulae for 708–9
transverse direction 54–5 upper limit of integral 840 properties of 706–7
trapezium rule 861–3 subtraction of 680–1, 696
tree diagrams 1151–3 unit 682–3, 685–7, 695, 713
trial in binomial distribution 1177 vector product of 703, 716–18
probability of k occurrences from n V evaluating with determinants
trials 1180–2 721–3
triangle law 677–8 values of functions 141 formulae for 719–20
triangles average 842, 935–8 properties of 718–19
and angles of elevation and variables 64, 138 velocity 138–9, 143, 672, 673
depression 425–9 binomial random 1177, 1183 velocity–time graphs 850–1
areas of 722–3 continuous 1131–2 vertical asymptotes 198, 199
right-angled 341, 403 dependent and independent 148, 149, vertical intercepts 178–9, 180
Pythagoras’s theorem 403–4 980–1 vibrating circular membrane 973
solving 405–11 discrete 1131 vibration 284–5, 1123–4
solving using cosine rule 419–23 free 256, 617 eigenvalues and eigenvectors and
solving using sine rule 413–18 separation of variables method 641–3
trigonometrical equations 377–84 995–1001 Vickers hardness 409–11
trigonometrical functions 360–70 variance 1141–4 voltage 160–1, 284, 604–5
amplitude of 364–5 of binomial random variables 1183 across capacitors 744
graphs of 360, 361, 362, 363–4 vector equations of lines 726–30 across diodes 318–19
integration of 888–91 vector equations of planes 731–2 across resistors 130, 119
periodic properties 365, 366–70 vector norm 700–1 complex impedance 515–17
trigonometrical identities 372–6, 500–2, vector product of vectors 703, 716–18 gain 319, 322
888–90 evaluating with determinants 721–3 Kirchhoff’s voltage law 656–60, 985
trigonometrical ratios formulae for 719–20 Ohm’s law 119, 138, 139, 515–16
definitions 341–2, 348, 354–6 properties of 718–19 phase relationships 512–13
in four quadrants 352–8 vector sums 679 in transmission lines 303
inverse 349–50, 377 vectors 671–3 volumes
power series expansions 490, 491, addition of 677–80, 688–9, 696 of cones 213
492, 969, 970 cartesian form 685 of cylinders 121, 1052
properties 342–7 direction ratios and cosines 693–4, generated by rotating areas about y
small-angle approximations 969–70 698–9 axis 906–8
trigonometry equations of lines 729–30 of revolution 903–8
cosine rule 419–23 equations of planes 731–2 of spheres 145
resolution of forces 435–8 in n dimensions 700–1 volumetric efficiency of pumps 128
resolution on inclined plane 438–40 in three dimensions 695–9
resultant of forces 440–4 in two dimensions 685–94
sine rule 413–18 components of 687
solving right-angled triangles 405–11 equal 675–6 W
surveying equations of lines 726–30
angles of elevation and depression equations of planes 731–2 wave equation 1076, 1081–4
425–9 heads and tails of 674 waveform synthesis using Fourier series
bearings 429–32 mathematical description of 673–6 974
trivial solution 628–31, 1080 modulus of 673, 675, 682–3 waves
trusses 346–7 in n dimensions 700–1 cosine 375–6, 390
turning effect see moments in three dimensions 697 pulse 205
in two dimensions 691–2 sawtooth 185–6, 1215
multiplication by scalars 682–3, 689 sine 360, 389–90
negative 676 rectified half 368–9
U position 572, 689–90, 695–6 see also engineering waves; periodic
resolution of forces 679–80 waveforms
uniform rate of temperature change 752 resultant of forces 678–9 weight 672
unit impulse functions 207 right-handed screw rule 715–16 work 673
unit step functions 202–6 scalar product of 703–5
unit vectors 682–3, 685–7, 695, 713 angle between two vectors 709–10
CROFT AND ANTHONY CROFT AND ROBERT DAVISON
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS DAVISON
Fifth edition
MATHEMATICS
ENGINEERS
MATHEMATICS FOR
Understanding key mathematical concepts and applying them successfully to solve problems are vital skills
FOR ENGINEERS
that all engineering students must acquire. Mathematics for Engineers introduces, teaches, develops and
nurtures those skills. Practical, informal and accessible, it begins with the foundations and gradually builds
upon this knowledge as it introduces more complex concepts. Learn everything you will need for your first year
engineering mathematics course, together with a wealth of introductory material for even more advanced
topics such as Laplace and Fourier transforms and partial differential equations.
Key features
• Applications of mathematics are drawn from a wide range of engineering areas: aeronautical, automotive,
FIFTH EDITION
chemical, civil, computer, electrical and electronic, manufacturing, materials, mechanical, production,
reliability, and systems engineering.
• Hundreds of interactive examples are provided in the context of various engineering disciplines, so you
are able to both engage with the problems and also see the relevance of the maths to your wider studies.
• A wealth of practice and revision exercises with solutions help test your knowledge.
• Key points and important results are highlighted throughout.
• Computer and calculator examples and exercises are incorporated in relevant sections.
• Specimen examination papers give further opportunity to practise.
• A foundation section gives you a firm base in arithmetic, the building block of many high-level
mathematical topics.
New to this 5th edition
• Significant enhancements integrating the use of computer software in the solution of engineering
mathematics problems.
• Widening of the applications base to include more from mechanical, materials and aeronautical
engineering.
• Introductory material on the solution of partial differential equations, loci in the complex plane and the
equation of a circle.
Anthony Croft is Emeritus Professor of Mathematics Education at Loughborough University and
FIFTH
Robert Davison spent over 30 years teaching and writing mathematics for higher education students. EDITION
They have authored many best-selling mathematics textbooks including several for engineering students.
Cover image: © shutterstock Premier/ Ekaphon maneechot www.pearson-books.com
CVR_CROFT_05_53640.indd 1 12/12/18 9:45 AM
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