Lectures 10-11

Particle interactions with matter

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 1

9.0 Overview
„ 9.1 Introduction „ 9.3 Photons in matter
„ 9.2 Charged particles in „ Overview
matter „ Photoelectric effect
Raleigh scattering
Classification of
„
„
Compton scattering
interactions
„

„ Pair production
„ Non-radiating interactions
(ionisation) „ Comparison of cross-
„ Radiating interactions sections
„ Ionisation and the Bethe- „ Z & A dependence of
Bloch formula (BBF) cross-sections
„ Radiating interactions „ Similarities between pair
„ Cherenkov-radiation production and
„ Bremsstrahlung Bremsstrahlung
„ Synchrotron-radiation
„ The em-shower
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 2
 12.1 Introduction
(why do we need to know this)

„ Measure properties of nuclei through decay products

„ Measure energy, momentum, mass & charge of particles with
„ M ∈ [0 (γ) ; few 100 GeV (fission fragment)]
„ Ekin ∈ [keV (Radioactivity) ; few GeV (accelerator experiments)]
„ Q/e ∈ [0 (γ,n); O(100) (fission fragments)]
„ Need to translate microscopic particle properties into
quantitatively measurable macroscopic signals
„ Do this by interactions between particles and matter
„ Which interactions would be useful?
„ Weak? Î Too weak at low (nuclear) interaction energies
„ Strong? Î Some times useful but often noisy (strong fluctuations, few
interactions per distance)
„ EM? Î Underlies most nuclear and particle physics detectors (L12)
„ Energies released ≤ Ekin(particle) often too small for direct
detection Î need amplification of signals (see detector
section L12)
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 3

12.1 Introduction
„ Particle Ranges
a) If smooth energy loss via many steps a)
(i.e. ionisation from light ions)
Î sharply defined range, useful for rough
energy measurement via range
b) If a few or a single event can stop
the particle (i.e. photo-effect)
Î exponential decay of particle beam b)
intensity,
Î decay constant can have useful
energy dependence
Î No range but mean free path defined
c) Sometimes several types of c)
processes happen (i.e. high energy
electrons)
Î mixed curves, extrapolated
maximum range
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 4
 12.1 Introduction
„ Particles we are interested in
„ photons
„ exponential attenuation at low E, often get absorbed in single events
„ detect secondary electrons and ions liberated in absorption process.
„ charged particles
„ sharper range (continuously loose energy via ionisation)
„ leave tracks of ionisation in matter Î measure momentum in B
„ sometimes radiate photons Î can be used to identify particle type
„ neutrons
„ electrically neutral Î no first-order em-interaction Î devils to detect
„ react only via strong force (at nuclear energies!)
„ long exponential range (lots of nuclear scattering events followed by
absorption or decay)
„ need specific nuclear reactions to convert them into photons and/or
charged particles when captured by a target nucleus
„ if stopped, measure decay products, e- + p + ν
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 5

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(classification of interactions)

„ If particle or medium emit photons, coherent with

incoming particle Î radiation process
„ Bremsstrahlung, Synchrotron-radiation: emitted by particle
„ Cherenkov-radiation: emittted by medium
„ If no coherent radiation Î non-radiating process
„ Ionisation, scattering of nuclei or atoms
„ Note: Scintillation is a secondary process in which
the light is emitted after ionisation or atomic
excitation. It is NOT a radiation process as the
radiation is not coherent with the primary particle

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 6
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(non radiating interactions, what to collide with)

„ What could a charged particle collide with in matter?

„ Atomic electrons (“considered free”)
Î large energy loss ΔE≈q2/2me (small me, q=momentum transfer)
Î small scattering angle
„ Nuclei
Î small energy loss (ΔE=q2/2mnucleus)
Î large scattering angle
„ Unresolved atoms (predominant at low energies)
Î medium energy loss ΔE=q2/2meeff<q2/2me because:
meeff(bound)>me(free)
Î medium scattering angle
Î atoms get excited and will later emit photons (scintillation)

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 7

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula)

„ Deal with collisions of charged particles with

electrons in matter first since these give biggest
energy loss.
„ Task: compute rate of energy loss per path length,
dE/dx due to scattering of a charged particle from
electrons in matter.
„ Remember a similar scattering problem?
„ Scatter alpha particles of nuclei = Rutherford
scattering

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 8
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Comparison between Rutherford Scattering and EM-scattering of free electrons)
„ Rutherford Scattering „ Bethe-Bloch situation
„ “any” charged particle X „ any charged particle X scatters
(original used α’ s) scatters of of electron (in matter)
nucleus „ Charge(X)= Ze
„ Charge(X)=Ze Charge(electron)=1e
commonalities

„
„ Charge(nucleus)=Z’e „ MX >> Me Î no X-recoil (not
„ Mnucl >> MX Î no nuclear-recoil true for X=e-)
„ first order perturbation theory „ first order perturbation theory
(Z*Z’*αem<<1) (Z*Z’*αem<<1)
„ electro magnetic point ↔ point „ electro magnetic point ↔ point
scattering scattering
Î no form-factors Î no form-factors

spin-0 scatters of spin-0 spin-0 scatters of spin-½

differences

„ „

„ non-relativistic „ could be relativistic

„ nucleus assumed unbound „ electron is often bound

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 9

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Comparison between Rutherford Scattering and EM-scattering of free electrons)

„ Will initially ignore the spin and relativistic

effects when deriving first parts of Bethe
Bloch formula
„ Start with Rutherford like scattering using
electron as projectile
„ Later introduce more realistic scattering
crossection (Mott) to get full Bethe-Bloch
formula
„ Add effects for bound electrons at the end

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 10
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(From Rutherford Scattering to the Bethe-Bloch Formula)

„ Differential Rutherford-scattering crossection for electrons as projectiles

dσ Rutherford z 2α 2 ( =c )
2
−4 θ
= sin
dΩ 4 P 2V 2 2
P,V = momentum and relative velocity of electron wrt. nucleus
Z = charge of nucleus
θ = scattering angle of the electron wrt. incoming electron direction
Ω = solid angle

„ If we want to turn this process around to describe energy loss of a particle

X scattering of electrons in a solid we need to initially assume:
„ X scatters of free electrons i.e. Ekin,projectile >> Ebind,electron or Vprojectile>>Vbound-e
(deal with bound electrons later)
„ MX>>me so that reduced Mreduced(X) ≈ Mrest(X) Î will need recoil corrections to
apply results to dE/dx of electrons passing through matter

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 11

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(normal Rutherford Scattering: e- on nucleus, change of variables)

„ Change variables from Ω to q2 (q = momentum transfer to

electron) to get to frame independent form
q 2 = P 2 + P′2 − 2 PP′ cos θ
in elastic scattering of heavy nucleus : P = P′ = p ⇒
θ n,ou
t
q 2 = 2 p 2 (1 − cos θ ) = 4 p 2 sin 2 P’ elect
ro
q
2 θ
dq 2 Pelectron,in
= 2 p 2 sin θ ⎛θ ⎞ 1
sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ = (1 − cosθ )
dθ ⎝2⎠ 2
dθ 1
if no φ dependence: d Ω = 2π sin θ dθ ⇔ =
d Ω 2π sin θ
dσ dθ dσ dθ dq 2 dσ 1 dσ p 2 dσ
= = = 2 p sin θ 2 =
2

d Ω d Ω dθ d Ω dθ dq 2 2π sin θ dq π dq 2
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 12
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(normal Rutherford Scattering: e- on nucleus, change of variables)

d σ z α ( =c )
2
−4 θ
2 2

= sin
dΩ 4 p 2V 2 2
q2 θ
since: sin = 2

2 4 p2
dσ z α ( =c ) 4 p 2
2 2 2

=
dΩ V2 q4
dσ π dσ
since: =
dq 2 p 2 d Ω
dσ 4π z α ( =c )
2 2 2

=
dq 2 V 2q4
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 13

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Rutherford Scattering, change of frame to nucleus hitting e)

„ Change frame to:

„ electron stationary (in matter), nucleus moving
with V towards electron
„ p in formula is still momentum of electron moving
with relative V Î p =meγV
„ q2 is frame independent
„ non-relativistic this is obvious (do it at home)
„ Energy transfer to the electron is defined via:
„ ΔE=ν=|q2|/2me Î dν/dq2=1/2me
„ relativistic need to define q as 4-momentum transfer,
but we assume non relativistic for Rutherford anyway.
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 14
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(From inverse Rutherford scattering to the Bethe-Bloch Formula)

1 dσ 4π z α ( =c )
2
dσ dν dσ
2 2

= = =
dq 2 dq 2 dν 2me dν V 2q4
|q2|=2νme
2π z 2α 2 ( =c ) 1
2
dσ
dν = dν
dν meV 2 ν2
„ Above is probability density for a non relativistic heavy particle of charge z
to loose energy between ν and ν+dν in collision with a spin-less electron it
approaches with velocity V
„ We want as a useful quantity:
kinetic energy lost by projectile = -dT ν max
„
dσ
„ per path length dx

„ in material of atomic number density n

−dT = nZ ′dx ν
vmin
∫
d ν
dν
„ with Z’ electrons per atom
number of electrons per
length dx per crossection weighted
unit crossection area avg. energy lost per
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold electron 15

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, simple integral)

ν max
dT 1 2π Z 2α 2 (=c) 2 ⎡ 2π Z 2α 2 (=c) 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ν max ⎞ ⎤
− = nZ ′ ∫ ν 2 dν = nZ ′ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
dx ν min ν m eV 2
⎣ m eV 2
⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ν min ⎠ ⎦
„ Two of our assumptions justifying the use of
Rutherford scattering were:
„ Electrons in matter have no spin
„ Projectile travels at non relativistic speed
„ None of these are met in practise
„ We have to do all of the last 5 slides again starting
from a relativistic crossection for spin ½ electrons.

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 16
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Mott)

„ Differential Mott-scattering crossection for relativistic spin ½ electrons

scattering off a finite mass nucleus (finite mass Î e- could be target)

z 2α 2 ( =c )
2
dσ −4 θ ⎡ V2 2θ ⎤
= ⋅ −
2 ⎢⎣ c 2 2 ⎥⎦
sin 1 sin
d Ω Mott 4 P 2V 2
Rutherford term Mott term
„ If we perform the same transformations (ΩÆ q2Æ ν) with this crossection
and then perform the integral:
ν max
dσ Mott
− dT = nZ ′dx ∫
vmin
ν
dν
dν
„ we get …

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 17

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Mott integral)
Mott term

dT ⎡ 2π Z 2α 2 (=c) 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ν max ⎞ ⎛ V 2 ⎞ ⎛ ν max −ν min ⎞⎤

− = nZ ′ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ln ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
dx ⎣ m eV 2
ν
⎦ ⎣ ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2me c
2
⎠⎦
„ Valid for all charged particles A list of limits for νmax follows:
(not limited to heavy particles) Note: c=1 from here downwards!
„ νmax can be computed via
kinematics of “free” electron 2( E 2 − M 2 )
ν max = 2
since Ebind << Ekin (see Williams M
+ me + 2 E
problem 11.1 on p.246) me 2
2me c 2 β 2γ 2 if E  M and E  M 2 me and E  me then
ν max = 2
m ⎛m ⎞ ν max ≈ E (ultra relativistic incoming particle)
1 + 2γ e + ⎜ e ⎟
M ⎝M ⎠
E P if incoming particle is not relaticistic ( β  1)
with: γ = and β =
M E E = T + M and T  M
as properties of incoming 4me MT
particle ν max ≈
( M + me ) 2 18
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, νmin)

„ But what about νmin ?

„ can not assume that e is free for small energy transfers
„ ν≠q /2me because electron bound to atom
2

„ can get excited atoms in final state (not just ions)

Î our integral was wrong for the lower limit! (can’t get from
first to second line on slide 15 any more)
„ For small ν need 2-D integral dν dq depending on detailed
atomic structure
„ We need to find some average description of the atomic
structure depending only on Z and A if we want to find a
universal formula
„ This gives sizable fraction of integral but is very hard to do

„ The result is the Bethe-Bloch Formula

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 19

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula = BBF)

dT ⎛ 2π Z 2α 2 (=c) 2 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ ν max ⎞ ⎛ V 2 ⎞ ⎛ ν max −ν min ⎞ ⎤

− = nZ ′ ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ln ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
dx m V ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ν min ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2me c ⎠ ⎦
2 2
⎝ e

1 dT N A Z ′ ⎛ 4π Z 2α 2 = 2 ⎞ ⎡ 1 2me c 2 β 2γ 2ν max δ⎤
− = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ln − β 2
− ⎥ BBF
ρ dx A ⎝ me β 2 ⎠ ⎣ 2 I2 2⎦

with β = V , γ = 1
c 1- β 2
ρ = mass density = n ⋅ mt arg et − atom = n ⋅ A N 2me c 2 β 2γ 2
A ν max = 2
m ⎛m ⎞
A = molar mass, N A = Avogadro's number 1 + 2γ e + ⎜ e ⎟
M ⎝M ⎠
I = mean excitation potential
δ = density correction factor
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 20
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula = BBF)

1 dT N A Z ′ ⎛ 4π Z 2α 2 = 2 ⎞ ⎡ 1 2me c 2 β 2γ 2ν max δ⎤
− = ⎜ ⎟⎢ ln − β 2
− ⎥
ρ dx A ⎝ me β 2 ⎠ ⎣ 2 I2 2⎦
1 dT
− is called Stopping Power.
ρ dx
„ Stopping power = mean energy lost by ionisation upon perpendicularly
traversing a layer of unit mass per area.
„ Units: Mev g-1 cm2, Range: 4.1 in H to 1.1 in U
„ I=mean excitation energy; depends on atom type, I≈11*Z [eV]

in the infinitely heavy projectile ("no recoil", M  2γ me )

approximation ν max =2me c 2 β 2γ 2 and this becomes:
1 dT N A Z ′ ⎛ 4π Z 2α 2 = 2 ⎞ ⎡ 2me c 2 β 2γ 2 δ⎤
− = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ln − β 2
− ⎥
ρ dx A ⎝ me β 2 ⎠ ⎣ I 2⎦
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 21

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Bethe-Bloch features)

1 dT N A Z ′ ⎛ 4π Z 2α 2 = 2 ⎞ ⎡ 1 2me c 2 β 2γ 2ν max δ⎤
− = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ln − β 2
− ⎥
ρ dx A ⎝ me β 2 ⎠ ⎣ 2 I2 2⎦
„ δ=density correction: dielectric properties of medium shield growing range
of Lorenz-compacted E-field that would reach more atoms laterally. Without
this the stopping power would logarithmically diverge at large projectile
velocities. Only relevant at very large βγ
δ =ω p
1
(off syllabus) = ln and ω p = 28.816 ρ ( Z ′ A
+ ln βγ −
2 I 2
„ BBF as a Function of βγ is nearly independent of M of projectile except for
νmax and very weak log dependence in δ
Î if you know p and measure βγ via dT/dx Î get M (particle ID via dT/dx): See
slide 23
„ Nearly independent of medium. Dominant dependence is Z’/A ≈½ for most
elements.
„ Limitations:
„ totally wrong for very low V (ln goes negative Æ particle gains Energy = stupid)
„ correct but not useful for very large V (particle starts radiating, see next chapter)
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 22
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, variation with βγ)

Eμc = critical energy

defined via:
dE/dxion.=dE/dxBrem.
Bethe
Bloch

„ Broad minimum @ βγ≈3.0(3.5) for Z=100(7) „ Stopping Power at minimum varies from 1.1
„ At minimum, stopping power is nearly to 1.8 MeV g-1 cm2)
independent of particle type and material „ Particle is called minimum ionising (MIP)
when at minimum
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 23

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, variation with particle type)

in drift
chamber „ P=mγv=mγβc
gas
„ variation in dT/dx is
useful for particle ID
„ variation is most
pronounced in low
energy falling part of
e curve
„ if you measured P and
dT/dx you can determine
the particle mass and
thus its “name”

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 24
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Radiating Interactions)

„ Emission of scintillation light is secondary process

occurring later in time.
„ Has no phase coherence with the incident charge and is
isotropic and thus SCINTILLATION NOT A RADIATING
INTERACTION in this sense.
„ Primary radiation processes which are coherent and
not isotropic are:
„ Cherenkov radiation is emitted by the medium due to
the passing charged particle.
„ Bremsstrahlung and Synchrotron Radiation are
emitted by charged particle itself as result of its
environment.

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 25

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Cherenkov Radiation)
„ Source of E-field (Q) passing through medium at a v > vphase(light in
medium) creates conical shock wave. Like sonic boom or bow wave of a
planing speed boat.
„ Not possible in vacuum since v<c. Possible in a medium when v>c/n.
„ The Cerencov threshold at β = 1/n can be used to measure β and thus do
particle ID if you can measure the momentum as well.
„ Huygens secondary wavelet construction gives angle of shockwave as
cosθ = 1/βn, This can be used to measure particle direction and β.
A
„ In time that the particle goes from ct/n
O to P, light goes from O to A.
„ Cherenkov radiation first used θ βct
in discovery of antiproton (1954). O particle trajectory
P
„ Now often used in large water-filled
neutrino detectors and for other particle
physics detectors (see Biller).
„ Total energy emitted as Cherenkov
Radiation is ~0.1% of other dT/dx.
Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 26
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Cherenkov Radiation)

„ Picture of Cherenkov
light emitted by beta
decay electrons in a
working water cooled
nuclear reactor.

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 27

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(Bremsstrahlung = BS = Brake-ing Radiation)

„ Due to acceleration of incident charged particle in nuclear

Coulomb field γ
„ Radiative correction to Rutherford Scattering. e- e -*
e-
„ Continuum part of x-ray emission spectra.
„ Electrons “Brem” most of all particles because Ze
„ radiation ~ (acceleration) ~ mass .
2 -2

„ Lorentz transformation of dipole radiation from incident

particle frame to laboratory frame gives “narrow” (not sharp)
cone of blue-shifted radiation centred around cone angle of
θ=1/γ.
„ Radiation spectrum falls like 1/E (E=photon Energy) because
particles loose many low-E photons and few high-E photons.
I.e. It is rare to hit nuclei with small impact parameter
because most of matter is “empty”
„ Photon energy limits:
„ low energy (large impact parameter) limited through shielding of
nuclear charge by atomic electrons.
„ high energy limited by maximum incident particle energy. 28
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Bremsstrahlung Î EM-showers, Radiation length)

„ dT/dx|Brem~T (see Williams p.247, similar to our deriv. of BBF and plot on slide 22) Î
dominates over dT/dx|ionise ~ln(T) at high T.
„ Ecrit = Energy at which BR-losses exceed ionisation losses (see slide 22)
„ For electrons Bremsstrahlung dominates in nearly all materials above few
10 MeV. Ecrit(e-) ≈ 600 MeV/Z
„ If dT/dx|Brem~T Î T(x)=T0 exp(-x/X0)
„ Radiation Length X0 of a medium is defined as:
„ distance over which electron energy reduced to 1/e via many small BS-losses
„ X0 ~Z 2 approximately as it is the charge that particles interact with
„ Bremsstrahlung photon can produce e+e--pair (see later) and start an em-
shower (also called cascade, next slide)
Î The development of em-showers, whether started by primary e or γ is
measured in X0.

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 29

12.2 Charged particles in matter

(simple EM-shower model)
„ Simple shower model assumes:
„ e≈2

„ E0 >> Ecrit
„ only single Brem-γ or pair
production per X0
„ The model predicts:
„ after 1 X0, ½ of E0 lost by
primary via Bremsstrahlung
„ after next X0 both primary and
photon loose ½ E again
„ until E of generation drops
below Ecrit
„ At this stage remaining Energy
lost via ionisation (for e+-) or
compton scattering, photo-
effect (for γ) etc.
„ Abrupt end of shower happens at t=tmax = ln(E0 / Ecrit)/ln2
„ Indeed observe logarithmic dependence of shower depth on E0

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 30
 12.2 Charged particles in matter
(Synchroton Radiation)

„ Appears mainly in circular accelerators (mainly to electrons)

and limits max. energy achievable.
„ Similar to Bremsstrahlung
„ Replace microscopic force from E-field in Bremsstrahlung with
macroscopic force from vxB to keep electron on circular orbit
„ Electrons radiate only to the outside of circle because they are
accelerated inwards
„ Angle of maximum intensity of synchrotron radiation with
tangent of ring θ=1/γ
„ Synchrotron radiation = very bright source of broad range of
photon energies up to few 10 keV used in many areas of
science
„ Many astrophysical objects emit synchrotron radiation from
relativistic electrons in strong magnetic fields

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 31

13.1 Photons in matter

(Overview-I)

„ Rayleigh scattering
„ Coherent, elastic scattering on the entire atom (the blue sky)
„ γ + atom Æ γ + atom
„ dominant at λγ>size of atoms
„ Compton scattering
„ Incoherent scattering on electron from atom
„ γ + e-bound Æ γ + e-free
„ possible at all Eγ > min(Ebind)
„ to properly call it Compton requires Eγ>>Ebind(e-) to approximate free e-
„ Photoelectric effect
„ absorption of photon and ejection of single atomic electron
„ γ + atom Æ γ + e-free + ion
„ possible for Eγ < max(Ebind) + δE(Eatomic-recoil, line width) (just above k-
edge)

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 32
 13.1 Photons in matter
(Overview-II)

„ Pair production
„ absorption of γ in atom and emission of e+e- pair
„ Two varieties:
„ a) dominant: γ + nucleus Æ e + e + nucleus
+ -
recoil
„ b) weak: γ + Z*atomic e Æ e + e + Z *atomic e recoil
- + - -

„ Both variants need: Eγ>2mec2 + Erecoil

„ bigger Mrecoil gives lower threshold because Erecoil = Precoil2/2Mrecoil
„ type a) has lower threshold then type b) because Mnucl>>Meeff
„ Nucleus/atom has to recoil to conserve momentum Î
coupling to nucleus/atom needed Î strongly charge-
dependent crossection (i.e. growing with Z)
„ type a) has aproximately Z times larger coupling Î dominant

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 33

13.1 Photons in matter (Crossections)

Lead

Carbon

R Î Rayleigh PE Î Photoeffect C Î Compton PP Î Pair Production on nucleus

PPE Î Pair Production on atomic electrons PN Î Giant Photo-Nuclear dipole resonance
„ As Z increases
„ PE extends to higher E due to stronger atomic e- binding
„ PP & PPE extend to lower E due to stronger coupling of projectile to target
„ Threshold for PPE decreases as nucleus contributes more to recoil via stronger atomic
electron-nucleus bond
„ As A increases Erecoil (nucleus) decreases and threshold for PP gets closer to
minimum of 2*mec2 34
 13.1 Photons in matter
(Comparison of Bremsstrahlung and Pair Production)

Bremsstrahlung Pair production

Typical Lenth = Typical Lenth =
Radiation Length e- γ γ e- Pair Production
X0 e-* Length L0
e-*
e- e-
X0 :
distance high E e-
Ze Ze L0 :
travels before it distance high E γ
reduces its energy travels before prob.
„ Very similar Feynman Diagram for non interaction
by 1/e or
„ Just two arms swapped reduced to 1/e
E(e-)=E0*exp(-x/X0)
X0=attenuation length P(γ)=1/L0*exp(-x/L0)
L0=9/7 X0 L0=mean free path

Nov 2006, Lectures 10&11 Nuclear Physics Lectures, Dr. Armin Reichold 35