UNIVERSITETI I PRISHTINËS ”HASAN PRISHTINA”

Fakulteti i Inxhinierisë Elektrike dhe Kompjuterike

Lënda: Sistemet Operative

Funksionet e Sistemit Operativ

Artan Mazrekaj

Prishtinë, 2023

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 Dual-mode and Multi-mode Operation

▪ In order to ensure the proper execution of the system, we must be able to

distinguish between the execution of OS code and user-defined code.

▪ User Mode
 The system is in user mode when the OS is running a user application such

as handling a text editor.

 The transition from user mode to kernel mode occurs when the application
requests the help of OS or an interrupt or a system call occurs.
 The mode bit is set to 1 in the user mode. It is changed from 1 to 0 when
switching from user mode to kernel mode.

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 Dual-mode and Multi-mode Operation (cont.)

▪ Kernel Mode (supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged mode)

 The system starts in kernel mode when it boots and after the OS is loaded,

it executes applications in user mode.

 There are some privileged instructions that can only be executed in kernel
mode.
→ These are interrupt instructions, input/output management, etc.

 Whenever the OS gains control of the computer, it is in kernel mode.

 If the privileged instructions are executed in user mode, it is illegal, and a
trap is generated.

▪ Multi-mode
 The system which supports virtualization.

 i.e Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs.

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 Funksionet kryesore të Sistemit Operativ

▪ Funksionet kryesore të SO janë:

✓ Memory Management
✓ Processor Management
✓ Device/Mass Storage Management
✓ File Management
✓ Cache Management

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 Process Management

▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system.
▪ A process needs resources to accomplish its task:
 CPU, memory, I/O, files

 Initialization data

▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of

next instruction to execute:
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until the
process completes.

▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread.

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 Process Management Activities

▪ The OS is responsible for the following activities in connection with

process management:
✓ Creating and deleting user and system processes.
✓ Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.
✓ Suspending and resuming processes.
✓ Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
✓ Providing mechanisms for process communication.
✓ Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.

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 Memory Management

▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory.

▪ Memory management determines what is in memory and when.

 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users.

▪ Memory management activities

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and

which process is using them.

 Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory.
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.

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 File-system Management

▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage.

 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)

▪ File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories.

 Access control on most systems to determine who can access

what.
▪ File-System management activities
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
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 Device/Mass-Storage Management

▪ Usually, disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time.

▪ Device/Mass-Storage Management activities

 Mounting and unmounting

 Free-space management

 Storage allocation

 Disk scheduling

 Partitioning

 Protection

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 Cache Management

▪ Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

hardware, OS, software).
▪ Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily.
▪ Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there:
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)

 If not, data copied to cache and used there.

▪ Cache management is an important design problem!!!

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 I/O System Management

▪ I/O subsystem responsible for:

 Memory management of I/O including:

- buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being

transferred),
- caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for
performance),
- spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input
of other jobs).
 General device-driver interface.

 Drivers for specific hardware devices.

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 Protection and Security

▪ Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS.
▪ Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks:
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity

theft, theft of service.

▪ OSes generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what.
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs - SID) include name and associated
number, one per user.
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control.
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file.
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more
rights.
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 Virtualization

▪ Allows OSes to run applications within other OSes.

 Vast and growing industry.

▪ Emulation
 Which involves simulating computer hardware in software, is

typically used when the source CPU type is different from the target
CPU type.
 Generally slowest method.

▪ Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes also

natively compiled.
 VMM (Virtual Machine Manager) provides virtualization services.

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Virtualizimi (vazhd.)

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 Distributed Systems

 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked

together

 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common.

 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

A network operating system is an OS that provides features such as file

sharing across the network, along with a communication scheme that
allows different processes on different computers to exchange
messages.

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 Kernel data structures

… several fundamental data structures used extensively in OSes:

Array
 An array is a simple data structure in which each element can be

accessed directly.
→ For example, main memory (RAM) is constructed as an array.

Linked list
 A list represents a collection of data values as a sequence.
 To linked list, the items are linked to one another.

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 Kernel data structures (cont.)

Linked lists – several types

 Singly linked list, each item points to its successor.

 Doubly linked list, a given item can refer either to its predecessor or to its
successor.

 Circularly linked list, the last element in the list refers to the first element,
rather than to null.

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 Kernel data structures (cont.)

Stack
 A stack is a sequentially ordered data structure that uses the Last-In-First-

Out (LIFO) principle for adding and removing items, meaning that the last
item placed onto a stack is the first item removed.
 The operations for inserting and removing items from a stack are known as
push and pop, respectively.

Queue
 A queue, in contrast, is a sequentially ordered data structure that uses the

First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle: items are removed from a queue in the

order in which they were inserted.

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 Kernel data structures (cont.)

Trees
 A tree is a data structure that can be used to represent data hierarchically.

Data values in a tree structure are linked through parent–child

relationships.
 In a general tree, a parent may have an unlimited number of children.
 In a binary tree, a parent may have at most two children, which we term
the left child and the right child.

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 Kernel data structures (cont.)

Hash Functions and Maps

 A hash function takes data as its input, performs a numeric operation on

the data, and returns a numeric value.

This numeric value can then be used as an index into a table (typically an
array) to quickly retrieve the data.

 One use of a hash function is to implement a hash map, which associates

(or maps) [key:value] pairs using a hash function.

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 Kernel data structures (cont.)

Bitmaps
 A bitmap is a string of n binary digits that can be used to represent the

status of n items.
 For example, suppose we have several resources, and the availability of
each resource is indicated by the value of a binary digit: 0 means that the
resource is available, while 1 indicates that it is unavailable (or vice versa).
 The power of bitmaps becomes apparent when we consider their space
efficiency.
→ Disk drives provide a nice illustration.

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 Computing Environments

Traditional
▪ Stand-alone general-purpose machines.
▪ Portals provide web access to internal servers.
▪ Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals.
▪ Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks.

Mobile
▪ Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc.
▪ Extra feature – more OS features (GPS).
▪ Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for connectivity.
▪ Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android.

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 Computing Environments -> Client-Server

▪ Client-Server systems:
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by

clients:
▪ Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database).
▪ File-server system provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files.

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 Computing Environments -> Peer-to-Peer

▪ P2P does not distinguish clients and servers:

 All nodes are considered peers.

 May each act as client, server or both.

 Node must join P2P network:
▪ Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
▪ Broadcast request for service and respond
to requests for service via discovery
protocol.

 Skype is an example of peer-to-peer

computing

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 Computing Environments -> Cloud Computing

▪ Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network.

▪ Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for its functionality.
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage.

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 Computing Environments -> Cloud Computing (cont.)

Cloud Deployment Models

 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay.

 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use.

 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components.

 Community cloud - is a cloud infrastructure that allows systems and

services to be accessible by a group of several organizations to share

the information.

Cloud Service Models

 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via

the Internet (i.e., word processor).

 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application

use via the Internet (i.e., a database server).

 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over

Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use). 26

 Computing Environments - Real-Time Embedded Systems

▪ Embedded Systems:
 These devices are found everywhere,

from car engines and manufacturing

robots to optical drives and microwave
ovens.
 Vary considerable, special purpose,
limited purpose OS, real-time OS.

▪ Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time

constraints:
 Processing must be done within
constraint.
 Correct operation only if constraints met.

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 Free and Open-Source operating systems

▪ Free software (sometimes referred to as free/libre software) not only

makes source code available but also is licensed to allow no-cost use,
redistribution, and modification.
▪ Open-source software does not necessarily offer such licensing.
Thus, although all free software is open source, some open-source
software is not “free”.
 Free software and open-source software are two different ideas championed
by different groups of people.

▪ GNU/Linux is the most famous open-source OS, with some distributions free
and others open-source only.
▪ Microsoft Windows is a well-known example of the opposite closed-source
approach.
▪ Apple’s macOS OS comprises a hybrid approach. It contains an open-source
kernel named Darwin but includes proprietary, closed-source components as
well. 28
Pyetje dhe Diskutime ?

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The slides are adapted from: Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer
Galvin, and Greg Gagne, “Operating System Concepts”, Tenth
Edition

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