WILDERNESS

ROPE RESCUE
OPERATIONS
FOR THE WILDERNESS SAR TECHNICIAN
© Copyright 2020 RAT-SAR
 COURSE OVERVIEW
• This is an operations level course designed to merge standard rescue practices with techniques
found in mountaineering, caving, canyoneering and lightweight rescue. It is designed to teach a
wilderness search technician proficiency in rope rescue techniques, so the searcher can become
the rescuer.
• Although NFPA standards are discussed, this course is not designed to be NFPA compliant.
• Minimum time requirements for this course: 40 hours (classroom and field training exercises).
• Upon satisfactory completion of this course and all Job Performance Requirements, the student
will receive a certificate of completion for Wilderness Rope Rescue, Operations Level.
• Suggested prerequisites: ICS-100, ICS-700, Wilderness First Aid, NASAR SARTECH II, ASTM 2209-
14, or North Carolina LSFTM (Land Search Field Team Member).
 PROFICIENCY LEVELS
1) Awareness Level: This level represents the minimum capability to provide response to technical search and
rescue incidents. It’s a basic understanding of technical rope rescue.
2) Operations Level: This level represents the capability to respond to technical search and rescue incidents and
to identify hazards, use rescue equipment, and apply limited techniques.
3) Technician Level: This level represents the capability to respond to technical search and rescue incidents and
to identify hazards, use rescue equipment, and apply advanced techniques necessary to coordinate, perform
and supervise technical search and rescue incidents.
4) Advanced Technician: This level represents an understanding in the physics and science behind technical
rope rescue systems, highlines, and advanced horizontal systems. The advanced technician may also show
proficiency in experimenting, developing and testing new technical rescue concepts.
 THIS COURSE CONSISTS OF:

• Safety • Pick-Off Rescues

• Equipment • Dual Tension Lowering / Raising Systems
• Knots • Mechanical Advantage
• Anchors • System Changeovers
• Single Rope Descending • Knot Passes
• Single Rope Ascending • Litters / Patient Packaging
• Belays / Safeties • High Directionals
STUDENT MINIMAL EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

• Locking Carabiners (HMS Style Preferred) • Class II Harness

• Descent Control Device • Helmet
• Ascending System • Gloves
• 6mm Prusik Cords (long and short) • Helmet Light

Lifelines used in this course range from 8.5 to 9.5mm.

SUGGESTED LIGHTWEIGHT RESCUER GEAR
• 6 ea. HMS Locking Carabiners • 1 ea. Single Sheave Rescue Pulley
• 1 ea. ATC Guide • Ascending System
• 2 ea. 6mm Prusik Loops (long) • Class II Harness
• 2 ea. 6mm Prusik Loops (short) • Helmet
• 1 ea. 30’ Body Cord (8mm) • Gloves
• 1 ea. Dyneema Sling (120cm) • Helmet Light

If all rescuers on a lightweight rescue team carry the same gear, then advanced
and complex systems can be built by combing the available gear.
 ITENERARY

Day 1: Safety, Equipment, Knots, Anchors

Day 2: Rescuer Descending & Lowering / Ascending
Day 3: Mechanical Advantage, Pick-Off Rescues
Day 4: Litters/ Patient Packaging, Dual Tension Raises &
Lowers, Changeovers, Knot Passes
Day 5: High Directionals, Gin Poles, Advanced Anchors
EXPECTATIONS OF WILDERNESS RESCUE TECHNICIANS
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
 WILDERNESS
ROPE RESCUE
OPERATIONS
Background, Safety, Equipment,
Knots, Anchors
© Copyright 2020 RAT-SAR
CONCEPT OF SEARCH and RESCUE

L.A.S.T.
Our role as
L - Locate SAR
A - Access technicians.

S - Stabilize
T - Transport

DO NO MORE HARM!
WHY LIGHTWEIGHT RESCUE TEAMS?

• Ability to access remote locations with no vehicle / ATV access.

• Searcher can become a rescuer, thus saving critical time.
• Each team member carries similar lightweight technical gear, so
complex rescue systems can be built if required.
• Deployed to high probability areas of wilderness rescue.
• Must be physically fit, highly trained, and self-supportive to
serve in this capacity.
 WILDERNESS LIGHTWEIGHT SCENARIOS
• Searchers deployed to areas requiring technical rope skills to effectively the search area.
• Injured climber / rappeler on rope (conscience or unconscious) in remote areas.
• Injured or non-injured person trapped in a confined space or hazardous terrain.
• Falls in a remote vertical or steep environment.
• Short Roped (rope doesn’t reach the bottom and climber can’t get back up the rope).
• Climber stuck on a rope due to equipment failure or jams.
• Un-roped hiker/climber stuck on a ledge or high point.
• Injured hiker requiring evacuation in mid to steep terrain.
• Equipment problems / failures.
• Recovery operations in remote and technical wilderness environments.
 OPERATING SAFELY

• Learning the skills (Getting the basics down correctly).

• System setup (Use the proper equipment without weak links).

• Checking (Always double check to prevent mistakes).

• Belaying / Redundancy / Safeties.

 DUNNING – KRUGER EFFECT
Creating false reality from the perception of the input that ultimately leads people with a low ability for a task to
overestimate their ability. In short: we don’t know what we don’t know. Over confidence without experience kills.
 RESCUER SAFETY
• Work a buddy system.

• Speak up, regardless of your skill level.

• Use the “Touch” system to verify all rigging.

• Never use questionable equipment.

• Always use a safety line when working close to the edge.

• Always consider your safety factor.

• The rescuer’s safety comes first!

SAFETY OFFICER and TEAM LEADER

• The Safety Officer’s job is to ensure the system and

individuals are safe before operations begin, during
operations and during site cleanup.

• The Team Leader is responsible for operations and

delegating tasks at the scene.

Every rescuer on a wilderness rescue team is considered

a safety officer.
 SAFETY OFFICER DUTIES
• Survey the scene for hazards and work with the team leader to establish safe fall lines.
• Designate safe areas / zones.
• Double check rescuers’ PPE before the operation begins.
• Verify the system is built properly.
• Verify edge protection (if required).
• Verify all carabiners are locked and properly oriented.
• Verify prusiks / progress captures are properly tied and placed on the lifelines.
• Verify safety lines.
 ZONES
• COLD ZONE: Area for incident support operations.

• WARM ZONE: Area where support of the technical rescue operation is attended
to. Hauling personnel or others who may help when called upon will be located
here.

• HOT ZONE: Participation in the hot zone should be by "invitation only" and be
limited to those personnel whose duties and responsibilities are directly related
to the safe setup, operation, and breakdown of rescue systems. The rescue
group leader, hot zone safety officer, hauling boss, rigging master, and rescue
group support personnel are located in the hot zone.

If you have no business to be in a particular zone, don’t be!

 STANDARDS

The standard that many technical rescue organizations adhere to are created and maintained by the NFPA (National Fire
Protection Association). The NFPA is not a government agency, thus it has no enforcement powers over compliance to a
standard. The Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) is the enforcement arm of standards and certifications.

This course is not an NFPA compliant course. NFPA standards

are being discussed for information purposes only.
 NFPA 1983

• NFPA 1983 is a manufacturing standard for ropes, auxiliary equipment and

harnesses.
• The standard specifies to the manufacturer how the item is to be designed,
its strength requirements, testing and labeling requirements.
• For the item to carry the 1983 certification, the manufacturer must adhere
to these standards.
• Most rescue teams strive to acquire 1983 compliant rescue gear, however
this standard does not require any team or individual to use gear
manufactured to NFPA 1983 standards.
 NFPA 1006

• The purpose of this standard is to specify the minimum JPRs (Job Performance
Requirements) for service as a technical rescuer.
• This standard applies to other specialties as a rescuer, including swift water rescue,
wilderness rescue and ten other specialties in its current format. All specialties include
two levels of qualification: Level I and Level II.
• Level I applies to “individuals who identify hazards, use equipment, and apply limited
techniques specified in this standard to perform technical rescue operations.”
• Level II applies to “individuals who identify hazards, use equipment, and apply
advanced techniques specified in this standard to perform technical rescue operations.”
 NFPA 1670

• The purpose of NFPA 1670 is to assist the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) to assess a technical search
and rescue hazard within the response area, identify the level of operational capability, and establish
operational criteria.
• This standard applies to agencies and not individuals, so it is the standard that an agency (AHJ) complies
with. By having its individual rescuers trained to the NFPA 1006 Technical Rescuer Professional
Qualifications, the AHJ is completing part of the overall requirement to comply with NFPA 1670.
 STANDARDS and CERTIFICATION

The accepted standards and certification processes for a rope rescue

technician are governed by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).

The paper means nothing unless your AHJ

accepts and recognizes the certification.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

• Helmet
• Harness
• Gloves
• Eye Protection
• Cutting Tool?

When working around load bearing ropes, knives and shears should ONLY be deployed as last-
ditch tools. It is imperative you verify what you are cutting so you do not accidentally cut a lifeline.
 HARNESS TYPES

Class 1*
* Class 1 no longer listed in
1983. Now considered escape Class II
or hasty harnesses.
Class III
Hasty Harness
Class II is the most common harness used in Lightweight Rescue.
 EQUIPMENT
Remember, your life is supported by the weakest link in the chain. Never buy used equipment!
 SAFETY FACTOR

• Safety factor is the minimum breaking strength (MBS) divided by the

maximum force expected to be applied. Example: a carabiner rated for
5,000 lbf (22.2 kN) MBS with a 1000-pound load suspended from it has a
safety factor of 5:1.
• How a piece of equipment is used will affect the MBS it is rated at. A knot
tied in a rope decreases its MBS considerably. Side loading, tri-axial loading
or torque loading a carabiner lowers its minimum breaking strength.
• An acceptable safety factor should be decided on by the AHJ governing the
use of lightweight teams and techniques.
 STATIC SYSTEM SAFETY FACTOR

A rope system should be thought of as a chain that will break at its weakest link. Loads and stresses will
be different on each component depending on where it’s placed or how it’s used in the system. Each link
should be analyzed for its safety factor in relation to the job it’s performing. Calculation of the weakest
link will give you the theoretical Static System Safety Factor (SSSF).
 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS SAFETY FACTOR

• Since rope rescue systems move, the forces applied to them

will change from static (sitting still) to dynamic forces.
• Dynamic forces can be much higher on the overall system.
• DSSF is much harder to calculate than SSSF due to the variable
factors involved. Example: how smooth a haul team operates
the system will directly effect how much dynamic force gets
applied to the system as the load is raised.
 FALL FACTOR and SHOCK LOADING
• Fall Factor (FF) equals the distance of the fall (D) divided by the
length of the rope used in the system (L) from the load to the
anchor. FF=D/L
• The higher the fall factor, the greater the potential force (shock
load) applied to the system.
Anchor
• There are numerous factors that governor potential shock load: fall
factor, rope stretch (elongation), friction in the system, loads, rope
lengths, etc.
• Example: A 176 Lb. load dropped 2’ on a 4’ static rope (.5 FF)
generates over 1500 pounds of force on the system and the patient.
 SAFETY FACTOR SOGs

• Varies between agencies.

• Often misunderstood – not dictated by a standard such as NFPA.
• Will typically be lower for lightweight teams such as mountain rescue.
• Actual safety factor can be raised by eliminating the potential for shock
loading and dynamic events.
• Actual safety factor can be raised by reducing the load on the system.
• To simplify safety factor calculations, consider a single person load as 1 kN.
ROPE RESCUE SYSTEM ANALYSIS

• CRITICAL POINT ANALYSIS

Where / what is the weakest link in the system?
What are the redundancies and backups if a system fails?
 ROPE, CORDAGE & WEBBING
• Static Kernmantle (typically less than 6% elongation)
• Dynamic Kernmantle (typically above 6% elongation)
• 1 Inch Flat & Tubular Webbing
• High Tenacity Cords and Dyneema Slings
• The most commonly used SRT and rescue rope is 7/16” (11mm) and 1/2” (13mm) diameter Static Kernmantle
certified by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1983 Standard For Technical (or General) Rope Use.
NFPA Technical Use is rated at no less than 20kN. NFPA General Use is rated at no less than 40kN.
• NFPA Technical Use is rated for one person loads at a 15:1 safety factor. NFPA General use is rated for two person
loads with a 15:1 safety factor (one-person loads are considered to be 300 pounds and two-person load are
considered 600 pounds).
• Wilderness rescue rope sizes and ratings will vary depending on the application and agreed upon safety factors.
9mm is becoming an acceptable size for lightweight rescue applications.
 ROPE, CORDAGE & WEBBING

Average Load Ratings Per Size (depending on manufacturer and type):

8.0mm (5/16) – 15 kN or 3500 Lbs. (Used for rescuer body cord)

9.0mm (3/8) – 20 kN or 4500 Lbs. (Typical rope size for some lightweight teams)
11.1mm (7/16) – 30 kN or 7000 Lbs.
12.7mm (1/2) – 40 kN or 9000 Lbs. (Fire Department rescue ropes)
25mm (1.0 Inch) (tubular webbing) – 17.8 kN or 4000 Lbs.
Dyneema Slings – 22 kN or 4946 Lbs.

(1 Kilo Newton equals 224.8 Lbs.)

 KERNMANTLE ROPE

• Kernmantle construction uses a sheath (mantle) and a core (kern).

• Used for most all rescue, rappelling and single rope technique applications.
• The core provides most of the strength and the sheath adds a protective layer for the core
(depending on the design and the manufacturer).
• Constructed with parallel strands of fibers running through the core. Twist rate of these strands
helps determine the elongation (stretch) of the rope.
• Static ropes, such as those used for rappelling and rescue work, will have less twist in the strands
than dynamic ropes that are used for sport climbing and lead climbing.
 ROPE / CORDAGE MATERIALS
Some of the materials used in rescue rope and cordage.

• Nylon – Commonly used for rescue and recreational ropes. Absorbs

water and loses some of it’s strength when wet.
• Polyester – Low elongation. Does not absorb water or lose strength
when wet.
• Technora – High strength, lightweight, high melting point. Care
should be taken when knotting Technora fibers.
• Spectra / Dyneema – High strength, cut resistant. Low stretch. Low
melting point. Water and UV resistant. Care should be taken not to
shock load due to its low elongation.
 ROPE CARE

• Avoid shock loading. • Store in a rope bag.

• Avoid excessive abrading of the rope. • Avoid prolonged exposure to UV rays.
• Do not use Chlorine bleach or • Always cut out any bad section.
chemicals for cleaning.
• Protect the rope from all sharp edges.
• Inspect rope before and after each use.
• Never buy a used rope for lifeline
• Wash rope after use in dirty purposes.
environments.
• Stepping on the rope (discuss the
• Do not dry in a clothes dryer. myth)
 WHEN TO RETIRE A ROPE / WEBBING

• If the rope has taken a hard fall (shock loaded) or used for some
nonstandard use (such as towing a car), it should be retired.

• Before and after every use, each rope should be inspected

along its entire length. Feel the rope for changes in diameter
(swelling or shrinking), cuts or extreme abrasion. Any bad spots
should be cut out and discarded.

Is this rope still safe?

 HARDWARE

• Carabiners
• Descenders / Lowering Devices
• Ascenders / Rope Grabs
• Pulleys
• Rigging Plates
 CARABINER TYPES

Per NFPA, Technical use carabiners are rated at

no less than 27kN on the major axis and 7 kN on
the minor axis. General use carabiners are rated
at 40kN on the major axis and 11 kN on the
minor axis.

For wilderness operations, carabiners with at

least a 22 kN major axis and 7 kN minor axis
D HMS Oval rating are acceptable.
Preferred
 TRI-AXIAL LOADING

Try to avoid tri-axial loading and never load a carabiner along its minor axis!

Major Axis Minor Axis

 CARABINER ORIENTATION
• When horizontal, it is typically better to have the gate up so the
gate can be seen, however situations may dictate otherwise.
• When vertical, most practitioners suggest gate down (discuss the
myth of vibration causing the gate to screw down).
• Front tensioning the system may help to keep horizontal anchor
carabiners loaded properly against the spine.

SCREW GATES VS. AUTO-LOCKERS

• Anyone can operate a screw gate without much thought.
• Screw gates can jam easier than auto-lockers from being loaded.
• Screw gates seem to operate better in muddy or sandy conditions.

Discuss techniques for un-jamming a carabiner.

 DESCENDERS / LOWERING DEVICES

• There are numerous descending / lowering devices on the market, including

Figure 8 variations, racks, shunts, ATCs, Grigris, IDs, MPDs, etc.
• Devices should match the rope size and application they are being used for.
• Various devices are shown in this presentation for knowledge purposes but
rarely used in lightweight rescue systems.

NFPA 1983 (2012) requires the following for descent control devices:

• Technical Use: MBS not less than 13.5 kN (3,034 lbf)

• General Use: MBS not less than 22 kN (4,946 lbf)
BRAKE BAR RACK
• Doesn’t twist the rope.
• Variable friction - can be
adjusted in use.
• Easy to tie-off.
• Dissipates heat well.
• Can be used with a wide
range of rope diameters.
• Excellent for long descents.
• Bulky and heavy compared to
some descent devices.
PETZL RIG / ID / GRIGRI STYLE DEVICES

• Rope size specific.

• Auto-stop (good for work positioning).
• Some models feature anti-panic function.
• May be too bulky and heavy for
lightweight operations.
• Do not work well on icy or muddy ropes.
MAESTROS / CLUTCHES / MPDs

• Heavy and bulky.

• Expensive.
• Rope Size Specific.
• Auto-stop.
• Excellent for raising and lowering systems
when changeovers may be required due to
the one-way pulley.
FIGURE 8 STYLE DESCENDERS

• Lightweight, compact.
• Easy to rig.
• Can be difficult to tie-off.
• Twist the rope.
• Can be used with a variety of rope diameters.
• Most manufacturers recommend a maximum lower or
descent of 100’ due to heat buildup and rope twist.
• Figure 8 devices are good to have for multi-agency
rescues when 13mm ropes may be pre-deployed.
ITALIAN HITCH (MUNTER)

• Requires HMS style or pear shaped carabiner.

• Easy to tie.
• Can be used for lowers or descents.
• Not rope size specific.
• Twists the rope.
• Will wear aluminum carabiners with a lot of use.

A “must know” hitch for lightweight rescue technicians.

HYBRID DEVICES (SCARAB)

• Adjustable friction.
• Can attach rope without unclipping from
anchor.
• Manufacturer claims it will not twist the
rope.
• Easy lock-off.
• Can be used with dual strands of rope.
• Can be used with a wide range of rope
diameters (depending on model).
TUBULAR BELAY DEVICES

• Lightweight and extremely compact.

• Can be used for descents or lowers.
• Doesn’t twist the rope.
• Auto-lock in Guide Mode.
• Can be used with dual strands of rope.
• Can be used with a wide range of rope
diameters (not 13mm).
 FRICTION
Empirical Testing

Different devices will have different

frictions and holding capacities based
on the rope, technique used,
environment, etc.
 FRICTION (CAPSTAN EQUATION)
The diameter of the capstan or the diameter of the rope does not matter in determining holding force. Coefficient of
friction between the rope and the surface it is touching, and the degree of contact determines the holding force.

How It’s calculated:

• Convert degrees of surface contact to radian
• 360 degrees = 6.28319 Radians, equivalent to 2 x π
• Coefficient of friction x radian = FACTOR
• e constant exponential by FACTOR above
• Result gives ratio of load to 1

Radians = degree of contact divided by 180 x 3.1416

ASCENDERS & ROPE GRABS

NFPA 1983 (2012) requires the following for rope

grab and ascending devices:

• Technical Use: No permanent damage to

device or rope at 5 kN (1,124 lbf)
• General Use: No permanent damage to device
or rope at 11 kN (2,500 lbf)
 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
NFPA 1983 (2012) requires the following for auxiliary equipment:

• Technical Use: MBS of not less than 22 kN (4,946 lbf)

• General Use: MBS of not less than 36 kN (8,093 lbf)
PROGRESS CAPTURE DEVICES
Discuss Advantages / Disadvantages
 KNOTS

The weakest part of a rope under a load is the knot. Always

properly dress and set every knot in the system. An un-dressed
knot can reduce the strength of the knot up to 50%.

There are numerous knots used in rescue operations. For the

purpose of this course we are concentrating on a few basic
knots and will cover more advanced knot application in the
field training exercises.
 DEFINITIONS

Hitch – A group of ties that wrap or attach to other objects or ropes.

Bend – A tie that brings together two rope ends.
Bight – A doubled section of rope that does not cross itself.
Loop –A turn of the rope that crosses itself.

Dressed – A tie with all components properly aligned.

Setting – Tightening all parts of a tie.

Working End – End of the rope used to fasten to an anchor

Standing End – All of the rope not fastened at the rigging point.
Running End – End of the rope that is not rigged.

.
 BIGHT SIZE

Try to make the bight only as large as needed to attach to the hardware. This
helps to keep the bight in the spine of the carabiner and avoids cross loading.
 FIGURE 8

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

The Figure 8 family of knots are the most commonly used in

rope work due to their strength and ability to easily untie.
FIGURE 8 FOLLOW-THROUGH

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

For tying a single rope around an anchor or object.

FIGURE 8 ON A BIGHT

Most commonly used knot to attach

rope to anchor points and harness.
DOUBLE FIGURE 8

Common knot used to attach

rope to multiple rigging points.
 FIGURE 8 BEND

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

For tying two ends of a rope together.

 WATER KNOT

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

Preferred knot for tying two ends of webbing.

 DOUBLE FISHERMAN

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

Used to tie two ends together. A secure knot with minimum size.
The main use is for tying prusik loops.
 POACHER’s KNOT

Excellent knot for typing tethers and safeties to carabiners

to avoid cross loading. Hard to untie after loading.
 PRUSIK HITCH

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

A friction knot used as a rope grab.

VALDOTAIN TRESSE (VT HITCH)

A friction knot used as a rope grab. Releasable when loaded.

CLOVE HITCH
ALPINE BUTTERFLY

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

Used as a mid-line knot.

BOWLINE, SNAP BOWLINE & INTERLOCKING BOWLINE

Bowline

The Bowline is an excellent all-purpose knot for rigging and anchoring as long as it has a safety or Yosemite
finish. The Interlocking Bowline if often used to adjoin both ropes on a dual-rope system. A Snap Bowline is
an expedient knot for tying anchors or around objects.
RADIUM RELEASE HITCH

Used as a load releasing

hitch (LRH) for rescue hauls
and lowers.
TENSIONLESS HITCH
(High-Strength Tie Off)

With the right anchor point, the Tensionless Hitch

allows the rope to be tied off without sacrificing
rope strength, unlike a knot.
KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH
Percentage of Rope
Strength Lost*

Figure 8 On A Bight 20%

Figure 8 Bend 19%
Double Figure 8 18%
Bowline 33%
Double Fisherman 21%
Best assumption is 50% strength reduction

*Test results printed in the CMC Rope Rescue Manual

ANCHORS
ANCHORS

SERENE

Solid
Equalized
Redundant
Efficient
No Extension
Common Anchors

• Basket Hitches • Tensionless Hitches

• Compound • Rock Pro
• Load Sharing • Bolts
• Load Distributing • Deadman
• Wrap 3, Pull 2 • Meat Anchors
• Pickets • Single Rope
ANCHOR SOFTWARE

• Webbing
• Rope
• Cord
• Dyneema Slings
ANCHOR HARDWARE
Various anchors that may be
required in lightweight rescue.
TENSIONLESS HITCH
(High-Strength Tie Off)

With the right anchor point, the Tensionless Hitch

allows the rope to be tied off without sacrificing
rope strength, unlike a knot.
FIGURE 8 FOLLOW-THROUGH

Photo courtesy www.animatedknots.com

 SIMPLE ANCHORS

Wrap 3, Pull 2 Basket Hitch

Potential tri-axial loading issues
 WRAP 3, PULL 2

• Extremely strong anchor.

• Easy to untie when knot is
placed against the anchor.
3-BIGHT (BASKET HITCH)

• Simple, quick, and can be pre-made using

webbing or rope. Premade 22 kN Dyneema
slings make for a quick, strong anchor.
• Be aware of triaxial loading. Use an extra
carabiner if needed. Also be aware of angle.
• Caution should be used when using on short
anchors such as short tree stumps since
movement in the system could cause the
webbing to creep upwards.
COMPOUND ANCHORS
Self-Equalizing

We do NOT suggest using self-equalizing

anchors due to anchor extension and shock
loading if one side fails. It is better to tie a
master point instead of the anchor being
self-equalizing.
LOAD SHARING ANCHORS
Master Point

• Very little anchor extension or

shock loading if one side fails.
• Can be hard to untie master point
(use a stone knot or carabiner in
the master point to alleviate this).
• Can be tied around numerous
anchor points.
 MULTI-POINT ANCHORS
Master Point

• Can be made from a

single piece of cord or
multiple cords.
• Master point should be
focused in the direction
of the fall line.
ANGLE / LOAD RELATIONSHIP

With 1000 Lb. load:

1932 Lbs. each leg at 150 degrees.

1000 Lbs. each leg at 120 degrees.
577 Lbs. each leg at 60 degrees.
517 Lbs. each leg at 30 degrees.
PRE-TENSIONED BACK-TIES

Back-ties can be tensioned by a

simple inline 3:1 system using
carabiners, a trucker’s hitch or a
transport hitch (voodoo hitch).
 ANCHORS WITH DIRECTION CHANGE
If you need need a direction change in your mainline to clear an obstruction, or to make the rappel or raise
more accessible, rig the direction change the same way you would rig a main anchor. It is important to
remember the anchor load relationship and the increased stresses that vectors may apply to the anchor.

100 Pound Load:

0 degrees: 200 Lbs.

30 degrees: 193 Lbs.
60 degrees: 173 Lbs.
90 degrees: 141 Lbs.
120 degrees: 100 Lbs.
150 degrees: 52 Lbs.
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 WILDERNESS
ROPE RESCUE
OPERATIONS
Descending, Ascending, Belays, Pickoffs
© Copyright 2020 RAT-SAR
SINGLE ROPE TECHNIQUE
The ability of a rescuer to descend and climb
under their own power is crucial in lightweight
rescue. Advantages include:

• Less force on a rescue system.

• Quicker access to a search area or patient.
• Less resources required to effect a rescue.
• Lighter equipment / gear can be used.
• More independence of movement for a
rescuer while tending the rescue load.
RAPPELLING
DESCENT CONTROL DEVICES
Discussion
CARRYING ROPE / CORDAGE

• Best methods of carrying a rope in

the wilderness.
• How to coil a rope.
• How to efficiently stuff a rope bag.
• How to tie and stow cordage,
slings, and prusiks.
 ROPE DEPLOYMENT
• Rig your anchor and then attach rope.
• Attach yourself to the rope with a prusik hitch (or other rope grab) from your
harness to the rope.
• Attach your descending device.
• Verify your belays.
• Deploy the rope over the edge.
• If you are unsure if the rope reaches the bottom, tie a stop knot in the running
end of the rope so you don’t accidentally rappel off the end.
• Always carry self-rescue prusiks when rappelling or climbing.
SAFETY CHECKOFF BEFORE RAPPEL

• Gloves and helmet on.

• Verify your anchor is properly rigged.
• Verify your rope is secured to the anchor.
• Verify your harness is secure and properly fastened.
• Verify your belay (self-belay or otherwise).
• Verify the rope is properly rigged into your descender.
• Verify that all carabiners are locked.
 AUDIBLE COMMANDS

• Rappeler shouts “On belay” when he/she attaches to the lifeline

• Belayer responds “Belay on”
• Rappeler shouts “Rappelling” as he/she moves to the edge
• Belayer responds “Rappel on”
• Rappeler shouts “Off rappel” once he/she detaches from the rope
• Anyone who sees any object fall from the top shouts “Rock!”
WORKING THE EDGE

Going over the edge is the most difficult part of rappelling.

The lower your anchor point is in relation to your descender,
the more difficult it will be.

On narrow overhangs (as shown in the photo on the right),

you may have to roll off the edge. Make sure your descender
is clear of the edge and you are holding brake tension before
attempting this maneuver.
 EDGE PROTECTION

• All places where a rope or webbing touches a sharp

edge should be protected with rope pads, clothes,
canvas tarps, or other materials.
• This is especially applicable when ascending a rope
due to the up and down sawing action caused by
climber’s movement up the rope.
• If possible use a redirect to establish a high anchor
to alleviate rope rub on the edge.
• Protect any software-on-software point that has a
moving component.
GUIDED RAPPELS
Discussion

Useful to clear your team from obstructions

or dangerous areas at the base of the fall line.
BUDDY RAPPELS
Discussion

• Useful to lower a rescuer or subject that

may not be able to lower themselves.
• Tether between rescuer and patient to
create a closed loop system.
• Load on each side of the rope is equal to
half the combined weight of the rescuer
and patient.
• Due to COD, the rope is only loaded at
single-person loads.
TAKE-DOWN RAPPELS
Cleaning Routes

Technical search and rescue may require the rescuer

to clean the route and carry their rope as they
traverse down an area. Examples of this include
waterfall searches and canyon searches. Some of the
ways to clean a route are:

• Twin line rappels

• ”Biner” Blocks, Knot Blocks on single rope
• Pull Cords and EDKs
SELF BELAYS / AUTOBLOCKS

VT Hitches should be used instead of

3-wrap prusiks when using hitches
for self-belays above your descender.

Self-belays and autoblocks are not a

backup for a mainline failure or
operator error. Independent belays
are always the safest belays.
BOTTOM BELAY (SRT)
(AKA Fireman Belay)

This belay system is not a

backup for a mainline failure.
INDEPENDENT BELAYS

Independent belays use a second rope to catch the rescuer should

the mainline fail or the rescuer make a mistake. They can be
configured to belay from the topside anchor or from the bottom
by running the belay line through a redirect at the top.
DESCENT SELF-RESCUE

• Stuck Self-Belays
• Hair Or Clothing Caught In Device
• Equipment Jams

Discussion, Demonstration, and Practice:

• Using Rope Grabs For Rescue
• Using Main Rope For Rescue
 PICK-OFF RESCUES

• Pick Off Straps –Static

• Pick-Off Straps – Dynamic (Set Of
4s, LRHs, Using Patient’s Rope)

Discussion & Practice:

• Lowering Rescuer To Victim
• Rappelling To Victim (SRT)
• Rescuing On Victim’s Rope
• Cutting An Active Rope
 ASCENDING WITH MECHANICAL ASCENDERS
In lightweight rescue, it is essential that wilderness rescue technicians have the ability to efficiently climb a rope.
ASCENDING WITH MECHANICAL ASCENDERS
SYSTEMS

Frogging Texas Rope Walker

 FROG SYSTEM

The Frog System is a preferred QAS (Quick Attach

system in lightweight rescue. Safety) not shown.
 CHANGEOVER FROM RAPPEL TO ASCEND
1. Hard lock descender (or allow self-belay prusik to take the load).
2. Attach prusik cord or capture device just above descender and attach to harness (If you are already using a self-
belay prusik cord attached above the descender then you can use this).
3. Attach ascender with foot loop to the rope.
4. Unlock descender and slowly allow the prusik (or progress capture) to take the load (No need to do this if you have
already transferred load to the self-belay prusik).
5. Remove descender from the system and secure.
6. Push up with your leg in the foot loop. This will raise you high enough to take the load off of the harness prusik.
7. Push harness prusik (or other progress capture) up the rope and transfer your weight to it.
8. Repeat pushing up with your leg and transferring weight until you reach the top.
 CHANGEOVER FROM ASCEND TO RAPPEL
1. Attach QAS and allow foot loop safety or QAS to hold your weight.
2. Attach descender to the rope below the QAS or safety. Remove as much rope slack as possible.
3. Move the ascender with the foot loop up as high as possible, then push up with your leg, removing slack in
the descender as you go up.
4. Once all slack is removed from descender, transfer the load to the descender by lowering yourself with
your pushing leg.
5. Lock off the descender.
6. Remove ascender with foot loop and secure.
7. Remove harness prusik (or leave on as a self-belay)
8. Slowly unlock descender making sure you maintain rope friction with your brake hand.
9. Rappel normally.
ASCENDING WITH PRUSIKS

• Ascending with prusiks is the same principle as using mechanical ascenders.

Be sure to carry both the harness and foot prusiks with you when you
rappel, and make sure their length is adjusted to work as ascenders.

• It is always best to design and test your prusiks and ascender cords on the
ground first. Test them by climbing the rope from ground up before you
need them on a rappel.
 ETRIERS
Etriers are short manufactured or field fabricated “ladders” made from webbing. They are extremely handy for
negotiating over the edge when ascending a rope with prusiks or mechanical ascenders. When attached to an
ascender they can be used for ascending a rope.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
 WILDERNESS
ROPE RESCUE
OPERATIONS
Mechanical Advantage, Raises,
Lowers, Changeovers, Knot Passes,
Litters / Patient Packaging, High
Directionals
© Copyright 2020 RAT-SAR
RAISES & LOWERS
 RPM SYSTEM
(Rack, Pulley, Mariner - Also Known as a Main and Belay System)

Rack (lowering Device)

Pulley (COD for Raising Mechanical Advantage)
Mariners (Load Release Hitch)

The RPM system is still in use among many

rescue teams. This system uses a main line
for raising and lowering and a separate
belay line for safety.
 LOAD RELEASE HITCHES
A load release hitch allows the load to be transferred from one rope to another, or transfer load during a changeover
from one direction to another. They can also be used to do pick-off rescues and knot passes.

• Mariners Hitch
• Radium Release Hitch
• Piggyback Rigs (”set of 4’s” can
also be used to transfer loads
and do pick-off rescues)

Quickly built in the field from 8mm Body Cord

DUAL TENSION SYSTEMS (RAISING / LOWERING)
Preferred Systems For Lightweight Rescue

• Reduces shock load potential due to tension being

shared by both lines at all times.
• Both ropes serve as mainlines and backup lines at
the same time.
• Rigging is typically the same for both lines, thus less
complexity in equipment and operating techniques.
• Since both ropes are active, each line operator is
more attentive to the operation.
 SYSTEMS

RPM 3:1 System Dual Tension 3:1 System

Load
PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA)

The Basics:

• End of rope starts at load = Odd ratio of MA

• End of rope starts at anchor = Even ratio of MA

• Moving pulley: Creates mechanical advantage

• Static pulley: COD (Change of Direction – does
not create mechanical advantage)
1:1 1:1 2:1
PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA)
400 Lbs. on anchor

To raise a 200 Lb. load through a 1:1 COD

200 Lbs. 200 Lbs.
requires 200 Lbs. + of force on the pull side of
the rope. This creates 400 pounds of force on
the anchor holding the COD pulley.

Load Weight: 200 Lbs.

 PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA)

Compound: One system pulling another system.

Simple: A single rope is looped through a set of pulleys,

and all of the pulleys move at the same speed.

Complex: Typically consists of two or more pulleys

traveling in the opposite direction at potentially
different rates.

Compound Simple Complex

 THE “T” METHOD
Adding the Tensions

Start at the hand with one tension of The T-System always assumes that the pulleys are
force. Every place it makes a bend frictionless and that the ropes make 180-degree
around a pulley it becomes two 1T
turns around the pulleys.
tensions of force. Forces of moving
pulleys and rope tension are added 1T

together at the load.

2T

Ideal MA: The calculated MA without accounting

for losses in the system such as friction. 3T

Actual MA: The actual MA produced in a system.

 1:1 / 2:1
Non-moving COD adds no
mechanical advantage for
moving the load. It creates
additional force on the anchor.

Moving pulley creates

mechanical advantage
3:1
4:1
5:1
6:1
7:1
PIGGYBACK SYSTEMS

A “set of 4s” can be 4:1

or 5:1 depending on how
it is put in the system.
 INSIDE 9s

4:1
5:1
IMPROVISED SYSTEMS / TECHNIQUES

Discussion:

• Using carabiners to build

mechanical advantage.
• Counterbalance systems.
• Breaking into an active rope.
LOWERING SYSTEMS
 CHANGEOVER LOWER TO RAISE
RPM System

1. Lock-off descender.
2. Lock off belay rope.
3. Insert LRH or long prusiks into system between the
descender and the load.
4. Unlock descender and lower until load is transferred
to LRH or long prusiks or belay line has the load.
5. Insert haul pulleys and progress capture prusiks.
6. Unlock belay and prepare to belay the raising
process.
7. Proceed with raising and remove LRH or long prusiks.

The integrity of both lines must remain intact throughout the changeover process!
 CHANGEOVER LOWER TO RAISE
Dual Tension System

1. Lock-off both descenders.

2. Changeover one side at a time.
3. Insert LRH or long prusiks into one side of the system
between the descender and the load.
4. Unlock descender and lower until load is transferred to
LRH or long prusiks or second line has the load.
5. Insert haul pulleys and progress capture prusiks.
6. Set the progress capture prusiks and remove LRH or long
prusiks.
7. Changeover the other side by repeating the steps above.

The integrity of both lines must remain intact throughout the changeover process!
 CHANGEOVER RAISE TO LOWER
1. Insert LRH between progress capture prusiks and load.
2. Raise the system slightly to release progress capture prusiks and allow the
LRH prusiks to hold the load.
3. Remove haul pulleys.
4. Insert main rope into descender and remove as much slack as possible.
5. Attach the descender to the anchor.
6. Lock off the rope in the descender.
7. Slowly release LRH until load is transferred to descender.
8. Unlock rope from descender and proceed with lowering.

Note: there are alternate methods that can be used to do changeovers. The most important aspect
to any changeover (on any system) is to maintain the integrity of both lines throughout the process.
 KNOT PASS LOWERING

1. Stop lowering before knot reaches descender (do not let the knot jam into the
descender – leave plenty of space).
2. Attach LRH (Radium Release Hitch) and prusiks below the descender (load side).
3. Lower with descender until load is transferred to LRH.
4. Remove descender and reattach beyond the knot.
5. Lock off descender.
6. Lower the load with the LRH until load is transferred back to descender.
7. Remove the LRH and prusik.
8. Continue the lowering process with descender.
 KNOT PASS RAISING
Slamma Jamma Technique on a 3:1 System

1. Pass the haul prusik past the knot during a haul rest.
2. Continue to raise until the knot runs into the ratchet prusik and primary haul pulley.
3. Stop the raise and attach a new pulley and ratchet prusiks between the knot and the load.
4. Continue to raise. This will create a “dead leg” and temporarily reduce the value of your
mechanical advantage. Once enough slack comes into this dead leg, attach the new pulley
and prusiks into the main anchor.
5. Pull all slack through the new prusiks and allow the load to be transferred to these prusiks.
6. Remove the original primary haul pulley and ratchet prusiks.
7. Continue with the raising operation.
 KNOT PASS RAISING
Alternate Method

1. Pass the haul prusik past the knot during a haul rest.
2. Continue to raise until the knot reaches the ratchet prusiks.
3. Attach an LRH and prusiks well below the knot leaving enough distance to accommodate a pulley
and ratchet prusiks.
4. Transfer the load to the LRH. Ratchet prusiks will have to be minded during this phase to keep
them from grabbing.
5. Reattach the original pulley and ratchet prusiks below the knot (between the knot and the load).
6. Haul team can now begin to raise.
7. Once slack comes in the LRH, it can be removed.
8. Pass the knot past the second pulley (haul pulley) during a reset.
 OPERATION COMMANDS

“Haulers Ready” - Team should be ready to haul.

“Attendant Ready” - Attendant ready to be raised or climb.
“Up – Haul Slow” - Team begins hauling.
“Set” - Team stops and sets ratchet.
“Reset” - Team resets system to prepare to haul again.
“Stop” - All movement stop and tension is held.
“Down” - Lower the load.

Single person should be giving commands

 BELAYING
A belay is a secondary process or piece of equipment that protects the load from falling should the primary
process or piece of equipment fail. A “belay” line is not used or required in a dual tension system, since both
lines are either lowering or raising at the same time.
INDEPENDENT BELAYS
Used in a Main / Belay type system.

Independent belays use a second rope to catch the load should

the mainline fail. They can be configured to belay from the
topside anchor or from the bottom by running the belay line
through a redirect at the top.
 TANDEM PRUSIK BELAYS
For Independent Belay Lines

Prusiks should be about 25% smaller than the rope they are attached to.

On tandem prusik systems the short prusik always attaches between the long prusik and the anchor.
TANDEM PRUSIK BELAYS
For Independent Belay Lines
HIGH DIRECTIONALS

• Purpose
• Anchor / Re-Direct
• Guy Lines
• Resultant Angle and Forces
• Natural and Improvised
• Gin Poles, A-Frames, Tripods
LIGHTWEIGHT GIN POLES
• Best practice is to have the back tie in line with the load lines.
• Side guy lines have to be far enough forward to keep the gin
pole from flipping backwards.
• Resultant force should bisect the included angle of the main
line, or be slightly forward.
• Included angle of 120 degrees on main line compresses the gin
pole with the same force that is on the line. Less angle increases
compression force, more angle lessens compression force.
• Front ties at the base of gin pole may be necessary.
• Do not exert any side or lateral force on the gin pole.
• Gin poles are stronger when used as a redirect instead of as a
main anchor.
FLOATING DIRECTIONALS

• Dynamic - can be adjusted

while loaded.
• Less friction than over-the-
edge rescues.
• Provides working room and
clearance.
• Keep in mind the angle / load
relationship.
 LITTER TYPES

Stokes Basket
Sked
Demonstrate pre-rig patient securing line.
 PATIENT PACKAGING
• Advise patient of your rescue/evacuation plan.
• Add a tarp and blanket to floor of litter before placing patient in the basket.
• Place a harness on the patient.
• Place patient in the litter, then wrap the tarp and blanket and tuck under
the patient to waterproof and insulate.
• Secure patient’s harness to the top of the litter.
• In a stokes basket, secure patient to the lowest rail on the litter which
provides more security and less chance of abrasion during rescue.
• Pad the patient where webbing makes contact and pad all voids.
• Recheck patient’s circulation after packaging.
• Provide helmet and eye protection to the patient.
 LITTER RIGGING
***We prefer the attendant to be on a separate system and climbing under their own power.

Rigging for the patient and attendant on the same system:

• Join mainline and belay line (or second line in dual tension system) together and connect to litter bridle.
• ***Litter attendant is secured into belay line with gear to adjust his position up or down the line.
• The end of the belay line is attached to attendant’s harness tether.
• Patient harness is secured into the mainline with a prusik. The end of the mainline is attached to the
patient’s harness.

LITTER HARNESS (BRIDLE)

4-point litter harness with independent adjustments. Demonstrate various methods.

Tethers for edge personnel attached to each end of litter.

TENDERS / EDGE PERSONNEL

• Edge attendants assist in bringing the litter and/or rescuers

over the edge, vectoring a mainline to create slack, help with
communications between rescuer and top personnel, or
assist the raise / lower team.

• Edge attendants must be tied into an adjustable safety.

Attendants should be tied into the end of the line as well as
being attached to the line with a an adjustable prusik for
adjustment up and down the line.
LOW ANGLE RAISES & LOWERS

Possibly use a re-direct with rescuers

walking downhill to move load uphill
instead of setting up a full MA system.

0-15 degree - considered flat terrain

15-29 degrees - low angle
30-50 degrees - steep angle
above 50 degrees - high angle
 FLAT to LOW TERRAIN EVACUATIONS

• Have adequate resources – minimum of 6-8 persons.

• Have a route finder to go ahead of litter team.
• Lift load with legs, not back.
• Lift and lower as a team.
• A belay may be needed depending on the terrain.
• Learn to rotate out team members while moving.
LOW ANGLE BELAYS

Depending on the terrain, a simple wrap around

a tree with a single person tending is usually
sufficient to provide safety to the patient and
litter team on rough, uneven, sloping terrain.
 HORIZONTAL SYSTEMS
Horizontal systems such as highlines are considered advanced techniques. The following
slides are for awareness discussion only and not part of the skills portion of this course.
HORIZONTAL LINES
Awareness Discussion Only
 HIGHLINE TENSIONING RULE OF 12/18
Awareness Discussion Only

• When applying mechanical advantage to a loaded 11mm (7/16”) rope never exceed
a 12:1 MA. For example, if the MA system is a 3:1, then you should not exceed 4
people hauling on the system.

• When applying mechanical advantage to a loaded 13mm (1/2”) rope never exceed
an 18:1 MA. For example, if the MA system is a 3:1, then you should not exceed 6
people hauling on the system.
SKATE BLOCKS / SLOPING HIGHLINES
Awareness Discussion Only

Excellent method to avoid danger areas

or obstacles directly beneath the patient.
TWO-ROPE OFFSET
Awareness Discussion Only
 SUGGESTED STUDY

National Park Service Technical Rescue

Handbook 11th Edition
Download at:
www.randallsadventure.com
and
www.ratsar.org

Minimalist Wilderness Rigging – Volume 3

Pat Rhodes
ISBN-13: 978-1700165893
ISBN-10: 1700165895