Rescue Technician Core: Connecticut Fire Academy Recruit Firefighter Program

Connecticut Fire Academy
Recruit Firefighter Program
Training Reference Materials
Rescue Technician
CORE
Revised November 4,2015
Retain this Reference Material for Future Rescue

Technician Level Training
STATE OF CONNECTICUT
DEPARTMENT OF EMERGENCY SERVICES AND PUBLIC PROTECTION
CONNECTICUT FIRE ACADEMY
34 PERIMETER ROAD, WINDSOR LOCKS, CT 06096-1069
860-627-6363 877-5CT-FIRE
The Connecticut Fire Academy General Rescuer Competencies
Recruit Firefighter Program Rope Rescue
Rescue Technician CORE Blank Page
This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Connecticut Fire Academy
Recruit Firefighter Program Rescue Technician -CORE
Session Handout
Table of Contents
Introduction
Section 1 - Rope and Related Equipment

Section 2 - Rope Rescue System Components
Section 3 - Personal Protective Equipment
Section 4 - Inspection and Maintenance
Section 5 - Knots and Hitches
Section 6 - Anchors and Anchor Systems
Section 7 - Belay Systems

Section 8 - Lowering Systems
Section 9 - Mechanical Advantage Systems

Section 10 - Basic Two Rope Systems
Section 11 - RPH System
Section 12 - Rope Rescue Operations – Team Roles & Responsibilities

Section 13 - Rope Rescue Operations – Safety
Section 14 - Rope Rescue Operations – Low Angle Guidelines

References
1 of 1 Revision: 110415

The Connecticut Fire Academy Rescue Technician -CORE
Recruit Firefighter Program Introduction
Session Handout
Rescue Technician CORE

NFPA 1006 2013 edition
Purpose
This curriculum is not meant to cover all methods acceptable for technical rescue operations. The
purpose is to standardize those methods taught during this technical rescue course. All the
learning material in this document is intended to cover the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
(KSA) needed by rescuers at the General Rescuer level.
Scope
The organization of the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA’s) within this curriculum is
designed to follow the Job Performance Requirements (JPR) outlined by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 1006 – Standard for Technical Rescuer Professional
Qualifications 2013 edition. Standardized organization following NFPA 1006 is intended to
allow the rescuers training to be consistent with other emergency response organizations. Each
JPR will be accomplished by using techniques specified in this curriculum, and adopted by The
Connecticut Fire Academy as the authority having jurisdiction.
Connecticut Fire Academy Core Overview
 Designed and required to meet the Job Performance Requirements (JPR) for NFPA 1006
standard for Technical Rescuer Professional Qualifications.
o Meet the minimum requirements for the technical rescuer
o Site operations
o Victim Management
o Equipment maintenance
o Ropes and Rigging
 Core (chapters 4 and 5, NFPA 1006) provides the base knowledge that will need to be applied to
every rescue incident.
o Upon completion the rescuer will be able to operate in a low angle environment
o Core is needed to advance and certify to any of the 14 rescue disciplines.
 Rope  Vehicle  Surf
 Trench  Surface water  Wilderness
 Confined Space  Swift water  Mine and tunnel
 Structural  Dive  Cave
collapse  Ice  Machinery
 Each level is broken into two levels. Each CFA class will identify if they will be tested separately
o Level 1 – individuals who identify hazards, use equipment, and apply limited techniques
specified in the standard
o Level 2 – individuals who identify hazards, use equipment, and apply advanced techniques
specified in the standard
 NFPA 1670 is the standard on operations and training for technical search and rescue incidents
o The document provides a framework for a department or rescue team
o Assists the organization in determining levels of training
o 1006 meets the requirements on an individual level
 The CFA Core equipment is down-graded life safety equipment.
o Live loads should not be loaded onto the equipment on terrain greater than a low angle (40
degrees)
o Students should continue to identify repair issues with equipment to meet the inspection
objective of the standard
Session Handout
General and Minimum Requirement of the Technical Rescuer

 CFA allows direct entry into the rescue disciplines with sponsorship from a Fire Department
 CFA requires Emergency Medical Responder or above for certification
 Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) can train personnel to any level but individuals will not
be able to certify with-in Connecticut system
 Rescuer needs many personal traits and values
o The basic education
o Interest, Desire, Initiative, and enthusiasm
o Competence and Confidence
o Team Player
 Professionalism
o Self-disciplined
o Follow SOPs, rules, regulations, and orders
o Respect Authority
o Proper conduct on scene
 Proper PPE and uniform
 Proper conversations
 Empathetic ( rescuer cannot become personally involved)
 Perishable skills
o Continued training (both refresher and new techniques)
 ATTENTION TO DETAIL
 Knowledge of all applicable laws, standards, and best practices
i.e. OSHA
Connecticut Fire Academy

Confined Space Rescue - Operations
The Recruit Firefighter Program meets NFPA 1670, Standard on Operations for Technical
Search and Rescue Incidents Awareness Level Training.
In addition to the requirements of the Rescue Technician CORE the recruit firefighter program
will meet the OSHA requirements for Confined Space Rescue – Operational Level training.
This course incorporates the Connecticut Fire Academy Confined Space Rescue Operations
course with additional practical skills involving atmospheric monitoring, patient packaging,
rigging and retrieval systems, supplied air breathing apparatus systems, controlling hazards, and
communications. This class involves primarily “hand-on” training. This course is intended to
provide “Operations training as outlined in NFPA 1670 (Standard Operations and Training for
Technical Rescue Incidents).
Session Handout

Technical Rescue Unit Syllabus
Lecture or
Session Practical Lesson Chapter Title / Skill Station
Skills
TR 1.1.1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Technical Rescue

TR 1.1 Lecture TR 1.1.2 Chapter 2 Technical Rescue Vehicles and Equipment
TR 1.1.3 Chapter 3 Rescue Incident Management
TR 2.1.1 Chapter 6 Structural Collapse Search and Rescue
TR 2.1.2 Chapter 8 Trench and Excavation Search and Rescue
TR 2.1 Lecture
TR 2.1.3 Chapter 10 Water Search and Rescue
TR 2.1.4 Chapter 11 Wilderness Search and Rescue
TR 3.1 Lecture TR 3.1.1 Chapter 7 Confined-Space Search and Rescue (CFA Program)
Lecture TR 4.1.1 Chapter 4 Search Operations and Victim Management
TR 4.1
PS TR 4.1.2 SMART
TR 5.1.1 Chapter 5 Introduction to Technical Rope Rescue
TR 5.1 Lecture
TR 5.1.2 Technical Rope Rescue Equipment and Systems
TR 5.2.1 Constructing Simple Mechanical Advantage Systems
Practical Skills
TR 5.2.2 Constructing Belays & Load Capture and Lowering Devices

TR 5.2 TR 5.2.3 Rope Knot Tying & Load Release Hitches
TR 5.2.4 Anchor Points & Systems
Technical Rope Rescue Equipment Inspection & Maintenance
TR 5.3.1 Rescue PPE - Harnesses & Equipment
TR 5.3.2 Patient Packaging - Low Angle Rescue
Practical Skills
TR 5.3.3 Patient Packaging - CSR

TR 5.3
TR 5.3.4 CSR Hazard Control
TR 5.3.5 Rescue PPE - SABA
TR 5.4.1 Using RPH Systems
Practical
Skills
TR 5.4 TR 5.4.3 Using Lowering Devices & Belays in Rescue Operations

TR 5.5.1 CSR - Vertical Space Entry
Practical Skills
TR 5.5.2 CSR - Horizontal Space Entry

TR 5.5 TR 5.5.3A CORE - Use of Horizontal Systems
TR 5.5.3B CORE - Use of Vertical Systems
TR 5.6.1 CSR - Vertical Space Operations
Practical Skills
TR 5.6.2 CSR - Horizontal Space Operations

TR 5.6
TR 5.6.3 CORE - Low Angle Rescue Operations

Rope & Related Equipment
Rope is the universal link to high angle, low angle and swift water activities and rope
rescue. Great strides have been made in recent years in the technology and manufacturing of
rope. But rope is only as good as you use it and performs only as good as you care for it.
Each kind of rope has a specific fiber and design that will determine how it reacts to
human and natural forces. Before choosing a rope you must decide what it will be used for, high
angle, swift water, cold water or another activity. Choosing the incorrect rope could result in
severe problems and possible tragedy.
Rope for Rescue
Ropes designed for rescue work should be low stretch and high resistance to damage
from abrasion. A static or low stretch rope offers more control and reduced creep. When a rope is
weighted, the initial stretch occurs. However, additional stretch known as creep slow comes into
the rope as it extends and remains loaded. Nylon core fiber rope is typically used for these
activities that include rappelling, ascending, lowering and haul systems.
Where almost no elongation or stretch is desirable, such as a Tensioned Highline,
polyester core static rope may be used because it tends to have less elongation than nylon core
ropes.
Ropes for Climbing
Rope used for Technical Rescue climbing or Lead Climbing must have stretch to absorb
the energy of the fall without harming the climber. Dynamic rope is used for these activities.
Besides protecting the climber, it helps reduce the forces transmitted to anchors and provides
protection, causing to fail.
General Requirements of Life Safety Rope:
Life Safety Rope Performance Requirements:
All life safety rope shall be certified as “general use” approved per NFPA 1983 standards.
General use life safety rope must meet the following requirements:
 Has a minimum breaking strength of not less than 8992 lbf,
 Has a minimum diameter of 1/2” and no greater than 5/8”.
 Has a minimum melting point of 400 degrees F.
 Has a minimum elongation not less than 1% at 10% of breaking strength.
Reuse of Life Safety Rope:
The manufacturer shall provide direction for the user with information regarding the reuse of
life safety rope. Reuse of life safety rope is allowable if at least the following conditions are
met:
 The rope has not been visually damaged.
 The rope has not been exposed to heat, direct flame impingement, or abrasion.
 The rope has not been subjected to any impact loads.
 The rope has not been exposed to liquids, solids, gas, mists, or vapors of any chemical
or other material that can deteriorate rope.
 The rope passes inspection when inspected by a qualified person following the
manufacturer’s inspection procedures both before and after each use.
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Rope User Information:

The manufacturer has provided information for the user regarding at least the following issues:
 Inspecting the rope periodically according to the manufacturer’s inspection procedure.
 Removing the rope from service and destroying it if the rope does not pass inspection
or if there is any doubt about the safety or serviceability of the rope.
 Protecting the rope from abrasion.
 Not exposing the rope to flame or high temperature and carrying the rope where it will
be protected as the rope could melt or burn and fail if exposed to flame or high
temperature.
 Keeping the product label and user instructions/ information after they are removed /
separated from the rope and retaining them in the permanent rope record; copying the
product label and user instructions/ information and keeping the copies with the rope.
 Referring to the user instructions/ information before and after each use.
 Cautioning that, if the instructions/ information are not followed, what serious
consequences could occur to the user.
NFPA 1983 Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services (2012
Edition)
Scope of NFPA 1983 2012 edition
This Standard shall specify the minimum design, performance, testing and certification
requirements for life safety rope, escape rope, water rescue throw lines, life safety harness, belts,
victim extrication devices, litters, escape webbing escape systems and auxiliary equipment for
emergency services personnel. This standard shall not specify requirements for rope or
associated equipment for fall protection for employees in general industry, mountain rescue, cave
rescue and lead climbing. This standard does NOT specify use requirements.
Furthermore, as Steve Hudson, president of PMI stated in Selection of Technical Rope Rescue
Equipment, “As a user of Rope Rescue Equipment it is important to understand the background
of those who convened to create a standard and which user they had in mind. It is possible that
a product can be certified to a standard that is appropriate to a different user group than a
buyer is part of. For instance UIAA writes climbing equipment standards for climbers and
mountaineers. Having a UIAA certification requirement on purchase order for carabineers
may not be the best choice if ordering for an urban fire department technical rescue team.”
Note: Though there is good information in this standard, and others like it such as (ATSM International)
standards. These standards should only be used to guide users in their decisions on what to buy when
purchasing equipment.

NFPA 1983 (2012 edition) You may see equipment labeled (see below):
 General Use “G”- A designation of system components or manufactured systems designed
for general-use load, technical use load, and escape based that are calculated and understood.
 Technical Use “T”- (replaced Light Use designation) A designation of an equipment item or
manufactured system designed for technical use loads, and escape based on design loads that
are calculated and understood.
 Escape Use “E”-System components or manufactured components designed to provide a
means of self-rescue escape from an immediately hazardous environment above grade and
intended only for emergency self-rescue.
Note: Concerning NFPA 1983 (2012 edition)
Certification organizations shall not issue any certifications to 2006 edition after January
2012. Certification organizations shall not permit any manufacturer to continue to label any
protective ensembles or ensemble clients that are compliant to the 2006 edition after January
2, 2013.
NFPA 1983 (2006 edition) You may see equipment labeled (see below):
 General Use “G”- A designation of system components or manufactured systems designed
for general-use load, light-use load and escape.
 Light Use “L”- A designation of system components or manufactured systems designed for
light-use loads and escape.
 MBS for components- varies with different components. Know your MBS’
NFPA 1983 (2012) Life Safety Rope Performance Requirements
General Use “G” Rope Throw line (Water Rescue) Technical Use “T” (previously
 3σ MBS of not less than 40 kN  3σ MBS of not less than 13 kN Light Use “L”) Rope
(8,992 lbf) (2,923 lbf)  3σ MBS of not less than 20 kN
 Minimum elongation of not less  Minimum diameter of 7 mm (4,496 lbf)
than 1% at 10% of the breaking (19/64 in)  Minimum elongation of not less
strength  Maximum diameter of 9.5 mm than 1% at 10% of the breaking
 Maximum elongation of not (3/8 in) strength
more than 10% at 10% of the  After a 24-hour immersion in  Maximum elongation of not
breaking strength water, the entire length of the more than 10% at 10% of the
 Minimum diameter of 11 mm throw line must float to the breaking strength
(7/16 in) surface within one minute.  Minimum diameter of 9.5 mm
 Maximum diameter of 16 mm (3/8 in)
(5/8 in)  Maximum diameter of 12.5 mm
(1/2 in)

Recruit Firefighter Program Session TR-5.1
Session Handout Rescue Rope & Components
Life Safety Rope and Webbing

Life Safety Rope- Rope dedicated solely for the purpose of supporting people during rescue, firefighting,
other emergency operations or training evolutions.
Other Rope designations:
 Moderate Elongation Laid Life Saving Rope- Rope dedicated solely for the purpose for
supporting people during rescue at firefighting operations or training evolutions.
 Utility Rope- Ropes used for anything else. A utility rope should never be used for life safety
purposes. Rope used for example in stabilizing a vehicle during in an vehicle extrication incident.
 Escape Rope- Single purpose, emergency self-escape (self-rescue) rope, not classified as a life
safety rope.
 Fire Escape Rope- An emergency self-rescue rope use to escape an immediately hazardous
environment involving fire or fire products (not classified as life safety rope).
Rope Construction:
o Laid (twisted) o Braided o Double Braided
o Plaited o Hollow Braided o Kernmantle
These are all construction methods common in the manufacturing of rope.
Laid construction is small fiber bundles of material that are
twisted and combined in larger bundles, usually in groups of
three, which are twisted around on another in the opposite
direction. Typically used with natural fiber material.
Laid (Twisted) Rope
Plaited construction consists of bundles of fibers plaited

together. Plaited rope tends to be soft and pliable. They are prone
to snagging and pulling out the fibers.
Plaited Rope
Braided rope is constructed in two types, Solid Braid and Hollow Braid. Solid Braided rope is
constructed entirely of a single weave of three or more bundles. This type is typically found in cloth line
rope. Hollow Braided rope is constructed as a thick sheath with filler such as yarn or filament plastic as
the core.
Solid Braided Rope Hollow Braided Rope
Double Braid or braid on braid rope is constructed of a solid

braid covered with a hollow braid. One braid acts as the core of
the rope; the second braid is constructed around it as a sheath
protecting the inner braid. Double Braid is soft and flexible but is
susceptible to contamination of the core, the outer sheath picking Double Braid Rope
and abrasion.
Kernmantle construction is the typical life safety rope made and used for rescue is that of kernmantle
(German for Core-Sheath) construction. Kernmantle rope is manufactured with the core making up the
bulk of the rope thus being its main load bearing component. The sheath is woven around the core and
primarily serves as a protective covering for the core. With loads typically seen during rescue operations
it is likely that the sheath bears little if any of the force applied to the rope. There are many different
sheath types that have different handling and performance characteristics. Know what yours is and how it
may differ from others.
Static Kernmantle Rope Dynamic Kernmantle Rope
Rope Construction Materials

Natural fibers- Natural fiber ropes are for utility use only. Some examples of natural fiber rope are
manila and cotton. Natural fiber ropes are condemned by National Organization such as the IAFF,
ISFSI and the NFPA as life safety rope.
Natural fiber rope shown a low resistance to abrasion, have a limited ability to absorb shock, degrade
quicker, have lower breaking strengths than synthetic fiber ropes and typically don’t have continuous
fibers the entire length of the rope.
Manila is made from Manila Hemp, a fiber obtained from abaca leaves. Manila rope was once the
preferred choice in ropes before synthetic fibers were developed. Manila ropes still maintain some
advantages to synthetics in that it is not affected by heat and is resistant to UV rays.
Sisal rope fibers come from Agave and Sisal Ana plants grown in tropical environments. Sisal has
similar characteristics to manila fibers but is 80% of its strength. It is more economical than manila
and used in general purpose rope and tying twine.
Cotton rope fibers are known for their softness, heat resistance and knot well.
Manila Fiber Rope Cotton Fiber Rope Sisal Fiber Rope
Synthetic fibers- Are considered the standard for situations in which the safety of a person is “on the
Line” and found in most rescue equipment caches. Synthetic ropes are the standard for rope rescue.
Examples of synthetic ropes are nylon, polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, aramid, and gel spun
polyethylene.
Synthetic Rope Properties:

NYLON Rope Properties – Whether static, low stretch, or dynamic, nylon ropes share a few basic
properties simply by virtue of being made of nylon material. The reason that most life safety ropes are
made of nylon is that nylon is quite strong, but still has comparatively high elongation characteristics,
which makes it forgiving when we do fall on it, like in Belay system actuations.
POLYESTER Rope Properties – Polyester ropes have recently become more popular among rope
users. This may be at least partially due to the low cost of polyester. Note, however, that polyester as a
fiber has only about half the inherent elongation that Nylon does. Other characteristics, including
strength and heat resistance, are relatively comparable to that of nylon.
Some rope users select polyester for its chemical resistance. In fact, polyester is more resistant to acids
under high intensity exposure, but when it comes to alkalis, nylon is more resistant than polyester. In
either case, the rope must be exposed to incredibly high concentrations for long periods of time or, be
exposed to intense heat at the same time in order for deterioration of the fiber to be significant. It is also
important to note that the exposure limits that would destroy the integrity of a life safety rope are so
intense that the user would most likely be destroyed first! That said, any rope that is subjected to any
significant chemical contamination should be retired as soon as possible. Things to be particularly
careful of with polyester rope are its lower dynamic energy absorption, and the fact that it is more
‘slippery’ to rappel, lower, or belay with than nylon.
POLYPROPLYLENE/POLYETHYLENE Rope Properties- These ropes are commonly found in
water rescue operations because their specific gravity is less than 1 (indicating they will float).
These fibers are typically weaker than nylon or polyester, yielding a lower MBS. Another characteristic
that would make these ropes less than desirable for regular rescue applications is their low melting
temperature. Depending on the material, many of the “floating ropes” will have detrimental effects if
exposed to temperatures as low as 150° F!
Often the friction produced in decent/friction devices is above the 150° mark so it is important for us to
know our equipment/rope and not use a “floating rope” for other rescue operations.
Rope Elongation:
Static
Static is preferred in rescue due to its low elongation (stretch)
properties. When building rescue systems a low elongation is desired.
For example when a rescuer pulls on a haul system there is an
immediate reaction or as someone ascends a fixed rope there is
minimal bounce.
Note: Not all “Static” ropes are the same. Different brands/models have
different elongation properties and in turn they have different handling and
use characteristics.
*NFPA 1983 (2012 ed.) states for Technical Use and General Use, a
minimum elongation shall not be less than 1% at 10% breaking strength and Static
maximum elongation shall not be more than 10% at 10% breaking strength.
Dynamic
Dynamic rope has high elongation properties compared to
static rope. This is desired when a high impact force is
expected. Rock climbers typically use dynamic rope when lead
climbing. Dynamic rope can be found in rescue caches for lead
climbing, or other operations where high impact forces are
possible. This is most typical for Tower Rescue or “bottom up”
rescues.
Dynamitic
http://www.versalestore.com
Cautions on Rope Use

Components:
A wide variety of components may be safely used with ropes. DO NOT USE any accessory
with these ropes if you are not certain that it will be safe. Rescuers should first seek out
equipment that is tested and labeled to appropriate criteria including ANSI, NFPA, CE,
UIAA, etc. Proper training and practice using the items on the rope in a safe environment is
essential.
Always work within an appropriate safety factor. Keep in mind that the load ratio for
individual pieces of equipment is different than a system safety factor. Applying a 600 lbs.
load on a 9,000 lbs. capacity rope may be translated to represent a 15:1 component load ratio,
but when the rope is rigged into a system with knots, bends, and other equipment the system
safety factor should be re-evaluated, taking into consideration the weakest point in the
system. A system safety factor will generally be lower than load ratios of specific equipment
within the system.
Sheath Abrasion Damage:
Take special care to protect your rope from abrasion. Sheath damage is the most common
cause of early rope retirement. This damage occurs most often when your rope comes into
contact with rough or sharp edges of equipment. Man-made structures, such as buildings or
towers, also pose a high risk for damaging or cutting ropes due to the probability of sharp
objects. Rope will be severely damaged if subjected to rough surfaces or sharp edges.
Pulleys must be free to rotate and should be of proper size to avoid excessive wear. Rope
grabs, ascenders and similar devices will damage and weaken the rope and should be used
with extreme caution.
Always use a rope pad between the rope and surfaces with which the rope may come in
contact. Improperly padded or unpadded ropes are subject to excessive or premature abrasion
and failure. Avoid stepping on your rope and do not drag rope over rough ground - Besides
the potential of cutting, stepping on a rope will grind dirt into the core which will cause
internal abrasion. A ground cloth should be used to keep the rope from being in direct contact
with dirt or grit. Keep your rope clean - Dirt or grit will shorten the life of your rope by
increasing internal and external abrasion.
Wash your rope occasionally in cold water with small amounts of mild soap only. Rinse the
rope in several baths of clean cold water to remove soap. Agitate the rope while in the water
bath to aid in the removal of soap residue. A fabric softener used in the proper proportion to
the amount of wash water may be used. Rinse thoroughly after the fabric softening solution is
applied. The rope must be air dried by loosely coiling and hanging in the shade away from
direct sunlight or other heat sources.
Accidental Dynamic Loading:
Working load limits are not applicable when rope is subject to significant dynamic loading.
Whenever a load is picked up, stopped, moved, or swung, there is an increased force due to
dynamic loading. The more rapidly or suddenly such actions occur, the greater this increase
force will be. In extreme cases, the force put on the rope may be two, three, or even more
times the normal load involved. If an accidental dynamic loading does occur the rope must be
retired and destroyed.
Exceeding Working Load Limit:

Do not overload rope.
Exceeding the Working Load Limit (WLL) of a rope can cause permanent damage to a rope.
This damage may not be apparent to the naked eye. Ropes that have been overloaded should
be retired. Always use proper rappelling and belaying techniques – Fast rappels, bounding or
swinging, positioning the rope over a sharp edge, dynamically loading a low elongation/static
rope are some example of uses which damage your rope and/or cause failure. Any belay or
rappel device puts sharp bends in a rope and will contribute to potential abrasion your rope
receives. Avoid worn out belay devices as they have the potential to cut your rope. Fast
rappels will cause excessive heat from friction that will damage your rope. This heat will
melt the sheath fiber causing a glazing or stiffening effect, which dramatically shortens the
life of your rope. Always take care to rappel and lower loads slowly and in control at all
times.
Open Flame and High Temperatures:
Do not expose any rope to flame or high temperature as it will melt or burn causing failure.
Carry and store the rope so it is protected against flame and high temperatures. The melting
point of Type 6 nylon is 419 to 430 degrees Fahrenheit. The melting point of polyester is 500
degrees Fahrenheit.
Chemical Contamination:
Protect your rope from exposure to harsh chemicals. Exposure to chemicals will cause failure
that can result in injury or death. DO NOT allow your rope to come into contact with any
compounds containing acids or alkalis, oxidizing agents, phenol or bleaching compounds. Be
especially careful to avoid contact with battery acid.
Remember: Contaminants can be in the form of liquids, solids, mist or vapors.
Contamination may or may not be visible and may not be detectable. If you suspect your
rope has been contaminated it must not be used. It must be destroyed immediately to prevent
any use whatsoever. Although it will not entirely eliminate the possibility, ropes should
always be stored in a rope bag to reduce the potential of contamination.
Rescue Rope Maintenance

Inspection:
 Inspect life safety and utility rope before and
after each use.
 Look for damage to outer core. Feel for soft
spots.
 Exposure of inner core fibers.
 Core can be damaged without sheath
damage due to shock load.
 Excessive fuzziness in one or more spots on
the rope (some fuzziness is expected under
normal usage wear and tear). Inspecting Rope
 Irregularity in shape or weave of rope.
 Discoloration (excessive exposure to
sunlight or chemicals).
 Foul smell.
 Abrasions and stiffness.
Damaged Core
outdoorsstackexchange.com
Rope Logs:
 Rope logs are required for each piece of life
safety rope and should be maintained
throughout the working life of the rope.
CDC.gov
Cleaning:
 Follow manufacturer’s guidelines for
specific cleaning requirements.
 Cool water and mild liquid detergent are a
good generic cleaning solution for general
use but always keep in mind to rinse the
rope thoroughly after each washing.
 DO NOT USE BLEACH OR BLEACH
SUBSTITUTES!
Rope Washer
 DO NOT DRY ROPE IN A DRYER! Commercial Cleaner
Storage:
 Can be coiled or placed in a rope bag.
 Clean dry compartment.
 Keep away from direct contact with
chemicals of any type or the vapors and
fumes from battery acids and hydrocarbon
fuels.
Stuffing Rope Bag
NOTE: Downgrade rope to utility status or discard it if any one or a combination of any of
the above problems exists. The 2002 ASTM F1740-96 can be used as a reference for rope
inspections and determination for removal from service as a life safety rope.
Accessory Cordage / Prusik Cords

Accessory cordage is similar in design and construction as static kernmantle rope but is a
smaller-diameter. Common usages are; adjustable litter bridles, ratchets, ascending, safety
brakes, and hitches. Typical 8mm cordage usually has a MBS of 13 k/N (3000 lbf).
Prusik cord is an accessory cord used as a soft rope grab (Prusik hitch). The cord should be
of the same construction and sheath of the rope it will be used with.
Prusiks should be 60% to 80% of diameter of the rope it used to grab.
 8mm cord for 1/2 (13mm) diameter rope
 7mm cord for 7/16 (11mm) diameter rope
Accessory and Prusik cordage should be care for and inspected as Rope.
Prusik cordage should be inspected:
 After purchase  After each use
 Prior to use  Semi-annually
Due to the critical nature of using Prusik cord to support live loads, any Prusik cord showing
minimal wear or damage should be removed from service.
Prusik Hitch Radium Load Release Hitch

animatedknots.com
AZTEK Personal Haul System
Pre-Sewed Prusik Loop 68” Purcell Accessory Cord
Webbing
Construction
Webbing is a common staple in rescue work of any kind. Most often it is made from nylon.
There are two major types of webbing construction: tubular and flat. Tubular webbing is
typically lighter and holds knots better than flat webbing. Flat webbing is inherently stronger
and more abrasion resistant though it is marginally heavier. Whichever type of webbing is
used, ensure it was manufactured by a reputable manufacturer and was made for life safety
applications.
*NFPA 1983 (2012 ed.) additionally mentions the following in regards to uses of webbing:
 Escape Webbing: A single purpose, emergency self-escape (self-rescue) webbing.
 Fire Escape Webbing: A single purpose, emergency self-escape (self-rescue) webbing to be
used in an immediately hazardous environment involving fire or fire products.
 Fire Escape webbing tests shall be conducted by two independent conditions and shall have a
minimum time to failure of 45 seconds at 600 degrees Celsius while holding 300 lbs. and of 5
minutes at 400 degrees Celsius while holding 300 lbs.
Note: NFPA 1983 (2012 edition) states that all fiber and thread utilized in the construction of escape
systems and system components shall be tested for melting as specified by ASTME 794 Standard test
method for melting and crystallization temperatures by thermal analysis and shall have a melting point of
not less than 204 degrees Celsius (400 degrees Fahrenheit)
Strength
One inch tubular webbing usually has an MBS of 18 k/N (4000 lbf) and when doubled its
strength is doubled. When a water knot is tied in tubular webbing it reduces its breaking
strength by about 25%. One inch flat webbing usually has an MBS of 27 k/N (6000 lbf) and
when doubled its strength is doubled. When a water knot is tied in flat webbing it reduces its
breaking strength by about 25%.
There are two types of tubular webbing construction: Needle Loom and Shuttle Loom. Both
are acceptable for rescue applications.
Needle Loom Shuttle Loom
Applications:
ETRIER
Tubular Webbing Continuous Loop Sling Daisy Chain

System Components
Components vs. Systems

Components are the individual pieces of equipment that are utilized in the construction of a
system. These are the tools of the trade. It is now your job to commit to memory uses,
Minimum Breaking Strengths, limitations, etc. of the various components used for technical
rescue.
A System is the sum of many components put together to serve a task.
 Haul System
 Fixed Single Rope Technique
 Lowering System
 Belay System
Minimum Breaking Strength (MBS)

Component Strength – Component Strength is the Minimum Breaking Strength (MBS) of a
single piece of gear. That strength is often based on a test method that “test” the strength in a
specific laboratory simulation of field use that may or may NOT be similar to your planned
use. Many components now have their MBS rating marked on the device. Either in actual
MBS and/or with the NFPA E (escape use – designed intent is for personal escape of single
person body weight), L (light use) or T (technical use) – design intent is for one person
climbing or rappelling or rescue use. G (general use – design intent is for two persons
suspended on the gear) rating system.
Weakness from wear, age, misuse and other factors can lower the original “new” MBS
rating. Note: The proper unit for measuring breaking strength is a force unit not a measure of
mass or weight. We use pounds force or kilonewtons (k/N) not pounds or kilograms. 1 kN is
equal to 224 pounds force. 3 Sigma rating for NFPA gear is the result of subtracting three
standard deviations from the mean of a set of breaking strength test results. Make allowances
for age or other degradation of gear when considering MBS.
 Known vs. Assumed
 Degradation Factors
Some manufactures do not build and mark gear to a published standard. They may have other
definitions of what the breaking strength for their equipment is. Some gear manufacturers do
not even tell customers how they arrive at the numbers in their catalogs. The markings and
the 3 sigma MBS system used by NFPA, ASTM International* and others is as follows: 3
Sigma rating for NFPA gear is the result of subtracting three standard deviations from the
mean (average) of a set of breaking strength test results. This means 99.97% or so of
components made to this exact same design should have a breaking strength above the 3
Sigma rating.
Note: The American Society for Testing and Materials International (ATSM
International) was formed “for the development of standards on characteristics and
performance of materials, products and systems, services and the promotion of related
knowledge”, and is the world’s largest source of voluntary consensus standards.

System Components
Carabineers and Components

Carabineers are metal connectors that link the elements of a rope rescue system.
The basic parts of a carabineer are:
Carabineer Shapes:
A. Oval
B. D-Shape
C. Offset or Modified D Basic Carabineer Parts
D. HMS or Pear
Carabineer Materials
Steel vs. Aluminum
Steel is stronger than aluminum but not all steel carabineers are stronger than aluminum
carabineers. Know your equipment.
 Steel is heavier
 Steel tends to be more resistant to wear and abuse
 Aluminum will not rust
Using Carabineers
A carabineer is to be loaded along its long axis or lengthwise. The weakest point on the
carabineer is its gate. Loading the gate severely reduces its strength and may cause it to fail.
A. Acceptable Loading B. Unacceptable C. Unacceptable

System Components
Screw Links
Triangular or semicircular screw links have been used in place of carabineers when three-way
loading is necessary. When the screw link is closed completely it will have the same strength
regardless of the direction or directions of loading.
Semicircle Screw Link
Triangular Screw Link Oval Screw Link
Figure 8 Descenders with Ears

These are sometimes called rescue 8s. They are specially designed so that the rope contours
better around the large ring and does not slip over it to form a girth hitch. Some advantages are
they will accept large diameter ropes and are easy to lock –off. Disadvantages are they will twist
the rope on longer rappels and create a wide range of friction.
Figure 8 Tied Off
Figure 8 with Ears Figure 8 on a Rope
Brake Bar Racks

A brake bar rack is a descending device that offers a greatest amount of control and the ability to
vary greatly the amount of friction. It can be used for very long rappels and is a positive load
capturing device when tied off.
Brake Bar Rack on a Rope Brake Bar Rack Tied Off
Brake Bar Rack

System Components
Rope Grab Devises

Rope grabs have a variety of uses in rope rescue. In rope recue the term rope grab is used for
personal safety, for ascending the rope and for haul systems.
Many rope grabs are mechanical devices that use a camming action to grip the rope, sometimes
referred to as hard cams. Rope grabs can also be made of rope (Prusik or accessory cordage),
called soft cams.
Technical use ascenders should not be used in hauling systems and other rescue rigging
involving loads greater than a one person load.
General use ascenders should not be used as belay devices because they tend to damage the rope
under high weight loading and shock loading.
Technical-Use Ascenders
Technical-use Ascenders, also called personal ascent
devices, are rope grab devices used to travel up a fixed
rope. When attached to the rope, its gripping action
allows the climber to slide the device freely in one
direction. The ascender will then lock when downward
force is applied.
PETZL ID
For the system to work efficiently and safely at least Handled
Ascenders
two devices must be used. The ascender is intended for
a one person load and should not be used for hauling.
General-Use Ascenders
General-use ascenders are rope-grab devices designed
for use with heavier loads than those used with
technical use ascenders. They are typically used in haul
systems as progress capture devices and rope-grabs.
They have great strength and hold better than other
ascenders on wet, icy or muddy ropes.
General Use Ascender
SMC/PMI
General Use Ascender
GIBBS PETZL
General Use Ascender General Use Ascender

System Components
Pulleys
Pulley is designed primarily to reduce rope friction and can be used for changing the direction of
a running rope and to develop mechanical advantage in a haul system. All metal pulleys are used
in most high-angle systems and rescue hauling. Ideally the sheave (wheel) should be four times
the diameter of the rope.
The Prusik Minding pulley is primarily used in technical rescue activities. Specialized pulleys
such as Knot Passing pulleys and Kootney pulleys may have larger diameter sheaves made of
nylon.
C
B
A A
Parts of Pulley
A. Axel B. Bearing C. Sheave
Prusik-Minding Pulleys
CMC Single Swivel Pulley

Single Pulleys Kootenay
Swivels
Swivels are placed in rope system where torque may be
applied. They help prevent rope and equipment
entanglement and potential damage.
Swivel
Edge Protection (Edge-Pro)

There are numerous ways to avoid abrasion on rope, many of them using simple and inexpensive
equipment.
Edge Roller
EP Plus - Edge
Roof Roller Rope Wrapper

System Components
Anchoring Equipment
Anchor Straps
Anchor Straps are webbing lengths with D-rings sewn into each end where a carabineer can be
clipped. Depending on the NFPA designation the straps end to end breaking strength rating is
from 4945 to 8000 pounds (22-35.6 kN).
Some anchor straps have a heavy-duty buckle that can be adjusted to various lengths.
However, the buckle may slip with force less than the straps overall breaking strength.
Adjustable Anchor Strap Chocker Anchor Strap

Anchor Strap with D-Rings
Anchor Plates
Anchor Plates or Rigging Plates help organize the anchor rigging and prevent it from jamming.
They can make the various components easier to see and can make rigging of anchor systems
more accurate. Anchor plates also can be used for rigging litters.
Small Anchor Plate Large Anchor Plate
High Point Anchors

Tripods
A tripod is often used to create an artificial high change of
direction. Tripod legs are limited as to how far they can
spread apart by their connection at the top or head always
secure the legs. If the legs are not secured by a rope, chain
or cable, they can spread farther than intended, cracking the
head or cap; this can cause catastrophic failure of the high
change-of-direction anchor. SKEDCO Tripod
AZV
The Arizona Vortex (AZV) is a portable artificial high
directional (AHDs) anchor point that can be used a tripod,
bipod or monopod. It can be configured as an A-frame, a
sideways A-frame, a gin pole or a multitude of other
configurations. The tripod can be formed into an easel A-
frame with adjustable leg lengths. The versatile third leg
allows rescuers to set up an artificial high directional in Arizona Vortex
virtually any urban, industrial or wilderness location.
System Components
Patient Packaging Devices
Rescue Litters / Stokes Baskets

The rescue litter, or Stokes basket as it is commonly referred to, has been the standard for
victim removal over rough terrain for many years. It can be carried by hand over mild terrain,
or used in tandem with ropes to negotiate steep or rough terrain and high angles. The rescue
litter by itself does not provide spinal immobilization. A victim requiring C-spine
immobilization should first be placed on a backboard, which is then placed inside the litter.
Source: CAL-FIRE LARRO
Metal Framed Baskets Litters
Basket litters may be constructed of tubular frame and covered with a metal or plastic mesh.
The stronger metal litters have support members constructed of stainless steel or titanium for
less weight.
Metal Mesh covered Basket Stoke
Plastic Basket Litters

Plastic Basket Litters are available in two designs. An All-plastic, except for a metal top rail,
and a plastic shelled with a stainless steel frame.
All Plastic Stoke Plastic covered Metal Framed Stoke
All-plastic litters are suited for pulling or dragging in snow and carried by litter tenders on flat
or walkable terrain. Metal framed litters are preferred for all Rope Rescue activities because of
the strength and ruggedness.
SKED
The Skedco SKED is a common flexible litter used for
confined space, HM/WMD and military victim rescue
activities. The Polyethylene Plastic conforms around a
victim like a cocoon, the unit has built-in straps, eyes
and harness giving it the capability of being hauled and
carried from the incident. The unit can be rolled stored SKED
in its own backpack.
LSP
The rugged and versatile LSP Half Back is a unique
vertical extrication device that combines the capabilities
of a full body harness with the ability to immobilize the
patient if cervical/spinal trauma is suspected. The LSP
Half Back consists of two components: a rugged, padded
full body harness and a removable aluminum back stay LSP
with head immobilizer.
System Components
Traverse - 540° Belay Device

The symmetric design of the 540°™ Rescue Belay allows bi-directional loading and locking,
thus either end of the rope exiting the device may be used as the load line. The 540°™ Rescue
Belay has an integral release lever, eliminating the need for a separate release device or hitch.
The 540°™ Rescue Belay, the tension of a locked-up belay is simply transferred back to the
mainline by using the built-in release lever.
Traverse 540° Rescue Belay
CMC - MPD (Multi-Purpose Device)

The MPD allows you to transition from lowering to hauling without changing hardware. The
MPD’s pulley design and integral rope grab mechanism allows it to be used as a lowering device
on the main line and belay line systems and be quickly changed over to a raising system without
switching out or replacing hardware.
CMC MPD Front CMC MPD Back MPD Use

Personal Protective Equipment
Helmets:
Helmets used for technical rescue applications should be specifically designed for the
environment it will be used in. For rope rescue is may be best to use a helmet with a suspension
system. For water rescue be sure to use a helmet that will drain water quickly. Any helmet
should meet Union of International Alpine Association (UIAA), European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) or other similar standards.
A more recent NFPA standard has been established for helmets used in technical rescue and is
included in NFPA 1851, Standard for Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents.
Rope Rescue Helmet Water Rescue Helmet

Rope Rescue Helmet
Gloves:
Gloves are worn to protect the hands against weather
conditions and cuts, burns or abrasions form rope or the
rescue environment. Gloves must allow the wearer a sense
of feeling so that the fingers can manipulate equipment.
Gloves made of soft leather are preferred, firefighting
gloves should not be used in for rescue activities.
Rope Rescue Gloves
Footwear:
Boots should provide ankle support and protect the feet
against scrapes, cuts and bruises. They should be pliable
and comfortable enough to stand in for hours. Rubber boots
used firefighting should not be used in for rescue activities.
Typical Rescue Boots

Personal Protective Equipment
Harnesses:
NFPA 1983, Standard on Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System Components
This standard classifies harnesses into three classes:
Ladder & Escape Belts (Class I)
Ladder belts are designed only to prevent falls from a ladder and are not intended for the rope
rescue environment. A light duty harness meant for light duty work and emergency egress by
one person with a design load of 1.33 kN.
Ladder Belt Escape Belt
Class II
A two-person harness, a harness that is strong enough
to hold the rescuer and a second person clipped on to
the harness. It secures around waist and around thighs
or under buttocks and designed for one person, or when
another person’s weight may be transferred to the
harness during the course of a rescue. The harness is
designed for a 2.67 kN, two person load. Class II
Class III
A full body harness designed for rescue loads, fall protection and for rescues in which
inversion may occur. A class III harness fastens around the waist, around thighs or under
buttocks, and over the shoulders with a design load of 2.67 kN.
CMC Confined Space

Yates Class III Rock n Rescue Class III Class III
Improvised or Emergency Seat Harnesses

Improvised harnesses can be made from
webbing and used when a commercial harness is
not available.
While hanging in an emergency seat harness,
the narrow webbing material along with the
knots will begin to constrict blood circulation
and cause severe discomfort and lead to injury. Emergency Chest
Emergency Seat Harness
Harness

Rescue Technician Equipment Inspection & Maintenance
CORE
Ropes, Webbing and Straps
Inspection:
Inspect ropes & software (Webbing, Straps and misc.) before each use. Inspection must be thorough
and complete.
All Rope and Software:
 Must be visibly inspected by hand following each use.
 Visually and by touch for:
o Dents, bumps, cuts or abrasions
o Continuous length.
o Other signs of damage that may have resulted from storage and handling.
 Look for Chemical or Heat Damage.
o Exposure to liquids, solids, gases, mists or vapors of any chemical that can deteriorate the
fibers.
 Remove from service if there is any doubt the rope’s or software’s safety and serviceability.
Webbing:
 All webbing must be free of cuts, tears, fraying, nicks, abrasions or wear.
 All parts must be present and undamaged.
Stitching:
 Must be in perfect condition.
 Discontinue use if stitching is loose or damaged.
 Stretched, pulled, snagged, cut, abraded, worn, heat or chemically damaged stitching are cause
for disposal.
Hardware:
 Must be in perfect condition.
 All hardware must be undamaged with no deformation, fractures, cuts or corrosion evident.
 Look for missing or non-functioning parts, hinges, and springs.
 Watch for sharp edges or burrs.
Maintenance:
Rope and Software must be removed from service immediately upon notice of any of the conditions
outlined above.
DO NOT attempt to make repairs without consulting the manufacturer.
Do not modify Hardware in any way.
If Fall or Impact occurs, immediately take the Rope and Software out of service until it has been
inspected and returned to service by a qualified person.
Care:
 During use, carrying, and storage keep ropes and software away from acids, alkalis and strong
chemicals.
 Do not expose ropes and software to flame or high temperatures.
 Store in clean, dark, cool, dry location, off cement or concrete floor.
 Do not store hardware components where equipment may be exposed to moist air, particularly
where dissimilar metals are stored together.
 Clean and dry out of direct sunlight.

Rescue Technician Equipment Inspection & Maintenance
CORE
Hardware
Inspection:
Inspect the hardware before each use. Inspection must be thorough and complete.
All Hardware:
 All hardware parts must be present, undamaged and in perfect condition.
 Look for missing or non-functioning parts, hinges, or springs.
 Visually and by touch for:
o Cracks, Distortion, Corrosion, Scratches, Burrs and Excessive Wear.
o Gouges, Sharp or Rough Areas that might abrade a rope.
 Minor Nicks or Sharp spots may be smoothed with Emory Paper.
 Remove from service if there is any doubt the hardware’s safety and serviceability.
Carabineers:
 Gate Opening and Closing should be quick and easy.
 Gate and any locking mechanism close freely and completely.
 Rivets must not be bent, loose or missing.
Pulleys and Swivels:
 Inspect for Elongation of Carabineer Hole.
Pulleys:
 Where applicable, the side plates should be rotate easily but not feel loose.
 While the sheave on most pulleys will not “spin”, it should still turn freely.
 Check axis assembly for tightness.
Maintenance:
Hardware must be removed from service immediately upon notice of any of the conditions outlined
above.
DO NOT attempt to make repairs without consulting the manufacturer.

Do not modify Hardware in any way.
If Impact occurs, immediately take the Hardware out of service until it has been inspected and
returned to service by a qualified person.
Care:
 During use, carrying, and storage keep hardware away from acids, alkalis and strong chemicals.
 Do not expose hardware to flame or high temperatures.
 Store in cool, dry location.
 Do not store where equipment may be exposed to moist air, particularly where dissimilar metals
are stored together.
 Clean and dry this equipment after each use to remove any dust, debris and moisture.
 If carabineer gate sticks, Use air hose to blow out grit of mechanism, wash and lubricate with dry
graphite around hinge area, inside spring hole and locking mechanism.

Rescue Technician Knots & Hitches
CORE
The information provided below is required psycho-motor skills for attaining proficiencies at Rope
Technician knots and hitches. Recruit should use this material develop their skills and knowledge for
during the Recruit Firefighter Program and retain this information in preparation for Rope Technician
Training and Practical Skills Examinations.
The Fire Service use two types of ropes for knot, bend & hitches, each rope has a distinct function:
Life Safety Rope: Used for supporting Rescuers and Victims, it is dedicated and referred to as Life
Safety. Life Safety Rope must be used when supporting a person, whether during
training, firefighting, rescue or other emergency operations.
Utility Rope: Used in most cases where it not supporting the weight of a person, such as
hoisting or lowering tools and equipment. It may be used in situations involving
mechanical advantage systems so long as the system does not support a victim,
tender or risk the risk of a system failure would do harm.
Knots, Bends & Hitches
Knots, bends and hitches are prescribed ways of fastening lengths of rope or webbing to objects to each
other. Rescuers should know how to tie at least nine basic knots and how to apply them.
 Hitches, such as the clove hitch and Prusik hitch are used to attach a rope around an object or
another rope. A hitch is defined by the rope being tied around an object such that when the object
is removed, the knot will come undone.
 Knots, such as the figure eight or bowline, are organized methods of fastening rope to an object
itself.
 Bends, such as the figure eight bend and water knot, are used to join two ropes and webbing,
respectively, together.
 Safety knots, such as the overhand knot, are used to secure the ends of rope to prevent them from
coming untied.
Terminology
Specific terminology is used to refer to the parts of rope in describing how to tie knots.
 The Working End is the part of the rope used for forming
the knot.
 The Running End is the part of the rope used to for lifting
or hoisting a load.
 The Standing Part is the rope between the working end and
the running end.
 A Bight is formed by reversing the direction of the

rope to form a U-bend with two parallel ends.
 A Loop is formed by making a circle in the rope.
 A Round Turn is formed by making a loop and then
bringing the ends of the rope parallel to each other. Bight Loop
Round Turn
CORE
Strength Loss through Knots
All knots reduce the overall strength of a rope, but some cause a greater loss than others. The general
rule is: knots with tight bends, such as bowlines, cause greater strength loss than knots with open bends,
such as the figure eight family of knots.
Knot Efficiency Loss Knot Efficiency Loss
Figure 8 on a Bight 20% Bowline 27-33%
Double Loop Figure 8 18% Clove Hitch 40%
Butterfly 25% Tensionless Hitch 0%
Double Fisherman’s 21% Girth Hitch 30%
Water Knot 35%
Source: ROCO Rescue 2014
Dressing Knots
A knot should be properly “dressed” by tightening and removing twists, kinks and slack from the rope.
The finished knot should be firmly fixed in position. The configuration of a properly dressed knot
should be evident so that it can be easily inspected. All loose ends should be secured by safety knots to
ensure that the primary knot cannot be released accidentally.
Note: The curriculum for Rescue Technician may not require that all knots be backed up. The Recruit
Firefighter Program requires that all firefighting knots shall be backed up with additional
overhand knots formed with the tail of the firefighting or rescue knot. In these instances, a longer
tail will need to be left once the rescue knot is tied, dressed, and set to provide enough material
to tie the backup knots.
Overhand Safety Knot
A safety knot is used to secure the remaining working end of the rope or webbing to the standing part of
the rope, also referred to as an overhand, stopper or keeper knot. It provides a degree of safety by
securing the loose working end of the rope and prevents that end of the rope from slipping back through
knot and untying. The safety knot should be tied approximately 1 inch from the finished primary knot.
Take the loose end Pass the loose end of Test whether you
of the rope, beyond the rope through the Tighten the safety
knot by pulling on have tied a safety
the knot, and form a loop. knot correctly by
loop around the both ends at the
same time. sliding it on the
standing part of the standing part of the
rope. rope. A correctly
tied rope will slide.

CORE
Bowline Knot
A Bowline is a knot that allows the rescuer to form a non-slipping loop of any desired size. It can be tied
to create a loop that can slip over objects or tied so that it captures an object within its loop.
Make the desired sized

loop and bring the
working end back to the Pass the working end over
standing part. the loop, around and under
Form another small loop in the the standing part, and back
standing part of the rope, with down through the same
the section close to the working opening.
end on top. Thread the working
end up through this loop from
the bottom.
Tie a safety knot in the

working end of the rope.
Tighten the knot by
holding the working end
and pulling the standard
part of the rope
backward.

CORE
Figure Eight Knot
A figure eight is a basic knot used to produce a family of other knots, including the figure eight on a
bight ad the figure eight with a follow through.
Thread the working Tighten the knot by

Loop the working pulling on both ends
end back through the
Form a bight in the end of the rope simultaneously.
bight.
rope. completely around
the standing part of
the rope.
Figure Eight Bend Knot

The figure eight bend, or tracer 8, is used to join two ropes together.
Tie a figure eight Thread the end of Tie a safety knot on

near the end of one the second rope the loose end of each
rope. completely through rope to the standing
the knot from the part of the other.
opposite end.
Pull the knot tight.

CORE
Figure Eight on a Bight Knot
The figure eight on a bight knot typically creates a secure non-slipping loop at the working end of the
rope. The loop can be used to attach the end of the rope to fixed object or a piece of equipment, tie a life
safety rope around a person, or to create loops for anchoring systems. The loop may be tied to any size-
from an inch to several feet in diameter. If enough rope is present the knot can also be used to create
non-slipping loops in the middle of the rope as well.
Form a bight and

identify the end of the
Feed the working end of
bight as the working Holding both sides of
the bight back through
end. the bight together, form
the loop.
a loop.
Secure the loose end of

the rope with a safety
Pull the knot tight. knot.

CORE
Figure Eight Follow through Knot
A figure eight with a follow-through knot creates a secure non-slipping loop at the end of the rope
allowing the working end to be wrapped around an object or passed through an opening before the loop
is formed.
Tie a simple figure eight Thread the working end

in the standing part of through the opening or
the rope, far enough around the object, and
back to make a loop. bring it back through the
Leave this knot loose. original figure eight
know in the opposite
direction.
Once the working end Secure the loose end

has been threaded with a safety knot.
through the knot, pull
the knot tight.

CORE
Double Loop Figure Eight Knot
The double –loop figure eight, or rescue 8, is used when there is a desire for greater strength in the loop
itself, when constructing a self-equalizing anchor system where loops of two different sizes are needed,
or when it is desirable to incorporate a ring directly into the knot.
Form a bight Loop the working end Lay the working end
approximately 18 of the rope of the rope over the
inches on the working completely around bight created when
end of the rope the standing end of you looped the rope.
the rope. Similar to creating a
figure 8 on the bight,
do not pass the rope
through.
Pass your hand through

Tighten the knot by When you pull the
the loop created in Step Pass the loop over the pulling on both ends knot tight, it will have
1 and grab the working loop created in Step 4 simultaneously. the shape of a figure
end of the rope (both and on to the top of eight with a double
pieces) through the bight the knot. loop on the working
created in Step 2.
end.

CORE
Double Fisherman’s or Barrel Knot
The double fisherman’s knot is used to create a Prusik loop but may also be used to join two ropes of
equal or unequal diameter. A single fisherman’s knot can also be used a safety knot. Because it is an
“adjustable” self-tightening knot is one of the few that does not require a safety knot.
Set the two ends together. Each end pointing in Pass one end under both
opposite directions. ropes.
Begin to wrap the two Wrap around both ropes This will form two loops.
ropes. twice.
Pass the end back Dress the loops and knot. Pull the knot tight.
through the loops.
Tie the same knot on the Make sure both sides of Pull on both ropes tight to
opposite end. the knot sit against each cinch the two knots
other (if they don’t, untie against each other.
one end, and try
wrapping it in the
opposite direction.

CORE
Butterfly Knot Rescue Application
The butterfly knot is used to create a non-slipping loop or loops in the middle of the rope. This can
advantageous when a second connection point is needed for additional safety for the rescuer or victim.
Form a bight over a Using the rope from Continue the loop
hand behind the palm, form around the hand to a
loop over the hand. round turn.
Form a second bight Begin to pull the loop Continue to pull over
between the loop and nearest the fingers back the round turn,
strand closest to the to the palm of the hand.
thumb.
Fold and push the loop Dress and Tighten the Knot
under the round turn.
Slide the fingers out
from knot.

CORE
Water Knot
The water knot is used to join webbing of the same or different sizes together. When a single piece of
webbing is used and the opposite ends are tied to each other, a loop or sling is created. These loops can
be used for a variety of purposes, including the formation of anchors and the construction of load-
releasing hitches.
In one end of the webbing,

approximately 6 inches from the
end, tie an overhand knot.
From the terminal end of the first knot, follow the

Finished Knot formation of the knot.

CORE
Hitches
Hitches are knots that are formed when the rope is wrapped around an object. They are used to secure
the working end of the rope to a solid object. Most relate a hitch being tied to firefighting equipment
such as an axe or pike pole. Hitched used in Rope Rescue would be considered tied around Anchor
Points such as a Tensionless or Girth hitch and carabineers such as the Radium and Mariners Load
Releasing hitches.
Half Hitch
A half hitch is a stabilizing knot used to secure tied tools, equipment or an object.
Rotate your hand so your

Grab the rope with your
palm is facing you. This
palm facing away from
will make a loop in the
you.
rope.
Pass the loop over the end

of the object. Finish the half-hitch knot
by positioning it and
pulling tight.

CORE
Clove Hitch
The clove hitch is a self-tightening hitch used to attach a rope to tool, anchor point or object. It will
generally hold well if tensioned is applied to either end of the rope or to both ends simultaneously;
however, a preferred “direction of pull” should be minded. When a clove hitch is tied, if it is pulled one
way, the rope crosses over the body of the knot, keeping it tight and secure. If the knot is pulled in the
opposite direction, the rope does not cross over the body of the knot and the clove opens, becoming less
secure. It is preferred to use a safety knot when possible.
There are two different methods to tying a clove hitch. A clove hitch tied in the open or “thrown” is used
when the knot can be formed and then slipped over the end of the object. If the object is too large or too
long to slip the knot over one end, the clove hitch can be “tied” around the object.
Throwing a Clove Hitch (Open Object)
Holding onto the rope, Slide the right-hand loop

uncross your hands. This behind the left-hand loop.
will create a loop in each
hand.
Starting from left to right on
the rope, grab the rope with
crossed hands with the left
hand positioned higher than
the right.
Pull in opposite directions to

tighten the clove hitch. Tie a
safety knot in the working
end of the rope.
Slide both loops over the

object.

CORE
Tying a Clove Hitch (Around an Object)
Place the working end of the Make a complete loop Make a second loop around
rope over the object. around the object, working the object above the first
end down. loop. Pass the working end
of the rope under the second
loop, above the point where
the second loop crosses over
the first.
Tighten the knot and secure Tie a safety knot in the

it by pulling on both ends. working end of the rope.

CORE
Munter Hitch
A Munter hitch is great for lots of applications. It can be used for lowering objects or taking up tension.
Once tied around an object (usually a carabineer) the friction created can capture and hold tension in a
line, or enable the lowering of a person or object. Be mindful of the rope on rope friction and the load.
One feature of the Munter hitch is that the rope can be pulled from either ends and it will still function
properly. Although the hitch can be tied around any stationary object; it is typically tied around a
carabineer that is attached to an anchor. Similar to the clove hitch, the knot can be tied or thrown.
Tying a Munter Hitch (Around a Carabineer) Rescue Application
Pass the rope through the Form a loop over the Pass the loop through the
open carabineer standing part of the rope open carabineer
Position the loop to the Close and lock the Position the running part of
basket part of carabineer carabineer under the standing part of
the rope. This will be used to
control the friction.
Throwing a Munter Hitch
Form two opposite loops

Fold and hold the two
loops so they face each Clip the carabineer
other. through the two loops.

CORE
Radium Load Release Hitch
The Radium Load Releasing Hitch use a 3:1 mechanical advantage and a Munter hitch to safely transfer
the load. This combination provides for a smooth transfer with little effort on the part of the operator.
The Hitch constructed using 8 feet of 8-9mm cordage.
Munter
Hitch
Tie a figure 8 on bight in one

end of the cord. The bight
should be only large enough Tie a Munter Hitch on the
for the carabineer to slide Anchor Carabineer. The
through. This will be the Standing end of the cord
load side of the load release should be the Gate side of
hitch. the Carabineer.
Finish by forming an
Form a bight to cinch a Half Overhand around the Body
Hitch around the body of the Hitch and tying a
nearest to the Munter. Stopper knot on the Bight.

CORE
Mariner's Hitch (Load Releasing Hitch)
The Mariner's hitch is used on the belay line to both help absorb any shock forces to the anchor and
rescuer during mainline failure, and to release tension from the tandem prusiks if they are accidentally
locked. It is also used to capture the mainline during a change over from a lowering to raising system,
and vice versa.
Equipment needed to make the Mariner's hitch includes:
Three carabineers (preferably steel)
One 12' length of 1" webbing or 6’ diameter continuous loop webbing
How to Tie the Mariner's Hitch

The 10-12' length of webbing is folded
in half, with no twists, and the two ends
are tied together with an overhand bend
to create a sling (see diagram). A
carabineer is attached to the bight end of
the webbing. A second carabineer is
attached to both strands of webbing, 12"
from the first carabineer. Then the
overhand bend is passed through the first
carabineer. This captures the second
carabineer within a doubled bight of
webbing. Wrap the working end of the
webbing around the strands between the
carabineers (five wraps). A doubled
bight is formed in the end of the
webbing next to the overhand bend and
then passed between the pairs of strands
just above the second carabineer. A third
carabineer is clipped through the
doubled bight and the bight formed at
the overhand bend. This secures the end
of the webbing and keeps the hitch from
unwinding.
Technical Load Releasing Strap

The Tech Load Release strap is a component purchased specially for the releasing loads or adsorbing
shock.

Anchors & Anchor Systems
Anchors and Anchor Systems _____
An anchor is the means of securing the ropes and/or system to something solid. Anchors can be
natural elements such as trees or rocks, artificial, such as beam clamps or removable swivel bolts
or they can be man-made such as structural beams and apparatus.
An anchor (also called an anchor point) is a stationary object capable of supporting the load
attached to it. An anchor system is the rope, slings, and hardware used to attach a load to the
anchor, and includes the anchor. All anchors must be able to hold the anticipated load that will
be applied to it, in the direction the load will be applied from. A significant safety factor shall be
included to compensate not only for the anticipated load, but also for unanticipated loads,
dynamic loads, shock loads, and stress from the application of hauling systems.
The result of an inadequate anchor or anchor system is failure of the system.
In the absence of an obvious “bombproof” anchor, the primary anchor shall be backed up by a
secondary anchor to provide support. This backup anchor must be in line with the primary
anchor and the load, and must also act to counter the type of force that the load is applying to the
primary anchor. (See “Anchor Systems” below for details).
All anchors must be inspected to identify any sharp or abrasive edges that may damage software
and provide padding for protection (edge-pro) of the same.
Test the anchor prior to the application of its intended load by “pre-loading” to test the alignment
and reaction of the system components.
The Rigging Team Leader (RGL) and the Technical Safety Officer (TSO) must approve the
anchor and connecting components prior to application of the intended load.

Natural Anchors can be a trees or rocks to which webbing, straps or rope are wrapped around.
Caution should be used and each should be evaluated for potential failure before using. A
tree’s diameter as well as root system and ground there in should be examined. A rock or
boulder may easily be moved with the stresses of rope systems.
Tree – Tensionless Hitch Tree – Wrap 3 Pull 2
Source: www.mountainproject.com www. swoutdoorsports.wordpress.com
Using a tree as an anchor:

 Ensure that any tree utilized as an anchor is solid (alive) and has sufficient girth to
safely hold the expected load.
 Ensure that the root system of the tree is not too shallow of depth, and that the
supporting soil is not water saturated in such a manner to make the question of
stability an issue.
 Secure the anchor down low on a tree if possible to maximize the strength of the tree
and prevent the load from applying a leverage force to the trees base. If the tree is of
sufficient girth, a balance may be sought between keeping the anchor low on the tree
for the above reason, and elevating the anchor to provide a better angle to the load
and/or keeping the rope system from digging through the earth when moving.
 If a tree is deemed not “bombproof”, use a backup anchor for support that will act to
counter the type of force that the load is applying to the primary anchor. The backup
anchor must be located directly behind the primary anchor, in line with the load. (See
“Anchor Systems” below for details).
Rock Rock
Source: jive-assanchors.com
Source: www.globalsecurity.org
Using a rock as an anchor:

 Ensure that any rock utilized as an anchor has sufficient mass to hold the expected
load and that the ground surrounding the rock is solid and not water saturated.
 Pad all sharp edges in which software will be positioned against.
 Particular attention must be given to the anchor strapping, as it may be prone to
“popping” off of the top of a rock or slipping under the rock.
 Separate rope systems may have to be placed to prevent these potential occurrences.

Structural Anchors should be evaluated for be structurally sound. Anchor points may deteriorate
over time; corroded metal, weathered and deteriorated stone or motor work should be
avoided. Inherently week structural features such as sheet metal vents, flashing & gutters;
light brickwork and standpipe systems should also be avoided.
Stronger inherent parts of the building structure may be considered when selecting an anchor
point;
Structural Columns Anchors for Window-cleaning equipment
Projections of Structural Beams Roof Scuppers
Supports for Large Machinery Elevator and Machine Housings
Stairwell Support Beams Walled Section between Windows
Brickwork with Large Bulk
Structural Columns Structural Beams Structural Beams
Source: Firehouse.com Source: Firehouse.com Source: www.d2000safety.com
Roof Structures Window Washing Anchors
Source: www.ropeaccessorlando.com
Source: Firehouse.com
Using structural members as an anchor:

 Structural members are numerous in industry and “bombproof” anchors are either readily
available or are easy to backup to provide additional support.
 Pad all sharp edges including “square” shaped anchors such as girders or beams to protect
software.
 Structural members must be thoroughly inspected for corrosion, cracks, damage and the
manner that the structural member is attached to ground or other members. (Example:
Inspection of the anchor bolts that attach a sound steel member to a concrete floor with as
well as an inspection of the stability of the concrete at the point the members connect).
 Visualize the type of force that will impact the structural member once the load is applied
and determine if the structural member can withstand that force. (Example: Will an
anchor tied high on a vertical member apply a leverage force to the anchors base).

Artificial Anchors use special hardware specifically designed for anchoring when no other points
may be available. Artificial anchors used in rescue may be bolts placed in rocks or beam
clamps used in structures. Most require competent personnel selecting and securing these
devices.
Anchor
Beam Clamp
Vehicle Anchor Points can usually be found on fire apparatus or service vehicles. Potential
anchor points include the following:
Vehicle Bumpers Wheels
Bumper Brackets Suspension Components
Tow Hooks/Eyes
The weight of the vehicle and the surface the vehicle sits on must provide sufficient mass and
friction to prevent the vehicle from sliding once the load is applied. Ensure that any anchor
point utilized on a vehicle is one that is either specifically designed for that purpose or is
positively structurally significant. Avoid exposing software to any fuel, grease, oil, or
contaminate.
Source: www.fireapparatusmagazine.com
Safety Considerations for Vehicles:

 Park the vehicle on a solid surface. High loads can possibly drag a vehicle across
loose gravel, sand or soft ground.
 Set Parking Brake or Service Brake
 If the service vehicle has an automatic transmission, set in “park”. If the vehicle has a
manual transmission, set it the gear opposite the direction of pull (ex.; reverse if
pulling from the front)
 Chock wheels. Forces in a High-Angle System can move a vehicle.
 Remove key from the ignition, assign to Incident Commander.

Change of Direction Anchor Points

A change of direction is a method of deviating the direction of
the main line. When the main line does not fall in direct line
from the objective or victim and the anchor point the line must
deviated so the system falls in line. A Change of Direction
(COD) can become force multipliers for the anchoring system
of the COD, as angle increase in the system from being in line
so does forces on the COD anchor.
Safety Considerations for COD
or System Deviations:
 If the COD is greater than
60°, ensure it is capable of
supporting the load.
 If the COD is greater than
60°, back up the COD if
necessary.
 Eliminate the need for a
COD by finding additional
anchor points for a Multi-
point System.
Backing up Anchor Points
Backing up an anchor point is essential when the primary anchor point is in line with the
objective and may not provide the required strength to support the system. When there is
second anchor point directly behind the primary a tieback should be considered if the second
anchor is strong enough to sustain the systems load.
Tieback
A rope or webbing may be used to run between the two
anchor points.
Pretension Tiebacks
If an anchor system receives shock that anchor point
may fail. A pretension tieback is used to lessen the
chance of shock loading anchors. Using a mechanical
advantage system removes slack in a tieback before the
system is loaded.
Safety Considerations for Tieback or Pretension
Tiebacks
 If secondary anchor point must be as strong as or
stronger than the primary anchor point.
 Tieback should have no slack to allow shock
loading, which would lead to both anchor points to
fail.

Full Strength Tie off Anchors

Full strength tied off anchors are simplistically made, quick to assemble, and retains most of
the strength in the rope (on larger diameter anchors), ex.; Tensionless Hitch. Full strength
tied off anchors are most often utilized as a means of securing a “far side” anchor for Track
Lines on either a Highline system or as a Track Line across a river for a boat based platform.
The full strength tie off can be secured using no hardware by using a Figure 8 follow through
or with one carabineer attached to a Figure 8 on a Bight as shown below.
Tensionless Hitch
The tensionless anchor is a quick and easy anchor that requires a minimum amount of
equipment. It is also the strongest method of anchoring a rescue line. The tensionless
anchor is designed to wrap around a round or oval shaped anchor. The anchor must be at
least four times the diameter of the rope to maintain full strength of the rope. The running
end of the rope is wrapped at least four times around an anchor point, such as a tree, in a
neat series of wraps. As with all anchor systems, the tensionless anchor should be applied
as low on the anchor point as possible. A figure eight on a bight is tied in the running
end, and a carabineer is snapped into it. The carabineer is then snapped onto the standing
part of the rope.
Safety Considerations for a Tensionless Hitch:
 The object is preferably round and should be a minimum of 4 inch diameter.
 The smaller the diameter of the object, the more wraps will be needed.
 The smoother the surface of the object, the more wraps will be needed.
 Consider Edge Protection
.
Take at least two Make sure there is no rope Tie a figure 8 on a bight in Clip the carabiner
wraps with the rope cross in the turns. the running end of the rope across the standing end
around the object to be and clip a locking carabiner of the rope at the
used as the anchor into the figure 8 knot. bottom of the spiral.
point.

Anchor Systems Critical Angles
 A concern when rigging any anchor system is to avoid creating too wide an angle between
the legs of the system. Try to select anchors that are relatively close together, and use lengths
of webbing and rope that are long enough to avoid creating wide angles.
 Ensure that the “critical angle” between the rigging legs that connect the anchor to the load or
in any system component is 90 degrees or less. (An exception would be in High Line
Systems). Evaluate force vectors between the anchor and the load and the type of force that
will be applied to the anchor where the load connects.
 The angle between anchor points, known as "field angle" should never exceed 90°. Angles greater
than this critical 90° begin to exert forces on the anchors that will be greater than the load itself.
Anchors and material used to build anchors can easily be over stressed and fail under these forces. A
90° angle distributes 92.5% of the load to each anchor. A 120° angle distributes 100% of the load to
each anchor. These defeats the entire purpose of constructing multiple point anchors.






Anchor Straps and Webbing for Anchor Points:

Anchor Straps and Webbing work well for single point anchor systems. Ensure the software is the proper
length in order to avoid unwanted directional loads.
The anchor connection should

never be the weakest link in
rope system. Anchor Straps and
Webbing have considerably
lower breaking strengths than
anchor systems that use rope.
Use a double prusik rope grab if
the systems has the potential of
being shocked.
Avoid exceeding critical

angles when using straps or
webbing. Angles of 90° or
less are optimum and may
cause the failure of the
system.
Wrap 3; Pull 2
Source: www.outsideonline.com
CMC Rope Rescue Manual, 4th Edition

Load Sharing Anchor Systems:

A load sharing anchor is when the legs and point of the anchor system equally sharing the load
potential. The load should not be allowed to deviate and cause slack onto the other leg(s) of the
system.
Load Equally Shared Load Deviation
Self-Adjusting or Load Equalizing Anchor Systems:

The self-adjusting anchor system, also known as self-equalizing anchor system, centers the
system between two or more anchor points. It allows the load to be distributed to each anchor
point by permitting the point of attachment to shift within the anchor as the system is loaded.
Caution; once the full load is on the system, the friction is too great to allow further equal
distribution during a load shift. The inability for the system to provide equal distribution on
the anchor points could cause an anchor to fail. If one of the anchor points fails, the shift to
the remaining anchor points will cause a drop in the system toward the load. If the anchor
legs are long, this drop can create a shock load on the remaining anchor points that may
result in their failure. Keeping the adjusting anchor sling legs short (12" maximum) reduces
this problem. When the anchor points are not close together, tag lines are used to extend them
to a collection point where the self-adjusting anchor is attached. This allows the adjusting
legs of the system to remain short.
Two Point: Three Point: 3 Point 3 Point with Failure

Using Pickets as an Anchor:

Pickets may be utilized in an anchor poor environment, but should be assessed carefully in
regard to their ability to safely hold a large load due to the variety of factors that directly
impact a pickets holding power. These factors include the type of material the picket is made
from, how the pickets are arrayed, depth the pickets are driven into the soil, the type of soil,
compactness of the soil, and the moisture content of the soil.
Pickets should be driven 2/3 of their length into the ground at a 15 degree angle away from
the load. Pickets must be oriented in line with the load and they may be bundled together to
provide additional strength.
Lash pickets together with rope or webbing by tying a clove hitch to the base of the rear
picket, go up and around the top of the forward picket, and continue with four to six wraps
between the pickets finishing with a round turn and two half hitches on the forward picket.
The hitches securing the lashing to the pickets should be located below the wraps on the
forward picket to prevent the wraps from sliding down and above the wraps on the rear
picket to prevent the wraps from sliding up.
Place a stake between the wraps and tension the pickets by twisting the wraps until the
forward picket just begins to move back. Drive the stake into the ground to maintain tension.
(aka a “Windlass”).
Picket Capacities
The load capacity of a picket is determined using loamy soil of average compactness. Many
variables affect the load capacity of pickets.
A single picket can hold up to 700 lbf. A 1-1-1 combination picket or three pickets in line.
Pickets hold longer under a gradual pull than if they are exposed to a sudden shock force
The type of soil is most important;
 Clay and gravel mixtures have only about 90% of the holding power of ordinary soils.
 The holding power of river clay and sand is only about 50% of ordinary soils
 The soil's moisture content and compactness affect the holding power
 The material used for pickets, the dimensions, and how they are placed affect the
holding power
Be aware that the process of “twisting”
webbing to provide the necessary
tension in the windlass that permits
distribution of the load throughout the
picket system may damage the webbing
by stressing the fibers with the
application of a tension (tearing) force.
This type of damage may not be readily
apparent in the webbing upon inspection Picket system configured as 1:1:1
after the windlass is disassembled.
Prudence dictates that webbing utilized
to make a windlass in a picket system
should be removed from service after
use.
Rescue Technician CORE Belay Systems
Belays are similar to lowering systems that they use the same devices that generate friction or a
tensioned rope to control the decent of rescuers or the load. The difference between a lowering
and belay system is that a belay system friction device is used to as a load capture and regulates
or minimizes the fall distance.
The belayer must always be attentive and never leave the belay system unattended.
Tandem Prusik Belay Systems
A Tandem Prusik Belay consists of two triple
wrapped Prusiks anchored securely and placed
inline on the belay rope. When rigged correctly the
prusiks will exert a clutching action and grab the
rope. Because load is stopped slowly it reduces the
chance of excessive shock to the system.
Certain conditions may cause the Prusiks not to
catch. Environmental conditions such as ice, snow
or mud may them to slip over the rope. Cordage that
is the wrong material or diameter or if the hitch is
not tied tight enough will also cause the rope to slip
through the Prusiks.
It is important to have a knowledgeable and alert
person tend the Prusiks. Inattention to the operation
may allow the Prusiks to catch or not catch when
not needed.
Load Releasing Hitches

The use of a Load Release Hitch with Prusiks allows the system to be released if loaded
accidently. The addition of the hitch can also provide some shock absorbing capacity.
Radium LRH Mariner’s Hitch Tech Load Release Strap
Mechanical Belay Devices
540° Rescue Belay

The 540° rescue belay device works as an automatic
belay. The device safely arrests the load and locks
itself onto the rope when necessary. It allows bi-
directional loading, is self-locking and does not
require a Load Release Hitch.

Rescue Technician CORE Belay Systems
Belay Systems Configurations

Basic Belay System
The basic belay line configuration does not utilize the prusik minding pulley. This configuration
does not provide for rapid retrieval of an unloaded line, however, it will allow the tender better
"feel" of systems operation.
This configuration will minimize the potential of prusiks to grab or jam. The basic belay/safety
line configuration also reduces the potential for damage to system components (line and prusiks)
caused by the heat of friction. The potential for system problems associated with the use of the
prusik minding pulley in the systems is eliminated.
Basic Belay System
Anchor, Anchor Strap, LRH & Double Prusik
Prusik-Minding Pulley Belay System

The prusik minding pulley (PMP) allows the belayer to retrieve the belay/safety line with hand
over hand motion. This provides a quick method of retrieving a line that has been disconnected
from the load.
This configuration can also be used while retrieving a belay/safety line during raising operations.
The operator must ensure that the proper amount of tension is maintained in the prusik hitches
around the belay/safety line. Excessive grip of the prusik to the line will cause the tandem
prusiks to jam and/or be damaged due to the heat of friction.
Extreme caution must be used if utilizing this system to protect the load during lowering
operations. The weight of the additional hardware can cause the tandem prusiks to grab
unexpectedly. The system may be placed flat on the ground to prevent this. Prusik hitches that
are too loose or improperly tended will not arrest a fall.
Basic Belay Retrieval System
Anchor, Anchor Strap, Prusik Minding Pulley, LRH & Double Prusik

Lowering Systems
Decent Control
Descent Control System Components
Descent control devices come in various shapes, size, and uses. Their purpose is basically to
provide a means of applying friction within the system to control the descent of a given mass.
Some have auto-stopping features while others provide minimal friction for a single rescuer. As
with the other components, the device must be matched with the task.
DEFINITIONS
Braking Device
A braking device is any device intended to apply friction to rope for the purpose of slowing
or stopping the progress of the rope travel. Primary braking devices used are Rescue 8's and
brake bar racks.
Braking Hand
The braking hand is the operator's hand that must never leave the rope during a lowering
operation. This is similar to the braking hand used in belays. The intent is that if the operator
has contact with the rope when a sudden surge or load change occurs, they will able to best
respond to the load change if the rope is in their hand.
Feeling Hand
The feeling hand is the operator's hand that is used to monitor the tension of the main
lowering line. Lowering systems are designed to work with the weight of the load. If slack is
formed in the main line, this may indicate that the rescue load has become momentarily hung
up on a ledge or is at the bottom. The operator strives to maintain no slack in the line unless
slack is required for some specific purpose.
Decent Control or Brake Devices
Brake Rack
MPD
Rescue 8 Plate

Lowering Systems
Lowering Systems
The rope rescue lowering system is a single device or a combination of rope rescue devices used
to control the load’s position or rate of decent. A lowering system must be connected to an
anchor or anchor system. The lowering device, such as a brake bar rack, rescue 8-descender or a
mechanical device such as the MPD, imparts the friction of the rope in the device permits the
operator or tender to have control of the rate of descent of the load.
In technical rescue, the objective is to extricate a possibly injured subject from a precarious
situation and relocate to a safe location for further evacuation. Whenever possible, a lowering
system which uses gravity to pull the rescue load down is preferred when evacuating from a
vertical rock face or high mountain situation. A lowering system requires less work from the
rescuers than a raising system and therefore can normally be achieved with fewer total rescuers.
When lowering rescue loads, especially large loads above 300 lbs., a slow pace should be used.
If possible, stops should be gradually applied to dissipate the energy over time, rather than in
heat on a quick stop. Quick stops or jolts stress a system more than continuous loads, cause an
increased amount of heat, and may lead to a system failure.
BELAY Line MAIN Line

Lowering Systems
Converting a Lowering System to a Raising System

Rescue members should be able to effectively and quickly convert lowering systems to raising
systems, and vice-versa. This may be needed if the load were lowered into an obstacle or a
hazardous area that was not seen from above.
When a change is required, the Entry Team Leader will command and control the various system
level requirements. All slack in the belay system is taken up before the conversion.
1. Take Slack in Belay Line, apply or tighten

Prusiks on the rope.
2. Lock of Descent Control Device.
3. Apply Prusiks to Main Line and tighten
4. Unlock the Descent Control Device and
Prusiks on the rope.
transfer the load onto the tandem prusiks.
a. Prusiks are attached to Load Releasing
Hitch 5. Remove the Descent Control Device and
attach the Prusik-mined Pulley and Haul
Pulley
3 of 3 Section 8 Revision: 100715 a
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Recruit Firefighter Program Rope Rescue Rigging
Mechanical Advantage Systems
Mechanical Advantage Systems___________________________________________________

Ropes and rope equipment are widely used to hoist or lower tools, applainaces, or people; to
permit safe reset.
Many rescue situations require raising a victim from an accident site. To do this requires
knowledge of pulley systems so the rescue can be accomplished more safely and easily. By using
pulley systems, the rescue team can spread the weight of the load over distance.
Rules for Determining Mechanical Advantage
There are three basic rules for determining the theoretical mechanical advantage of a simple
pulley system.
1. If the rope is tied off to the load, and the first pulley the rope goes through is attached to
the anchor, the advantage will be odd (1:1, 3:1, 5:1, etc.).
2. If the rope is tied off to the anchor, and the first pulley is attached to the load, the
mechanical advantage will be even (2:1, 4:1, 6:1, etc.).
3. If the last pulley in a system is attached to the anchor, it adds no mechanical advantage. It
acts only as a change-of-direction pulley.
To determine mechanical advantage, keep rules one through three in mind. Simply count the
number of lines between the anchor and the load. Do not count the line if it comes off a
change-of-direction pulley.
Mechanical Advantage

Components
Components needed to build a pulley system are:
 Rescue rope
o Most pulley systems can be built with 75' or 150' lengths of rope
 Rescue pulleys
 Prusiks
o Hauling prusiks, to grab the rope and pull it into motion
o Ratchet prusiks, to stop the rope from moving and allow the system to be reset
 Anchor point or system
Types of Mechanical Advantage Systems

Simple: A simple system has all its pulleys attached to either the anchor or the load. One end
of the rope is tied to the anchor or the load and the rope is reeved through the pulleys.
Compound: A compound system is one simple system pulling on another simple system.
Complex: A complex system is any system that is a combination of simple and compound
systems.
1:1 Systems
A 1:1 mechanical advantage means that a 100-pound load that needs to move 10' will take
100 pounds of force and 10' of rope to move 10'.
Simple 1:1 System
Simple 1:1 System with a Change of Direction

2:1 Systems
A 2:1 mechanical advantage means it will take 50 pounds of force to move the object, but it
will take 20' of rope to move the 100 pound object 10'.
Simple 2:1 Mechanical Advantage System
Simple 2:1 Mechanical Advantage with a Change of Direction

This system is used to create lifting capability from anchor points located above the rescue
team. It is designed to pull down, toward the load. The rope is attached to the anchor, run
through a pulley that is attached to the load, and back up to a change of direction pulley
attached to the anchor.
The actual mechanical advantage is less than 2:1 because of friction in the pulleys, rope
abrasion, etc. The mechanical advantage referred to in any system is the theoretical
mechanical advantage, and you should always assume that the actual mechanical advantage
attained is going to be less in field situations.

Simple 3:1 Mechanical Advantage System

It is designed to be used horizontally rather than vertically. By attaching the rope to the load,
then running it through a pulley that is attached to the anchor, then back to a pulley attached to
the load, the mechanical advantage becomes 3:1. The pull will be away from the load. This
system lends itself to being attached to another rescue line with a hauling prusik. By hauling on
the pig rig, the load attached to the other line is raised with a 3:1 mechanical advantage.
3:1 Z-Rig
Progress Capture Device
Typical In Line 3:1 Z-Rig

IN-LINE 3:1 Z-RIG SYSTEM

The Z-rig system, also known as “Z pulley system”, is quite universal in the Rope Rescue
community. It is easily constructed from standard rescue gear typically carried by field teams.
This system provides sufficient mechanical advantage to suffice rescue requirements if the load
is kept to a minimum and sufficient haulers for the load are available.
A typical example of a 3-to-1 raising system using the proper equipment is shown in Figure 1-2.
For field applications where minimum gear is available, carabineers can replace pulleys and the
anchor plate can be eliminated.
Basic In-Line 3:1 Haul System
Anchor, Anchor Strap, Carabineers, Rigging Plate, LRH, Prusiks,

Prusik Minding Pulleys
A 3:1 Z-RIG with a COD

A 3:1 Z-Rig requires two anchor points, one to anchor the mechanical advantage system and the
other for the change of the direction in the system.
Necessary Components:
Anchor Point
Load Capturing Device
GIBBS Ascender or Prusiks
2 – Prusik Minding Pulleys or
3:1 Z-Rig with COD

The operation of the Z-rig requires three positions although a hauler may perform double duty.
 Hauler: No skills required and the more the better, so non-SAR personnel and bystanders
can be put to use if it is safe. A hauler either pulls hand-over-hand or grabs the rope and
walks with the rope. Haulers should haul as close to in line with the anchor and load axis
to minimize pulling against the system. Each throw of a haul should be smooth and even.
The haulers should not jerk the rope as in “one-two-three pull.” This is to prevent shock
loading the system and to give the subject and litter tenders an easier ride up over rough
terrain.
 Haul Prusik Re-setter: This person resets the haul Prusik forward toward the load as far
as safely possible.
 Tandem Prusik Minder: This position should always be filled unless there is a bare
minimum of rescuers available to haul. This rescuer will monitor the tandem “ratchet”
Prusiks to ensure they are in their forward position as much as possible, and lock-off the
Prusiks at the end of a haul cycle. The tandem Prusiks should always be locked-off when
the system is stopped for any reason.
Z-Rig Operation
The haul cycle is as follows:
1. The haul Prusik should be as far forward as possible at the start.
2. Once all systems are ready, the Operations Leader will give the “haul” command.
3. The haulers will haul smoothly on the haul line.
4. The Prusik minder will monitor the tandem Prusiks.
5. When the haul Prusik approaches the ratchet Prusiks, The Prusik minder will give the
“stop, lock-off” command.
6. The Prusik minder will force the tandem Prusiks forward to lock-off the system. This will
minimize the distance the load will lower when the haulers release tension.
7. Once the tandem Prusiks are locked off, the haulers can release tension on the haul line.
8. The haul Prusik re-setter will position the haul Prusik as far forward as safely possible.
The longer the throw, the fewer the number of hauling cycles needed during the raising
process.
9. The haul cycle is repeated until the load is at the top.
It is not necessary to coordinate "reset" & “haul” commands with tenders or over the
radio unless there will be an unexpected delay. The ratchet effect is well known and expected by
the tender. This minimizes unnecessary radio traffic and allows the system to flow more
efficiently.

3:1 Piggyback System

This system is used primarily when the first rope (Main Line) was used to lower the rescuer to
the victim. A second 3:1 Mechanical Advantage System rope would then be connected by either
a Prusik or Descender rope grab device to the Main Line and used to haul.
The 3:1 Piggyback System additionally requires two anchor points, six carabineers, three
pulleys, a load releasing hitch or strap, and tandem prusiks used as a Progress Capture Device.
3:1 Piggyback System

Simple 4:1 Mechanical Advantage using Single Pulleys
Simple 4:1 Mechanical Advantage using Double Pulleys with a Change of Direction
Simple 5:1 Mechanical Advantage using Double Pulleys with a Change of Direction

Compound: A compound system is one simple system pulling on another simple system.
Compound 9:1 Mechanical Advantage
Complex: A complex system is any system that is a combination of simple and compound
systems.
Below is a simple 3:1 Mechanical Advantage System being pulled by a 2:1, the result is 6:1
Mechanical Advantage.
3:1 Z-Rig with 2:1 Complex Mechanical Advantage System

Rope Rescue
Basic Rope Rescue Systems
Two-rope systems:
The utilization of a two-rope system (Main and Belay Line) provides the safest means for
rescuers operating at a technical rescue that requires rope rescue to access a patient(s) in an
efficient manner. The use of a two-rope system during a rope rescue is a requirement at all times
with the exception of simplistic low angle rescues, lead climbing, and under extenuating
circumstances.
Main Line:
The Main Line provides the rescuer and/or litter team with access to a patient, provides both the
rescuers and patient with protection from a fall, as well as assistance in regaining the top in an
angled or vertical environment.
The Main Line bears the weight of the load imparted by the rescuers, the patient, and all
equipment used as part of the patient extraction.
The actual set up and operation of a Main Line rope system for raising and lowering a rescuer
and/or litter team shall be performed by a technician level person. The exception to this is for
low angle Main Line rope systems, where in such cases an operations level person may be
utilized.
Belay Line:
The Belay Line provides a backup safety line to the Main Line. The Belay Line is not loaded
unless there is a Main Line failure and as such, slack in the Belay Line has to always be at a
minimum to prevent shock loading in the event of a Main Line failure.
The actual set up and operation of a Belay Line rope system should be performed by a technician
level person.
Two-rope system components:
The components that make up a two-rope system include:
 Personnel working under the direction of assigned staff positions
o See “Roles and Responsibilities” section for details).
 Sound anchors
o See “Anchor Points” and “Anchor Systems” section for details
 Two-rope system
o See this section for details.
 Communications comprised of common terminology
o See “Safety & PPE” section for details.
 Equipment that is properly applied and properly maintained
o See “Rope Rescue Equipment” section for details.
 The application of safety during a rope rescue that encompasses the entire event.

Rope Rescue
Basic 2-Rope Lowering System
Main Line:
Anchor, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Descending Device & Life Safety Rope
Belay Line:
Anchor, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Prusik Cords, LRH & Life Safety Rope

Rope Rescue
Basic 3:1 Mechanical Advantage 2-Rope Haul System
Main Line:
Anchor, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Pulleys, Rope Grab Device & Life Safety Rope
Belay Line:

Rope Rescue
Basic 3:1 with COD Mechanical Advantage 2-Rope Haul System
Main Line:
Anchor, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Pulleys, Rope Grab Device & Life Safety Rope
Belay Line:

Rope Rescue
RPH System
The RPH System a collection of equipment that includes a descent control device, pulley, and
load-releasing device with one or two prusiks. The "R" refers to resistance, meaning a figure of
eight descender or brake bar rack. The "P" refers to a Pulley. The "H" refers to a Load Release
Hitch.
Often the RPH is configured with additional equipment that can be used in constructing
mechanical advantage systems. Systems configured in this way minimize equipment needs and
weight of systems utilized in rope rescue operations. Grouping these individual items into
component systems, and prepackaging them into a standardized system will greatly reduce set-up
time and simplify the construction and safe operation of the rope rescue systems.
The RPH can be used with either the Belay Line or Main Line.
RPH
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Descending Device, Prusik Cords,
Prusik-minding Pulley, Load Release Hitch or Strap

Rope Rescue
RPH System
RPH Lowering System RPH Basic 3:1 Haul System
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing,
Carbineers, Descending Device& Life Safety Carbineers, Prusik Cords,
Rope Prusik-minding Pulley& Life Safety Rope
Additional Components: Pulley & Rope Grab
Device

Rope Rescue
RPH System
RPH with COD & 3:1 Haul System
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Prusik Cords,

Prusik-minding Pulley& Life Safety Rope
Additional Components: Pulley & Rope Grab Device
RPH with COD & 5:1 Piggy Back
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing, Carbineers, Prusik Cords,

Prusik-minding Pulley
Additional Components: Double Pulleys & Rope Grab Device & Life Safety Rope

Rope Rescue
RPH System
RPH Basic Belay System RPH Belay System with Pulley
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing,

Carbineers, Prusik Cords,
Load Release Hitch or Strap& Life Safety Rope
Anchor Plate, Anchor Strap or Webbing,

Carbineers, Prusik Cords,
Load Release Hitch or Strap& Life Safety Rope

Recruit Firefighter Program Rope Rescue Operations
Team Roles & Responsibilities
The Incident Commander sets the tone for the successful management of the incident by
implementing a command structure, giving clear objectives and assignments, and coordinating
the activities of the various responders.
Command and Control in Low Angle Rope Rescue Operations
The incident command system is the framework for managing any incident.
Prior training in ICS is important so everyone knows where they fit into the system.
ICS should be used to manage all phases of the rescue operation.
Small incidents can be managed by one person wearing all the hats.
The ICS expands as the incident grows to maintain an efficient span of control.
Incidents that involve more than one jurisdiction may be managed by Unified Command.
Positions that may need to be filled on a "typical" low angle rescue incident include:
 Incident Commander (IC).
 Safety Officer (this role may be retained by the IC).
 Rescue Group Leader
 Technical Safety Officer
 Rigging Team Leader
o Main Line Tender.
o Belay/Safety Line Tender
o Haul Team Leader
 Hauler
 Entry Team Leader / Edge Person
o Rescuer(s)
o Litter Team Leader
 Litter Team
 Support Team Leader

Rescue Group Leader (RGL):

 Reports directly to the on scene Incident Commander.
 Is responsible for direct supervision of the rescue team operations.
 Determines RESCUE or RECOVERY mode. Performs a continuous hazard analysis and
risk assessment.
 Provides passport accountability and maintains an ongoing awareness of the location and
condition of all members.
 Provides and maintains safety and scene security.
 Makes key assignments of personnel:
1. Technical Safety Officer
2. Rigging Team Leader
3. Entry Team Leader
4. Support Team Leader
5. Back-Up Team (as required)
 Determines an action plan, communicates the plan, and ensures that the plan is adhered
to. Develops a back-up contingency plan.
 Ensures that the appropriate PPE is utilized and equipment to provide protection from
those hazards to which personnel are exposed or could be exposed is provided.
 Initiates, maintains, and controls incident communications.
 Ensures that medical care at a minimum level of basic life support (BLS) is provided.
 Conducts pre-entry briefing with the entry team.
 Ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked by the Technical Safety Officer
and Rigging Team Leader prior to operation.
 The RGL is the only person at a rope rescue incident who can initiate motion of the rope
system or restart the rope system if stopped or re-set.
o The RGL may delegate this function to the Entry Team Leader.
Technical Safety Officer (TSO):

 Reports directly to the Rescue Group Leader.
 Performs a continuous hazard analysis and risk assessment. Provides direction with
respect to the overall safety of personnel.
 Ensures scene security.
 Ensures that the appropriate PPE is utilized and equipment to provide protection from
those hazards to which personnel are exposed or could be exposed is provided.
 Ensures passport accountability and maintains an ongoing awareness of the location and
condition of all members.
 Is aware of and approves the action plan and ensures that the plan is adhered to. Is aware
of and approves the back-up contingency plan.
 Ensures that medical care at a minimum level of basic life support (BLS) is provided.
 Is present at the pre-entry briefing with the entry team.
 Ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked by the Rigging
 Team Leader then double-checked prior to operation by the TSO.
 Ensures that the Entry Team has been safety checked by the Entry Team
 Leader then double-checked by the TSO prior to deployment.
 Ensure that the Entry Team is properly equipped, properly secured, and all equipment
and medical supplies necessary for the treatment and packaging of the patient(s) is
present and secured.
Rigging Team Leader (Rigger):

 The Rigging Team Leader should be the person on location who possesses the most
experience and knowledge of rope based rescue systems.
 Assists the RGL in determining:
o The type of rope system(s) to be utilized.
o The location from which the rope system(s) are to be based from.
o Selecting the location and type of the anchor point(s).
 Responsible for direct supervision and safety of personnel assigned to the Rigging Team.
(Main Line and Belay Line Team).
 Understands the action plan and communicates the plan to personnel assigned to the
Rigging Team.
 Responsible for the engineering, construction, and operation of all rope based systems
utilized during the operation. This responsibility includes “visualizing” the integrity of
the rope system(s) in motion, and its effect or potential effect to all personnel who depend
on the rope system(s) for their safety as well as to personnel working on or around the
rope system(s).
 Determines a contingency plan prior to the initial operation of the rope system(s) that
addresses the utilization of additional rope systems in case of an emergency. This plan
shall be worked out in advance with the RGL and approved by the TSO.
 Ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked then double-checked by the TSO
prior to operation.
Mainline Tender (lowering):
 Operates rope and friction device to lower rescuers down the slope.
Belay/Safety Line Tender:

 Operates belay/safety to ensure safety of personnel being lowered or raised by rope
system.
Haul Team Leader
 Oversees operation of mechanical advantage haul system.
Hauler
 Controls mainline during raising operations.

Entry Team Leader (ETL):

 Responsible for direct supervision and safety of all personnel on the Entry Team and
Backup Team.
 Understands the action plan and communicates the plan to personnel assigned to the
Entry Team and Backup Team.
 Responsible for ensuring that all personnel on the Entry Team and Backup Team (if
utilized) have proper PPE and have the ability to communicate with the Entry Team
Leader or RGL.
 Responsible for ensuring that the Entry Team is properly secured to the rope system(s)
prior to deployment.
 Ensures that any necessary PPE and/or medical equipment necessary for the patient is
available and properly secured prior to deployment.
 Maintains an ongoing awareness of the location and condition of all Entry Team
members.
 Ensures that the Entry Teams PPE and their attachment to the rope system has been
safety checked and approved by the TSO prior to deployment.
o The properly secured Entry Team Leader should position himself/herself in such a
manner as to have continuous line of sight (if at all possible) with the Entry Team
as well as with the Main and Belay Line Teams to facilitate communicating the
starting, stopping, re-setting, and speed of the rope systems.
 The Entry Team Leader (or RGL) is the only person at a rope rescue incident who can
initiate motion of the rope system or restart the rope system if stopped or re-set.
o The RGL may elect to perform the duties of Entry Team Leader in addition to the
role of RGL. This may occur on a simplistic rope rescue evolution or in the event
that a sufficient number of rope rescue based, technician level personnel are not
available to support all positions that require the presence of technician level
personnel.
Edge Person (When responsibility is separated by Entry Team Leader):
 Watches over edge for safety and coordination issues.
 Communication link between rescuers and Rescue Group Supervisor.
Rescuer
 Contacts victim and initiates medical care until victim is transferred to an equal or higher
medical authority.
 Accesses and stabilizes victims.
 Assesses victim's condition and advises Rescue Group Supervisor of best rescue
operation.
 Secures victim in litter.
 Carries litter upslope.
 Walks out ambulatory victims.
Litter Team Leader

 Oversees operations including victim packaging and extraction.
 Safety checks rescuer and victim attachment to litter.
Litter Attendant
 May assist with medical care
 Assists with carrying the litter.
Support Team Leader:

 Responsible for direct supervision and safety of all personnel on the
 Support Team.
 Responsible for completing assignments given by the RGL that supports the overall
technical rescue incident. These assignments may include but are not limited to:
o Providing scene security.
o Removing brush, trees, or any obstacles that may hinder the rope systems.
o Securing utilities.
o Setting up an equipment staging area.
o Acquiring equipment from apparatus necessary to support the technical rescue
incident.
o Providing edge protection as required


Rescue Technician CORE Safety
General Information:
The successful outcome of any technical rope rescue incident must be based on a foundation
that applies and adheres to safety. Accidents and fatalities during technical rope rescues are
predominately a result of either human error from the misapplication and/or improper use of
equipment, or a communications error. A combination of highly trained personnel, clear
communications, and a sound pre-deployment system safety check can help minimize the
chance of accidents occurring.
Although the ultimate responsibility for safety at a technical rope rescue is assigned to the
Rescue Group Leader and the Technical Safety Officer, it is the responsibility of all
personnel present to remain vigilant for ensuring the safety of all that are present, at all times.
System Safety Check:
Recognition that any rope based rescue system is no stronger than its weakest link prompts a
thorough safety check of any rope system prior to deployment. These system checks are three
fold and are performed by multiple persons to eliminate the potential for human error. The
three tests are a “Critical Point Test”, a “Whistle Test”, and a “Touch Test”.
Critical Point Test:
A Critical Point Test requires that rope system in its entirety is looked at to insure that the
failure of any one part of the rope system, either human or equipment, will not result in a
total system failure (dominoe effect). A Critical Point Test can be performed by asking
“What if” type of questions in regard to the rope system, such as “What would happen if
the Track Line failed”, or “What would happen if the Main Line anchor failed”.
Whistle Test:
The passing of a Whistle Test means that if in theory at any point a whistle were blown
which signals all personnel to “let go” of the rope or equipment that they are operating,
nothing catastrophic will occur to the live load that is depending on the rope systems for
their safety. Some examples of equipment that allow passing of a Whistle Test are the use
of a Belay Line and Prusiks that will capture the load if the team operating the Main Line
slips and lets go of the Main Line while hauling up the live load, or a tandem
Prusik on a Load Release Hitch situated towards the load on a Control Line lowering
operation utilizing a Brake Bar Rack in the event a Track Line fails and imparts an
impact load to the Control Line.
Touch Test:
The Touch Test is a verification of the integrity of the entire rope system with a hands on
check of every component of the rope system from one end to the other prior to
deployment. The requirement that the individual performing this task physically handle
each component that he/she is examining focuses the examiners attention on the task and
eliminates a “casual glance” type of inspection.
Redundant System Check:
To reduce or eliminate the potential for human error, the above tests shall be performed
by multiple persons. Some examples of this are that the Rigging Team Leader shall
perform the three tests to the Main and Belay Line systems that he/she are in charge of,
and the Technical Safety Officer will confirm the integrity of these systems by his/her
own system safety check. The Entry Team Leader shall perform all three tests to the

Entry Team, and the Technical Safety Officer will confirm the integrity of these systems
by his/her own system safety check.
Once all systems have been double safety checked, no change to the system will be
allowed under any circumstance without the approval of the Technical Safety Officer,
and all such changes that are approved of shall be double safety checked prior to
deployment of the rope systems.
PPE:
The Rescue Group Leader is responsible for ensuring that the appropriate PPE is utilized and
equipment to provide protection from those hazards to which personnel are exposed or could
be exposed is provided. The selection of PPE shall be approved by the Technical Safety
Officer.
PPE must protect personnel from any effect that the environment will impose. Head
protection shall be provided to any personnel on location that may be exposed to injury to the
head resulting from impact or a fall.
All helmets used for such purposes shall meet applicable ANSI Z89-1 standards.
Eye protection shall be provided to all personnel that can be impacted by an eye injury at the
scene. Eye protection provided to personnel shall meet the applicable ANSI standards.
Foot protection for personnel shall be provided by steel toed boots with an environmentally
compatible tread.
Hand protection for personnel will be of a type that balances cut and abrasion protection
while still allowing finger dexterity to operate or participate on rope systems.
Communication:
Clear verbal communication consisting of defined, understandable terminology is required in
any rope rescue evolution to ensure safety and efficiency. To avoid confusion and the
possibility of conflicting verbal orders, all verbal communication relative to movement of a
rope system involving live loads shall come from only one delegated person.
The Rescue Group Leader (RGL) is ultimately responsible for initiating, maintaining, and
controlling incident communications. During rope rescue evolutions, the Entry Team Leader
who is properly secured and has a visual connection (if physically possible) with the Entry
Team, Main Line Team, and Belay Line Team controls the verbal initiation, operation,
resetting, and conclusion of movement of the rope systems. The Rescue Group Leader may
choose to retain the role of Entry Team Leader as far as controlling the movement of any
rope system, if it is either a simplistic operation, or if a sufficient number of technician level
personnel are not readily available to fill all required positions thus prompting multi-tasking
by the RGL.
Any personnel on location may call for a stop in the movement of a rope based system for
safety, equipment, or other related conditions at any time.
The only person that has the authority to restart the rope system once stopped is the Rescue
Group Leader (or Entry Team Leader if so delegated).

System readiness verification:

“Ready”: Command given and acknowledgement received prior to any movement of a live load
to ensure that personnel assigned to the Main Line,
Belay Line, and the Entry Team are prepared. Example: From Entry Team Leader, “Main Line
ready to raise?” reply from Main Line Team, “Main Line ready”.
Common Commands
Stage Command & Response Action
“ROLL CALL” - Gets everyone’s attention. All Personnel will take their
positions at their assigned Task and wait quietly for further
Commands.
“Belay Line Ready?” - Belay Line Operator will check to ensure the Belay system is
ready for Operation and use. Device is unlocked and in hand.
Response: “Ready Belay Line”- Belay Line is ready for operations.
“Main Line Ready?” - Main Line Operator or Team Leader will check to ensure the
Main Line Descent or Haul system and personnel are ready
for Operation and use. When descending, the device is
LOCKED until the system is LOADED. When using a Haul
system, the haul team is in position and ready.
ROLL CALL
Response: “Ready Main Line”- Main Line is ready for operations.
“Edge Ready?” - Edge person will ensure Rescuer personnel are ready.
Harness has been checked, PPE properly Donned and Edge
Protection in place.
Response: “Ready Edge”- Edge is ready for operations.
“Rescuer Ready?” - Harness is properly worn & adjusted, auxiliary equipment

secured and ready, other PPE properly donned.
Response: “Ready Rescuer”- Rescuer is ready for operations.
“Safety Ready?” - Safety person will ensure all personnel operating have
proper PPE; ALL systems have been Whistle Checked
and>>>.
Response: “Ready Safety”- Safety person is ready for operations.
“ALL STOP”- FREEZE all operation of systems. All Progress Capture

SAFETY
Devices will be SET or LOCKED in place. It’s a command

that can be given by anyone operating at the Rescue.
“ROCK”- ANY falling object that may cause harm to the Rescuer.

Stage Command & Response Action

“ON Belay”- The belay line has been connected to the Rescuers harness,
CONECTING to SYSTEMS
Stokes, or Patient Packaging device. This connection should

be made first.
Response: “Belay On”- Belay Line Operator will tend and operate the Belay Line at
all times while the Rescuer is attached.
“ON Main Line”- Rigging Team Leader and/or Edge person will connect the
Main Line to Rescuers harness.
Response: “Main Line On”- Main Line Operator or Team Leader will tend and operate
the Main Line at all times while the Rescuer is attached.
“Tension” (Main or Belay)”- There is too much slack in system. Take up excess rope.
“Slack” (Main or Belay)”- There is too much tension in system. Allow slack on the
rope.
“Position / Position the Load”- The Rescuer or load (patient packing device) will be
positioned at the edge.
“Load the System”- Weight is gently set onto system. ALL system components
OPERATING SYSTEMS
are checked for orientation and corrected, Edge Protection is

set. When set, components may be UNLOCKED.
“Lower slow / Lower”- Operate Descending Device or System at a slow controlled
speed or rate. Rate or may only be increased by the EDGE
person.
“Haul slowly / Haul”- Operate Haul System at a slow controlled speed or rate. Rate
or may only be increased by the EDGE person.
“Stop Lower / Haul”- Stop Lowering or Hauling. The Operation may continue or
be changed over to different system.
“Reset Haul”- All Progress Capture Devices will be SET or LOCKED in
place and the Haul System extended or reset.
“Change Over”- All Progress Capture Devices will be SET or LOCKED in
and the Main Line changed to a Haul or Descending System.
“OFF Main Line”- The Rescuer or load (patient packing device) has
disconnected from Main Line rope.
“OFF Belay Line”- The Rescuer or load (patient packing device) has
TERMINATION
disconnected from Belay Line rope.

“Load at Edge”- The Rescuer or load (patient packing device) has been
hauled to the edge. A system reset may be made for final
haul, as necessary.
“Load on Ground”- The Rescuer or load (patient packing device) has reached the
ground. Rescuer and Load may remain on systems for
change over or until directed to come OFF Main line OFF
Belay line.

Rope Rescue Operations
Low Angle Guidelines
The Incident Commander sets the tone for the successful management of the incident by
implementing a command structure, giving clear objectives and assignments, and coordinating
the activities of the various responders.
Command and Control in Low Angle Rope Rescue Operations
The incident command system is the framework for managing any incident.
Prior training in ICS is important so everyone knows where they fit into the system.
ICS should be used to manage all phases of the rescue operation.
Small incidents can be managed by one person wearing all the hats.
The ICS expands as the incident grows to maintain an efficient span of control.
Incidents that involve more than one jurisdiction may be managed by Unified Command.
Positions that may need to be filled on a "typical" low angle rescue incident include:
 Incident Commander (IC).
 Safety Officer (this role may be retained by the IC).
 Rescue Group Leader
 Technical Safety Officer
 Rigging Team Leader
o Main Line Tender.
o Belay/Safety Line Tender
o Haul Team Leader
 Hauler
 Entry Team Leader / Edge Person
o Rescuer(s)
o Litter Team Leader
 Litter Team
 Support Team Leader
General information:
The successful outcome of a technical rope rescue incident is dependent upon all personnel
working within the Incident Management System (IMS) under direction of the Rescue Group
Leader who in turn reports to the on scene Incident Commander (IC). The Incident Management
System provides safety, accountability of personnel, communications, direction, an action plan
and set roles, each with delegated responsibilities.
This section, “Response and Operations Phase”, details actions and responsibilities during a
response to a technical rope rescue incident, from the role of the first arriving unit, through single
and multiple rope system evolutions.

First arriving unit:

The role of the first arriving unit to a rope rescue based incident includes:
1. Perform a scene size up to determine exactly what the incident entails.
2. Stabilize the incident by providing site control and scene management to prevent
additional accidents.
3. Establish command in order to initiate incident organization or
4. Pass command in the event immediate action is required commensurate with your level of
training.
5. Declare on air that the incident involves technical rope rescue.
6. Determine if operations will commence under a Rescue or Recovery Mode.
7. Perform a Risk/Benefit Analysis.
8. Call for assistance appropriate to your jurisdictions policies.
Scene Size Up:

Performing a scene size up will help determine the scope and magnitude of the incident and
provide direction on the best approach for formulating an action plan. Many factors may impact
the simplicity or complexity of a technical rescue involving rope rescue, and information
gathered during the scene size up may include but is not limited to:
1. Determine the number and location of patients.
2. Determine how best to provide scene security.
3. Determine the stability of the ground relative to the area surrounding and above the
patients’ location.
4. Determine the impact of environmental factors.
5. Determine any impact from exposure to utilities.
6. Determine access points to the patient(s).
7. Determine location and type of anchors available to be utilized.
8. Determine the slope profile.
9. Determine the needs of the patient(s).
10. Determine how best to meet the needs of the patient(s).
11. Determine Rescue or Recovery Mode.
12. Perform a Risk/Benefit Analysis.
13. Determine equipment required/ equipment available.
14. Determine resources required/ resources available.
Awareness Level Operations:
Jurisdictions operating under awareness level training for rope rescue should limit operations at a
technical rescue requiring rope rescue to functions as outlined above under the heading of “First
arriving unit”. The exception to this statement is that the first arriving unit must establish
command only and not pass it to perform immediate rescue unless they are trained to do so.

Determining Patient Needs:

Determination of patient needs begins by making contact with the patient and/or witnesses. This
contact will provide crucial information necessary in order to formulate an action plan. The
immediate needs of a patient are two fold; first determine if the patient is injured or not and
second, determine if the patient is in a stable position.
If a patient is injured, try to ascertain the extent and severity of the injuries.
This information is vital not only in dictating the course of patient care; it also starts the clock for
weighing out how rapid of retrieval is required. If a patient is in a precarious position and
exposed to the possibility of a secondary fall, immediate action from the rescuers proportionate
to their level of training will be required.
Rescue/Recovery Mode:
Making a determination if operations will commence under Rescue or Recovery Mode shall be
ascertained prior to initiating operations. This determination will affect the urgency and pace of
the incident. If a determination is made to operate in the Rescue Mode, it is based on the belief
that there is a viable patient that must be retrieved, but only at a pace reflective of the ability of
the rescuers to safely perform the operation proportionate to the level of training that they have
received.
A Recovery operation is based on the recognition that the patient is not viable. A recovery
operation is a more calculated event conducted at a slower pace when a sufficient number of
trained personnel are available to safely mitigate the event. The safety of all rescuers is of
paramount importance; therefore no undue exposure of risk to rescuers is acceptable at any time
for the recovery of a body.
Risk/Benefit Analysis:
Determination to operate in the Rescue Mode shall be accompanied by a Risk/Benefit Analysis.
A Risk/Benefit Analysis is based on weighing the degree of risk that rescuers will be exposed to
vs. the benefits to be gained for taking those risks. A Risk/Benefit Analysis therefore measures
the ability of the rescuers to resolve the exposure to danger that the patient faces, but only at a
pace that balances the safety of the rescuers to the necessity to limit the amount of time that the
patient is exposed to danger.

Slope Profile:
Evaluation of the slope in its entirety is necessary to help determine how best to retrieve the
patient in a sloped environment. This “slope profile” includes the blending of information
relating to the angle of the slope, what the surface of the slope consists of, and the run out of the
slope. (Example: a slope of 30 degrees with a dry dirt surface may be easily walked up
unassisted, if the same 30 degree slope runs out over a cliff or has a wet grass or loose gravel
surface, a different approach will be required due to the differences of the slope profile.)
Low Angle Rescue:
A low angle slope can be defined by angle as a slope between 0 and 30 degrees. In rope
rescue, this is an environment in which a rope may be required, but serves the function as a
belay only and not to haul the rescuers and patient up slope. On a low angle slope, all of the
weight of the load from the rescuers and patient is on the ground and if the rescuers slipped
without a rope present, they would not be impacted by injuries from an uncontrollable fall.
The use of a single rope may be utilized on a low angle slope to provide support to a litter
team. This scenario most typically comes into play for a litter team retrieving a packaged
patient from a vehicle accident down an embankment that needs minimal support to assist
footing and to regain the top of the embankment. If a low angle slope is impacted by a
hazardous run out and/or an unstable surface, a Risk/Benefit evaluation should require the
use of a two-rope system.
The number of rescuers that may be utilized as part of a litter team on a low angle rescue is
between four and six. Four litter tenders (two per side), is the most typical arrangement for
carrying a patient with the addition of a fifth member, if available or necessary, at the tail of
the litter to provide additional assistance as required. Six members may be necessary for a
very heavy patient; however the use of six litter tenders (three per side) typically can cause
more difficulty than benefit as the additional litter tenders may hamper extrication due to
stepping on one another’s feet and/or throwing each other off balance as they attempt to
coordinate synchronized movement.
Medium Angle Rescue:
A medium angle slope can be defined by angle as a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. In rope
rescue, this is an environment in which a two-rope system protects the rescuers from falling
and also provides assistance to the rescuers in regaining the top of the slope. On a medium
angle slope, the majority to all of the weight of the load from the rescuers and patient is still
on the ground, and the two-rope system prevents falling down slope, as well as assisting the
rescuers with regaining the top of the slope.
The use of a two-rope system is required for a medium angle rescue. One rope (Main Line)
provides fall protection to the rescuer or litter team during a lowering operation and also with
mechanical advantage assistance to personnel operating the Main Line to return the litter
team to the top. The second rope (Belay Line) acts as a redundant line in case of Main Line
failure, and also as a necessary belay when the Main Line is in motion or resetting.
The number of rescuers that may be utilized as part of a litter team on a medium angle rescue
is either three or four dependent on slope profile.
Four litter tenders (two per side), may be utilized on shallower angled slopes on a medium
angle rescue. As the slope becomes steeper, or the footing is so poor that the load from the
rescuers and patient is transferred more from the ground to the rope system, the number of
litter tenders must drop to three (one per side and one on the tail end of the litter), to lessen
the amount of load that impacts the rope system. All rescuers and the patient are connected at
two points on the system.
High angle rescue:
A high angle slope can be defined by angle as a slope between 45 and 60 degrees. In rope
rescue, this is an environment in which a two-rope system protects the rescuers from falling
and is usually required to allow the rescuers to regain the top of the slope. On a high angle
slope, the weight of the rescuers and patient is predominately focused onto the rope system.
If the rope system was not present, an uncontrollable fall could possibly impact the rescuers
and/or they would not be able to regain the top of the slope on their own.
The use of a two-rope system (Main and Belay Line) is required for a high angle rescue. The
only exception to a two-rope system for a high angle rescue falls under the need to perform
an immediate rescue and only in extenuating circumstances as detailed below under
“Immediate access of a patient”.
The number of rescuers that may be utilized as part of a litter team on a high angle rescue is
three. Three litter tenders positioned one per side and one on the tail end of the litter provides
balance in supporting the weight of the patient in the litter and maintains minimal impact
potential from the load upon the rope systems. All rescuers and the patient are connected at
two points on the system.
Vertical Rescue:
A vertical angle slope can be defined by angle as a slope greater than 60 degrees to
completely vertical. In rope rescue, this is an environment in which a two-rope system
protects the rescuer and patient from a fall certain to cause injury or death, and the rope
system is the only way possible for the rescuer and patient to regain the top of the slope. In
vertical rescue, the weight of the rescuer and patient is completely reliant upon the rope
system.
The use of a two-rope system (Main and Belay Line) is required for vertical rescue. The only
exception to a two-rope system for vertical rescue falls under the need to perform an
immediate rescue and only in extenuating circumstances as detailed below under “immediate
access of a patient”.
The number of rescuers that may be utilized as part of a litter team on a vertical rescue is
zero, one, two, or three. If a litter is oriented horizontally with the rope systems attached
above the litter, only one tender is necessary to keep the litter from striking the vertical wall
and/or to maintain the patient’s airway. If the litter is oriented horizontally and suspended
from a high line or from a high pick point (such as an aerial apparatus) and the patient does
not require the medical support, the decision to not utilize a tender may be dictated by a
Risk/Benefit Analysis. The use of a tag line attached to the litter may be necessary to prevent
the litter from spinning back and forth around the ropes that the litter is suspended from. A
maximum of two persons (rescuer and patient) are allowed on a litter oriented horizontally
with the rope systems attached to a harness above the litter.
Two litter tenders may be utilized in unique circumstances positioned one per side on a very
steep angled slope, or in areas with limited space such as airshafts. The rope systems in such
cases will be attached at the head of the litter. The location of the two litter tenders in this
situation is slightly towards the tail end of the litter from centerline of the litter, in balance
with the rope, which holds the head of the litter up. Three litter tenders may still be utilized
on a slope that is transitioning between high angle and vertical if the support of the additional
person is necessary. The rope systems in such cases will still be attached at the head of the
litter.
Transitioning Angle Rescue:
If the slope transitions in angle, the number of litter tenders allowed on the system may be
dictated by what the greatest impact will be to either the litter tenders or to the rope system.
(Example: if a high angle slope of 60 degrees culminates with a short stretch of vertical
before the top of the slope, three litter tenders will be required to support the litter up the 60
degree slope and the rope system will still easily support the litter tenders over the short
vertical segment.

Incident Command
Incident Safety Officer
Operations Planning Logistics Finance
_____________________
Rescue Group Leader EMS
_____________________
Technical Safety Officer
_____________________
Entry Team Leader Rigging Team Leader Support Team Leader
_____________________ _____________________ _____________________
Edge Person Main Line Tender

When Necessary
_____________
____________
Rescuer(s) Belay Line Tender

_____________ _____________
_____________
Haul Team
Litter Team
TL____________
TL____________
2. _____________
2. _____________
3. _____________
3. _____________
4. _____________
4. _____________
5. _____________
6. _____________


The Connecticut Fire Academy
Recruit Firefighter Program Rescue Technician -CORE
Session Handout References
Contributors:
Al Bassett
Connecticut Fire Academy, Rescue Program Coordinator
Clint Havercampf
Connecticut Fire Academy, Instructor
Brian Hurst
Connecticut Fire Academy, Recruit Firefighter Program Coordinator
Material References:
Jones & Bartlett; Fundamentals of Fire Fighting Skills, 3rd Edition
Jones & Bartlett; Fundamentals of Technical Rescue
Jones & Bartlett; High Angle Rope Rescue Techniques, 4th Edition
IFSTA; Fire Service Search & Rescue, 7th Edition
Animatedknots.com
State of Washington, King County - Zone 3; Technical Rescue Manual - Rope Rescue
State of California, State Fire Training; Low Angle Rope Rescue Operational Student &
Instructors Manual
State of Texas, Capital Area Council of Governments, Regional Standardization of
Equipment & Training; General Rescue Course


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Section 1 - Rope and Related Equipment

Section 3 - Personal Protective Equipment

Section 4 - Inspection and Maintenance

Section 5 - Knots and Hitches

Section 6 - Anchors and Anchor Systems

Section 7 - Belay Systems

Section 9 - Mechanical Advantage Systems

Section 11 - RPH System

Section 12 - Rope Rescue Operations – Team Roles & Responsibilities

Section 14 - Rope Rescue Operations – Low Angle Guidelines

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