Basic Civil Engineering Lab Manual

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

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 Basic Civil Engineering Lab Manual

INDEX

S.NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 Bending test on a Cantilever Beam

2 Bending test on a simply supported beam

3 Use of electrical resistance strain gauge

4 Compression test on bricks

5 Water absorption test on bricks

6 Torsion test

7 Tests on closed coiled helical spring

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1. BENDING TEST ON A CANTILEVER BEAM

Aim:
To conduct deflection test on the cantilever beam carrying a concentrated load at mid
span.
Apparatus required
1. Deflection beam apparatus
2. Load frame
3. Weights
4. Dial gauge
5. Magnetic dial stand
6. Vernier Caliper
7. Scale / Steel tape
Theory
When the beam is subjected to load, the beam is deflected from its original position. Due to
the load acting on the beam, it will be subjected to bending moment and the beam bend like arc of
circle. All structural and machine elements whether, cantilever, simple supported, fixed or
continuous undergoes deflection when subject to external loads. The deflection of a member should
always be within the specified limits. We can determine the deflection of beams subject to any type
of loading by using standard deflection formulae. The actual deflection of the member is directly
proportional to the load and span cube (for point load application) and is inversely proportional to
flexural rigidity (EI). Actual deflection so calculated should be less than the permissible deflection.

Deflection apparatus beam set up for Cantilever beam

As the loading applied is transverse loading as shown in which is perpendicular to the plane
containing the neutral axis, and hence the member is a beam.

The beam carrying transverse loading

The cross section at XX

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Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =

Formulae
The general formula for deflection at free end when load is acting at a distance L1 is given by

If load applied at L1= L/2, applying in the above equation,

Where,
W= applied point load at mid span
L=length of beam
δ=deflection of the beam at dial gauge (free end)
I=Moment of Inertia of the beam

Procedure:
1. Measure the breadth and depth of the given specimen using vernier calipers.
2. Mark the end of the beam.
3. Fix the beam at one end on the test rig support and other end of the beam is free.
4. Set the dial gauge below the free end of the beam and note down the reference point from the
dial gauge.
5. Measure the effective length of the beam from the free end to fixed end by using scale or
steel tape
6. Place the load frame at exact position on the specimen and note down the corresponding
deflection from the corresponding deflection from the dial gauge
7. Similarly note down the deflections by placing different weights on the load frame.
8. Remove the load gradually and record the dial gauge reading while unloading.
Observations:
Span of the beam (L) =…………...cm
Dimensions of the beam :( solid rectangular in cross section)
Breadth of beam(b) =……………cm
Depth of beam(d) =………………cm
Position of the deflectometer(x)= ………………cm
Least count of deflectometer (L.C) = ………cm

Deflection Young’s
Load
S.No. Modulus
W Loading(δ1) Unloading(δ2) Avg(δ)
E
Units Kgf mm mm mm N/mm2
1
2
3
4

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Calculations:

Moment of inertia(I) in cm4=I = ........................cm4

Slope of the curve drawn on the graph sheet= =................

Flexural rigidity (EI) in kg cm2 =

Modulus of rigidity (E) in kg/cm2=
Graph
The following graph is drawn by taking load along Y-axis and deflection along X-axis.
Load Vs Deflection

Precautions
1) Make sure that the beam and loads are placed at proper positions.
2) Measure the dimensions of the beam accurately.
3) Note the readings of the Vernier accurately.
Result
The deflection test on given cantilever beam is conducted.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from calculation = ……………….… N/mm2.
Flexural rigidity (EI) of the given beam is ........................kg/cm2
Significance of the test
If the Young’s Modulus of the material of the specimen is equal to the standard value
specified for the material, the deflection is found to be valid.

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2. BENDING TEST ON A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Aim:
To conduct deflection test on a simply supported beam carrying a point load at a distance ‘a’
from left support.
Apparatus required:
1. Deflection beam apparatus
2. Weights
3. Dial gauge
4. Magnetic dial stand
5. Vernier calipers
6. Scale/Steel tape
Theory:
When the beam is subjected to load, the beam is deflected from its original position. The
deflection of a member should always be within the specified limits. We can determine the deflection
of beams subject to any type of loading by using standard deflection formulae. The actual deflection
of the member is directly proportional to the load and cube of span (if subjected to point load) and is
inversely proportional to flexural rigidity (EI). Actual deflection so calculated should be less than the
permissible deflection.

Deflection apparatus beam set up

Where,
L - Span of the beam
W - Load applied
a - The distance of the load from left support
As the loading applied is transverse loading as shown in the Fig. 2(a)-2 which is perpendicular to the
plane containing the neutral axis, and hence the member is a beam

Beam carrying the Transverse loading

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The cross section at XX

Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =

Formulae
The general formula for deflection at mid span when load is applied at a distance ‘a’ is given
by

If load at ‘a’=L/4 from left support and substituting in above equation,

(Deflection at the centre of the beam, span L is in ‘mm’ and W in N)

Procedure:
1. Measure the cross section distance (Span:L) between the supports.
2. Mark the quarter points or one-third points and midpoint on the beam.
3. Place the weight hanger at mid span
4. Place the deflectometer such that the tip of it just touches the quarter point or one third point.
5. Load the beam gradually in steps till the maximum deflection is one tenth of the thickness of
the beam.
6. Note the deflections for every increment of load then un load in corresponding steps in which
it is loaded and note the deflections.
7. Draw the load versus deflection graph.
Observations:
Span of the beam (L) =…………...cm
Dimensions of the beam :( solid rectangular in cross section)
Breadth of beam(b) =……………cm
Depth of beam(d) =………………cm
Position of the deflectometer(x)= ………………cm
Least count of deflectometer (L.C) = ………cm

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Deflection Young’s
Load
S.No. Modulus
W Loading(δ1) Unloading(δ2) Avg(δ)
E
Units kgf Mm mm mm N/mm2
1
2
3
4

5
Calculations:

Moment of inertia(I) in cm4=I = ........................cm4

Slope of the curve drawn on the graph sheet= =................

y= KL3( )

Flexural rigidity (EI) in kg cm2 = KL3( )

Modulus of rigidity (E) in kg/cm2= =

Precautions:
1. Make sure that the beam and load are placed at desired positions.
2. Measure the dimensions of the beam carefully.
Graph:
The following graph is drawn by taking load along Y-axis and deflection along X-axis.

Load Vs Deflection
Result:
The deflection test on given simply supported beam is conducted.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from calculation = ……………………kg/cm 2
Flexural rigidity (EI) of the given beam is ........................kgcm 2
Significance of the test
If the Young’s Modulus of the material of the specimen is equal to the standard value
specified for the material, the deflection found to be correct.

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3. USE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE

Aim :
To learn about the use of the resistance strain gauges and Wheatstone bridges. To learn to
use a static strain indicator. To determine the modulus of elasticity for the given
material of the cantilever beam using electrical resistivity strain gauge.
Apparatus:
Electrical Resistivity strain gauge set up, Vernier calipers, scale
Introduction:
Strain gauges are used as sensors in many systems to measure forces, moments, and the
deformations of structures and materials. The experiment deals with measuring the strain in the
cantilever beam through the use of resistance strain gauges.
The digital Strain Indicator is a field programmable indicator specially designed to be used
with strain gauge based transducers to measure strain. It can take full, half & quarter bridge of 120
ohms configuration. The resistance strain gauge consists of grid of fine conducting wire directly
bonded to an insulated backing material which is directly bonded to the machine surface by a thin
layer of epoxy resin.
The deformation of the machine surface is transferred to the bonded strain gauge causing its
electrical resistance to change. The strain gauge is found by measuring the change in the electrical
resistance of the strain gauge. The strain gauges are instruments that measure the stretch/squeeze of
the fibres. They are connected to strain gauge boxes through a data acquisition system that allow us
to record the amount of stretching the fibres undergo when a beam is loaded.
Bridge Configuration

The full, half & quarter bridge configuration can be measured by the strain indicator. The
bridge can be connected to the banana operator provided on the switching unit of the multi- channel
strain indicator. There are four connectors. 1. Red 2. Green 3. Black & 4. Yellow. Red is input +ve
Black is input -ve. Green is output +ve and Yellow is output -ve.

When the quarter bridge has to be measured, connect the two wires from the strain gauge
to the front side as specified i.e.,. The power supply should be made available with a proper earthing
within two meters of the indicator. Connect the instrument to AC mains through the connector
provided at the rear of the indicator. Strain indicator connection has to be connected to the
switching unit. The calibration is done by setting the gauge factor.

The Quarter bridge strain gauge circuit

The normal strain 𝜀 = , where dl = change in the length and L is the original length.
Since L the electrical resistance is proportional to , where dR is the change in resistance and
R is the original resistance. Thus, ∝ 𝜀 . The proportionality constant of the strain gauge is precisely
measured by the gauge manufacturer and is supplied as gauge factor (GF).

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Thus,

For a MM Type WA-06-250WT-120 the gauge factor is 2.10 and the resistance is 120 ohms
0.4%.

Mechanics of a Cantilever beam

The experiment deals with the measuring the strain in a cantilever beam through the use of
resistance strain gauges. The strain gauge is parallel to the length of the beam. The strain measured is
the axial strain parallel to the length. A static load will be incremented at different locations along
the beam to produce measurable strains. The theoretical strain can be found using the theory of
simple bending relation.

where,
‘f’ is the stress produced
‘y’ is the distance of the most distant fibre from the neutral axis
‘M’ is the bending moment
‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the axis of rotation
Moment of Inertia is equal to I = bt3/12
where
‘b’ is the width of the section, measured parallel to the axis of the rotation
‘t’ is the thickness

(a) The cantilever plate and the strain gauge

(b) The cantilever plate carrying the load

As shown in the Fig.(a) and Fig.(b) the load (W) in kg is a gradually applied load at a
distance of L = 150 mm from the strain gauge. The load is applied gradually in steps of 1kg and the
maximum load carrying capacity is equal to 5kg. The bending moment M = W*150 kg-mm.The
distance from the neutral axis to the most distant fibre, y = t/2.

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The stress produced at the section where strain gauge is provided can be calculated using the
theory of simple bending. The strain reading is taken from the mirco strain gauge indicator.
Using Hooke’s law, the ratio of the stress to strain is taken as equal to the modulus of the
elasticity of the material of the cantilever beam.

Procedure:
1. Switch on the indicator connected to AC Mains.
2. Determine the cross-sectional dimensions (b, t) of the cantilever using Vernier calipers
3. Measure the distance from the point of application of the load to the section where strain
gauge is used as L.
4. Connect the red and white wire to channel 5.
5. Tare the micro strain indicator to zero.
6. Apply the loading in increments of 1 kg each and note down the corresponding micro
strain
7. Calculate the value of stress for each load increment
8. Calculate the modulus of elasticity (E) for each load increment and average the ‘E’ values
9. Draw the graph with stress v/s strain and determine the modulus of elasticity
Observations:
Measure the width (b) of the cantilever beam

S.No. Main Scale Reading VC MSR + VC*LC

1
2
3
The width (b) of the cross section is________mm

Measure the thickness (t) of the cantilever beam

S.No. Main Scale Reading VC MSR + VC*LC

1
2

3
The thickness (t) of the cross section is mm
The distance from the neutral axis to the most distant fibre y = t/2 = _______mm.
The Moment of Inertia, I =________ mm4
Observations for the gradually applied load and the micro strain to calculate the Modulus of
Elasticity of the material (E)

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S. No. Load Load Distance Bending Stress (f) Micro Modulus

Applied Applied from the Moment in MPa Strain of the
(W in (W in point of (s) elasticity
(M = W*L)
kg) N) load to the (E) in
in N-mm
strain MPa
gauge (L)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

Precautions:

1. The strain gauge is a sensitive instrument and the measurements should be taken carefully.
2. The wires connecting the strain gauge are delicate and should not be touched.
Result:

1. The electrical resistance using strain gauge test is conducted.

2. The average value of the modulus of elasticity of the material of the cantilever beam
is______________
3. The Youngs modulus of elasticity of the material of the cantilever beam from graph
is______________
Significance of the test

1. The modulus of the elasticity can be useful to measure the stresses produced at any section
XX anywhere in the beam as shown in the Fig. 11-3.

The variation of strain and stress for a cantilever carrying the load

2. To determine the distribution of the stress at any cross section XX

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4. COMPRESSION TEST ON BRICKS

Aim:
To determine the compressive strength of a given brick.
Apparatus:
Vernier calipers Scale, Compression testing machine.
Theory :
Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in partition walls of framed
structure as shown in the Fig. In load bearing walls total weight from slab and upper floor comes
directly through brick wall and then it is transferred to the foundation. In this case the bricks are
loaded with compressive nature of force on other hand in framed structure bricks are used only for
construction of partition walls, in which layer comes directly on the lower layers of wall. However
in any case the bricks in actual practice are to be tested for their compressive strength.

Procedure:
A. Preparation of test specimen
1. Remove unevenness observed in the bed faces to provide two smooth and parallel faces by
grinding.
2. Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
3. Remove the specimen and drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature.
4. Fill the frog (if provided) and all voids in the bed face with cement mortar (1 cement, 1
clean course sand of grade 3mm and down).
5. Store under the damp jute bags for 24 hours followed by immersion in clean water for 3
days.
6. Remove, and wipe out any traces of moisture.
B. Test Procedure
1. Measure the length and breadth of the specimen at the center of the brick.
2. Place the specimen with flat faces horizontal, and mortar filled face facing upwards between
two 3-plywood sheets each of 3mm thickness and carefully centered between plates of the
testing machine.
3. Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 (140kgf/cm2) per minute till failure occurs
and note the maximum load at failure.
4. The load at failure shall be maximum load at which the specimen fails to produce any
further increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.
5. Calculate the compressive strength.
6. Repeat the test procedure for minimum of 3 bricks and report the average.
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Observations:
Table 1: Observations on compressive strength test

S.No Length(mm) Width (mm) Area(mm2) Failure Compressive

load(N) strength(N/mm2)

Average

Result:
The average Compressive strength for the brick specimen is: __________N/mm 2
Conclusions:
The lowest compressive strength observed by the bricks specimen is _____N/mm 2. Thus, the
brick belongs to ___________class.
Reference:
IS 3495 (Part-1 to 4):1992. Method of tests of burnt clay building bricks. Part-I
Determination of compressive strength.
Significance of the test:
For load bearing walls, compressive strength of brick is the criterion to decide the thickness
of the wall.

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5. WATER ABSORPTION TEST ON BRICKS

Aim:
To conduct water absorption test on bricks
Apparatus:
Weighing balance, metal tray about 5 cm deep, ovens.
Materials:
Bricks and water.
Theory:
Water absorption of a brick is defined as the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the dry
weight of the unit under a given method of treatment in a standard period of time. Water absorption
indicates degree of porosity in a brick. Strength, stiffness, unit weight and other properties decrease
with porosity. For good quality of bricks, after immersion in cold water for 24 hours, the water
absorption should not be more than 20% by weight
Procedure:
1. Remove the unevenness observed in the bed faces to provide two smooth and parallel faces
by grinding. Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours. Remove the specimen and
drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature.
2. Fill the frog and all voids in the bed face flush with cement mortar having cement sand ratio
1:3.
3. Store under damp gunny bags for 24 hours followed by immersion in water for 3 days.
Remove the bricks and wipe out traces of moisture.
4. Place the specimen with mortar filled face upward, between two 3 mm thick plywood sheets,
carefully centered between platens of the testing machine. Apply load axially at a uniform
rate of 14 N/mm2/min and note the maximum load at failure. Find compressive stress after
dividing total load (in N) by loaded surface area (mm2).
5. Observations:
Table : Observations on water absorption
Sl. Dry weight of brick in Immersed weight of %age of water absorption
No. kg (W1) brick in kg (W2) 𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟏
× 100
𝑾𝟏

Result:
Percentage of water absorption for the brick specimen is : __________% by weight.
Conclusions:
The percentage of water absorption for the brick specimen is less than/ more than 20% by
weight. Thus, bricks are of good quality/ are not of good quality.
Reference:
IS 3495 (Part-1 to 4):1992.

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6. TORSION TEST
Aim:
To find the Modulus of Rigidity of the given test specimen.
Material and Equipment :
Torsion testing machine, Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron, steel rule, and Vernier
calipers (or) Micrometer.
Theory :
Torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of Rigidity (ratio of
shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out
through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation.

Where,
T = Torque applied
C = Modulus of rigidity
l = length of the shaft
q = shear stress
r = distance of element from centre of shaft
ϴ = Angle of twist (radians)
I p = Polar moment of inertia
In the torque equipment (refer figure shown in the next page), one end of the specimen is held
by a fixed support and the other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary torque to twist the
rod by addition of weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod gives the angle of twist.

Torsion Testing Machine

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter at about three places and find the average value.
2. Select suitable grips to suite the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by adjusting
the sliding jaw.
3. Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.
4. Set maximum load pointer to zero.
5. Continue till failure of the specimen.
6. Calculate the value of modules of rigidity C by using Torsion equation.
7. Plot a torque – Twist graph (T V/s θ).
Observation:
Diameter of the Specimen, d =................cm
Gauge length of the Specimen, l =...................cm
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Table :Torsion test observations

𝝅
S.No. Torque(T) In kg.cm Angle of Twist(θ) X
𝟏𝟖𝟎
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations:
: Poisson’s ratio is 0.3 for steel and 0.25 for wood

Polar Moment of Inertia, =...........cm4

Slope of the curve drawn on graph sheet= =.............
Modulus of rigidity(N) in kg/cm2= ( ) ( )=.................
Young’s modulus(E) in kg/cm2=2N(1+ )=......................
In which : Poisson’s ratio for any given value of torque within the elastic limit
Maximum shear strss (kg/cm2) in rod= =...............................
In which T=................kg.cm
Strain energy (kg.cm) = 𝑇𝜃 =.......................
Where T=50kgcm and θ =0.02 corresponding angle of twist (from graph) for T = 50 kg.cm
Graph

Torque vs. Angle of Twist.

Result :
Thus the torsion test on given mild steel specimen is done and the value of modulus of
rigidity is calculated.
Rigidity modulus of the specimen calculated(N) =_____________kg/cm 2
Young’s modulus (E) = _________________kg/cm 2
Maximum shear stress when applied torque is 50kg.cm is ______________kg/cm 2
Strain energy when T is 50kg cm is ____________kg.cm
Reference:
IS 1717: 2012 Metallic Materials — Wire — Simple Torsion Test
Significance of the test
When a shaft is subjected to torsion, pure shear stresses are developed in the shaft material.
Hence Modulus of rigidity of the material can be determined.

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7. TESTS ON CLOSED COILED HELICAL SPRING

Aim:
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material of given close coiled helical the
spring.
Apparatus:
1. Spring testing machine
2. Screw gauge
3. Vernier caliper
4. Close coil helical spring.
Theory:
Spring is an elastic member, which deflects, or distorts under the action of load and regains
its original shape after the load is removed. Springs May be made of carbon steel, silicon steel,
manganese steel or completely alloyed steels. It is essential to know the rigidity modulus of the
springs becausee it is used as energy absorbing device. The helical spring are made up of a wire coiled
in the form of a helix and is primarily intended to store strain energy due to axial tensile or
compressive load.
Formulae:

Where
W – Applied load in Newton’s
𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝛿-Deflection of spring in centimeters
meters
C – Rigidity modulus or shear modulus of spring in kg/cm2
D – Mean coil Diameter of spring in centimeters=2R
n – Number of turns of coil in the spring.
d – Diameter of spring wire in centimeters.

Closely coiled helical spring

Procedure:

1. By using Vernier caliper measure the diameter of the wire of the spring and
also the diameter of spring coil.
 Basic Civil Engineering Lab Manual

2. Count the number of turns.

3. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a suitable
weight and note the corresponding axial deflection in compression.
4. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
5. Plot a graph between load and deflection. The slope of the graph gives the stiffness
of the spring.
Observations:
1. Diameter of the spring wire (d) = .................. cm
2. Mean coil diameter of the spring (D) = .....................................cm
3. Mean coil radius (R) =........................................cm.
4. Number of turns in the coil (n) =....................
5. Initial load (if any)
Tabulation:

S.No. Load Applied ‘W’ Elongation ‘y’ in cm

Calculations:
Stiffness of the spring ( )=slope of the curve drawn on graph= __________ kg/cm
Rigidity Modulus ‘N’ in kg/cm2= ( )=___________________kg/cm2

Graph : The following graph is drawn by taking load along Y-axis and deflection along X-axis.

Load Vs Deflection

Result:
Rigidity modulus of the spring from calculation = _____________kg/cm 2
Stiffness of the given spring is = _____________kg/cm
Significance of the test
If the value of Rigidity Modulus found using the test is in agreement with the standard value,
then the test conducted is correct. Rigidity modulus is the property of material representing the
torsional characteristics of the spring material.

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