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Selected Topics Polymers Physical Testing

The document discusses different types of materials testing procedures used in industry and education. It describes tensile, compressive, and shear testing and explains how these tests are commonly used to evaluate the mechanical properties and suitability of materials. It then focuses on compression and hardness testing procedures, providing background on how tests are conducted in industry and recommendations for adapting them for school laboratory tests using simple apparatus. Key details include common specimen sizes and shapes, methods for applying and measuring loads, and calculating compression strength from test results.

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Andrew Portales
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
74 views26 pages

Selected Topics Polymers Physical Testing

The document discusses different types of materials testing procedures used in industry and education. It describes tensile, compressive, and shear testing and explains how these tests are commonly used to evaluate the mechanical properties and suitability of materials. It then focuses on compression and hardness testing procedures, providing background on how tests are conducted in industry and recommendations for adapting them for school laboratory tests using simple apparatus. Key details include common specimen sizes and shapes, methods for applying and measuring loads, and calculating compression strength from test results.

Uploaded by

Andrew Portales
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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BACKGROUND TO MATERIALS TESTING

The British Standards Institute (BSI) was the first national body in the world to organise
specified criteria for industrial applications and testing which were generally accepted as the
bench-mark of good practice and agreed common standards. Over 80 countries now have similar
organisations, the majority of which belong to the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO). So what essentially started as an attempt to encourage British
Companies to work to common specifications has now expanded to the international arena.

All major materials manufacturers carry out a continuous programme of testing, sample analysis
and quality control on their products. Samples are subjected to all kinds of mechanical testing
machines, but most of these involve applying tensile stress (through loading) to prepared
samples of the same dimensions in order to make comparisons of physical properties. The
machines can be set to increase the applied force at whatever rate is chosen. The sample is
monitored and its strain is measured. The output from the measuring sensors can be fed to a
microcomputer for processing or a chart recorder for a hard copy of the results. The three most
common forms of applied stress are shown below.

t t

Tensile

Compressive Shear

Mechanical testing is also used to assess the suitability of a material to a particular application
by relating the type of test to the working environment of the product. Material testing of
polymers in industry is carried out under standard conditions of humidity (50%) and
temperature (23°C). Polymers have properties of both solids and fluids and are therefore known
as viscoelastic materials.

The average school or college laboratory does not have these testing machines, but the basic
techniques used by the professional testers can be modified to work with simple lab apparatus.
The tests outlined in this booklet are based on those used by the mechanical testing labs at ICI
Wilton. These have all been tested in school laboratory conditions.

1
COMPRESSION TESTING
Background information
Imagine an object (for example a cylinder) of original length 10cm which reduces to 8cm when a
load is applied - then we say the object has compressed by 2cm.

If a heavier load was placed on the object and the new length was 7cm, the compression is said to
be 3cm.

So compression is the difference between the original length and the new length when an object is
being compressed by a load. This has a particular relevance to large concrete structures since
the density of the materials themselves place considerable loads on the foundations, piles and
pillars.

Industrial procedure
In industry the information required is usually the compression or deflection of an object
under a set load. In this case elaborate equipment is not needed and the standard test
procedure simply involves measuring the change of dimensions of a specimen which has been
subjected to a fixed dead weight loading. If more detailed information is required then a
tensile testing machine, with a capability of recording load when the crosshead movement is
reversed, can be used.
The most commonly used specimen shape and size for industrial BSI and ISO compression
testing of plastics is a cylinder 30mm high and 12mm in diameter as shown below:

12 mm
••••••

In industrial compression testing, crosshead speeds are usually low (about 10mm/min).

Crosshead speed is the rate at which the testing machine exerts its force, i.e. the speed at
which the clamps pull or push on the specimen.

2
Compression Tests in the Laboratory Suitable materials to test

Examples of materials that could be


Theory: Compression Strength
compression tested in a school laboratory
include:
Compo strength cornp. strength at failure
(i) foam (sponge)
load at failure
(i i) plasticine
original cross-sectional area
(i i i) polythene
(iv) packaging materials
(v) expanded polystyrene
(vi) balsa wood (for comparison)
Apparatus
Materials may be shaped, cut, turned etc into
the required format. If the material is too
thin, use several sheets, one on top of the
other until the specimen is the required
/ height.

"
A
Method

1. Prepare specimens of different materials


B (selected from the recommended list).
c
2. Using the apparatus described above
gradually increase the load until failure is
A - Two pieces of fairly thin rigid material
reached (i.e. the point at which
(e.g. metal sheet, hardwood, plywood),
compression begins) for each specimen.
used to distribute the load evenly over
the cross-sectional area of the test-piece 3. Record the load at failure for each test in a
B. table.
B - The test-piece or specimen. If the 4. Use the equation below to calculate the
specimen is too long compared to the compression strength in each case and
width, it will buckle rather than record the results in the table.
compress. Also this system will be (See appendix 1 for an example of a
unstable. compression test calculation)

5. Write a short report explaining the


comparative nature of your results.

C - A ruler or some other instrument to


measure the compression. For accurate
work or when working with materials
which show little compression you may
need to use a dial gauge, a micrometer or
vernier callipers, etc.

D - The load responsible for compression.

3
HARDNESS TESTING

Background information
Hardness is a measure of how easy or difficult it is to damage a material (indent or scratch it)
during static loading.

If two materials have had the same load applied over the same area, then the one which has the
smaller resulting indentation is the harder one.

With polymers, hardness is usually considered as the resistance of the material to reversible
indentation.

Industrial procedure
Since hardness of thermoplastics varies with temperature, industrial measurements are usually
made at. 23°C. The test methods involve measuring the depth of penetration of an indentor under
load.
The Ball Indentation Hardness test and the Rockwell
Hardness test are the industry
standard tests for hardness of polymers. Both use a hardened steel ball to produce the
indentation. The Shore Durometer is another alternative and is based on the penetration of a
cylindrical profile indentor. The depth or area of indentation is measured and the smaller the
depth or area the harder the material.

Hardness is normally denoted by hardness numbers on scales which relate to individual


machines (e.g. Rockwell hardness number).

4
Hardness Tests in the Laboratory vertical pOSItIOn when assembled.(The two
parts are glued together to make the single
Apparatus
component D.)

E - Pieces of foam or some other material


which compresses easily. The foam is
used to ensure that the base which
supports the loads remains horizontal, i.e.
that the arrangement is stable.
F - The load.

G - Stop-watch. (The load must be applied for


a specified time.)

An example of a simple stable arrangement


Suitable Materials to test
that could be used in a school! college
laboratory is shown above and the individual As the load is concentrated over a very small
components are itemised below: area, results can be obtained with a wide
range of materials, e.g.

(i) plastics (polythene, acetate, polystyrene,


PVC, etc.)
(ii) soft metals (copper, lead, aluminium,
B etc.)

There is likely to be a problem with obtaining


materials of the same thickness. It is possible
G to build up thin layers (one on top of the
other) to get a sample of the required
A - Specimen under test. The specimen thickness.
should be fairly thin (less than 5 mm
thick is preferable). Method
B - A block of wood with a hole drilled into it. 1. Set up the apparatus as shown above with a
The size of the hole should be matched to test specimen in place.
component D and the specimen under test 2. Position a load for a fixed length of time to
is placed in the bottom of this hole. produce an indentation in the surface of the
e-A centre-punch. This has a small cross- material.
section in contact with the specimen over 3. Use a spherometer to measure accurately
which the load will be concentrated. the depth of the indentation.
D - A centre piece made of wood. The flat top 4. Repeat the test for a range of materials
portion can be made out of a round piece of using the same load and fixed time,
plywood and is used as the base on which recording your results in a table to show
to rest the load. The bottom half of the comparisons of hardness.
piece can be made from hardwood dowel
with a diameter such that it is a close fit 5. Write a short report explaining the
when placed in the hole in wood block B. comparative nature of your results.
It also has a stopped hole drilled into one
end to house the centre punch in a stable

5
ADHESION

Background information
There are many ways of joining materials together. For example, they can be joined mechanically
by means of bolts, screws, rivets, etc. Each of these items can have a range of mechanical tests
carried out on it, and comparisons can be made between items of different size, material and
design. Many of the tests in this book could be applied to, say 4 mm bolts made of steel, brass
and plastic (e.g. the bolts used to secure car number plates). However, there are occasions where
two surfaces need to be continuously joined, for example, the steel plates which make up a ship's
hull must be continuously joined to stop the water getting in! Similarly the waste pipes from
kitchen sinks are often "solvent welded" to provide a continuous leak-proof joint.

The term "welding" implies that the molecular structure of the two surfaces to be joined is
disrupted by some process, such as applying heat, and is then allowed to settle back into a stable
state where there is no discountable junction between the two parts which have been joined.
This, of course, can only be done if both the surfaces to be joined are the same material. If the
materials are different we need to fill the joint with some kind of gap filling material. Such a
material will need to:
• be strong itself
• stick well to the materials to be joined.

We can carry out mechanical tests on a sample of the adhesive itself to check out its bulk
properties, but just how well it sticks to another material is also vitally important. This
property is called ad he s ion.
More and more modern polymeric products consist of assemblies of several components (known
as substrates). Accordingly, measurements of adhesion between any two components are
necessary. As was the case with the previous tests, the first task is to identify the types of
stresses associated with adhesive failure. In some cases tensile stresses are present but
shear stresses are more common.

In both tension and shear the forces are uniformly distributed across the complete adhesive
layer or interface between the two components. The easiest way to overcome adhesion is by
c Ie a vag e or pee l.

\ +
$ ;
J
Cleavage Peel
t
12
Industrial procedure
Cleavage and peel feature as types of failure in many products. If both substrate's are flexible,
specimens can be constructed from strips of uniform width by separating the substrate's from
part of the joint and locating the free ends in the clamps of a tensile testing machine. As the
clamps are separated at a preset speed, the peel force is recorded.
Both cleavage and peel mechanisms have much in common with tear; stress is concentrated at
one point and failure occurs progressively across the material. Failure during adhesion tests is
a complex subject. Industrial procedures consider five sites of failure with a simple assembly:

Substrate S

Adhesive
layer A,

Substrate S
2

V Failure within substrate SI

W Failure at the substrate S 1/adhesive A interface

X Failure within adhesive A


y Failure at the adhesive A/su bstrate S2 interface

Z Failure within substrate S2

Failure within one layer can be termed Cohesive failure whereas failure at an interface is
termed Adhesive failure.

13
Adhesion Tensile testing in the Adhesion Cleavage Tests in the
Laboratory Laboratory
Apparatus Apparatus
Stick two prepared surfaces together, and once
the adhesion has set/cured carry out a simple
loading test. Flexible

Top block clamped


to a retort stand

Lower block drilled and layer


fitted with a cup hook
Lower strip
so that a mass hanger
drilled to accept
and slotted masses, or
mass hanger
a spring balance can be
used to exert a tensile
force. Suitable Materials to test
Stick together two flexible strips of wood or
plastic (top and bottom substrate's) of the
Suitable Materials to test same surface area. Clamp the top substrate
Prepare specimens of a single polymer and secure a mass hanger to the bottom one in
material having the same surface area on one a similar way to the tensile test.
face. Square and rectangular section plastic
strip is available from model supplies shops. Method
Select a range of adhesives to use with the test 1. Using the apparatus shown above, gradually
(discuss with your tutor). increase the load on the mass hanger and
observe the effect.

Method 2. Record your observations. Do you get a


precise fracture load? Or does the adhesive
1. Using the apparatus shown above, fail gradually.
gradually increase the load on the mass
hanger until the adhesive fails. 3. Repeat the test with a range of adhesives
using the same surface area.
2. Repeat the test for different adhesives,
using the same surface area, and record 4. Present a short report discussing the
your results in a table. results of your tests.

3. If no failure occurs when all the weights


have been added you will need to consider
the surface area over which you spread the
adhesive !

Theory
The force at failure can be related to the area of
the joint as follows:

Tensile adhesive strength Maximum load


Area of joint

4. Use your results to calculate the tensile


adhesive strength for each specimen tested.

5. Produce a report explaining your results.

14
Industrial procedure Peel tests
Two versions of the peel test are used in materials labs. In products where one substrate is
rigid, tests can be done with either a 900 or 1800 peel angle.

t
90 0 180 0

In the 180 peel test, the joint is subjected to additional stress due to bending of the flexible
0

substrate. This may result in misleading peel strength values, particularly with pressure
sensitive adhesives. Furthermore, 1800 peel is seldom the mode of failure in real products.
Efforts are usually made to adapt peel tests to give data for low angle peel.

Adhesion Peel tests in the Laboratory Met hod


Apparatus 1. Using the apparatus shown, gradually
increase the load on the .mass hanger and
Flexible observe the effect.

2. Record your observations. Do you get a


precise fracture load? Or does the adhesive
fail gradually.

3. Repeat the test with a range of adhesives


Rigid using the same surface area.
bottom substrate

Theory
Peel strength is quoted as force per unit WIDTH
with units of N/mm or kN/m, giving:

Suitable Materials to test Peel adhesive strength = Maximum load


Width of joint
Stick a flexible strip of wood or plastic (top
substrate) to a rigid base (bottom substrate)
to create the arrangement shown in the
4. From your recorded observations calculate
diagram. Drill a hole in the bottom substrate
a peel adhesive strength for each specimen
to attach a mass hanger for loading. Clamp the
tested.
top substrate firmly in position.
5. Produce a short report explaining the
comparative nature of your results.

15
Industrial procedure Shear tests
There are two methods used for adhesive shear testing. Simple overlap joints are the first
obvious method of generating shear strength data but close observation of the test shows that the
forces pulling the substrate's would need to be slightly out of plane to give true shear failure.
This can be overcome by using an offset joint but a double lap joint is preferable.

, ,
Adhesion Shear testing in the Method
Laboratory
1. Set up each specimen in turn, as shown in
Apparatus the apparatus diagram, and gradually
increase the load until the adhesive fails.
2. Record your observations, the surface area
of adhesive and load value.

3. Does the adhesive fail suddenly or


Clamp gradually? Does the adhesive become
Test ~ elastic before failure ?
specimen 4. Repeat the tests for a range of appropriate
and inappropriate adhesives.
5. Produce a report explaining your results.

The top piece of material is clamped, and the


lower ones can be drilled to take a bar for a
mass hanger or spring balance.

Suitable Materials to test


Make up a range of test specimens as
illustrated above. In each case use three
strips of the same polymer but vary the
surface areas for the same adhesive.

16
Industrial procedure - Napkin Ring tests
Where a purer form of shear is required (for design purposes) the second method, known as the
"Napkin Ring Test", may be used. This uses a twisting action in a hollow cylinder assembly.

For this test a machine is used which can twist the test piece and measure the twisting force, or
torque.

Adhesion "Napkin Ring Test" in the Method


Laboratory
1. Set up the apparatus shown, with each
The "Napkin Ring Test" can also be easily end of the supporting rod clamped in a
simulated in school. retort stand.

Apparatus 2. Gradually increase both loads


simultaneously until the adhesive fails.

I -~ameter
d
of rings
3. Does the adhesive fail suddenly or
gradually?
elastic
Does the adhesive become
before failure?

4. Record your observations and the load


value at point of failure.

F F
Theory
Make sure both loads (F)
are the same Applied torque Load x diameter of ring
F x d (for each ring)

Suitable Materials to test


Specimens need to be made up as illustrated 4. Use the equation above to calculate the
above with a hole through the centre so they applied torque at the point of failure for
can freely rotate on the supporting rod. A each specimen tested.
small hole should also be drilled in the side
5. Produce a report explaining your results.
of each ring to use as anchorage points for the
load strings.

17
Adhesion Sticky Tape test in the Laboratory
This is the basic test used by professionals to test the "stickiness" of adhesive tapes.
Apparatus

Marked
point Length of tape
(sticky side up)

Inclined
1....- 1 _\ I~ Rule

groove

The length of adhesive tape is mounted on a horizontal surface with the "sticky side" uppermost.
Some form of plastic channel/groove extrusion (e.g. curtain rail or sliding door guides) or folded
cardboard could be used for the sloping groove to guide the ball bearing.

Method Some variations


1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram Think how you could modify the test to
above. investigate the following:

2. Place the ball at a marked point on the 1. Does the tape loose its stickiness in use?
slope, then release. (over a few minutes or a few days, etc.)

3. Measure how far it travels along the 2. The stickiness of different types of tape.
horizontal surface of the tape. The shorter (manufacturers/widths/colours, etc )
the travel, the stickier the tape.
3. The stickiness on different sizes of ball
S. Produce a short report outlining your bearing.
conclusions from the test results.
4. The stickiness effect on different materials
e.g. wood/ceramic/glass etc.

18
CREEP TESTING
Background information
Under load, components may change shape over a period of time and this is known as Creep. For
example, a poorly designed large storage tank may retain its shape well when first filled with a
liquid but it could gradually distort over a period of months and may even rupture. An every
day occurrence is more noticable in the way plastic carrier bags and dustbin liners stretch when
they contain heavy items. Clearly, manufacturers and designers require advance knowledge of
the amount of deformation that will be experienced by their products in long-term service. Vital
information on creep properties is required for the design of such products as bridge
bearings, gears, valves, storage vessels, pipes, break fluid reservoirs and suspension systems.

The term Creep is used to describe the increasing amount of deformation of materials under a
constant stress over a fixed period of time. For materials under tensile stress, this property is
quantified by categorising three types of deformation as follows:

1. Elastic Behaviour. In this case, a strip of material is stretched by a fixed amount


immediately on application of a load and returns to its original length and shape immediately
after the load is removed. The creep strain is therefore proportional to the applied stress
2. Linear Viscoelastic Behaviour. In this case, the material deforms immediately on
application of a load, but it extends further with increasing time under load. When the load
is removed, the sample reverts to its original dimensions. The recovery is rapid at first but
then slows down towards the final stages. Thus, with a linear viscoelastic material, the
observed creep strain is not only proportional to the applied stress or load, but is also a
function of the time of application of the load.
3. Non-Linear Viscoelastic Behaviour. Unlike the previous two processes, creep in a
non-linear solid is not directly proportional to stress. Instead, the amount of creep is not
only a function of time of application of the load, but also of the stress level applied for that
time. After removal of the load, recovery is not complete. Non-linear viscoelastic creep
behaviour needs to be described in three dimensions and is, therefore, a very complex
mechanical property. Unfortunately for those involved with the plastics industry, all
thermoplastics exhibit non-linear viscoelastic behaviour.

Stress-strain-time data can be presented in different ways according to the selection of


information for particular requirements as follows:

creep curves of strain versus log time

isochronous stress (i.e. stress at constant time) versus strain curves


isometric stress (i.e. stress at constant strain) versus log time c u rv e s

Theory

Creep stress = creep force

original cross sectional area

Creep strain= increase in length

original length

20
Industrial procedure
Creep tests in industry may be done over a period of several years so the test rigs must be
simple in design and relatively inexpensive compared to other testing machines. Even so, a
typical cost for a creep test rig could be about £10,000. The most widely used test methods for
creep involve either suspended dead weight loading or lever loading

The test samples are loaded and changes in length are noted at specified intervals of time for a
constant load over an extended time period. Measurements to an accuracy of 0.1 % are normally
sufficient so conventional dial gauges and micrometers are adequate.
Greater accuracy is achieved in industry by the use of a Moire fringe extensometer. This is
based on the optical patterns created when two fine grids are moved relative to one another.

As with other tests, temperature and humidity conditions are carefully controlled over the full
test period (hours/days/weeks/years).

21
Creep Tests Under Constant Stress in
3. Set up the specimen under load as shown in
the Laboratory
the diagram. Remember that the lower
Apparatus clamp and mass hanger are part of the load.
Possible test arrangements include: 4. Measure the changes in length of the
specimen under load at regular time
(i) suspending the specimen vertically with a
intervals for an extended period of time (as
load at its lower end.
allowed by local circumstances) and record
(ii) placing the specimen horizontally, your results in a table. Measurements can
clamped at one end with a thread or wire be made using a micrometer, vernier
attached to the other end which runs over a callipers or dial gauge and relate to the
pulley to a vertically suspended load. separation of index marks on the specimen
or clamp separation. Position sensors
There should be some means of protecting the
(available from Phillip Harris) connected to
floor from the falling weight if the specimen
a computer could also be used.
breaks (for example placing a bin below filled
with paper/foam/ sand/wood chips/carpet). 5. Ideally the stress should not vary by more
than I % over the time period of the test so
large deformations should be avoided.
Calculate stress and strain values as shown
earlier.

6. After a series of length measurements have


been made at one specific load, plot a graph
specimen of creep strain against time, as in Graph -
A below. If the frequency of readings
decreases with increasing time, it is better
to plot strain against log time and the curve

tv
shape changes as shown in Graph - B.
Load hanger

Suitable Materials to test


Strips of material can be cut from polythene
~;~a~~
----~..
~;:~t
~~ ..
sheet, heavy duty plastic bags and bin liners, Time Log time
carrier bags, plastic document wallets etc.
Ideally test specimens should be dumbbell Graph - A Graph - B
shape but narrow rectangular shapes ( lOOmm
long x lOmm wide) will be adequate.
If the test is repeated at other values of
constant stress then a family of curves is
Method
produced and other graphs derived from them
1. Measure the original width and thickness as illustrated on the next page.
of the test specimen and hence calculate the
cross sectional area.

2. Measure the original length of the test 7. What conclusions can you draw from the
piece either by the use of index marks on graphical data?
the specimen or the distance between the
clamps.

22
Examples of other possible curves and derived graphs

Creep curves
Strain

I
I
I Log time
I
r ........ ,
,,--Iso:el~~c stress Isochronous stress
Stress ~time Stress vs strain

Log time Strain


Isometric stress - constant strain Isochronous stress - constant time.

23
IMPACT RESISTANCE TESTING
Background information
The ability of a polymer to cope with a single high speed stress is known as Impact
Resistance and the minimum stress level required to cause catastrophic failure (destruction)
is the Impact Strength of the polymer. At sufficiently low temperatures, all polymers behave
in a brittle manner when exposed to impact. However, a polymer which normally fails in a
ductile manner under test (by first exhibiting yield and then drawing or necking) can be
transformed into a brittle material by speeding up the rate of application of stress.

Impact is a complex stress phenomenon controlled by many variables and there is no single,
universally accepted test. In mechanical testing, particularly destructive testing (testing to
fracture of the material), tests must be selected which approximate most to the service
conditions of the finished product. Impact testing can only be used to indicate toughness if all
the critical parameters are matched between the test specimens and finished articles

Impact tests divide into three main categories as follows:


Falling weight impact test
Flexed beam impact test
Tensile impact test

In this section we deal mainly with the first two of these tests since the third (Tensile impact)
requires specialist industrial equipment.

Industrial procedure F ailing Weight tests


Falling weight impact tests are closer to service impact conditions than flexed beam tests and
finished products are often used as the test specimens. There are many variations of this test
with some equipment consisting of a clamping system to locate the specimen and a falling weight
(often known as a TUP) guided in a tube or on rails. The simplest tests are the GOINO GO type
where a specified weight is dropped from a fixed height. The test specimen either passes or
breaks and fails. The Staircase method and Pro bit method are examples of this.

Until recently, drop weight impact tests were associated with catastrophic failure (i.e. test
to destruction) but now the preferred methods assess the deformation that occurs d uri n g
catastrophic failure. This is accomplished by fitting force transducers and accelerometers to
the falling weight. Data is collected immediately before, during and after impact with the aid of
microcomputers which record and display the stress/strain behaviour over very brief time
scales. The data recorded by the computer allows a more sophisticated determination of break
energy, yield point, yield energy and embrittlement temperature. The Instrumented
Fracture test is an example of this type.

24
Falling Weight Impact Test in the Method
Laboratory 1. The apparatus is set up as illustrated
Apparatus above. The weight is dropped from the same
height each time.
2 (a) If the specimen breaks after the weight
is dropped from the specified height. then
a lighter weight should be dropped when
the procedure is repeated with another
specimen.
B
(b) If the specimen does not break and
shows no signs of damage - then leave the
specimen in place and repeat the procedure
with a much heavier weight.

(c) If the specimen does not break but


shows visible signs of damage
(cracks/indentation) then it should be
replaced and a heavier weight used when
A Test-piece or specimen. the procedure is repeated.
B G-cramp or some other means of securing This procedure is used to find the minimum
sample to a surface/bench. weight which results in fracture. Increases
and decreases of weight could be at intervals
C A piece of strong material (one that is
of SN. Record your observations.
stronger than the material being tested)
on which the falling weights land. This 3. After all 18 specimens have been used the
ensures that the impact force acts over results will show values of several weights
the same surface area of the specimen which caused the specimen to fracture
each time the procedure is repeated. during impact. Calculate an average value
of all weights used to include in the
D - The weight being dropped.
formula below to determine the impact
E - Some means of protecting the floor from energy for the material under test.
the falling weight if the specimen breaks
(for example a bin containing paper/
foam/sand/carpet) . Theory:
F A tube to guide the falling weight. The In this test the energy needed to break a sample
falling weight must not touch the sides is found, where::
of the tube. If the weight is dropped
Imp act Energy = force x distance
through a small height, h, a guide may
not be required. In the case of a falling weight the force acting on it
is gravity
Suitable Materials to test
i.e. force weight
About 18 identical moulded specimens are mass x gravitational field strength g
required, i.e. same material, same width, etc. .. Impact energy = mgh (Nm)
It is best to use long, thin specimens (e.g.
100mm long x 10mm wide x 4mm thick) except where
m mass
with very weak materials. Flat style plastic
g gravitational field strength
trouser and coathangers (found in clothing h height through which mass fell
stores), handle sections of plastic cutlery and
plastic rulers can be suitable sources of
material.
4. Produce a report discussing the results of
your tests.

25
Industrial procedure IZOD and CHARPY tests
The cantilever beam (IZOD) and three point loaded beam (CHARPY) tests are used
for Flexed Beam impact testing in industry.

The I Z 0 D test uses bars of rectangular cross section for the test specimens (typically 80mm x
10mm x 4mm). The bars are clamped vertically with one half extending above the clamp (usually
a vice). A blow from a weighted pendulum is made at a point 22mm above the clamp, applying a
bending stress to break the specimen. The energy used to fracture the specimen (impact energy)
is calculated from knowing the height at which the pendulum was released and the height to
which it continues to swing after impact.

The test bars are usually cut with a 450 notch at their mid point to a depth of 20% of the bar
thickness. The bar is positioned with the notch on line with the jaws of the clamping device.
This overcomes irregularities in values caused by flaws and imperfections in the material and
ensures that specimens of a particular polymer will fail at about the same impact energy level.

The CHARPY impact test also uses rectangular bar specimens, with or without notches. The
smallest bar measures 50mm x 6mm x 10mm and the largest 125mm x 13mm x 13mm. The
specimen is placed un-clamped in a horizontal position on the impact tester with the front face
(with notch) resting against two radiused supports. For the smallest size test specimen the
supports are 40mm apart. The bar is then struck by a weighted radiused pendulum head on the
back face. Impact energy is then measured as before.

Flexed Beam Impact Test in the Laboratory

This is a modified version of the IZOD cantilever beam test

Apparatus

1 2 3

A - The specimen. Specimens can have a notch machined


into them. This ensures fracture at
B - Vice or some other device for clamping
lower impact energies and helps with
the specimen vertically.
reproducibility of results. If a notched
C - A pendulum made from thin metal specimen is used the impact must occur
rod with a mass attached. above the notch.

A more stable pendulum using a hammer


pivoted on a fixed vertical support could
used:
Vertical support
be
....•
.

~
j

Pivot Impact point

<, Hammer

26
Suitable Materials to test (b) If the specimen does not break but
shows signs of damage - then replace with a
Specimens need to be long but fairly thin
new specimen of the same material and
(typically 80mm x 10mm x 4mm). Around a
repeat the procedure with a slightly larger
dozen equal sized specimens of each material
mass from the same height.
to be tested are required for quantitative
work. Flat style plastic trouser and (c) If the specimen does not break and
coathangers (found in clothing stores), handle shows no signs of damage - then leave the
sections of plastic cutlery, tape cassette boxes specimen in place and repeat the procedure
and plastic rulers can be suitable sources of with a heavier mass pendulum from the
material. same height.

S. After all the specimens of a single material


Method
have been used, you should have height (h 1
( a) Comparative and h2) and mass values for several
1. The pendulum is attached directly above pendula which resulted in the samples
breaking during impact.
the point where the specimen is to be
clamped.
2. Clamp the specimen vertically so that one Theory
In this test some of the gravitational potential
half extends above the jaws.
energy of the pendulum was transformed into the
3. Raise the weighted pendulum through some impact energy.
height, h and release it.
The formula for the gravitational potential energy
To compare how different materials respond to of the pendulum is
impact - use the same pendulum raised
mass x g x height
through the same height on each specimen of a
different material and compare the damage. To find the impact energy you need to find the
maximum gravitational potential energy (i.e. at
(b) Finding Impact Energies point of release hI) of the pendulum before
impact and resultant potential energy after impact
1. Using the same apparatus as above, raise (i.e. at height to which it swings after fracture h2).
the pendulum through some height, hj
Impact energy is the difference in these two
(measured in metres) and release it.
gravitational potential energies.
2. After the pendulum has impacted with the
Impact strength is the impact energy per cross
specimen the height, h2 through which the
sectional area at the point of fracture.
pendulum continues to swing must be
measured using a ruler.

For more accurate work, stroboscopes,


photography or video cameras with a scale in
the background can be used to determine the
height of the pendulum swing.

impact energy
impact strength =
3. A preliminary test should be done to find cross-section area
the approximate pendulum mass and height
of drop needed for fracture.
4. (a) If the specimen breaks when the 6. Use the values of mass and corresponding
pendulum impacts with it then a smaller heights (h j and h2) to calculate an impact
mass for the pendulum should be used from energy figure for the material under test
the same height when the procedure is (example calculations for an IZOD test are
repeated with another specimen of the same given in appendix 2 to help you with this).
material.
7. Present a report of your findings.

27
FLEXURE
Background information

In everyday use, products made from polymer materials are probably more commonly subjected
to flexing than either pure tension or pure compression. Flexural testing of polymer materials
therefore gives important information about their performance in everyday use. For practical
application of a material, flexural yield stress sets the upper limit of its usefulness. This
is the stress at which a material begins to experience permanent deformation.

Any single flexing test you devise will represent a particular combination of tension,
compression and shear. The tensile component is the most important. Although the ratio
stress/strain is called the Flexural Modulus, it is in fact a tensile modulus (i.e. it is closely
related to the Young Modulus obtained from tensile testing). Flexural Strength is the
strength related to a surface stress at failure/fracture associated with bending beams.

Interpretation of data is further complicated by the fact that the structure of a polymer sample
is virtually always heterogeneous. The molecules at the surface of an injection moulding are
oriented in the flow direction, whilst those inside are either unoriented or aligned at right
angles to the flow direction. In the case of fibre-filled polymers, the effects of molecular
orientation are over-ridden by the orientation of the fibres themselves.

Industrial procedure
Industry uses standard three point loading tests to investigate flexure, the test piece is a
bar of rectangular cross section with a length at least twenty times its thickness. The bar is
placed on two supports near its ends, the distance between the supports being about sixteen
times the thickness. The test load is applied at the mid-point. To avoid localized stresses, the
supports and load nose are rounded.

L
(= 16xt)

The test usually takes the form of applying static loads and measuring the corresponding
deformation at the mid-point. Deflection is small and measured with precision instruments.
Also deflection changes with time so a fixed time interval is allow after adding the load before
measuring the deflection. In industry this process can be carried out on specially modified
tensile test machines. This involves attaching an appropriate frame with two rounded supports
to the fixed head, and a rounded nose attached to the moving crosshead.

An alternative method is the can tHever flexural test where the test piece is a bar of
rectangular cross-section securely clamped at one end in a horizontal position. Loads are
applied to the free end to produce measurable deflections. Since deflection is a function of time,
the measurements are taken at a fixed time after the specimen has been loaded.

One of the limitations of this method is the difficulty in measuring the small deflections at the
point of application of the load. To overcome this, some comparative tests incorporate lever
systems to amplify the deflection.

28
Three Point Loading test in the
Laboratory Accurate measurements can be made with a
micrometer, dial gauge, vernier callipers or
Apparatus
travelling microscope. Less satisfactorily,
a millimetre scale could be used.
L
(= 16 x t) 4. Increase the load and repeat the procedure
until failure occurs. Record your results.

5. From the information given below calculate


the Fibre Stress and the Strain for each
deflection measurement made.

Theory
The critical stress value to which the material is
A - Rectangular bar test specimen typically subjected is the tensile stress along the bottom
face - referred to as the Fibre Stress. The
100mm x 10mm x 4mm.
formula relating fibre stress to applied load is:
B - Retort stand with round bars clamped to 3WL
Fibre Stress 0' = 2bt2
act as supports for the test specimen.
Clamp to the bench for stability/safety. Where: W load (force) applied at mid-point
L distance between supports
C - Mass hanger for applied loads (W)
b = bar width
D - Rectangular carrier frame made from two = bar thickness
flat side strips (similar to meccano) with (make sure all dimensions are in the same units)
horizontal round bars joining across the
top and bottom. The top cross-bar rests At the point of failure, 0' becomes the ultimate
flexural stress (also called flexural strength
on the top surface of the test specimen
or cross breaking strength) .
and the bottom cross-bar provides a
location for the mass hanger The Strain is given by:
. 6
S train = 2
L
v t

Suitable Materials to test


Flat style plastic trouser and coathangers where: L distance between supports
t thickness of bar
(found in clothing stores), tape cassette boxes
Y deflection at the mid-point.
and plastic rulers can be suitable sources of
material.
6. Use your figures to plot a graph of fibre
Method stress against strain.
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram with
the retort stand supports positioned
Theory
according to the thickness (t) of the test
specimen (L=16 x t). Provided that the deflection at the mid-point is
small (i.e. in the region where the stress/strain
2. Position the carrier and mass hanger on the plot is linear), Flexural Modulus (E]') can be
test specimen at the mid-point between the calculated using the expression:-
two supports. WL3
Ef = 4bt3y
3. Add a load and measure the deflection (y)
at the mid-point after a fixed time where:' W load (force) applied at mid-point

,-~
(e.g. 60 sees). L distance between supports
b bar width
bar thickness
y deflection at mid-point

7. What conclusions can you draw from your


y = deflection graph?

29
Method for Flexural yield stress 2. Hang a load from the free end of the bar and
measure vertical deflection (y) at that point
The previous procedure may be modified to
after a fixed time (e.g. 60 sees). Accurate
produce a value for flexural yield stress.
measurements can be made with a
After adding each extra load and noting the
micrometer, dial gauge, vernier callipers or
new deflection, the whole load should be
travelling microscope. Less satisfactorily,
removed and the deflection measured. When
a millimetre scale could be used.
the load is removed, it will be necessary to
allow a time (for example 60 seconds) for the 3. Repeat the procedure gradually increasing
specimen to recover its shape before taking the load each time, and record your results
the measurement. Before yield stress is in a table.
reached, the deflection will return to zero.
4. From the information given below calculate
the Flexural Stress and the Strain for
Cantilever Flexural test in the
each deflection measurement made.
Laboratory
Apparatus
Theory
6WL
Flexural stress =
bt2

Where: W load

L distance between clamp and point


of application of load
o b width of bar

thickness of bar

Strain
11l
A - G cramp or similar to secure test = 2L2
specimen to a bench top.
Where: y = vertical deflection at point of
B - Small wood blocks to evenly distribute application of load
the clamp pressure over the surface of the
specimen
5. Use your figures to plot a graph of
C - Test specimen - a bar of rectangular
flexural stress against strain.
cross-section (typically lOOmm x lOmm x
4mm). Avoid soft or thin section test
pieces in which the weight of the specimen Theory
is sufficient to give a measurable If deflections are small (i.e. in the region where
deflection. the stress/strain plot is linear) the flexural
modulus E f can be calculated:
D - Mass hanger to apply the load. 4WL3
Flexural modulus
bt3y
Suitable Materials to test
Where: W applied load
Flat style plastic trouser and coathangers
(found in clothing stores), tape cassette boxes y vertical deflection at point of
and plastic rulers can be suitable sources of application of load
material. L distance between clamp and point
of application of load
Method
b width of bar
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram with
thickness of bar
some means of protecting the floor from the
falling weight if the specimen breaks (for
example a bin with paper/foam/sand/
6. What conclusions can you draw from your
carpet) .
graph?

30
WEAR AND ABRASION

Background information
Many fabrics and solid materials are exposed to wear in everyday use - for example. carpets
become worn and tyres on cars and bikes wear. Wear is the loss of material under the action of
dynamic frictional forces.
There are three types of wear mechanism:
Adhesive wear - the physical transfer of material from one surface to another.

Abrasive wear - loss of material due to dynamic contact with hard surfaces or abrasive particles.
Fatigue wear - loss of material resulting in failure due to dynamic stresses in the vicinity of the
interface. This is usually characterised by loss of larger pieces of material than in abrasive
wear.
When testing for wear, the first task is to devise an abrasion test which is most suited to the
type of wear and service conditions of the material.

Industrial procedure
There are several standard test methods used in industry as follows:

The Taber abrader - This method consists of two lOOmm diameter abrasive wheels bearing down
on a test specimen in the form of a flat sheet on a rotating turn-table. The abrading wheels are
slightly misaligned to produce the necessary abrading action and dead weights are applied to the
wheels to vary the abrading pressure. The abrader is run for a set number of cycles and the
results are then compared with those of a standard material under identical conditions.
Assessment is normally based on loss of weight from the specimen in mg/lOOO revolutions.

The DuPont abrader - In this method the abrading surface is a flat disc rotating at a set speed.
The specimens are in the form of small discs which are pressed against the face of the abrasion
disc under a controlled tension. Assessments are then made as before.

The DIN abrader - This is the German standards abrasion test and consists of a rotating drum
which has an abrasive outer surface and an arm which moves laterally along the length of the
drum. This ensures that a fresh abrasive surface is always presented to the specimen. The test
specimens are in the form of discs or small blocks which are secured to the arm and then held
against the abrasive surface of the drum under a controlled pressure using a lever and weight
system. In this case volume loss is measured as thickness loss from the specimen and
assessments made as before.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) abrader - In this method the abrasive surface is the
outer surface of a wheel or cylinder. The test specimens are in the form of blocks or discs
mounted on an arm and held against the abrading surface by a lever and weight system. Volume
, loss is again measured as thickness loss from the specimen and assessments made as before.

34
Abrasion Wear Testing in the Method
Laboratory
1. Calculate the volume of the test specimens:
This method is based on a simple version of
the apparatus used in the National Bureau of
For rectangular blocks
Standards (NB S) test and can be made up from
kit components such as meccano. volume = length x breadth x height

Apparatus For discs


volume 1tr2 x thickness of disc

(where r is the radius of the disc)

2. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram with


a test specimen in place.

3. Set the dial gauge to zero.

4. Rotate the abrasive wheel for a fixed


number of rotations and then read the
thickness loss of the specimen from the
dial gauge (a micrometer or travelling
A - Dial gauge mounted on the lever arm to
microscope could also be used).
measure thickness loss.
5. Repeat the procedure for the other two
B - Pivot
specimens of the same material and
C - Vertical support. calculate an average thickness loss from
your results.
D - Test pieces in the form of blocks or
discs held against the abrading surface. 6. Calculate the volume loss of the specimen
using the thickness loss figure.
E - The abrasive material is fixed to the
outer surface of a wheel or cylinder, for 7. Using the information below calculate the
example, emery paper or sandpaper may abrasion resistance of the material under
be wrapped around the wheel. te s 1.

F - Fixed reference surface for measurements.


Abrasion loss volume loss
G - Lever arm. 1
Abrasion resistance
abrasion loss
H - Applied load (weight)
1
volume loss
Suitable Materials to test
8. Repeat the test for each of the materials
Prepare three identical test specimens, in the
under investigation and record your results
form of discs or rectangular blocks, for each
in a table for comparison.
material to be tested. Off-cuts of materials
may be available from Technology 9. Produce a report explaining the
Departments or materials suppliers. comparative nature of your results

Theory
Wear is proportional to both sliding velocity, V, and applied load or pressure, P. It is permissible
to use the product, PV, as a basis for comparison of different tests.

In wear tests, abrasion should, strictly, be assessed as volume loss, but it is more convenient, and
more accurate, to measure weight (mass) loss and convert to volume loss if required. A bra s ion
resistance is the inverse of abrasion loss.

Because wear is so dependent upon abrasion conditions, it is customary to express abrasion resistance of
a sample in relation to that of a standard material abraded under identical conditions.

abrasion loss for material under test


Abrasion resistance index
a bras ion 10 s s for stan d ard rna teria I x 100

35
Appendix 5

Sources of Some Polymer Materials


The following product types may be made from the named polymers:

High density polyethylene (HDPE)

Plastic bottles for milk, fruit juices, household cleaners and chemicals. Motor oil
containers. Some carrier bags. Most aerosol caps.

Low density polyethylene (LDPE)

Jif lemon juice container. Some squeezy containers for sauces and cosmetics. Plastic
films - shrink wrap, sacks, freezer bags, carrier bags that are not crinkly. Some aerosol
caps. Some plant pots. Ink-tubes in ball-point pens.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Plastic bottles for mineral water, fruit squash, cooking oil and shampoo. Sandwich and
cake packs. Food packaging trays. DIY blister packs. Baby care product containers.
Stretch film (cling film). Ring-binder covers, records, watch straps, baby pants. Weather
boards, guttering, electrical conduits. Window frames. Flooring, hosepipes. Wire and
cable insulation. Electrical fittings.

Polystyrene (PS)
Yoghurt pots, margarine tubs, clear egg cartons, food packaging trays. Ferrero Rocher
chocolate boxes. Plastic cutlery and cups. Clear 'plastic' glasses. Ball-point pen cases,
cassette boxes, plastic coathangers.

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)


Fast food packaging. Meat packaging trays. Egg cartons. Protective packaging for fragile
electronic goods.

Polypropylene (PP)
Plastic straws. Containers for soft cheeses and fats. Some margarine tubs. Microwavable
food tubs (for custard etc) and trays. Plastic basins for steamed puddings. Clear plastic
jars for pickled onions. Film bags for crisps, biscuits and snacks. Ketchup bottles.
Bottle caps. Brush sets. Kitchen ware. Picnic ware. Laboratory ware. Syringes. Stacking
chairs, garden furniture, plant pots, luggage cases.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Most plastic bottles for fizzy drinks (some are polycarbonate).


Ovenable food trays and roasting bags. Bag-in-box. Audio and video tape.
Insulation fibres in clothing. Coffee makers and toasters.

Adoption of Society of Plastics Industry (SPI) identity marks

Containers may be marked with identity codes as follows:

(I-PET, 2-HDPE, 3-PVC, 4-LDPE, 5-PP, 6-PS, 7-0THER)

45

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