Selected Topics Polymers Physical Testing
Selected Topics Polymers Physical Testing
The British Standards Institute (BSI) was the first national body in the world to organise
specified criteria for industrial applications and testing which were generally accepted as the
bench-mark of good practice and agreed common standards. Over 80 countries now have similar
organisations, the majority of which belong to the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO). So what essentially started as an attempt to encourage British
Companies to work to common specifications has now expanded to the international arena.
All major materials manufacturers carry out a continuous programme of testing, sample analysis
and quality control on their products. Samples are subjected to all kinds of mechanical testing
machines, but most of these involve applying tensile stress (through loading) to prepared
samples of the same dimensions in order to make comparisons of physical properties. The
machines can be set to increase the applied force at whatever rate is chosen. The sample is
monitored and its strain is measured. The output from the measuring sensors can be fed to a
microcomputer for processing or a chart recorder for a hard copy of the results. The three most
common forms of applied stress are shown below.
t t
Tensile
Compressive Shear
Mechanical testing is also used to assess the suitability of a material to a particular application
by relating the type of test to the working environment of the product. Material testing of
polymers in industry is carried out under standard conditions of humidity (50%) and
temperature (23°C). Polymers have properties of both solids and fluids and are therefore known
as viscoelastic materials.
The average school or college laboratory does not have these testing machines, but the basic
techniques used by the professional testers can be modified to work with simple lab apparatus.
The tests outlined in this booklet are based on those used by the mechanical testing labs at ICI
Wilton. These have all been tested in school laboratory conditions.
1
COMPRESSION TESTING
Background information
Imagine an object (for example a cylinder) of original length 10cm which reduces to 8cm when a
load is applied - then we say the object has compressed by 2cm.
If a heavier load was placed on the object and the new length was 7cm, the compression is said to
be 3cm.
So compression is the difference between the original length and the new length when an object is
being compressed by a load. This has a particular relevance to large concrete structures since
the density of the materials themselves place considerable loads on the foundations, piles and
pillars.
Industrial procedure
In industry the information required is usually the compression or deflection of an object
under a set load. In this case elaborate equipment is not needed and the standard test
procedure simply involves measuring the change of dimensions of a specimen which has been
subjected to a fixed dead weight loading. If more detailed information is required then a
tensile testing machine, with a capability of recording load when the crosshead movement is
reversed, can be used.
The most commonly used specimen shape and size for industrial BSI and ISO compression
testing of plastics is a cylinder 30mm high and 12mm in diameter as shown below:
12 mm
••••••
In industrial compression testing, crosshead speeds are usually low (about 10mm/min).
Crosshead speed is the rate at which the testing machine exerts its force, i.e. the speed at
which the clamps pull or push on the specimen.
2
Compression Tests in the Laboratory Suitable materials to test
"
A
Method
3
HARDNESS TESTING
Background information
Hardness is a measure of how easy or difficult it is to damage a material (indent or scratch it)
during static loading.
If two materials have had the same load applied over the same area, then the one which has the
smaller resulting indentation is the harder one.
With polymers, hardness is usually considered as the resistance of the material to reversible
indentation.
Industrial procedure
Since hardness of thermoplastics varies with temperature, industrial measurements are usually
made at. 23°C. The test methods involve measuring the depth of penetration of an indentor under
load.
The Ball Indentation Hardness test and the Rockwell
Hardness test are the industry
standard tests for hardness of polymers. Both use a hardened steel ball to produce the
indentation. The Shore Durometer is another alternative and is based on the penetration of a
cylindrical profile indentor. The depth or area of indentation is measured and the smaller the
depth or area the harder the material.
4
Hardness Tests in the Laboratory vertical pOSItIOn when assembled.(The two
parts are glued together to make the single
Apparatus
component D.)
5
ADHESION
Background information
There are many ways of joining materials together. For example, they can be joined mechanically
by means of bolts, screws, rivets, etc. Each of these items can have a range of mechanical tests
carried out on it, and comparisons can be made between items of different size, material and
design. Many of the tests in this book could be applied to, say 4 mm bolts made of steel, brass
and plastic (e.g. the bolts used to secure car number plates). However, there are occasions where
two surfaces need to be continuously joined, for example, the steel plates which make up a ship's
hull must be continuously joined to stop the water getting in! Similarly the waste pipes from
kitchen sinks are often "solvent welded" to provide a continuous leak-proof joint.
The term "welding" implies that the molecular structure of the two surfaces to be joined is
disrupted by some process, such as applying heat, and is then allowed to settle back into a stable
state where there is no discountable junction between the two parts which have been joined.
This, of course, can only be done if both the surfaces to be joined are the same material. If the
materials are different we need to fill the joint with some kind of gap filling material. Such a
material will need to:
• be strong itself
• stick well to the materials to be joined.
We can carry out mechanical tests on a sample of the adhesive itself to check out its bulk
properties, but just how well it sticks to another material is also vitally important. This
property is called ad he s ion.
More and more modern polymeric products consist of assemblies of several components (known
as substrates). Accordingly, measurements of adhesion between any two components are
necessary. As was the case with the previous tests, the first task is to identify the types of
stresses associated with adhesive failure. In some cases tensile stresses are present but
shear stresses are more common.
In both tension and shear the forces are uniformly distributed across the complete adhesive
layer or interface between the two components. The easiest way to overcome adhesion is by
c Ie a vag e or pee l.
\ +
$ ;
J
Cleavage Peel
t
12
Industrial procedure
Cleavage and peel feature as types of failure in many products. If both substrate's are flexible,
specimens can be constructed from strips of uniform width by separating the substrate's from
part of the joint and locating the free ends in the clamps of a tensile testing machine. As the
clamps are separated at a preset speed, the peel force is recorded.
Both cleavage and peel mechanisms have much in common with tear; stress is concentrated at
one point and failure occurs progressively across the material. Failure during adhesion tests is
a complex subject. Industrial procedures consider five sites of failure with a simple assembly:
Substrate S
Adhesive
layer A,
Substrate S
2
Failure within one layer can be termed Cohesive failure whereas failure at an interface is
termed Adhesive failure.
13
Adhesion Tensile testing in the Adhesion Cleavage Tests in the
Laboratory Laboratory
Apparatus Apparatus
Stick two prepared surfaces together, and once
the adhesion has set/cured carry out a simple
loading test. Flexible
Theory
The force at failure can be related to the area of
the joint as follows:
14
Industrial procedure Peel tests
Two versions of the peel test are used in materials labs. In products where one substrate is
rigid, tests can be done with either a 900 or 1800 peel angle.
t
90 0 180 0
In the 180 peel test, the joint is subjected to additional stress due to bending of the flexible
0
substrate. This may result in misleading peel strength values, particularly with pressure
sensitive adhesives. Furthermore, 1800 peel is seldom the mode of failure in real products.
Efforts are usually made to adapt peel tests to give data for low angle peel.
Theory
Peel strength is quoted as force per unit WIDTH
with units of N/mm or kN/m, giving:
15
Industrial procedure Shear tests
There are two methods used for adhesive shear testing. Simple overlap joints are the first
obvious method of generating shear strength data but close observation of the test shows that the
forces pulling the substrate's would need to be slightly out of plane to give true shear failure.
This can be overcome by using an offset joint but a double lap joint is preferable.
, ,
Adhesion Shear testing in the Method
Laboratory
1. Set up each specimen in turn, as shown in
Apparatus the apparatus diagram, and gradually
increase the load until the adhesive fails.
2. Record your observations, the surface area
of adhesive and load value.
16
Industrial procedure - Napkin Ring tests
Where a purer form of shear is required (for design purposes) the second method, known as the
"Napkin Ring Test", may be used. This uses a twisting action in a hollow cylinder assembly.
For this test a machine is used which can twist the test piece and measure the twisting force, or
torque.
I -~ameter
d
of rings
3. Does the adhesive fail suddenly or
gradually?
elastic
Does the adhesive become
before failure?
F F
Theory
Make sure both loads (F)
are the same Applied torque Load x diameter of ring
F x d (for each ring)
17
Adhesion Sticky Tape test in the Laboratory
This is the basic test used by professionals to test the "stickiness" of adhesive tapes.
Apparatus
Marked
point Length of tape
(sticky side up)
Inclined
1....- 1 _\ I~ Rule
groove
The length of adhesive tape is mounted on a horizontal surface with the "sticky side" uppermost.
Some form of plastic channel/groove extrusion (e.g. curtain rail or sliding door guides) or folded
cardboard could be used for the sloping groove to guide the ball bearing.
2. Place the ball at a marked point on the 1. Does the tape loose its stickiness in use?
slope, then release. (over a few minutes or a few days, etc.)
3. Measure how far it travels along the 2. The stickiness of different types of tape.
horizontal surface of the tape. The shorter (manufacturers/widths/colours, etc )
the travel, the stickier the tape.
3. The stickiness on different sizes of ball
S. Produce a short report outlining your bearing.
conclusions from the test results.
4. The stickiness effect on different materials
e.g. wood/ceramic/glass etc.
18
CREEP TESTING
Background information
Under load, components may change shape over a period of time and this is known as Creep. For
example, a poorly designed large storage tank may retain its shape well when first filled with a
liquid but it could gradually distort over a period of months and may even rupture. An every
day occurrence is more noticable in the way plastic carrier bags and dustbin liners stretch when
they contain heavy items. Clearly, manufacturers and designers require advance knowledge of
the amount of deformation that will be experienced by their products in long-term service. Vital
information on creep properties is required for the design of such products as bridge
bearings, gears, valves, storage vessels, pipes, break fluid reservoirs and suspension systems.
The term Creep is used to describe the increasing amount of deformation of materials under a
constant stress over a fixed period of time. For materials under tensile stress, this property is
quantified by categorising three types of deformation as follows:
Theory
original length
20
Industrial procedure
Creep tests in industry may be done over a period of several years so the test rigs must be
simple in design and relatively inexpensive compared to other testing machines. Even so, a
typical cost for a creep test rig could be about £10,000. The most widely used test methods for
creep involve either suspended dead weight loading or lever loading
The test samples are loaded and changes in length are noted at specified intervals of time for a
constant load over an extended time period. Measurements to an accuracy of 0.1 % are normally
sufficient so conventional dial gauges and micrometers are adequate.
Greater accuracy is achieved in industry by the use of a Moire fringe extensometer. This is
based on the optical patterns created when two fine grids are moved relative to one another.
As with other tests, temperature and humidity conditions are carefully controlled over the full
test period (hours/days/weeks/years).
21
Creep Tests Under Constant Stress in
3. Set up the specimen under load as shown in
the Laboratory
the diagram. Remember that the lower
Apparatus clamp and mass hanger are part of the load.
Possible test arrangements include: 4. Measure the changes in length of the
specimen under load at regular time
(i) suspending the specimen vertically with a
intervals for an extended period of time (as
load at its lower end.
allowed by local circumstances) and record
(ii) placing the specimen horizontally, your results in a table. Measurements can
clamped at one end with a thread or wire be made using a micrometer, vernier
attached to the other end which runs over a callipers or dial gauge and relate to the
pulley to a vertically suspended load. separation of index marks on the specimen
or clamp separation. Position sensors
There should be some means of protecting the
(available from Phillip Harris) connected to
floor from the falling weight if the specimen
a computer could also be used.
breaks (for example placing a bin below filled
with paper/foam/ sand/wood chips/carpet). 5. Ideally the stress should not vary by more
than I % over the time period of the test so
large deformations should be avoided.
Calculate stress and strain values as shown
earlier.
tv
shape changes as shown in Graph - B.
Load hanger
2. Measure the original length of the test 7. What conclusions can you draw from the
piece either by the use of index marks on graphical data?
the specimen or the distance between the
clamps.
22
Examples of other possible curves and derived graphs
Creep curves
Strain
I
I
I Log time
I
r ........ ,
,,--Iso:el~~c stress Isochronous stress
Stress ~time Stress vs strain
23
IMPACT RESISTANCE TESTING
Background information
The ability of a polymer to cope with a single high speed stress is known as Impact
Resistance and the minimum stress level required to cause catastrophic failure (destruction)
is the Impact Strength of the polymer. At sufficiently low temperatures, all polymers behave
in a brittle manner when exposed to impact. However, a polymer which normally fails in a
ductile manner under test (by first exhibiting yield and then drawing or necking) can be
transformed into a brittle material by speeding up the rate of application of stress.
Impact is a complex stress phenomenon controlled by many variables and there is no single,
universally accepted test. In mechanical testing, particularly destructive testing (testing to
fracture of the material), tests must be selected which approximate most to the service
conditions of the finished product. Impact testing can only be used to indicate toughness if all
the critical parameters are matched between the test specimens and finished articles
In this section we deal mainly with the first two of these tests since the third (Tensile impact)
requires specialist industrial equipment.
Until recently, drop weight impact tests were associated with catastrophic failure (i.e. test
to destruction) but now the preferred methods assess the deformation that occurs d uri n g
catastrophic failure. This is accomplished by fitting force transducers and accelerometers to
the falling weight. Data is collected immediately before, during and after impact with the aid of
microcomputers which record and display the stress/strain behaviour over very brief time
scales. The data recorded by the computer allows a more sophisticated determination of break
energy, yield point, yield energy and embrittlement temperature. The Instrumented
Fracture test is an example of this type.
24
Falling Weight Impact Test in the Method
Laboratory 1. The apparatus is set up as illustrated
Apparatus above. The weight is dropped from the same
height each time.
2 (a) If the specimen breaks after the weight
is dropped from the specified height. then
a lighter weight should be dropped when
the procedure is repeated with another
specimen.
B
(b) If the specimen does not break and
shows no signs of damage - then leave the
specimen in place and repeat the procedure
with a much heavier weight.
25
Industrial procedure IZOD and CHARPY tests
The cantilever beam (IZOD) and three point loaded beam (CHARPY) tests are used
for Flexed Beam impact testing in industry.
The I Z 0 D test uses bars of rectangular cross section for the test specimens (typically 80mm x
10mm x 4mm). The bars are clamped vertically with one half extending above the clamp (usually
a vice). A blow from a weighted pendulum is made at a point 22mm above the clamp, applying a
bending stress to break the specimen. The energy used to fracture the specimen (impact energy)
is calculated from knowing the height at which the pendulum was released and the height to
which it continues to swing after impact.
The test bars are usually cut with a 450 notch at their mid point to a depth of 20% of the bar
thickness. The bar is positioned with the notch on line with the jaws of the clamping device.
This overcomes irregularities in values caused by flaws and imperfections in the material and
ensures that specimens of a particular polymer will fail at about the same impact energy level.
The CHARPY impact test also uses rectangular bar specimens, with or without notches. The
smallest bar measures 50mm x 6mm x 10mm and the largest 125mm x 13mm x 13mm. The
specimen is placed un-clamped in a horizontal position on the impact tester with the front face
(with notch) resting against two radiused supports. For the smallest size test specimen the
supports are 40mm apart. The bar is then struck by a weighted radiused pendulum head on the
back face. Impact energy is then measured as before.
Apparatus
1 2 3
~
j
<, Hammer
26
Suitable Materials to test (b) If the specimen does not break but
shows signs of damage - then replace with a
Specimens need to be long but fairly thin
new specimen of the same material and
(typically 80mm x 10mm x 4mm). Around a
repeat the procedure with a slightly larger
dozen equal sized specimens of each material
mass from the same height.
to be tested are required for quantitative
work. Flat style plastic trouser and (c) If the specimen does not break and
coathangers (found in clothing stores), handle shows no signs of damage - then leave the
sections of plastic cutlery, tape cassette boxes specimen in place and repeat the procedure
and plastic rulers can be suitable sources of with a heavier mass pendulum from the
material. same height.
impact energy
impact strength =
3. A preliminary test should be done to find cross-section area
the approximate pendulum mass and height
of drop needed for fracture.
4. (a) If the specimen breaks when the 6. Use the values of mass and corresponding
pendulum impacts with it then a smaller heights (h j and h2) to calculate an impact
mass for the pendulum should be used from energy figure for the material under test
the same height when the procedure is (example calculations for an IZOD test are
repeated with another specimen of the same given in appendix 2 to help you with this).
material.
7. Present a report of your findings.
27
FLEXURE
Background information
In everyday use, products made from polymer materials are probably more commonly subjected
to flexing than either pure tension or pure compression. Flexural testing of polymer materials
therefore gives important information about their performance in everyday use. For practical
application of a material, flexural yield stress sets the upper limit of its usefulness. This
is the stress at which a material begins to experience permanent deformation.
Any single flexing test you devise will represent a particular combination of tension,
compression and shear. The tensile component is the most important. Although the ratio
stress/strain is called the Flexural Modulus, it is in fact a tensile modulus (i.e. it is closely
related to the Young Modulus obtained from tensile testing). Flexural Strength is the
strength related to a surface stress at failure/fracture associated with bending beams.
Interpretation of data is further complicated by the fact that the structure of a polymer sample
is virtually always heterogeneous. The molecules at the surface of an injection moulding are
oriented in the flow direction, whilst those inside are either unoriented or aligned at right
angles to the flow direction. In the case of fibre-filled polymers, the effects of molecular
orientation are over-ridden by the orientation of the fibres themselves.
Industrial procedure
Industry uses standard three point loading tests to investigate flexure, the test piece is a
bar of rectangular cross section with a length at least twenty times its thickness. The bar is
placed on two supports near its ends, the distance between the supports being about sixteen
times the thickness. The test load is applied at the mid-point. To avoid localized stresses, the
supports and load nose are rounded.
L
(= 16xt)
The test usually takes the form of applying static loads and measuring the corresponding
deformation at the mid-point. Deflection is small and measured with precision instruments.
Also deflection changes with time so a fixed time interval is allow after adding the load before
measuring the deflection. In industry this process can be carried out on specially modified
tensile test machines. This involves attaching an appropriate frame with two rounded supports
to the fixed head, and a rounded nose attached to the moving crosshead.
An alternative method is the can tHever flexural test where the test piece is a bar of
rectangular cross-section securely clamped at one end in a horizontal position. Loads are
applied to the free end to produce measurable deflections. Since deflection is a function of time,
the measurements are taken at a fixed time after the specimen has been loaded.
One of the limitations of this method is the difficulty in measuring the small deflections at the
point of application of the load. To overcome this, some comparative tests incorporate lever
systems to amplify the deflection.
28
Three Point Loading test in the
Laboratory Accurate measurements can be made with a
micrometer, dial gauge, vernier callipers or
Apparatus
travelling microscope. Less satisfactorily,
a millimetre scale could be used.
L
(= 16 x t) 4. Increase the load and repeat the procedure
until failure occurs. Record your results.
Theory
The critical stress value to which the material is
A - Rectangular bar test specimen typically subjected is the tensile stress along the bottom
face - referred to as the Fibre Stress. The
100mm x 10mm x 4mm.
formula relating fibre stress to applied load is:
B - Retort stand with round bars clamped to 3WL
Fibre Stress 0' = 2bt2
act as supports for the test specimen.
Clamp to the bench for stability/safety. Where: W load (force) applied at mid-point
L distance between supports
C - Mass hanger for applied loads (W)
b = bar width
D - Rectangular carrier frame made from two = bar thickness
flat side strips (similar to meccano) with (make sure all dimensions are in the same units)
horizontal round bars joining across the
top and bottom. The top cross-bar rests At the point of failure, 0' becomes the ultimate
flexural stress (also called flexural strength
on the top surface of the test specimen
or cross breaking strength) .
and the bottom cross-bar provides a
location for the mass hanger The Strain is given by:
. 6
S train = 2
L
v t
,-~
(e.g. 60 sees). L distance between supports
b bar width
bar thickness
y deflection at mid-point
29
Method for Flexural yield stress 2. Hang a load from the free end of the bar and
measure vertical deflection (y) at that point
The previous procedure may be modified to
after a fixed time (e.g. 60 sees). Accurate
produce a value for flexural yield stress.
measurements can be made with a
After adding each extra load and noting the
micrometer, dial gauge, vernier callipers or
new deflection, the whole load should be
travelling microscope. Less satisfactorily,
removed and the deflection measured. When
a millimetre scale could be used.
the load is removed, it will be necessary to
allow a time (for example 60 seconds) for the 3. Repeat the procedure gradually increasing
specimen to recover its shape before taking the load each time, and record your results
the measurement. Before yield stress is in a table.
reached, the deflection will return to zero.
4. From the information given below calculate
the Flexural Stress and the Strain for
Cantilever Flexural test in the
each deflection measurement made.
Laboratory
Apparatus
Theory
6WL
Flexural stress =
bt2
Where: W load
thickness of bar
Strain
11l
A - G cramp or similar to secure test = 2L2
specimen to a bench top.
Where: y = vertical deflection at point of
B - Small wood blocks to evenly distribute application of load
the clamp pressure over the surface of the
specimen
5. Use your figures to plot a graph of
C - Test specimen - a bar of rectangular
flexural stress against strain.
cross-section (typically lOOmm x lOmm x
4mm). Avoid soft or thin section test
pieces in which the weight of the specimen Theory
is sufficient to give a measurable If deflections are small (i.e. in the region where
deflection. the stress/strain plot is linear) the flexural
modulus E f can be calculated:
D - Mass hanger to apply the load. 4WL3
Flexural modulus
bt3y
Suitable Materials to test
Where: W applied load
Flat style plastic trouser and coathangers
(found in clothing stores), tape cassette boxes y vertical deflection at point of
and plastic rulers can be suitable sources of application of load
material. L distance between clamp and point
of application of load
Method
b width of bar
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram with
thickness of bar
some means of protecting the floor from the
falling weight if the specimen breaks (for
example a bin with paper/foam/sand/
6. What conclusions can you draw from your
carpet) .
graph?
30
WEAR AND ABRASION
Background information
Many fabrics and solid materials are exposed to wear in everyday use - for example. carpets
become worn and tyres on cars and bikes wear. Wear is the loss of material under the action of
dynamic frictional forces.
There are three types of wear mechanism:
Adhesive wear - the physical transfer of material from one surface to another.
Abrasive wear - loss of material due to dynamic contact with hard surfaces or abrasive particles.
Fatigue wear - loss of material resulting in failure due to dynamic stresses in the vicinity of the
interface. This is usually characterised by loss of larger pieces of material than in abrasive
wear.
When testing for wear, the first task is to devise an abrasion test which is most suited to the
type of wear and service conditions of the material.
Industrial procedure
There are several standard test methods used in industry as follows:
The Taber abrader - This method consists of two lOOmm diameter abrasive wheels bearing down
on a test specimen in the form of a flat sheet on a rotating turn-table. The abrading wheels are
slightly misaligned to produce the necessary abrading action and dead weights are applied to the
wheels to vary the abrading pressure. The abrader is run for a set number of cycles and the
results are then compared with those of a standard material under identical conditions.
Assessment is normally based on loss of weight from the specimen in mg/lOOO revolutions.
The DuPont abrader - In this method the abrading surface is a flat disc rotating at a set speed.
The specimens are in the form of small discs which are pressed against the face of the abrasion
disc under a controlled tension. Assessments are then made as before.
The DIN abrader - This is the German standards abrasion test and consists of a rotating drum
which has an abrasive outer surface and an arm which moves laterally along the length of the
drum. This ensures that a fresh abrasive surface is always presented to the specimen. The test
specimens are in the form of discs or small blocks which are secured to the arm and then held
against the abrasive surface of the drum under a controlled pressure using a lever and weight
system. In this case volume loss is measured as thickness loss from the specimen and
assessments made as before.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) abrader - In this method the abrasive surface is the
outer surface of a wheel or cylinder. The test specimens are in the form of blocks or discs
mounted on an arm and held against the abrading surface by a lever and weight system. Volume
, loss is again measured as thickness loss from the specimen and assessments made as before.
34
Abrasion Wear Testing in the Method
Laboratory
1. Calculate the volume of the test specimens:
This method is based on a simple version of
the apparatus used in the National Bureau of
For rectangular blocks
Standards (NB S) test and can be made up from
kit components such as meccano. volume = length x breadth x height
Theory
Wear is proportional to both sliding velocity, V, and applied load or pressure, P. It is permissible
to use the product, PV, as a basis for comparison of different tests.
In wear tests, abrasion should, strictly, be assessed as volume loss, but it is more convenient, and
more accurate, to measure weight (mass) loss and convert to volume loss if required. A bra s ion
resistance is the inverse of abrasion loss.
Because wear is so dependent upon abrasion conditions, it is customary to express abrasion resistance of
a sample in relation to that of a standard material abraded under identical conditions.
35
Appendix 5
Plastic bottles for milk, fruit juices, household cleaners and chemicals. Motor oil
containers. Some carrier bags. Most aerosol caps.
Jif lemon juice container. Some squeezy containers for sauces and cosmetics. Plastic
films - shrink wrap, sacks, freezer bags, carrier bags that are not crinkly. Some aerosol
caps. Some plant pots. Ink-tubes in ball-point pens.
Plastic bottles for mineral water, fruit squash, cooking oil and shampoo. Sandwich and
cake packs. Food packaging trays. DIY blister packs. Baby care product containers.
Stretch film (cling film). Ring-binder covers, records, watch straps, baby pants. Weather
boards, guttering, electrical conduits. Window frames. Flooring, hosepipes. Wire and
cable insulation. Electrical fittings.
Polystyrene (PS)
Yoghurt pots, margarine tubs, clear egg cartons, food packaging trays. Ferrero Rocher
chocolate boxes. Plastic cutlery and cups. Clear 'plastic' glasses. Ball-point pen cases,
cassette boxes, plastic coathangers.
Polypropylene (PP)
Plastic straws. Containers for soft cheeses and fats. Some margarine tubs. Microwavable
food tubs (for custard etc) and trays. Plastic basins for steamed puddings. Clear plastic
jars for pickled onions. Film bags for crisps, biscuits and snacks. Ketchup bottles.
Bottle caps. Brush sets. Kitchen ware. Picnic ware. Laboratory ware. Syringes. Stacking
chairs, garden furniture, plant pots, luggage cases.
45