Discrete Math 2019

Table of Contents
Part 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 4

Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Set: ................................................................................................................................................... 4

I. Roster or tabular form: ........................................................................................................... 4

II. Set builder notation: ............................................................................................................ 4

Set Operation: ................................................................................................................................... 4

a. Set Union: .............................................................................................................................. 4

b. Set Intersection:...................................................................................................................... 5

c. Set Difference or Relative Complement: ................................................................................ 5

d. Complement of a set:.............................................................................................................. 6

Set Algebra: ...................................................................................................................................... 6

i. Commutative Law: ................................................................................................................. 6

ii. Associative Laws: .................................................................................................................. 7

iii. Distributive Laws: .............................................................................................................. 7

iv. De Morgan’s Laws: ............................................................................................................ 7

Bags (Multiset): ................................................................................................................................ 7

Cardinality of multiset: .................................................................................................................. 8

Function: .......................................................................................................................................... 8

Inverse of a function: ........................................................................................................................ 8

Defined Set: ...................................................................................................................................... 9

Subset: ............................................................................................................................................ 10

Membership Table: ......................................................................................................................... 10

Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 11

Part 2: ............................................................................................................................................. 12

Introduction: ................................................................................................................................... 12

Tree: ............................................................................................................................................... 12

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 Discrete Math 2019

Different types of trees: ............................................................................................................... 12

i. Rooted trees: ..................................................................................................................... 12

ii. Binary tree: ................................................................................................................... 13

iii. Spanning tree: ............................................................................................................... 13

Minimum Spanning tree:................................................................................................................. 13

Dijkstra's algorithm: ........................................................................................................................ 14

Example of Dijkstra's algorithm: ................................................................................................. 15

Eulerian Circuit: ............................................................................................................................. 15

Example of Eulerian circuit: ........................................................................................................ 16

Hamilton circuit: ............................................................................................................................. 16

Example of Hamilton Circuit: ...................................................................................................... 16

Existence of both Hamilton and Eulerian circuit: ............................................................................ 17

Five color theorem: ......................................................................................................................... 17

Induction Method: ....................................................................................................................... 17

Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 18

Part 3: ............................................................................................................................................. 19

Introduction: ................................................................................................................................... 19

Boolean algebra: ............................................................................................................................. 19

Sum of Products (SOP): .................................................................................................................. 20

Product of Sum (POS): ................................................................................................................... 21

Logical gate for complex system: .................................................................................................... 23

Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 24

Part 4: ............................................................................................................................................. 25

Introduction: ................................................................................................................................... 25

a. Associative Property: .............................................................................................................. 25

For addition: ................................................................................................................................ 25

For subtraction: ........................................................................................................................... 26

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For multiplication: ....................................................................................................................... 26

For division: ................................................................................................................................ 26

b. Commutative property:............................................................................................................ 27

For addition: ................................................................................................................................ 27

For subtraction: ........................................................................................................................... 27

For multiplication: ....................................................................................................................... 27

For division: ................................................................................................................................ 28

Group: ............................................................................................................................................ 28

Group of integer with modulo Z9 .................................................................................................... 30

For closure property .................................................................................................................... 31

Order of group ................................................................................................................................ 31

Order of an element ........................................................................................................................ 33

Presentation of Group theory .......................................................................................................... 34

Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 38

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 39

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Part 1
1. Perform algebraic set operations in a formulated mathematical problem.
2. Determine the cardinality of a given bag (multi set).
3. Determine the inverse of a function using appropriate mathematical techniques.
4. Formulate corresponding proof principles to prove properties about defined sets.

Introduction:
In this part of my assignment, I am going to perform an algebraic set operation in formulated
mathematical problems. With reference to the scenario, I will prepare a report which examines the set
theory analyzing mathematical structures. In addition, I will explain the cardinality of the given bag or
multiset with proper example. I will then determine the inverse of the function using appropriate
mathematical techniques and at last I will formulate corresponding proof principles to prove about
defines sets.

Set:
Set is an unordered collection of distinct object. The concept of set is one of the most fundamental in
mathematics. In mathematics, sets can be represented in two forms which are discussed below.

I. Roster or tabular form:

In this form of a set, elements are listed within a curly brackets {} separated by commas.

For example: A= {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}

II. Set builder notation:

In this form, set is represented by writing in symbolic form with the common characteristics shared by
all the elements of the set.

For example: A= {x: x is a counting number greater than 10}

Set Operation:
Different set operations are discussed below.

a. Set Union:
The union of two sets is the set containing all of the elements from both of those sets. If A and B are
the two sets, then the union of A and B denoted by AB is defined as

AB = {x: x∈A OR x∈B}.

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For example:
U
A= {21, 22, 23, 24, 25} A B

B= {24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

AB = {21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

The union of two set A and B given in example

above is represented in Venn diagram
alongside Figure 1: Venn-diagram of Union of set

.
AB = {21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

b. Set Intersection:
The intersection of two sets is the set containing elements which are in both of those sets. . If A and B
are the two different sets, then the intersection of set A and set B denoted by A∩B is defined as

A∩B = {x: x∈A AND x∈B}. U

A B
For Example:

A= {21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26}

B= {24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

AB = {23, 24, 26}

The intersection of two set A and B given in

example above is represented in Venn Figure 2: Venn-diagram of Intersection of set
diagram alongside.
AB = {23, 24, 26}

c. Set Difference or Relative Complement:

Set difference of A and B denoted by (A - B) is the set of elements only in A but not in B which is
defined as A-B= {x: x∈A AND x∉B}.

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For Example: U
A B
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

B= {5, 6}

A-B= {1, 2, 3, 4}

The difference or relative complement of

two set A and B given in example above is
represented in the Venn diagram alongside. Figure 3: Venn-diagram of set difference

A-B = {1, 2, 3, 4}

d. Complement of a set:
Complement of a set A denoted by A’ is the set of elements which are not in set A and is defined as
A’ = {x: x∉A}.
U
For Example:
A
10
U= {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}
20
A= {20, 30} 40
30
0
A’= {10, 40, 50} 50

The complement of a set A with Figure 4: Venn-diagram of Complement of set

respect to universal set given in
example above is represented in the A’ = {10, 40, 50}

Venn diagram alongside.

Set Algebra:
i. Commutative Law:
For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A U B = B U A

(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

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ii. Associative Laws:

For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

iii. Distributive Laws:

For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)

(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)

iv. De Morgan’s Laws:

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)

(ii) A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)

De Morgan’s Laws can also we written as:

(i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B'

(ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B'

Bags (Multiset):
A bag or multiset is an unordered creation of items or elements which may contain their duplicates and
allows for instances for each of its elements. The positive integer number of instances given for each
element is called the multiplicity of the element in the bags. An infinite number of multisets exists
which contains only element i, j but vary by the multiplicity of the elements.

For example:

{i, j}  has multiplicity 1

[i, i, j]  ‘i’ has multiplicity 2 and ‘j’ has multiplicity 1

[i, i, j, j]  both have multiplicity 2

Square bracket [] is used to distinguish between sets and multisets.

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Cardinality of multiset:
The cardinality of a multiset is constructed by summing up the multiplicities of all its elements.

For Example:

A ={a, a, a , a, b, c, c , d, e, e, e}

Cardinality of the given bag = 𝑎4 + 𝑏1 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑1 +𝑒 3

= 4 + 1+ 2 + 1 + 3 [Since, the power of elements are added to know the

cardinality of the given multiset]

= 12

B = {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4}

Cardinality of the given bag = 12 + 24 + 32 +42

= 2 + 4 + 1+ 2[Since, power of element is added to know the cardinality

of a given multiset]

=9

Function:
A function is a specific type of relation set or ordered pairs (x, y) where each x-coordinate is matched
with only one y-coordinate. It is an expression, rule or law that defines a relationship between one
variable (the independent variable) to another variable (the dependent variable). Functions are
ubiquitous in mathematics and are essential for formulating physical relationships in the sciences. A
relation from set X to set Y is called a function if each element of X is related to exactly one element
in Y.

For example, f(x) =𝑥 3 , f(x) = 𝑥 2 +2x+3, etc.

Inverse of a function:
In any function f, 𝑓 −1 is the inverse, which is formed by interchanging the components of each of the
ordered pair in the given relation. For the ordered pair {(1, 2), (2, 4)}, the inverse is {(2, 1), (4, 2)}.
For the equations, we interchange the roles of x and y in the defining equation.

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For example:

IF f: R→R be defined by f(x) = 2x +4. Find the inverse function(𝑓 −1 )

Step 1: For any input x, the function corresponding to f expel out the value of y = f(x) = 2x + 4

Step 2: Interchange the position of x and y in above equation i.e. x = 2y + 4

Step 3: Solve for y,

x = 2y + 4

or, x- 4 = 2y

𝑥−4
or, y= 2

𝑥−4
Step 4: Stick in the inverse notation i.e. y = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2

To verify the answer, either we have to graph f(x) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) on the same graph and see if they are
mirror images over the line y = x or find 𝑓∘𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(x).

Solving 𝑓∘𝑓 −1 (𝑥) Solving 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(x),

𝑓∘𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =f (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(x) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥−4
=f( ) = 𝑓 −1 (2𝑥 + 4)
2
𝑥−4
2𝑥+4−4 = 2( ) +4
= 2
2

=x =x-4+4
=x

Since, in both cases the output is same i.e. x. therefore, the inverse of the function f (x) = 2x +4 is
𝑥−4
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
2

Defined Set:
A set is called a defined set if there is no ambiguity as to whether or not an object belongs to it. For
example: a defined set include: {x: x is a set of prime numbers less than 10} and the set is {2, 3, 7}.
We can easily identify what is and what is not a member of the set with the defined set.

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Subset:
X is a subset of set Y (as X⊆Y) if every element of X is on element of Y.

For example, if X = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Y= {5, 6, 7}. Then, Y⊆X but X⊈Y.

Proving A - B = A ∩ B' by subset method:

 If A-B = ∅ then (∀ x ∈ A)(~(x ∉ B)) thus

 A ∩ B' = {x ∈ U| x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = ∅, and the statement is true. We may therefore assume that A-
B ≠ ∅.
 Let x ∈ A-B.
 Then x ∈ A and x ∉ B.
 x ∈ U ∧ x ∉ B ⇒ x ∈ B', i.e. x ∈ A ∩ B'.
 So, A - B ⊆ A ∩ B'.

If A ∩ B' = ∅ then (∀ x ∈ A) (~(x ∉ B)), so A-B = ∅ and the statement is true. We may therefore
assume that A ∩ B' ≠ ∅.

Let y ∈ A ∩ B’. Thus, y ∈ A and y ∈ B'.

 y ∈ B' ⇒ y ∈ U ∧ y ∉ B.
 So y ∈ A and y ∉ B, i.e. y ∈ A – B.

Hence, A ∩ B' ⊆ A – B and we have A - B = A ∩ B'.

Membership Table:
Membership tables are the table used to prove set identities. So, using membership table to prove
A - B = A ∩ B' is shown in the table below.

A B B' A-B A∩ B'

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

It proves the set identities since the two corresponding sets are equal.

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Conclusion:
In this part of my assignment, I have explained about set with set operation providing each with an
example representing them in Venn-diagram. Then I have explained about set algebra with different
laws. Additionally, I have explained about multiset (bags) and determined the cardinality of multiset
with examples. I have then defined function with example and determined the inverse of function using
appropriate mathematical techniques. At last, I have formulated membership table to prove properties
about defined sets.

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Part 2:
 Model contextualized problems using trees, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
 Use Dijkstra's algorithm to find a shortest path spanning tree in a graph.
 Assess whether an Euler Ian and Hamiltonian circuit exists in an undirected graph.
 Construct a proof of the Five Color Theorem.

Introduction:
In this part of my assignment, using trees I am going to model conceptualized problems both
quantitatively and qualitatively. I will then find a shortest path spanning tree in a graph using Dijkstra's
algorithm. I will then explain about Euler Ian and Hamilton circuit and assess whether these circuit
exists in an undirected graph. At last I will construct a proof of the Five color theorem.

Tree:
A tree is an undirected graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path. It is a
discrete structure that represents hierarchical relationships between individual elements or nodes. A
connected acyclic graph is a tree. There is a unique path between every pair of vertices in GG. A tree
with N number of vertices contains (N−1)(N−1) number of edges. The vertex which is of 0 degree is
called root of the tree. The vertex which is of 1 degree is called leaf node of the tree and the degree of
an internal node is at least 2.

Different types of trees:

There are different types of trees which are discussed below:

i. Rooted trees:
Root
A rooted tree is a tree with special vertex labelled as
the ‘root’ of the tree. If one vertices of the tree is
singled out as a starting point and all the branches
fan out from the vertex, then such tree are called a
rooted tree. Figure alongside is an example of rooted
tree.

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ii. Binary tree:

A rooted tree in which there are at most two descending branches
at any vertex. In a directed tree, if the out degree of every node
is less than or equal to 2, then the tree is called a binary tree.
Figure alongside is an example of binary tree.

iii. Spanning tree:

A spanning tree is a subset of graph ‘G’ which has all the vertices covered with maximum possible
number of edges. Hence, it does not have cycles and cannot be disconnected. Every connected and
undirected graph has at least one spanning tree. Disconnected graph does not have any spanning tree.
A complete undirected graph can have maximum 𝑛𝑛−2 number of spanning tree. They are used to find
a minimum path to connect all nodes in a graph. For example, Civil network planning, computer
network routing protocol.

In the example above, G is a connected graph whereas H is the sub-graph of G. Clearly, the graph H
has no cycles and it is a tree with six edges which is one less than the total number of vertices in graph
G. Hence, H is the Spanning tree of G.

Minimum Spanning tree:

The cost of spanning tree is the sum of all the edges in the tree. Minimum spanning tree is the one
where the cost is minimum along the spanning tree. There can be many minimum spanning tree. It has
application in design network, travelling salesman problem and minimum cost weighted perfectly
matching.

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Above is the example of minimum spanning tree with minimum cost 7.

Dijkstra's algorithm:
It is an algorithm which allows us to calculate the shortest path between one node and every other node
in the graph. To find shortest path following Dijkstra's algorithm, we should follow the following steps:

i. Create a SPT (Shortest Path Tree) set that keeps track of all the vertices included in the shortest
path. Initially the set is empty.
ii. Assign a distance value to all vertices in the input graph, Initialize all distance values as infinite
there is no direct edge. Assign 0 for the source so, it is picked first.
iii. While SPT set does not include all vertices,
a. Pick a vertex ‘u’ which is not there in SPT set and has minimum distance
b. Include ‘u’ to SPT set
c. Update distance value of all adjacent vertices of ‘u’.

To update the distance values, iterate through all the adjacent vertices. For every adjacent vertex ‘V’,
if sum of distance value of u (from source) and weight of edge (u-v) is ess than the distance value of
v, then update the distance of V.

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Example of Dijkstra's algorithm:

B F
13 3

H
8 6
\
5 D 3
A E
G
2 1 \

5 E
C E
\
From the above undirected graph, we have to find the shortest path using Dijkstra’s algorithm.
E
V A B C D E F G H

A 0𝐴 8𝐴 2𝐴 5𝐴 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

C 8𝐴 2𝐴 4𝐶 7𝐶 ∞ ∞ ∞

D 6𝐷 4𝐶 5𝐷 10𝐷 7𝐷 ∞

E 6𝐷 5𝐷 10𝐷 6𝐸 ∞

G 8𝐺 6𝐸 12𝐺

F 8𝐺 11𝐹

H 11𝐹

From the table above, we can say that the shortest path spanning tree in the given graph is ACDEGFH
and the minimum cost is 11 (2+2+1+1+2+3).

Eulerian Circuit:
Eulerian circuit is a circuit that contains every vertex and every edge of G and which starts and ends
at the same vertex. Eulerian circuit uses every vertex of G at least once and uses every edge of the G
exactly once. If a graph G has an Euler circuit then all of its vertex must be of even degree or if the
number of odd vertices in G is anything other than 0, then G cannot have a Euler circuit.

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Example of Eulerian circuit:

In the above example, we can see that every vertex in the graph has even degree and the Eulerian
circuit of the graph is ABCFECAEDA.

Hamilton circuit:
A Hamilton circuit is a path along a graph that visits every vertex exactly once and returns to the
original. Hamilton circuit is a simple circuit that includes every vertex of G. A sequence of adjacent
vertices and distinct edges in which every vertex of G appears exactly once except for the first and the
last which are the same.

Example of Hamilton Circuit:

In the above example, Hamilton circuit = abcdea where every vertex is include only once except first
and last which is the same.

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Existence of both Hamilton and Eulerian circuit:

For an undirected graph to be Eulerian and Hamilton circuit the, very vertex of the graph should be of
even degree and every vertex of the graph should be included exactly once. For the both circuit to be
existed in a single undirected graph each edge of the graph should be used only once along with the
above condition.

Example:

In the example alongside, every vertices in the graph has

even degree. Hence, Eulerian circuit exists.

Eulerian circuit = ABGACGFCDFEDA and every edges

in the graph is only included exactly once. For the same
undirected graph to be Hamilton circuit, every vertices in
the graph should be included exactly once.

Hence, Hamilton circuit = ABGCFEDA

Five color theorem:

In this theorem, every planner graph with ‘n’ vertices can be colored using at most 5 colors.

Proof by induction, we induct on n, the number of vertices in the planar graph G.

Induction Method:
Let there are ‘n’ number of vertices in G.

Base step: P (n≤5): Since there exist ≤5 nodes in G, the graph can be colored using 5 colors.

Induction Step: P(n+1): Assuming P(n) is true, that is, every planar graph with n vertices, we need to
show P(n) is true.

By Lemma 1, we know every planar graph has one vertex with deg(v)≤5. We call this vertex v in our
graph G. Remove v and for the remaining subgraph ′G′ we can assume P(n).

If deg(v)≤4 we can color all vertices adjacent to v using 4 colors and use color 5 to color v itself to
reach a valid coloring.

If deg(v)=5, we assume that all vertices adjacent to v are colored in different colors.

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Assume there exists no path from A to C. We can change the color of A from red to blue, the color
of C. Since no neighbor of v now has the color red, we can color v in red. We also need to change all
vertices adjacent to A from blue to red. Since no path exists from A to C, the color of C remains
unchanged.

Assume there exists a path from A to C, alternating in color from red to blue. Note that this path bounds
a planar embedding with B on the inside and D on the outside. We can change the color of B from
green to yellow, the color of D. Since no neighbor of v now has the color green, we can color v in
green. We also need to change all vertices adjacent to B from yellow to green. Since no path can exist
from B to D (without crossing the path from A to C), the color of D remains unchanged.

Conclusion:
In this part of my assignment, I have explained about trees model contextualized problem
quantitatively and qualitatively. I have explained about different types of trees providing each with an
example. I have then find the shortest path spanning tree of the given graph using Dijkstra's algorithm.
Additionally, I have explained about Eulerian circuit and Hamilton circuit and I have showed an
example where both Eulerian and Hamilton circuit existed in an undirected graph. At last, I have
formulated Induction method to prove Five-color theorem.

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Part 3:
 Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra.
 Produce a truth table and its corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario
 Simplify a Boolean equation using algebraic methods and design a complex system using logic
gates.

Introduction:
In this part of my assignment, I will investigates solutions to a problem using the application of
Boolean algebra. First, I will diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra. I will
then produce a truth table with its corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario. Lastly,
using algebraic methods, I will simply a Boolean equation and I will then design a complex system
using logic gates.

Boolean algebra:
Boolean algebra is a type of mathematical operation which works with binary digits 0 and 1. Here, 1
represents true whereas 0 represents false. It uses a set of laws and rules to define the operation of a
digital logic circuit. A set of rules or laws of Boolean algebra expression have been invited to help to
reduce the number if logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting in functions
and theorem known as Boolean algebra.

Let us assume a scenario about three tap sensors storing Boolean values where 1 stands for ON and 0
stands for OFF. In this three tap sensor, when two tap are in ON position storing value 1 and other one
in OFF position storing value 0, then the result of the tap sensor will be in OFF mode storing value 1.
The tap sensor gives the result 0 even if one of the tap sensor malfunction. Therefore, for the tap sensor
to be in ON position, all three tap sensors should store the value 1.

The working mechanism of the system is that the tap sensor only works if all three sensors of the tap
stores the value 1, else the system returns the value 0. Form the three tap sensors, even if one tap sensor
stops functioning then whole system does not function. So, for this problem to be solved we use
Boolean algebra from where we can find out which sensor is working and which is not and what is the
result of them. The problem of the system working mechanism in three tap sensors is shown in the
Boolean algebra table.

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Sensor(A) Sensor(B) Sensor(C) Output(X)

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
We can see from the table above, the result is 1 when all three inputs are 1 i.e. the tap sensor only
works when all three sensors are in ON position. We also can see that the system is not functioning
even when one sensors is not working or storing value 0.

So, the solution of this problem in the working mechanism of the system is shown in the Boolean
algebra table below:

Sensor(A) Sensor(B) Sensor(C) Output(X)

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
In the solution described above in the Boolean algebra table, we can say that even one of the three tap
sensors does not function, the system functions i.e. the taap sensors will be in ON positon storing value
1. With this solution, there will be no problem in the system as even though one sensor does not
function the system works properly.

Sum of Products (SOP):

Sum of products (SOP) is a form of expression in Boolean algebra in which different product terms of
inputs are being summed together. This product is not arithmetical multiply but it is Boolean logical
AND and the Sum is Boolean logical OR. To understand about SOP, we need to know about the min

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term. Min term can be defined as, when the minimum combinations of inputs are high then the output
will be high. The best example of this is AND gate, so we can say that min terms are combinations of
AND gate inputs.

Product of Sum (POS):

Product of sum (POS) is a form of expression in Boolean algebra in which product of different sum
terms of input are taken. These are not arithmetic product and sum but they are logical Boolean AND
and OR respectively. To understand better about POS we need to know about Max term. The maxterm
can be defined as a term that is true for the highest number of input combinations otherwise that is
false for single input combinations. Because OR gate also provides false for just one input
combination. Thus Max term is OR of any complemented otherwise non-complemented inputs.

The truth table for SOP and POS is given below:

Sensor(A) Sensor(B) Sensor(C) Output(X)

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

From the table above,

Sum of product (SOP): ABC+ A’BC + AB’C+ ABC’

Product of sum (POS): (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C)

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Simplifying SOP: ABC+ A’BC + AB’C+ ABC’

Rearranging the above equation, we get

= A’BC + AB’C + ABC’+ ABC

= A’BC + AB’C + AB (C+C’) [taking common ABC’ and ABC]

= A’BC + AB’C + AB (1) [C+C’ =1, from complementary law]

= A’BC + AB +AB’C

= B (A+ A’C) + AB’C [taking common from A’BC and AB]

= B (A+ C) + AB’C [(A+ A’C) = A + C, from law of common identities]

= AB+ BC + AB’C [Now multiplying B (A + C)]

= AB + C (B + AB’) [taking common from BC + AB’C]

= AB + C (B + A) [(B+ AB’) = B + A, from law of common identities]
= AB+ BC + AC

Simplifying POS: (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C)

Rearranging the above equation, we get,

= (A + B + C) ( A + B +C’) (A + B’ + C) (A’+ B + C)
= (A + B) + C.C’ (A + B’ + C) (A + B + C) [taking common from (A+B+C) &(A+B+C’)]
= (A+B) +0 ( A.A’+AB + AC+ BB’+A’B’+B’C’+CA’+CB+C.C) [(C.C’=O from complementary
law and multiplying (A+B’+C) and (A+B+C)]
= (A+ B) (0 +AB+AC+0+A’B’+B’C +A’C+BC+C) [(A.A’ & B.B’ = 0, from complementary
law]
= (A+B) (AB+AC+A’B’+B’C+A’C+ B(C+C)) [taking common from BC+C and C+C = C from
idempotent law]
= (A+B) (AB+AC+A’B’+B’C+A’C+ BC)
= (A+B) (AB+ AC+ A’C + A’B’+ B’C+ BC) [taking common from (AC+A’C) and (B’C+BC)]
= (A+B) (AB + C (A+A’) + A’B’ + C (B’+B) [C (A+A’) and C (B+B’) from common of
(AC+A’C) and (B’C+BC)]
= (A+B) (AB + C (1) + A’B’+C (1)) [(A+A’ & B+B’ = 1, from complementary law)]

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= (A+B) (AB + C + A’B’+ C)

= (A+B) (AB+A’B’+C+C) [by rearranging]
= (A+B) (AB+ A’B’+ C) [C+C= C from indempotent law]

Logical gate for complex system:

Figure 2: Logic gate of SOP

Figure 3: Logic gate of POS

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 Discrete Math 2019
D
Conclusion:
In this part of my assignment, I have explained about Boolean algebra and I have assumed a scenario
for a tap sensor diagramming a binary problem in the system. Then, for the scenario, I have produced
a truth table and a Boolean equation of SOP and POS. With this, I have simplified the Boolean
expression of SOP and POS. At last, I have designed a complex system using the logic gates.

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Part 4:
 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on
the same set.
 Determine the order of a group and the order of subgroup in given examples.
 Validate whether a given set with a binary operation is indeed a group.
 Prepare a presentation for twenty minutes that explains an application of group theory relevant
to your course of study. And write a few paragraphs summarizing the key ideas or concepts
you have presented.

Introduction:
In this part of my assignment, I will be describing the distinguishing characteristics of different binary
operations that are performed on the same set. Adding, I will determine the order of a group and the
order of sub group in a given example. I will also validate whether a given set with a binary operation
is indeed a group or not. At last, I will prepare a presentation that explains an application of group
theory relevant to our course of study and I will write a few paragraph summarizing the key ideas or
concepts I have presented.

For the set of natural number N= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 … ∞}, we have to distinguish characteristics of
different binary operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. So, we will
distinguish the characteristics of set of natural number within following properties.

a. Associative Property:
The associative property states that we can add or multiply regardless of how the numbers are grouped.
We can re-group numbers and variables and we will always arrive at the same answer. Distinguishing
characteristics of different binary operation for set of natural number under associative property, we
get

For addition:
We know,

(a + b)+ c = a + (b + c)
(1 + 3) + 2 = 1 + (3 + 2)
4+2=1+5
5=5
Since, the answer in both side matches with each other so, associative property holds for addition.

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For subtraction:
We know,

(a - b) - c = a – (b - c)
(5 – 3) - 1 = 5 - (3 – 1)
2-1=5-2
1=3
Since, the answer in both side do not matches with each other so, associative property does not hold
for subtraction.

For multiplication:
We know,

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

(4 * 3) * 2 = 4 * (3 * 2)

12 * 2 = 4 * 6

24 = 24

Since, the answer in both side matches with each other so, associative property holds for multiplication

For division:
We know,

(a ÷ b) ÷ c = a ÷ (b ÷ c)

(12 ÷ 6) ÷ 3 = 12 ÷ (6 ÷ 3)

2 ÷ 3 = 12 ÷ 2

2
=1
3

Since, the answer in both side do not matches with each other so, associative property does not holds
for division.

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b. Commutative property:
The commutative property states that order does not matter multiplication and addition are
commutative. . Distinguishing characteristics of different binary operation for set of natural number
under commutative property, we get

For addition:
We know,

a + b = b + a.

2+5=5+2

7=7

Since, the answer in both side matches with each other so, commutative property holds for addition.

For subtraction:
We know,

a - b = b - a.

5–3=3–5

2 = -2

Since, the answer in both side do not matches with each other so, commutative property does not holds
for subtraction.

For multiplication:
We know,

a * b = b * a.

2*3=3*2

6=6

Since, the answer in both side matches with each other so, commutative property holds for
multiplication.

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For division:
We know,

a ÷ b = b ÷ a.

6÷3=3÷6

1
2=
2

Since, the answer in both side do not matches with each other so, commutative property does not holds
for division.

Group:
A group are monoids which also possess inverse property. Application includes design of fast address
and error correcting codes.

Let (T, □) be an algebraic system where □ is a binary operation on t, then (T, □) is called a group if,

i. T is closed with respect to □

ii. □ is an associative operation
iii. There exists an associative element e ∈ T for the operation
iv. Each element x e ∈ T has an Inverse element 𝑥 −1 ∈ T with respect to □,
i.e. x □ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑥 −1 □ x =e

The order of a group G is the number of elements in G and the order of an element in a group is the
least positive integer n such that n is the identity element of that group G.

For G = {𝑎 ∈ ℝ|𝑎 ≠ −1} and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏, now we have to show (G, *) is group.

We have, G = {-∞…...-3, -2, 0 to 1, 2, 3… +∞} and a ≠ -1. To show (G, *) is group, it has to satisfy
the following properties.

a. Closure property
We have, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏
Now, substituting the value of a with 3 and b with 0, we get
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = 3 + 0+ 3*0
=3
It satisfies closure property as 3 ∈ R.

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b. Associative property
We know, (a*b)*c = a*(b*c)
(a + b+ ab) *c = a*(b + c+ bc) [from question a*b = a+ b+ ab and b*c= b+ c+ bc]
Let, (a + b+ ab) = x and c = y
We have, x * y = x + y + xy
Substituting the value of x and y, we get
a + b + ab+ c+ (a + b+ ab) c = a + b+ c+ bc+ a (b+ c+ bc)
a + b+ ab + c+ ac+ bc+ abc = a + b + c + bc +ab + ac + abc
Now, substituting the values of a with 1, b with 2 and c with 0, we get
1+ 2+ 1*2 + 0+ 1*0+ 2*0+ 1*2*0 = 1+ 2+ 0+ 2*0+ 1*2+ 1*0+ 1*2*0
3+ 2+ 0+ 0+ 0 = 3+ 0+ 2+ 0+ 0
5=5

Since, values on both side are equal and 5 ∈ R. therefore, it satisfies associative property.

c. Identity Property:
We know, a * e = 0
When a = 2 and e = 0, we get
2+0=2

Therefore, 0 is the identity element and 0 ∈ R so, it satisfies identity property.

d. Inverse property
Let, a * b = e = 0
a+ b+ ab = 0
b(1 + a) = -a
b= -a/(1+ a) [ it exists as a is not equal to -1 as given]
Now, let us check, b* a= e= 0
= -a/(1+ a)*a
= -a/(1+a) +a+ (-a.a)/(1+a)
=(1/(1+a)){-a+a(1+a) – a.a} = (1/(1+a)) {-a+a+a.a-a.a}
=0
e. Commutative property
We know, a * b = b* a
a + b + ab = b+ a+ ba

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Substituting the value of a as 2 and b as 4, we get

2+ 4+ 2*4 = 4+ 2+ 4*2
6+ 8 = 6 + 8
14 = 14

Since, values in both side are equal and 14∈ R, it satisfies commutative property too.

This group is abelian too as it satisfies commutative law. So (G, *) is a group as it satisfies all the
above properties.

Group of integer with modulo Z9

Let ‘n’ be a positive integer, then consider a group Zn with set of integers,

Zn = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… (n -1)}

If Zn is a group under multiplication modulo 9 and a, b € n,

Z11 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

a Xm b = least non-negative reminder when a, b is divided by n.

Therefore, the Cayley table showing the multiplication table for the given group of integers with
modulo 9 is given below.

X9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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For closure property

Here, a, b € Z9 and a X7 b € Z9 which is group of integer with modulo 9.

We have, a 𝑋9 b

Substituting value of a = 3 and b = 4, we get

12
3 𝑋9 4 =
11

= 3 [Since, 12/11 = 1 as the remainder is 1]

Here, the above group satisfies the closure property as 1 ∈ G and it proves that the group of integer
with modulo Z11 is closed under multiplication.

Order of group
Group of order 1 Group of order 2

* 1 * 1 2

1 1 1 1 2
2 2 1

Group of order 3 Group of order 4

* 1 2 3 * 1 2 3 4

1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 4

2 2 3 1 2 2 3 4 1

3 3 1 2 3 3 4 1 2
4 4 1 2 3
Group of order 5

* 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 3 4 5 1
3 3 4 5 1 2
4 4 5 1 2 3
5 5 1 2 3 4

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Group of order 6

* 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 3 4 5 6 1
3 3 4 5 6 1 2
4 4 5 6 1 2 3
5 5 6 1 2 3 4
6 6 1 2 3 4 5
Group of order 7

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 1 2 3 4 5 6.

Group of order 8

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Group of order 9

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Group of order 10

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Order of an element
The order of an element is denoted by O (a) and O (a) = n.

Where n is the smallest positive integer which satisfy the equation an = e

We have, Z11 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

11 = 1 so, order of 1 (O (1)) = 1

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 Discrete Math 2019

210 = 1 so, order of 2 (O (2)) = 10

35= 1 so, order of 3 (O (3)) = 5

45 = 1 so, order of 4 (O (4)) = 5

55 = 1 so, order of 5 (O (5)) = 5

610 = 1 so, order of 6 (O (6)) = 10

710 = 1 so, order of 7 (O (7)) = 10

810 = 1 so, order of 8 (O (8)) = 10

95 = 1 so, order of 9 (O (9)) = 5

102 = 1 so, order of 10 (O (10)) = 2

Therefore, the order of the given group with multiplication modulo 11 is:

Possible order of elements Number of elements

1 1
2 1
5 4
10 4

Presentation of Group theory

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 Discrete Math 2019

Conclusion:
In this part of my assignment, I have distinguished characteristics of different binary operation which
are performed on the set of natural number under associative and commutative property. Then I have
validate whether a given set with binary operation is a group and I have determined the order of the
group and the order of the element of a given example. At last, I have prepared a presentation
explaining an application of group theory.

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Ronish Shrestha (HND / Third Semester)
 Discrete Math 2019

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Eitzen, H. v., 2017. StackExchange. [Online]

Available at: https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2418524/5-color-theorem-proof
[Accessed 23 July 2019].

Halapeti, S., 2016. Quora. [Online]

Available at: https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-function-in-mathematics-5
[Accessed 22 July 2019].

Kenton, W., 2018. Investopedia. [Online]

Available at: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/boolean-algebra.asp
[Accessed 24 July 2019].

Lumen, n.d. lumen. [Online]

Available at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/math4liberalarts/chapter/introduction-euler-paths/
[Accessed 23 July 2019].

tutorialspoint, n.d. tutorialspoint. [Online]

Available at: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_structures_algorithms/spanning_tree
[Accessed 23 July 2019].

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