Chapter 2: Physical Characteristics of

Soils
Chapter 2: Physical Properties of Soils

‘Phase’ means any homogeneous part of the

system different from other parts of the
system and separated from them by abrupt
transition.

In other words, each physically or chemically

different, homogeneous, and mechanically
separable part of a system constitutes a
distinct phase.
PhaseDiagram
Soil is a multi-phase material
consisting of:
a) solids (usually mineral particles)
b) liquid (usually water)
c) gas (usually air)
Since the volume occupied by a soil
mass may generally be expected to
include material in all the three states of
matter—solid, liquid and gas, soil is, in
general, referred to as a “three-phase
system
 Figure 2.3 Soil-Phase diagram ( volumes and weights of phases)

Va = volume of air Wa = weight of air (negligible or zero)

Vw = volume of water Ww = weight of water
Vv = volume of voids Wv = weight of material occupying void space
Vs = volume of solids Ws = weight of solids
V = Total volume of soil mass W = Total weight of soil mass
Porosity, n
Porosity of a soil mass is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol n and is commonly
expressed as a percentage.

Void Ratio, e
Void ratio of a soil mass defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to
the volume of solids in the soil mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol e
and is generally expressed as a decimal fraction.
Degree of Saturation, S
Degree of saturation of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume of water
in the voids to the volume of voids. It is designated by the letter symbol S and is
commonly expressed as a percentage

Vv = Va + Vw

- For a fully saturatted soil mass, Vv = Vw, , therefore, for a saturated soil mass, S
= 100 %

- For a dry soil mass, Vw is zero , therefore, for a perfectly dry soil sample
S is zero

- The degree of saturation is between zero and 100%, the soil mass being said
to be partially saturated- the most common condition in nature.
Percent Air Voids
Percent air voids of a soil mass is defined as the
ration of the volume of air voids to the total volume of
the soil mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol na and is
commonly expressed as a percentage:
Air Content
Air Content of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to
the total volume of voids. It is designated by the letter symbol ac and is commonly
expresses as a percentage:

Water (Moisture) Content

Water content or moisture content of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of solids (dry weight) of the soil mass. It is denoted by the
symbol ω and is commonly expressed as a percentage:
Unit Weight, γ
Unit weight is the weight of soil per unit
volume. Also called bulk unit weight (γ) , and
moist unit weight (γm).
Unit Weight of Solids
Unit weight of solids is the weight of soil
solids per unit volume of solids alone.

Unit weight of water is the weight per unit

volume of water.
Dry Unit Weight
The dry unit is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit
of total volume.

Mass Specific Gravity

The Mass specific gravity of a soil may be defined as the
ratio of unit weight of soil mass to the unit weight of water at the
standard temperature (40C). This is denoted by the letter symbol
Gm and is given by
Gm = γ / γw
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
The specific gravity of soil solids is defined
as the ration of the unit weight of soil solids to
the unit weight of water at the standard
temperature (40 C) This is denoted by the
letter symbol GS

Gs = γ / γ s W
Specific Gravity of Water
Specific gravity of water is defined as the
ratio of the unit weight of water to the unit
weight of water at the standard temperature
(40C). It is denoted by the letter symbol, Gw
and is given by

Gw = γw / γw
• Saturated Unit Weight, γsat
Saturated unit weight is the weight of
saturated soil per unit volume.
Example:
1. A moist sample of soil in a
bottle had a mass of 25.24 g
and the bottle, when empty,
has a mass of 14.2 g. After
drying in an oven for 24 hours,
the bottle and soil sample had
a mass of 21.62 g. Find the
water content of the soil.
2. The moist mass of 2.8 x 10-3 m3 of soil is
5.53 kg. If the moisture content is 10% and
the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.72,
determine the following:
a) moist density
b)dry density
c) void ratio
d) porosity
e) degree of saturation
3. The moist unit weight of a soil is
18.7 KN/m3. Given that GS = 2.71
and w = 10.3%, determine
a) dry unit weight
b) void ratio
c) porosity
d) degree of saturation
4. For a saturated soil,the following
are given: w =18% and GS = 2.71.
Determine

a) saturated unit weight

b) dry unit weight
5. For
a given sand, the maximum
and minimum void ratios are
0.78 and 0.43, respectively.
Given Gs = 2.67, determine the
dry unit weight of the soil in
kN/m 3 when the relative
density is 65%.
6. For a given sandy soil, emax =
0.75, emin = 0.46, and Gs =
2.68. What will be the moist
unit weight of compaction
(kN/m3) in the field if Dr =
78% and w= 9%?
7. For a given sandy soil, the
maximum and minimum dry
unit weights are 108 lb/ft3 and
92 lb/ft3, respectively. Given Gs
2.65, determine the moist unit
weight of this soil when the
relative density is 60% and the
moisture content is 8%.
Particle Size Analysis
• Particle size analysis - is the standard
laboratory procedure for the determination of
the particle size distribution of a soil.

- Soil consists of an assembly of ultimate

soil particles (discrete particles) of various
shapes and sizes.
Mechanical analysis – is the determination of
the size range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry
weight (or mass ).
Two methods are generally used to find the
particle-size distribution of soil:
1. sieve analysis – for particle sizes larger
than 0.075 mm in diameter,
2. hydrometer analysis – for particle sizes
smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.
Soils may be classified into three broad categories:
a) cohesionless soils
b) cohesive soils
c) organic soils
Cohesionless soils – the soil particles do not tend to
stick together.
Three common types of cohesionless soils are:
a) gravel – has particle sizes greater than 2 mm
b) sand- has particle sizes range from about 0.1
to 2 mm.
c) silt – has particle sizes that range from about
0.005 to 0.1 mm.
GRAVEL
SAND
SILT
Cohesive soils – are characterized by very small
particle size where surface chemical effects
predominate.
- The particles do tend to stick
together- the result of water-particle
interaction and attractive forces between
particles.
- the common type of cohesive
soil is clay, which has particle sizes less than
about 0.005 mm.
CLAY
Soils can also be categorized strictly in terms of
grain size. Two such categories are
a) coarse-grained
b) fine-grained

Gravel and sand, with soil grains coarser than

0.075 mm or a No. 200 sieve, are coarse-
grained ( also referred to as Granular soils)

Silt and clay, with soil grains finer than 0.075

mm, are fine-grained soils
Three major groups of soil:

1. Granular soil
2. Fine grained soil
3. Organic soil
 Coarse Grained Soils
• Coarse grained soils are identified primarily on
the basis of particle size or grain size.
Individual particles are visible by naked eye.

• Coarse grained soils are divided into two

groups, Sand & Gravel.
• Verbal description of coarse grained soil is
done on the basis of its gradation (well or
poor), particle shape (angular, sub-angular,
rounded or sub-rounded) & mineralogical
components.

• Coarse grained soil exhibit a good load bearing

capacity.
• Coarse grained soil posse’s good drainage
qualities.

• There is no volume change with change in

moisture condition.

• There is no appreciable amount of change in

strength characteristic by change in moisture
condition.
• Vibration accentuates volume change in loose
state, by arranging the soil fabric.

• Engineering properties are controlled by the

grain size of the particles and their structural
arrangement.

• When touched by hand it feels gritty.

1. Granular soil means gravel, sand, or silt
(coarse grained soil) with little or no clay
content.

Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some

moist granular soils exhibit apparent
cohesion .

Granular soil cannot be molded when moist

and crumbles easily when dry.
Granular soils, except for loose sand, generally
possess excellent engineering properties.
Exhibiting large bearing capacities and
experiencing relatively small settlements, they
make outstanding foundation materials for
supporting roads and structures.
Granular soils also make excellent backfill materials
for retaining walls because they are easily
compacted and easily drained and compacted,
and because they exert small lateral pressures.

In addition, as a result of high shear strengths

and ease of compaction, granular soils make
superior embankment material.

One drawback, however, is that the high

permeabilities of granular soils make them poor,
or even unacceptable, for use alone as earthen
dikes or dams.
2. Fined Grained Soil

• Fine grained soils are identified on the basis of

its plasticity. Individual particles are not visible
by naked eye.

• Fine grained soils are also divided in two

groups, Silt & Clay.
• Verbal description of fine grained soil is done
on the basis of its dry strength, dilatancy,
dispersion and plasticity.

• Fine grained soil exhibit a poor load bearing

capacity.

• Fine grained soil is practically impermeable in

nature because of its small particles size.
• Volume change occurs with change in
moisture content.

• Strength changes with change in moisture

condition.

• Fine grained soil is susceptible to frost action.

• When touched by hand it feels smooth, greasy

and sticky.
Cohesive soils tend to have lower shear strengths
and to lose shear strength further upon wetting or
other physical disturbances.
- they can be plastic and compressible, and
they expand when wetted and shrink when dried
- cohesive soils can creep over time under
constant load, especially when the shear stress is
approaching its shear strength, making them
prone to landslide.
- they develop lare lateral pressures and have
low permeabilities.
- being impervious, they make better core
materials for earthen dams and dikes.
Silty soils are on the boarder between clayey
and sandy soils. They are fine-grained like
clays but cohesionless like sands.
- they possess undesirable engineering
properties. They exhibit high capillarity and
susceptibility to frost action, yet they have low
permeabilities and low densities.
3. Organic Soils– are typically spongy, crumbly
and compressible. They are undesirable for
use in supporting structures.
For Granular Soil
- the most commonly used test is a
mechanical analysis of the particle size
since the size of the particles and the
proportions of the different sizes have
an important effect on the behavior of
the soil.
For Fined grained soil
- the consistency and the
plasticity are more significance
than the grain size.
1. A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a
practice or procedure used (commonly used
in civil engineering)
- to assess the particle size distribution
(also called gradation) of a granular material
by allowing the material to pass through a
series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh
size and weighing the amount of material
that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of
the whole mass.
• Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil
sample through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings. U.S.
standard sieve numbers and the sizes of
openings are given in Table 2.5.
Preparation:

• one must first oven-dry the soil and then

break all lumps into small particles.

• The soil then is shaken through a stack of

sieves with openings of decreasing size from
top to bottom (a pan is placed below the
stack).
Figure 2.21 shows a set of sieves in a shaker
used for conducting the test in the laboratory.
1.Determine the mass of soil retained on
each sieve (i.e., M1, M2 , …Mn ) and in
the pan (i.e., Mp )
2.Determine the total mass of the soil:
M1 + M2 + …+ Mi + …+Mn + Mp = ∑M
3.Determine the cumulative mass of soil
retained above each sieve. For the ith
sieve, it is M1 + M2 + …. +Mi
4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑M – (M1 +
M2 + …+Mi)

5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve ( or percent

finer) is.
6. Once the percent finer for each sieve is
calculated (step5), the calculations are plotted on
semilogarithmic graph paper (Figure 2.22) with
percent finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) and
sieve opening size as the abscissa(logarithmic
scale).

This plot is referred to as the particle-size

distribution curve.
 mn = M – mc

Fn = (mn /M) x 100

Where:
mn =mass of soil passing the ith sieve
n= U.S Sieve number
M = Total mass of the soil
mc = cumulative mass of soil retained above
each sieve.
Fn = Percent of soil passing the ith sieve
Significance of Grading test:
- gives particle size
distribution
- measures permeability
- capillarity
• Capillary action is the same effect that causes
porous materials, such as sponges, to soak up
liquids.

• Capillarity is the primary force that enables the

soil to retain water, as well as to regulate its
movement.
• Capillary water- Water retains between pore
spaces in soil. Pore spaces of soil aren’t still
saturated totally. This water is available for roots.
Permeability refers to the movement of air and
water through the soil
The particle –size distribution curve
- can be used to determine the following four
parameters for a given soil:
1. Effective size ( D10 ) – this parameter is
the diameter in the particle-size distribution
curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective
size of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and
drainage through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient ( Cu ) – this
parameter is defined as Cu = D60 / D10
where: D60 = Diameter corresponding
to 60% finer.
3. Coefficient of gradation ( CC ) – measures of the
shape of the grain-size distribution curve. This
parameter defined as
CC = D230 / D60 D10
Where: D30 = Diameter corresponding to 30% finer

4. Sorting Coefficient ( SO ) – this parameter is

another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as

SO = D75 / D25
Note:

Steep curves, which reflect poorly-graded soils,

have low values of Cu , while flat curves (
well-graded soils) have high values.

Soils with smooth curves have Cc values

between about 1 and 3, while irregular curves
have higher or lower values.
• Well graded soil if
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 and

Cu > 4 for gravels

Cu > 6 for sands

Cu = 1 indicates that the soil grains are

approximately equal sizes.
Figure 1 (a) A well-graded soil has a wide range of particle sizes, in
this case ranging from fine sand to coarse gravel.
(b) A poorly-graded soil has a narrow range of particle
sizes
Example: Following are the results of a sieve analysis:

U.S. sieve No. Mass of soil retained on

each sieve (g)
4 0
6 0
10 0
20 9.1
40 294.4
60 179.8
100 22.7
200 15.5
Pan 23.5
a) Determine the percent finer than each sieve
size and plot a grain-size distribution curve.
b) Determine D10 , D30 and D60 from the grain-size
distribution curve.
c) Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu
d) Calculate the ceofficient of gradation, Cc
CONSISTENCY OF CLAY SOILS

‘Consistency’ is that property of a material

which is manifested by its resistance to flow.

In this sense, consistency of a soil refers to the

resistance offered by it against forces that tend
to deform or rupture the soil aggregate;

in other words, it represents the relative ease

with which the soil may be deformed.
Consistency may also be looked upon as the
degree of firmness of a soil and is often directly
related to strength.

This is applicable specifically to clay soils and is

generally related to the water content.
• Consistency is the term used to describe the
ability of the soil to resist rupture and
deformation. It is commonly describe as soft,
stiff or firm, and hard.
• Water content greatly affects the engineering
behavior of fine-grained soils.

• In the order of increasing moisture content, a

dry soil will exist into four distinct states:
- from solid state, to semisolid state, to
plastic state, and to liquid state.
• The water contents at the boundary of these
states are known as Atterberg limits.

• Between the solid and semisolid states is

shrinkage limit, between semisolid and plastic
states is plastic limit, and between plastic and
liquid states is liquid limit.
Atterberg limits, then, are water contents at critical stages of soil
behavior. They, together with natural water content, are essential
descriptions of fine-grained soils.
• Liquid Limit, LL
Liquid limit is the water content of soil in
which soil grains are separated by water just
enough for the soil mass to loss shear
strength.
A little higher than this water content will
tend the soil to flow like viscous fluid while a
little lower will cause the soil to behave as
plastic.
• Plastic Limit, PL
Plastic limit is the water content in which
the soil will pass from plastic state to semi-
solid state.
Soil can no longer behave as plastic; any
change in shape will cause the soil to show
visible cracks.
• Shrinkage Limit, SL
Shrinkage limit is the water content in
which the soil no longer changes in volume
regardless of further drying.
It is the lowest water content possible for
the soil to be completely saturated.
Any lower than the shrinkage limit will
cause the water to be partially saturated.
This is the point in which soil will pass from
semi-solid to solid state.
Determination of Liquid, Plastic,
and Shrinkage Limits
Sample to be used for liquid limit and
plastic limit tests should pass to sieve
No. 40 (0.425 mm)

Cooling an oven dried sample before

weighing is advisable because it can
affect its weight.
a) Determination of Liquid
Limit
• A schematic diagram (side view) of a liquid
limit device is shown in Figure 4.2a.

• This device consists of a brass cup and a

hard rubber base. The brass cup can be
dropped onto the base by a cam operated
by a crank.
• Liquid Limit Device with accessories
• Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid Limit Test

The semispherical brass cup is repeatedly

dropped into a hard rubber base from a height
of 10 mm by a cam-operated crank.
• To perform the Liquid Limit Test
1. The dry powder of the soil is mixed with
distilled water turning it into a paste. The soil
paste is then placed into the cup to a
thickness of about 12.5 mm.
2. A groove is then cut at the center of the
paste using the standard grooving tool.
3. The crank operating the cam is turned at the
rate of 2 revolutions per second lifting the cup
and dropped it from a height of 10 mm.
4. The liquid limit is the moisture content
required to close a distance of 12.5 mm along
the bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
• The required closure in 25 blows is difficult to
achieve in a single test. Four or more tests to
the same soil at varying water contents are to
be done for 12.5 mm closure of the groove.

5. The results are then plotted on a semi-

logarithmic graph with moisture content along
the vertical axis (algebraic scale) and number
of blows along the horizontal axis (logarithmic
scale).
6. The graph is approximated by the best fit straight
line, usually called the flow line and sometimes
called liquid state line. The moisture content that
corresponds to 25 blows is the liquid limit of the
soil.

The relationship between moisture content

and log N is approximated as a straight line. This
line is referred to as the flow curve.
7. The moisture content corresponding to N 25,
determined from the flow curve, gives the
liquid limit of the soil. The slope of the flow
line is defined as the flow index
• The slope of the flow line is called flow index
and may be written as

• where w1 and w2 are the water content

corresponding to number of blows N1 and N2,
respectively.
Significance of liquid limit
- measures the shearing resistance of
soil, measures the potential cohesion of
soil, fineness and shape of grain.

Grain- is applied to the individual mineral

particles in the soil.
• Example:
The following data shows the results of the
liquid limit.
Test Number 1 2 3 4

Number of blows 39 23 20 13

Mass of wet soil + container 22.4 g 21.19 g 21.27 g 26.12 g

Mass of dry soil + container 19.44 g 18.78 g 18.75 g 22.10 g

Mass of container 12.74 g 13.24 g 13.06 g 13.27 g

Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.

b) Determination of Plastic Limit
• Plastic Limit Test
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture
content in percent, at which the soil crumbles,
when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm ( 1/8in.) in
diameter.
The plastic limit is the lower limit of the
plastic stage of soil.
The plastic limit test is simple and is
performed by repeated rollings of an ellipsoidal-
sized soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate.
 The plastic limit can easily be found by
rolling a small soil sample into thin threads
until it crumbles.
 The plastic limit is evaluated quantitatively
in the laboratory by finding the water content
at which a thread of soil begins to crumble
when it is manually rolled out on a glass plate
to a diameter of 1/8 in. and breaks up into
segments about 1/8 in. to 3/8 in. ( 3 to 10
mm) in length.
If threads can be rolled to smaller
diameters, the soil is too wet. If threads
crumble before reaching the 1/8 in. diameter,
the soil is too dry and the plastic limit has
been surpassed.
• The water content at which the threads break
at approximately 3 mm in diameter is the
plastic limit.

• Two or more tests are made and the average

water content is taken as plastic limit.

• In this test, soil will break at smaller diameter

when wet and breaks in larger diameter when
dry.
Example:
The following data shows the result of the
Plastic limit.
Test Number 1 2

Mass of wet soil + container 22.12 g 21.84 g

Mass of dry soil + container 20.42 g 20.19 g

Mass of Container 13.07 g 13.18 g

Compute the Plastic Limit.

• Shrinkage Limit Test
The shrinkage limit is determined as
follows.

Shrinkage limit tests (ASTM Test

Designation D-427) are performed in the
laboratory with a porcelain dish about 44
mm (1.75 in.) in diameter and about 12.7
mm ( in.) high.
The inside of the dish is coated with petroleum
jelly and is then filled completely with wet
soil. Excess soil standing above the edge of the
dish is struck off with a straightedge.

A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a porcelain

dish 44 mm in diameter and 12.7 mm high
and then oven dried.
• With oven-dried soil still in the dish, the
volume of shrinkage can be determined by
filling the dish with mercury.

• The volume of the oven-dried soil pat is

determined by the displacement of mercury.

• Because handling mercury may be hazardous,

ASTM D-4943 describes a method of dipping
the oven-dried soil pat in a melted pot of wax.
• The wax-coated soil pat is then cooled. Its
volume is determined by submerging it in
water.
• The volume of mercury that fills the dish is
equal to the shrinkage volume. The shrinkage
limit is calculated from
• where m1 = mass of wet soil, m2 = mass of
oven-dried soil, V1 = volume of wet soil, V2 =
volume of oven-dried soil, and ρw = density of
water.
• Shrinkage ratio

• Specific gravity of solids

Example:
1. A saturated soil has the following
characteristics:
initial volume (Vi ) = 19.65 cm3,
final volume Vf = 13.5 cm3,
mass of wet soil (M1 ) =36 g,
mass of dry soil (M2) = 25 g.

Determine the shrinkage limit, shrinkage

ratio and specific gravity.
• Plasticity Index
Plasticity Index (PI) is the range of water
content within which the soil exhibits plastic
properties; that is, it is the difference between
liquid and plastic limits.
PI = LL – PL
When the plastic limit cannot be determined,
the material is said to be non-plastic (NP).
Plasticity index for sands is zero.
Burmister (1947) classified plastic properties of soils
according to their plasticity indices as follows:
Plasticity Index is an in indication of percent of
clay.

High Plasticity Index means

- High Degree of Compressibility.

Significance of Plasticity Index

- indicates compressibility, permeability
and indicates the clay fraction of a binder
material.
Compressibility -the property of a soil by virtue of which
volume decrease occurs under applied pressure.

• Permeability is the property of a porous medium

such as soil, by virtue of which water or any
other fluid can flow through the medium.

Soil is considered unsuitable materila when the

liquid limit and plastic limit exceeds 80% and
55% respectively
Example:
1. Following are the results from the liquid and plastic
limit tests for a soil. Liquid limit test:

Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)

16 36.5

20 34.1

28 27.0

Plastic Limit test: PL = 12.2%

What is the plasticity index of the soil?
2. The following Index Properties were
determined for two soils X and Y:
Property X Y

Liquid Limit 0.62 0.34

Plastic Limit 0.26 0.19

Water content 38% 25%

Specific Gravity 2.72 2.67

Degree of Saturation 1.0 1.0

Consider 1 m3 of soil.
Which of these soils:

(a) contains more clay particles;

(b) has a greater wet density;
(c) has a greater dry density;
(d) has a greater void ratio?

Give reasons for your answers.

Shrinkage Index
Shrinkage Index (SI) is defined as the difference between
the plastic and shrinkage limits of a soil; in other words, it is the
range of water content within which a soil is in a semi-solid state
of consistency.

SI = PL-SL

Consistency Index
Consistency index or Relative consistency (CI) is defined
as the ratio of the difference between liquid limit and the
natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil:

Where: ω = natural water content of the soil (water content of a

soil in the undisturbed condition in the ground).
Note:
• If CI = 0, ω = LL

• CI = 1, ω = PL

• CI > 1, the soil is in semi-solid state and is stiff.

• CI < 0, the natural water content is greater

than LL, and the soil behaves like a liquid.
• Liquidity Index
Liquidity index (LI) or Water-plasticity ratio is
the ratio of the difference between the natural
water content and the plastic limit to the
plasticity index.
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in
the natural state can be defined by a
ratio called liquidity index, which is given by

• ω = in situ moisture content of soil.

The in situ moisture content for a sensitive clay
may be greater than the liquid limit.
LI > 1
These soils, when remolded, can be transformed
into a viscous form to flow like a liquid.

If LI = 0, w = PL
LI = 1, w = LL
LI > 1, the soil is in liquid state.
LI < 0, the soil is in semi-solid state and is stiff.
Soil Classification
Introduction:
Different soils with similar properties may
be classified into groups and sub-groups
according to their engineering behavior.
Classification systems provides a common
language to concisely express the general
characteristics of soils, which are infinitely
varied without detailed descriptions.
Most of the soil classification systems that
have been developed for engineering purposes
are based on simple index properties such as
particle-size distribution and plasticity.
• There are many systems, but we will focus on
just 3.
1. USDA Textural Classification System
(Based on grain size)
2. AASHTO Classification System ( Based on
use as road base)
3. Unified Soil Classification System ( based
on grain size and Atterberg Limits)
 Classification of Soil
• 1. Grain-size or Textural Classifications
In the grain-size classifications, soils
are designated according to the grain-
size or particle size.
• Terms such as gravel, sand, silt and
clay are used to indicate certain
ranges of grain sizes.
Particle-size limits described under the
USDA System:
(1) sand size : 2.0 to 0.05 mm in
diameter
(2) Silt size : 0.05 to 0.002 mm in
diameter
(3) clay size : smaller than 0.002 mm
in diameter
• Since natural soils are mixtures of
all particle-sizes, it is preferable to
call these fractions as ‘Sand size’,
‘Silt size’, etc.
• Any soil with the three
constituents—sand, silt and clay—
can be represented by one point on
the Triangular chart.
• The use of figure 5.1 can best be demonstrated
by an example. If the particle-size distribution of
soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-
size particles, its textural classification can be
determined by proceeding in the manner
indicated by the arrows in Figure 5.1. The soil
falls into the zone of clay loam.
Note: Figure 5.1 is based on only the fraction of soil
passes through the No. 10 sieve. Hence, if the
particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a
certain percentage of the soil particles is larger
than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be
necessary.

Modified % sand = % sand / ( 100 - % gravel) x

100
Modified % silt = % silt / ( 100 - % gravel) x 100
Modified % clay = % clay / ( 100 - % gravel) x 100
• For Example:
Soil B has a particle-size distribution of
20%, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the
modified textural compositions are

On the basis of the proceeding modified

percentages, the USDA textural classification is
clay. However, because of the large percentage
of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.
• Classify the following soils according to the
USDA textural classification system.
Particle-Size Soil
distribution (%)
A B C D

Gravel 10 21 0 12

Sand 20 12 18 22

Silt 41 35 24 26

Clay 29 32 58 40
2. AASHTO Classification System
The AASHTO Classification System
in present use is given in Table 5.1.
According to this system, soil is
classified into seven major groups: A-1
through A-7.
Soils classified into groups A-1, A-2,
and A-3 are granular materials, where
35% or less of the particles pass
through the No. 200 sieve.
• Soils where more than 35% pass through
the No. 200 sieve are classified into groups
A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. These are mostly silt
and clay-type materials.

AASHTO
- American Association of State Highway
& Transportation Officials
The classification system is based on the following criteria:
Material that has the greatest load
carrying capacity
- sand and gravel

Boulders
- a rock fragment usually rounded or
semi-rounded with an average
dimension between 75 mm – 305 mm.
Clay soil becomes unstable if moisture
content increases. Granular material
becomes unstable if it has dried

Note: To classify a soil according to Table

5.1, the test data are applied from left
to right. By process of elimination, the
first group from the left into which the
test data will fit is the correct
classification.
To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade
material, one must also incorporate a number called
the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of
the soil. This index is written in parentheses after the
group or subgroup designation. The group index is
given by the equation

F200 = Percent passing the No. 200 sieve

LL = Liquid limit
PI = Plastic Index
If the Group Index of a soil is high, the soil is
clayey.

A good subgrade soil should have low liquid

limit and low plastic limit.

In general, soil high value of liquid limit of

fines and plasticity index are poor as
engineering materials
 Following are the rules for
determining the Group Index
1. If equation(5.1) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from equation(5.1) is rounded off
to the nearest whole number ( for example, GI = 3.4 is
rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-
4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to
groups a-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI or
3. Unified Soil Classification System

Following is a step-by-step procedure to classify

soils by the Unified Soil Classification System:

1. If the soil is peat, classify it as Pt by visual

observation. For all other soils, determine the
percentage of soil passing through the No. 200
sieve ( F200 )
2. Determine the percentage of soil retained
on the No. 200 sieve ( R200 )
R200 = 100 – F200
3. If R200  50, the soil is fine grained ( silty
and clayey ). Determine the group symbol.

4. If R200  50, the soil is coarse grained.

Determine the percentage of soil retained
on the No. 4 sieve ( R4 )
R4 = 100 – F4
where F4 = percentage of soil passing through
the No. 4 sieve.
5. Determine the ratio of R4 / R200
a. If R4 / R200  0.5, the soil is gravelly.
Determine the group symbol.
b. If R4 / R200  0.5, the soil is sandy.
Determine the group symbol.

Fine fraction = % passing No. 200 sieve ( F200 )

Coarse fraction = % retained on No. 200 sieve (
R200 )
Gravel fraction = % retained on No. 4 sieve ( R4 )
Sand Fraction = R200 – R4
Plus No.200 = retained No. 200