UNIT TWO: SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT

UNIT TWO

2. SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT

INTRODUCTION

Society is a broad term that consists of state which in turn consists of government at its
heart. Both are intrinsically interrelated entities. Society represents the totality or the
integrated whole system that consists of other activities as sub systems. Accordingly the
economic realm could represent the economic subsystem, which is part and parcels of the
whole system-society. State represents another sub-system, commonly referred as the
political system. The state is indeed the most influential actor which affects and get
affected in the society. Though the society exists before the emergence of state, the action
and decision of the state is binding over societal norms and actions. However, such
supreme actors of society emerged only after the seventeenth century. During the empire
systems, the political rules had not have ultimate command over decision making over
society as the society had strong allegiance to religious leaders than the political leaders.
However as the empire systems got declined, and ultimately collapsed, the state emerged
as sovereign actor in the society as well as in international system. Government
represents those institutional apparatus which is responsible to make collective decision
and execute such decision as the visible agent of the state.

Despite variations among the exact roles of the state in the society, state plays significant
role in maintaining peace and security, law and order, provision of basic social and
physical infrastructures in the society managing conflicts in the society. Among other
things, state plays significant role in reflecting the interest of the society to extent of
accommodating diversity.

This Unit is concerned with introducing you with the conceptual framework of state,
society and government. The first two lessons are devoted to the conceptual meanings

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 UNIT TWO: SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT

and debates on state, society and government. The third lesson describes the diverse
linguistic and religious society of Ethiopia. It basically discusses the nature and policy
responses of the successive governments of Ethiopia with regard to treatment of diversity.

The fifth lesson describes the Federal state structure focusing on the power distribution
and decentralization between the federal government and the nine federating units.
The last, but not the least, briefly introduce you about the main principles of the
parliamentary form of government. Here emphasis is given to the powers and functions
of the Two Federal Houses, the Judiciary and the Political Executive.

Objectives

At the end of the Unit you will be able to:

 Identify the roles of modern state in economy
 Describes the main function of state
 Critically evaluate the policy response of successive government of Ethiopia
towards diversity
 Describes the patterns of power distribution among the federal and federating
states
 Explain the working of the parliamentary form of the government in Ethiopia.

Resources

 Anderson, Federalism: an introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

 Assefa Fisseha, Federalism and Accommodation of Ethnic diversity in Ethiopia:
comparative study (Utrecht: Wolf legal publishers, 2006).
 Fasil Nahum, Constitution for a Nation of Nations: The Ethiopian Prospect.
(Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Publishers, 1997).
.

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 UNIT TWO: SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT

LESSON ONE: CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK: UNDERSTANDING

SOCIETY AND STATE

Introduction

Society is a broad term that consists of state which in turn consists of government at its
heart. Both are intrinsically interrelated entities. Society represents the totality or the
integrated whole system that consists of other activities as sub systems. Accordingly the
economic realm could represent the economic subsystem, which is part and parcels of the
whole system-society. State represents another sub-system, commonly referred as the
political system. The state is concerned with the authoritative decision making organ in
the society. Its decisions are final and acceptable in the society. So, it is influential sub
system of the society. Government is the agent which makes and takes actions on behalf
of the state. So, government is the most important organ of the state.

This lesson is devoted to understanding the key concepts and debates and classifications
regarding society, state and government. Accordingly, society and perspectives of society,
state and debates on the role and typologies of state are briefly presented. In addition the
meaning, organs and forms of government will be discussed.

Objectives

At the End of the Lesson You will be able to:

 Define the concept of state
 Acquainted with the dominant perspectives of society
 Describe the elements of modern state
 Critically evaluate the roles of state in the economy
 Identify the two structures of state

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1. Understanding Society

The English word society emerged in the 15th century and is derived from the French
société. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly
association with others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or
business partner." Implicit in the meaning of society is that its members share some
mutual concern or interest, a common objective or common characteristics.

Can you define the term society?

There have been debates as to the exact meaning of society. For some society implies a
collection of individuals living in a certain country for the longer period of time. For
others, society is meant to mean more than the collections of individuals. There are two
contending views: The atomistic theory and the organic theory.

Atomistic theory of society is based up on an individualist conception of the society.

These assume that society is a human artifact, constructed by individuals to serve their or
purpose. In its extreme form this can lead to the belief, expressed by Thatcher, that there
is no such thing as society. In other words, all social and political behavior can be
understood in terms the choices made by self-interested individuals with out references to
collective entities such as society. This has often been described as atomistic theory of
society, in that it implies that society is nothing more than a collection of individual units
or atoms.

Such a view doesn’t, however, ignore the fact that individuals pursue their interests
through the formation of groups and associations, business, trade unions, clubs, and so
forth. This cement which holds this society together, though self interest, the recognition
that private interest overlap, making possible the construction contracts or voluntary
agreement.

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An organic theory of society is based up on an organic analogy. Instead of being

constructed by rational individuals to satisfy their personal interest, society may operate
as an organic whole, exhibiting properties more normally associated with living
organism-a human being or plant. This suggests a holistic approach to society,
emphasizing that society is complex networks of relationship which ultimately exist to
maintain the whole: the whole is more important than its individuals parts. This is similar
to the functionalist view of society. This assumes that all social activities play some part
in maintaining the basic structure of society.

Activity: 1
1. Which views do you support? Which of the above theory reflects the
western society? Why?

1. Understanding State

State can be defined as the politically organized society or apolitical system. If we take
society as a system, the state represents one of the sub systems of the society-called the
political system. The state can also be understood as the most supreme organ or
institution of the society. The state refers to all institutions, agencies and agents that
operate within a given territorial space, have legitimate power and authority over us, and
can legitimately utilize force as an ultimate sanction against us if we fail to accept its
rules or orders or resist its actions or act against it.

In addition to possessing the power and authority to employ violence legitimately, the
state can be characterized as consisting of a number of agents and offices. Thus, within
the state a whole range of offices and agents-government ministers, judiciary, bureaucrats,
army, police, education and local government-can be identified. In this sense the state is
an umbrella term that covers all offices that make and enforce the collective decisions
and rule of a society.

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Dear students: states can be classified in to traditional and modern. Traditionally states
are those empire (kingdom) systems which had vast territory and population under their
rules. As the territories were so vast, the rules, even, did not exactly know the boundaries
and even the composition and the size of the peoples were beyond the knowledge of the
government or the king. Frontiers, rather than fixed borders served as the boundaries-
which imply the modern notion of fixed territories. In addition, there hardly was a
sovereign political body in most cases. The king did not have exclusive control over the
citizens as the religious leaders or pops had intruding role in the society.
Activity: 2
In ancient Ethiopia there were different political systems in different part
of the present Ethiopia. Axumit Empire was one of the traditional
political systems in Northern part of Ethiopia. Can you describe about
its frontiers, composition of peoples? You can ask any History
Teacher in the Area.

Elements of Modern States

The birth of modern states could be traced back to 17 century Europe. Most States of the
present Europe like England, France, the Netherlands and the like are born from the
collapse of the European Empires. In Africa the present states, with the exception of
Ethiopia and Liberia are the result of decolonization processes.

Dear learner! What do you think are the features of modern states?
Modern states are unique from the traditional political systems or states in that modern
states exercise sovereign power over its territory and people. Modern states are the
highest and supreme institutions both at domestic and international level. Domestically
the rules or government decisions and actions are supreme over other institutions such as
religious or family or any kind of human association. Citizens obey the rules and dictates
(order) of the state. Sovereignty (independence) also infer (suppose) state autonomy in its

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external/ international/relations. There is no any power that can intervene in the internal
and external affairs of the state.

Activity: 3
1. Do you think that sovereignty implies state equality, if so; do you
think states are equal in actual cases?

The second element of modern state is that of recognition. States are not self sufficient.
Some are endowed with resources, some are not. Some may have the potential to growth
but may not use its resources effectively due to lack of appropriate know-how or
technology. The existence and development of one is highly dependent on the supply of
resources or technology from others. In such interdependent world recognition is vital
elements of the state. The existence a state and, its government and peoples need to be
recognized by others so that it can enter into diplomatic and trade relations.

The third element of modern state is territory. Territory involves the geographic land
scopes, water bodies, and the air above the land. Territory often determines the wealth
and resources availability of a given country. Modern states do have fixed boundaries
within which the state exercises its sovereignty.

Activity: 4
1. Does resources availability determines the external relations of
states? How?

The fourth element of modern states is population. Modern states do have fixed number
of population. Census is often held to know the exact number, composition and other
demographic factors.

Activity: 5

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1. Some scholars argue that population is a burden than a privilege. Do

you think that population is resource or a problem? Why?

The last, but not the least, elements of modern state is government. Government is the
institutional aspects of the state. It represents the executive, legislature and judiciary
branches or offices. One can say that government is the machinery or the arm of the state.
In fact government is the traditional elements of the state. The state cannot exist without
government. It is the agent of state that is responsible for the over all administrative
affairs of the country.

Activity: 6
1. Please ask any History Teacher about the date that modern state
emerged in Ethiopia?

Contending View on the Roles of State in the Economy

The main roles of state include, among other things, safeguarding the security of the state
from external aggression; maintaining law and order in the domestic political system. In
addition to these, state does have economic, cultural and social role. However the extents
of the role state play is very controversial. In this regard there are three contending views:
the neo-liberalism, developmentalism and totalitarianism.

Neo-liberalism focuses on the minimum role of the state in the social, economical and
cultural affairs of the society. According to this view, state doesn’t have legitimate role to
intervene in the economy and social affairs. For that matter, culture and the economic
activities suppose to be given to individuals, and that the intervention of state in these
activities would imply the violation of individual rights and freedoms. It is assumed that
the market can efficiently and effectively allocate resources through demand and supply
forces.
Activity: 7

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1. Do you support this view? Argue why?

Totalitarianism advocates heavy intervention in the social, cultural and economical

affairs of the society. Here there is no room left to the individual only, the state would
monopolizes all activities of the society. Socialist or Marxist states of the past, for
example the military government of Ethiopia, fall under such category.

A mid way in between the two extremes is what is called the developmental states. Such
states are interventitionist but without replacing the role of the market forces. As
evidenced in the newly developed countries in the East Asian countries, state does
intervene in the economic and technological activities selectively. In this regard our
country Ethiopia is following the blueprints of such countries. Ethiopia also does give
attention to the preservation of the culture of the society.

Activity: 8
1. In some of European countries there are welfare states. Can you
describe the characteristics of such states?

State Structures

In terms of the patterns of power distribution among the central and local or sub-national
government, states can be classified in to two: Unitary state and Federal state

Unitary State

In Unitary states, authority and power are focused exclusively on the central government.
All major policies and principles of administration originate from the center. In Unitary
state, local governments exist only as mere agents of the central authority. The period of
their authority, the duration of residence of office and even their very legal existence are
determined directly through continuous legislation by the central government.

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 In unitary state, the task, resources, powers and even boundaries of local
governments continuously change at the judgment of the central
government.

Dear learner, you have to note that unitary structure does not necessarily imply a high
degree of centralization. The freedom of initiative enjoyed by these governments at the
grass roots varies from state to state. In Britain, for example, local governments have a
large degree of local autonomy, and the central government interferes only to a limited
extent. In some unitary states, for example France, local governments are basically local
extensions of the central government, and in most cases the chief local administrator is
appointed and removed by the central government. Else where in the world where uniting
states exist, we find, however, that the styles of local government vary between the two
above extremes, but with the central government always having the final control.
The important point to note here is that, because the central government has the
indisputable, sole constitutional authority, whatever duties and autonomy as may from
time to time be delegated to the local governments can subsequently be withdrawn. This
is usually accomplished by the simple legislative act of any regime of the central
government.

Federal States
Dean learner, a growing number of states have adopted a federal form of government. A
federal state is mainly different from a unitary state in that it shares some of its powers to
local levels of governments. This is called devolution (decentralization) of power. Powers
and authorities are clearly separated and divided between the central (federal) and local
governments. Usually, these powers are clearly specified in the constitution. In simple
terms, it means that some powers such as foreign affairs, defense, finance and others are
responsibilities delegated to the central (federal) government. And other powers and
authorities are assigned or reserved to local (regional) governments. Still some of the
powers are shared or concurrent powers. Thus, the central government does not interfere

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in the administration of local governments. What are not clearly specified in the
constitution are usually mandates of local governments.

Dear learner, most large state, with few exceptions like china, is federal. Usually multi-
ethnic states do also adopt the federal structure.

You should note that the form of federalism in all states is not necessarily the same.
States apply different principles and reasons for federation. Similarly, the degree of
autonomy exercised at local (regional) levels is not the same in all cases. In some states,
the central government retains greater degree of power as compared to local governments.
In others yet, the local or regional governments could be very influential and powerful
with greater autonomy.

Activity: 9
1. Please identify and discuss the factors which determines the nature
of the state structure?

LESSON TWO: UNDERSTANDING GOVERNMENT

Introduction

Government is one essential elements of state which is in-charge of administrating the

overall affairs of the state or the society. It is the institutional manifestation of the state
that makes important decisions and implements such decisions. In democracy, the term
government consists of three main separately instituted organs including the Executive,
the Legislative and Judiciary. On the basis of the power divisions and relations among
these organs, one can identify three forms of government: The presidential, Parliamentary
forms and the Hybrid types.

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This Lesson, thus, focuses on the conceptual meanings, organs and forms of government.
In addition the sources of government power are highlighted.

Objectives
At the End of the Lesson, Students will be able to:

 Define the concept of Government

 Distinguish the functions of the three organs of governments
 Identify the sources of government power
 Describes the basic features of parliamentary form of government
 Critically evaluate the merit and demerit of each form of Government

Defining Government

Government in simple terms may refer a group of individuals and institutions authorized
to formulate public policies and conduct the affairs of the state. It is the most important
elements of state which acts on behalf of the state. As result, the decisions and actions are
final and binding that governs the activities of every citizens.

Dear Learner! What do you think is the sources of government power?

 In democracy government comes into power through election or consent
of the peoples. But in undemocratic systems, the source of government
power could be either force or divine power or tradition.

Military governments relay on force or coercion to govern the people. As they face
problem of popular acceptance-legitimacy, force is often used to calm (peaceful) the
popular resistance. However, monarchical political system seeks to justify their political
power or office on the grace of God or Allah. The rules try to convince the people that
they are born to rule or they are ordained by Super-Natural power.

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What are the main organs of Government?

Branches of Government

Government is not a monolithic entity. It has different institutions. The main institutions
are termed as the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. More often these three
institutions are termed as organs or Branches of modern government. The roles and
responsibilities of each organs of government is separated to the extent that one branch of
government can check the power of the other.

Activity: 10
1. Why do you think is the Reason to have a separation of power among
the three organs of the government?

Executive Branches of Government: It is the body which executes or administers

policy within a state. There are two important points to make here. First, we need to
distinguish between the political executive, those politicians who hold the office of the
executive-prime minister, ministers…and the non political executive or the civil service.
Here we are concerned with the political executive. There are to types of executives: uni-
personal executive, such as the president of U.S; or collective or plural executives. In
some cases there exist two chief executives: Head of the State and the Head of the
Government. In some cases there might be collegial executive just like of Switzerland.

Legislature represents the body which is entrusted with law making. In this regard, this
institution could be mono-cameral assembly-which consists of elected individuals or it
bi-cameral assemblies wherein there exists two houses which are entrusted to make laws
in different issue areas.

Dear Learner, the nomenclature of such organs is different in different countries. In the
U.S America, the Senate and the Peoples Representatives are generally referred as the

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Congress. In United Kingdom, the House of Lords and the House of the Commons are
generally termed as the Parliament. In France the Assembly is the term used to describe
the legislative organs.

Activity: 11
1. What do you think is the importance of having bicameral legislative
organs?

The third important organ of the government is what is called as-The judiciary. It is the
body charged with interpreting or adjudicating of laws. In democracy this organ enjoys,
relatively autonomy(self-rule) from the interventions of the legislatures and the executive
organ.

Activity: 12
1. What are the main functions of the judiciary? And why this body
needs to be autonomous in its decision making?

Models or Forms of Democratic Government

On the basis of the powers and relationships of the executive and legislative branches of
government, there are mainly two forms of governments. These are Parliamentary and
presidential forms. U.K represents the model of parliamentary form of Government. In
U.K and other countries that follows the parliamentary form of government, the
parliament is the locus of power, that is, it is the supreme political body. U.S serves as
blueprint for Presidential form of government. Here the president do have significant
power than any body else.

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Characteristics of Parliamentary government

1. The executive is divided into two parts: Head of the government and Head of the
State. The head of the government has real executive power than the head of the
state.
2. The head of the government is the prime minister and the prime minister is the
one who is the chairman or chairperson of the party or parties which won the
election
3. the head of government appoints the ministers and higher officials-cabinets
4. The councils of Ministers, including the prime minister is individually or
collectively accountable to the parliament
5. ministers can be usually members of parliament
6. The party or coalition of parties that won the majority seat in the parliament
forms the councils of ministers and prime minister
7. parliament is the focus of power in the political system

Crucially important here is that the role of head of the state is separated from that of the
head of government. Another key characteristic of parliamentarian is that the executive is
drawn from the assembly and, crucially its ability to hold on to power is dependent on
legislative confidence. The executive has to retain the support of the legislature in order
to be able to pass its legislative proposals and govern.

Presidential form of government

Characteristics

1. The executive is not divided. The president acts as head of the state and head of
government.
2. The president is directly elected by the people

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3. the president forms the council of ministers, in case of U.S, The head of
department
4. The executive is in the hands of the president, he may nominate ministers as his
adviser.
5. President and the head of departments are not accountable to the congress or the
parliament.
6. the executive is directly responsible to the electorate than to the congress
7. The president is the locus of power

A key feature of the system is that there is clear separation of power between executive
and legislative bodies.

Activity: 13
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two form of
government?

Semi presidential systems. Interestingly there a third form, which is best, conceptualized
in the mixture of the two. The most accessible examples are France, India. The key
characteristics here is that the existence of both president and a prime Minster. The power
relation ship between two offices will vary-in France for example, the president enjoys
supremacy.

LESSON THREE: SOCIETY, STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN

ETHIOPIA

Introduction

Ethiopia is said to be the mosaic of diversity. It is a home of diverse ethnic groups

enriched by immense linguistic and religious and cultural experiences. Before the birth of
Unified Ethiopia, there were different kingdoms across all corners of the present Ethiopia.
Ethiopia took its present shape by Emperor Minilik the Second. Since then Ethiopia had
experienced different forms and structures of state and governments. Up until the coming

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to power of the incumbent government, the diverse nature of the society was not
welcomed. The issue of diversity has gained constitutional recognition and tangible steps
have been taken in this regard following the demise of the Military Government in the
Country.

This lesson thus describes the linguistic diversity of Ethiopian society and the various
policy dimensions which had/have been taken with regard to the treatment of diversity.
In addition, the nature of state, government and the sources of government powers are
discussed.

Objectives
At the End of the Lesson, you will be able to:
 Describe the diversity of Ethiopia
 Distinguish the form and structure of the successive Governments of Ethiopia
 Describe the state-society relations of successive governments of Ethiopia
 Identify the constitutional provisions of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of
Ethiopia

Description of Ethiopian Society

Ethiopia is a multi ethnic state embracing various ethnic groups with many diverse
languages together. According to recent studies there are eighty-three languages and 200
hundred dialects spoken in the country. these can be broken in to four main groups
Semitic, Cushitic, omotic, and Nilo Saharan on which three of them has a tracing of the
parent language called Afroasiatic family spoken in Ethiopia are Cushitic and omotic and
semetic . The semetic family include Amaharic, Tigrign, Guragena, Argoba, Gafat, selte,
zeway.

The cushetic languages are found mainly in the south of the country. Among these, the
Afan Oromo, Sidamegna, Agawinga, Afargna, Saho, konso, Alaba, Derressa, Hadiya,
Kambata, Gedeo, Libdo and Burji are some of them.

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Similarly The Omotic language group include kaffa, Janjaro, Dorze, Walayta, , Girma,
Maji, Gamu, Gofa, Kaficho, kulo, Konta, Ari, Shaku. And finally, Nilo Sharian
Languages group include the following Ethnic group: Majanger, Anuak, Nuer, , koma,
Gumuz, Berta, Kunamas.

In terms of religion, there are Protestants, Catholics, Orthodox, Islam and others.

2. Society, State and Government in the Pre-1990s.

Ethiopia took its present geographic shape since during King Minilike II. The country
had been ruled under unitary state structure since the Minilik Era. Power centralism and
bureaucratization remained the fashion of the day during the three successive
governments of Ethiopia, Minelike, Haile Sellassie, The Durgue. During Minilek the
country took its present shape. Following Minilek, Hailessilassie reinforced the power
centralism and unitarism tendency. In addition to unitarism and power
centralism ,assimilation was the official policies of such rulers.

2.1 Emperor Hailessilassie

Ethiopia took its present geographic shape since during King Minilike II. The country
had been ruled under unitary state structure since the Minilik Era. Power centralism and
bureaucratization remained the fashion of the day during the three successive
governments of Ethiopia, Minelike, Haile Sellassie, The Durgue. During Minilek the
country took its present shape. Following Minilek, Hailessilassie reinforced the power
centralism and unitarism tendency.

The emperor pursued assimilation policy, too. The assimilation policy was aimed at
creating unified and homogeneous society. Diversity had been considered as some thing
a curse for the country. In order to realize the homogenization project of the king, official
cultures was imposed from above. One of the instruments that the king employed to
effect the project was religion. Orthodox Religion was presented as the state religion. As

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indicated in the 1931 and 1955 constitutions, orthodox Christianity was officially
declared as the state religion. The church was used as instrument to serve the
Christianization project of the king. In addition moral education had served the same
purpose. Another policy instrument which was employed by the emperor to effect the
homogenization project was the Language policy. Amharic was selected to be the official
language of the country. The language was to be used as the sole language, with the
exception of English, schools, media, courts and the entire civil service work.

Activity: 1
1. Discuss the factors which led to the rise of Ethnic based political
struggles?

Dear learner! Could you describe the forms of the government?

During the Emperor time, the political system was monarchical. The king claimed to be
the legitimate ruler of the country. For that matter the king claimed to be elected of God!
He acted as if he had Devine power too. As result, the peoples were morally forced to
accept his kingship with out questioning.

Under such monarchical system, there were attempts to introduce the legislative body,
judiciary and councils of ministers in the executive. The bi cameral legislative organ was
considered to be a great innovation of the time .Despite the introduction of bicameral
legislative bodies, however, these houses were not law making organs in the strict sense
of law making. Indeed their role was limited to advisory bodies. With regard to judiciary,
the administrative tribunals and the regular courts were introduced as independent organs.
However, the king was also at the apex of the court system-called the Emperor Chilot
where the king himself used to review judicial decisions. With regard to the executive,
the king was both head of the state and government as indicated in 1931 constitutions.
These constitutions stipulated about the council of ministers with out the prime minister.
As result the king was both head of the state and government. After this constitutions was
amended, the prime minister was introduced but had no significant power, As indicated

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in 1931 and the Revised constitutions, the king had unchecked power to appoint and
dismisses any official.
2.2. The Durgue Era

Following the demise of the Emperor due to the revolution, the Military government held
the state power. Force remained to be the best instrument in its entire life time. The
government ruled the country with out constitutions for about 13 years. The country
remained a Unitary Republic with the coming power of Mengistue Hailemariam as the
chief head of the state, as stipulated by the 1987 constitutions. Despite there existed the
prime minister as the head of the government its roles, survival and functions were
circumscribed as the head of the state had monopoly of power. Mengistue Hailemariam
was both the chair man of the Party which totally controlled the parliament- the National
shengo. The constitutions had recognized the Workers Party of Ethiopia/WPE/ as the
only legal party to operate as the vanguard party. As the result multipart system was not
legally allowed to operate in the political system.

Due to the notion of ``democractice centralism`` Mengistu Hailemariam emerged as the

only person with un -checked power. Provisions related to human rights and national
rights, yet the provisions had paper value than that of practical value. Among some of
the provisions, the recognition of the equality of Nationalities and introduction of self-
governing units could be mentioned. The PDRE constitution for the firs time in the
history of Ethiopia had recognized the equality of nationalities at least in principle.

Dear Learner, the incorporation of equality of nationalities as right would indicate that
the government had recognized the need to ,at least in principle, accept the fact that
Ethiopia society is diverse. What was remaining was the institutionalization of diversity
through different mechanism such as self government, special representation and other
linguistic and cultural rights.

Activity: 2

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Discuss about the land reform policy and its implication on the society?

The other sweeping measure was the divorce between the Orthodox Church with the state.
Soon after the military took political power, the marriage between the state and the
church had put to an end. However, as many scholars put it, socialism was introduced and
assumed the official religion of the state.

 Dear learner! You have to bear in mind that despite the separation of the
church and state, citizens’ freedoms of religion was not guaranteed.

Activity: 3
1. Can you define socialism? What were the political and economic
principles of Socialism?

In general, the response of the state in the society was aimed at the creation of the mono-
culture or homogeneity. Diversity was not appreciated .it was some thing to be subdued.
The adoption of unitary state, imposition of official culture-language and religion …etc
reflected the intention of the rulers to eliminate diversity than accommodation of
diversity. The official policy of the government to introduce secularism had failed to
serve its purposes. The separation principle, in deed was motivated by replacing religion
by socialism. Both Christianity and Islam and their variants were undermined .and that
was the indication that the regime was not intended to appreciate religious diversity.

3. State, Government and Society in the Post 1990s

Since the demise of the Durgue regimes and the coming into power of the Current
government, the relation between the society and the state have undergone radical
transformation. The introduction of democracy, federal state structure, the move towards
multiculturalism and the adoption of parliamentary form of the government are some of

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the major shifts and departures form the past. As indicated above the previous regimes
focused on unitarism, centralism, assimilation or mono-culturalism.

Activity: 4
1. How do you define multiculturalism?

The constitution starts with the sovereign power that Nations, Nationality and Peoples of
Ethiopia has clearly indicated the commitment towards accommodating diversity. In light
of this sprit, the constitutions have taken up significant policy measures to accommodate
diversity. These provisions of the constitutions could be categorized in to four major
policy frameworks: self –government rights, language rights, special representation rights
and cultural rights.

Self government rights: the adoption of federalism is primarily aimed at empowering

nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia. The constitution provides that each Nation,
Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia have the right to administer them selves at different
level of the government. Accordingly nine regions are established on the basis of
language, identity, consent of the people and the settlement patterns. As the country is the
home of more than eighty linguistic groups, each group has the right to claim self
government rights as per the provisions of the constitutions.

Activity: 5
What are the conditions that a certain nation or nationality needs to fulfill
in order to exercise the self government rights?

The second major policy is the language policy. Unlike the previous governments, the
constitutions have recognized all language of NNP. And the selection of language for
respective state is left to the decision of the concerned states. Amharic has become the
working language, not the official language, of the federal government. This is departure
from the past. So, every cultural group has the right to use its language for education,
media, courts and civil service.

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The third major policy of the state is the special representation rights that Nations and
Nationality and Peoples have. It is provided that at least every cultural group is
represented by one person in the House of Federation. Of course the number of the
representatives increases based on a million people difference.

Activity: 6
1. Is there special representation in the House of Peoples
Representatives? Please identify the constitutional provisions related
to this?

The other important provision that aims at creating multicultural society is the special
attention given to the place of culture. The value of culture is appreciated to the extent
that the government does have responsibility to preserve culture and arts in the society. In
addition, special exemption right has been given to the customary and religious courts.

Activity: 7
1. Do you think traditional and customary law and practices can be
practiced with out any limitation? What are the limitations that are
put forward by the constitutions? Please identify the specific
provisions in the constitutions?

In addition to the above the separation of power, introduction of multiparty system could
be mentioned as major political developments in the country.

Activity: 8
1. Do you think the state has responsibility to keep the balance between
diversity and unity? Please identify those provisions and discuss the
obligation of the state in this regard?

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Dear learner! The success of multiculturalism lays on the readiness and commitment of
citizens to recognize diversity, appreciate diversity, respect diversity and
institutionalizing diversity. Cultural exclusivism /or narrow nationalism could disturb
inter-cultural communication and movements of citizens which could be detrimental to
the working of federalism in the country.

Activity: 9
1. Can you identify some other challenges?

LESSON FOUR: FEDERALISM: PATTERNS OF POWER SHARING

BETWEEN THE FEDERAL AND STATES

Introduction

Federalism implies partnership between regional units and central government whose
relationship is regulated by a constitution or covenant. Based on this covenant or
constitution power is divided and shared between the regional units and the center. As
most scholars agree, federalism is a compromise between integration and diversification,
decentralization and centralization. So, it is a mechanism that helps to ensure unity with
diversity. Cognizant of this fact, Ethiopia has adopted Federal state structure since 1990s.
This Lesson basically introduces students about the basis of federalism, the patterns of
power distribution among the federal government and the Nine Federating states.

Objectives

At the End of the Lesson, you will be able to:

 Define the concept of federalism
 Identify the concurrent powers of the Federal and States
 Describe the powers and functions of the federal government
 Describe the powers and functions of the States

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Defining Federalism

Dear Learner! What is federalism? To begin with the etymology of the concept, the term
“federal” comes from the Latin foedius, meaning "covenant". By its very nature
federalism is a state structure where power is divided and shared between the central
government and local governments. Mostly the federating states can be called as states,
or cantons or regions. In essence, the federalism implies partnership between regional
units and central government whose relationship is regulated by a constitution or
covenant. Based on this covenant or constitution power is divided and shared between the
regional units and the center. As most scholars agree, federalism is a compromise
between integration and diversification, decentralization and centralization. So, it is a
mechanism that helps to ensure unity with diversity.

Dear learner! As you know the adoption of the FDRE constitution marked the birth of
federalism in Ethiopia. Accordingly the constitutions have created two level of
government: the federal government and the federating states.

Activity: 1
1. Why federalism is the most preferred state structure? Can you
identify factors that led to the adoption of federalism in the country?

As you know the members of the federation are referred as state there are nine states and
two city administration. Dear learner! How is the pattern of power distribution among the
states and the federal government? As you might remember in our discussion, one can
identify three patterns of power distribution. These are exclusive powers, concurrent
powers and reserved powers.

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Exclusive powers refer to the functions and mandates which are given either to the
federal government or the federating units only. For instance the power to administer the
foreign policy and national defense are always the responsibilities of the federal
government. Similarly the administration of land could be considered the exclusive
powers of states in Ethiopia.

Concurrent powers refer to mandates and functions which are shared and administered
jointly. For instance the federal government and states can jointly levy and collect taxes
on incomes derived from large-scale mining and all petroleum and gas operations, and
royalties on such operation. As stipulated in article 98(1) the federal government and the
states shall jointly levy and collect profit, sales, exercise and personal income taxes on
enterprises they jointly establish.

Activity: 2
1. List out the taxation power of the federal government and state?
Which unit of the government has significant power?

Reserved powers are those grey areas that the constitution did not exclusively allocated
power to either of the two. In most case federal constitutions incorporated provision
regarding such powers. In some countries such powers are given to the federal
government. In this regard India and some other federations provided reserved powers to
the federal government.

 In most federations, including Ethiopia reserved powers are given to the

state. This shows the commitment of the state towards enhancing
decentralization and empowering member states.

The constitution has clearly defined the functions and powers of the two levels of the
governments. Article 51 has enumerated the functions and powers of the federal
government; and Article 52 is devoted to the functions and powers of the states

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Powers and Functions of the Federal Government

 It shall protect and defend the constitution
 It shall formulate and implement countries policies, strategies and plans in respect
of over all economic, social and developmental matters
 It shall establish and implement national standards and basic policy criteria for
public health, education, science and technology as well as for the protection and
preservation of cultural and historical legacies.
 It shall formulate and execute the country’s financial, monetary and foreign
investment policies and strategies.
 It shall enact laws for utilization and conservation of land and other natural
resources, historical sites, and objects.
 It shall establish and administer national defense and public security forces as well
as a federal police force.
 It shall administer the National Bank, print and Borrow money, mint coins,
regulating foreign exchange and money in circulation; it shall determined by law
the conditions and terms under which states can borrow money from internal
sources.
 It shall formulate and implement foreign policy; it shall negotiate and ratify
international agreements.
 It shall be responsible for the development, administration and regulation of air,
rail, waterways, and sea transport and major roads linking two or more states, as
well as for postal and telecommunication services.
 It shall determine and administer the utilization of the water rivers and lakes
linking two or more states or crossing the boundaries of the national territorial
jurisdiction
 It shall regulate inter-state and foreign commerce
 It has the power to declare and lift national state of emergencies

Dear Learner these are the main functions. But the list is not exhaustive. There are 21
powers and functions among which the twelve are enumerated above.

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Activity: 3
1. What are the conditions and procedures for declaring state of
emergencies? Which right will be suspended and which types of
rights will not be suspended?

Powers and Functions of the States

Article 52 has enumerated the function and powers. According to this provision state
shall have the power and functions:
1. To establish a state administration that best advances self-government, a
democratic order based on the rule of law; to protect and defend the federal
constitution
2. To enact and execute the state constitution and other laws
3. To formulate and execute economic, social and development policies, strategies
and plans of the state
4. To administers land and other natural resources in accordance with federal law
5. To levy and collect taxes and duties on revenues sources reserved to state and to
draw up and administer the state budget
6. To enact and enforce laws on the state civil service and their condition of work
7. To establish and administer a state police force, and to maintain public order and
peace within state.

LESSON FIVE: PARLIAMENTARY FORM OF GOVERNMENT:

PATTERNS OF POWER DISTRIBUTION AMONG
THE THREE ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT

Introduction

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Ethiopia adopted a parliamentary form of government. In this form of government the

function and powers of the executive, legislative and judiciary branches of government is
separately structured in a complex fashion. There exists complex relationship especially
among the executive and legislative branches in that the former is held responsible to the
later. In this lesson special focus is given to the powers and function of the executive –the
prime minister and councils of Minister, the Legislative branches-the two houses and the
judiciary.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 Define the major function of the executive branches of the government

 Describe the major function and powers of the House of Federation and House of
Peoples Representatives
 Describe the relation between the executive and Legislatives branches of
government

Main Features of the Form of the Government

1. The House of Peoples representative is the highest decision or law making body
2. A political party, or a coalition of political parties that has the greatest number of
seats in the House of peoples` Representatives shall form the executive and lead it
3. The chief executive is the head of government. And the prime minister is the head
of the government. As the head of the government He/she Leads council of
Ministers and coordinates its activities.
4. The prime minister or the head of the government will be elected from among
members of the House of Peoples Representatives.
5. The Prime minister will appoint the council of ministers. The prime minister shall
submit for approval to the House of Peoples Representatives nominees for
ministerial posts from among members of the Two Houses or from among
persons who are not members of either House.

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6. The council of Ministers comprises the Prime Ministers, the Deputy prime
ministers.
7. In all decisions, the Council of Ministers is Responsible to the House of Peoples
Representatives.
8. There exists a head of state. The head of the state is the president of the country

Dear Learner! Dear learner as we mentioned earlier the power of House of Peoples
Representative is paramount. House of Peoples Representatives approves the appointees
and budget proposals submitted by the Executive. It also supervises the actions of the
executive and made the council of ministers accountable to it. Accordingly each Minister
individually or collectively, through the prime Minster, will present Reports and provide
answers for the questions forwarded by the House.In order to better understand the
workings of the parliamentary form of government, it will be good to identify the
functions and powers of the three branches of the government

Powers and Functions of the Executive

As indicated in the above the executive consists of the Prime Minister , Deputy Minster
and other ministers. The Prime Minister is the chief executive who leads the council of
Ministers. Article 72 sub article 1 provides that the highest executive powers of the
Federal Government are vested in the Prime Minister and in the Council of Ministers.

 In most federations, including Ethiopia reserved powers are given to the

state. This shows the commitment of the state towards enhancing
decentralization and empowering member states.

In light of this the specific roles of the prime Minster is stipulated in article 74 of the
constitution.

Some of the major responsibilities of the prime minister include:

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1. Over all supervision over the implementation of policies, regulations, directives

and decisions adopted by the House of Peoples Representatives.
2. Leading the councils of Ministers coordinates its activities and act as its
representative.
3. Supervising the overall implementation of the foreign policy of the country.
4. Acting as the commander- in-chief of the national army
5. Submitting to the House of Representative periodic reports on work accomplished
by the executive as well as on its plans and proposals.

Activity: 1
Please read article 77 and list out the major functions and responsibilities
of the Council of Ministers?

In parliamentary form of the government there exists also Head of state. Unlike the case
of monarchies where you have Queen or King as Head of the state just like of England, In
republics there exists a president as the head of the state. In light of this principle, we
have president having a separate powers and functions. Some of the powers of the
president include giving pardons, providing awards, receiving Ambassadors and others.
True to any form of parliamentary form of government, the president represents the
nation at large. Among other things, the president can exercise his/her power to veto bills
or legislations adopted by the House. Any law adopted by any House need the signature
of the president before it gets declared in the Negarit Gazeta. Thus, this would show you
the in-built- check and balance system among the law making organ, the council of
Ministers and the Head of the State.

The Federal Houses

Just like of any democratic form of government, there exists bi-cameral houses at the
federal level in the country. At state level there exists mono-cameral legislative organs
which is entrusted with enacting laws in the respective state. At the Federal Level, we
have the House of Peoples Representatives and The House of Federations.

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The House of Peoples Representative is entrusted with enacting of laws on wide ranges
of issues regarding, for instance:
1. Utilization of land and natural resources, of rivers and lakes crossing the boundaries of
national territorial jurisdiction or linking two or more states
2. Inter-state commerce and foreign trade
3. Enact commercial, penal, labour laws.

Activity: 2
List out the other functions which are not mentioned above?

As stipulated in article 54 sub article 1, members of this House are elected members for
the term of five years on the basis of universal suffrage and by direct, free and fair
elections held by secret ballot. They are elected from candidates in each electoral district
by a plurality of votes cast.

Activity: 3
Do you think that all members of the House of Peoples Representatives are
elected persons?

The House of Federation

As you know this house is composed of representatives of Nations, Nationalities and

Peoples. Each Nation, Nationalities and Peoples are represented by at least one member.
In addition a representative is allowed for each one million of its population.

Some of the main functions and powers of the House of Federation are listed below:
1. Interpreting the Federal Constitution
2. Deciding issues related to the rights of Nations, Nationalities and peoples to self-
determination

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3. Promoting the equality of the peoples of Ethiopia

4. Resolving dispute among states
5. Setting formula regarding federal subsidies and budget allocation to states.

Activity: 4
Identify the powers that are shared between the House of Federation and
House of Peoples Representatives?

Judiciary Organ of the Government

In democratic form of Government the judiciary plays pivotal role in safeguarding the
basic liberties and rights of citizens. It is an institution which is established to resolve
disputes regarding civil and criminal issues among the individuals and groups in the
society. Since its role is very much apolitical, it needs to enjoy autonomy in its staffing
and operation. Cognizant of these facts, the Constitutions has established an independent
judiciary branch of Government. The constitution established a supreme court at the
Federal level, leaving the possibility to institute Federal High and First Instance Courts
by the decision of the parliament. Accordingly the Federal High Courts and First Instance
Courts come into scene later. The constitution has shown its commitment to delegate the
power of Federal High and First Instance Courts to state. Similarly states have also three
tiers of court system. The state Supreme Court, State High court, and State First Instance
Courts.

As stipulated in Article 79 Courts at any level shall be free from any interference of
influence of any government body, government official, or from any other source. Judges
shall exercise their function in full independence and on the basses of law.

Activity: 5
1. Which organ is responsible to resolve potential disputes among the three
branches of government?

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UNIT SUMMERY

Society is a broad term that consists of state which in turn consists of government at its
heart. Both are intrinsically interrelated entities. Society represents the totality or the
integrated whole system that consists of other activities as sub systems. Accordingly the
economic realm could represent the economic subsystem, which is part and parcels of the
whole system-society. State represents another sub-system, commonly referred as the
political system. The state is indeed the most influential actor which affects and get
affected in the society. Though the society exists before the emergence of state, the action
and decision of the state is binding over societal norms and actions. However, such
supreme actors of society emerged only after the seventeenth century. During the empire
systems, the political rules had not have ultimate command over decision making over
society as the society had strong allegiance to religious leaders than the political leaders.
However as the empire systems got declined, and ultimately collapsed, the state emerged
as sovereign actor in the society as well as in international system. Government
represents those institutional apparatus which is responsible to make collective decision
and execute such decision as the visible agent of the state.

Despite variations among the exact roles of the state in the society, state plays significant
role in maintaining peace and security, law and order, provision of basic social and
physical infrastructures in the society managing conflicts in the society. Among other
things, state plays significant role in reflecting the interest of the society to extent of
accommodating diversity.

Ethiopia had long historical tradition of state formation. There were many traditional
kingdoms prevailing over all corners of the country. Unified Ethiopia, however, emerged
during the Era of King Minilike II. Indeed, Ethiopia took its present shape during Minilik.
Since then successive regimes embarked persued policy of unitarism and centralism.
During Hiallessilassie period unitraism and bureacratice centralism was highly cherished
values of the monarch. The prevalence of diverse communities were perceived as a threat

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than an opportunity for peace and stability and unity. As result of this perception of the
king, unitarism was prefferd than federalism. By the same token, assimilation was
preferred than accommodation. The imposition of official language and religion showed
the commitment of Hailessilassie Government towards the value of unitarism, centralism
and assimilititionism than multiculturalaim and federalism.

During Durgue Government, the equality of Nations was recognized only after the
thirteen years of arbitirar rules of the military Junta through sheer use of force. It was by
the 1987 that the Government adopted the Constitutions-Peoples Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (PDRE) in which some rights of nations were recognized, though not
implemented practically. The separation of church and state could be taken as departure
from its predecessors. However it was a defective project as it did not guarantee the
religious freedoms of citizens. ``Democratic centralism`` prevailed over separation of
power among the three branches of the government which led to the dictatorship of one
Person-Colonel Mengistu Hailemariam.

After the collapse of the Military Government, dramatic transformations have been taken
place. Among these, the adoption of federal state structure, the adoption of parliamentary
form of government and the launching of democratization and decentralization are some
of the landmarks. All of these measures uphold multicultural tones and practices. The
basis of the federal structure, for instances, is on the basis of Nation, Nationalities and
Peoples criteria. As it is provided by the Constitution, language, identity, consent and
settlement pattern of peoples were the criteria which led to the institutionalization of Nine
members states of the federal government.

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Special representation rights, recognition of equality of languages, secularism, exemption

rights to religious courts…etc reflects the deep commitment of the constitution towards
accommodating diversities and multiculturalism.

CHECK LIST

S.N ITEMS YES NO

1 Can you define Society, State and Government
2 Can you identify the types of state on the basis of its
economic role
3 Can you describe the features of parliamentary and
presidential form of governments
4 Can you describe the workings of the parliamentary form
of government in Ethiopia
5 Can you list out the powers and functions of the federal
government and states
6 Can you list out the ways of accommodating diversity
7 Can you distinguish between the term secularism and
separation of religion and state
8 Can you distinguish between separation of power and
democratic centralism
9 Can you describe the difference between unitarism and
federalism
10 Can you distinguish between the term Mono-culture and
Multiculturaliam

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If your answer for the above question is NO then please go through the reading
material again!

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