Universe

The universe is all of space and time[a] and

their contents,[10] including planets
planets,, stars
stars,,
galaxies,, and all other forms of matter and
galaxies
energy.. The Big Bang theory is the
energy
prevailing cosmological description of the
development of the universe. According to
this theory, space and time emerged
together 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years
ago,[11] and the universe has been
expanding ever since the Big Bang. While
the spatial size of the entire universe is
unknown,[3] it is possible to measure the
size of the observable universe, which is
approximately 93 billion light-years in
diameter at the present day.
 Universe

The Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image shows

some of the most remote galaxies visible to
present technology (diagonal is ~1/10
apparent Moon diameter)[1]

Age (within ΛCDM 13.787 ± 0.020 billion

model) years[2]

Diameter Unknown.[3]
Observable universe:
8.8 × 1026 m (28.5 Gpc
or 93 Gly)[4]
Mass (ordinary At least 1053 kg[5]
matter)
Average density (with 9.9 × 10−27 kg/m3[6]
energy)

Average temperature 2.725 48 K (−270.4 °C,

−454.8 °F)[7]

Main contents Ordinary (baryonic)

matter (4.9%)
Dark matter (26.8%)
Dark energy (68.3%)[8]

Shape Flat with 4‰ error

margin[9]

Some of the earliest cosmological models

of the universe were developed by ancient
Greek and Indian philosophers and were
geocentric, placing Earth at the
center.[12][13] Over the centuries, more
precise astronomical observations led
Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the
heliocentric model with the Sun at the
center of the Solar System. In developing
the law of universal gravitation, Isaac
Newton built upon Copernicus's work as
well as Johannes Kepler's laws of
planetary motion and observations by
Tycho Brahe.

Further observational improvements led to

the realization that the Sun is one of a few
hundred billion stars in the Milky Way,
which is one of a few hundred billion
galaxies in the observable universe. Many
of the stars in a galaxy have planets. At
the largest scale, galaxies are distributed
uniformly and the same in all directions,
meaning that the universe has neither an
edge nor a center. At smaller scales,
galaxies are distributed in clusters and
superclusters which form immense
filaments and voids in space, creating a
vast foam-like structure.[14] Discoveries in
the early 20th century have suggested that
the universe had a beginning and that
space has been expanding since then[15] at
an increasing rate.[16]
According to the Big Bang theory, the
energy and matter initially present have
become less dense as the universe
expanded. After an initial accelerated
expansion called the inflationary epoch at
around 10−32 seconds, and the separation
of the four known fundamental forces, the
universe gradually cooled and continued to
expand, allowing the first subatomic
particles and simple atoms to form. Dark
matter gradually gathered, forming a
foam-like structure of filaments and voids
under the influence of gravity. Giant clouds
of hydrogen and helium were gradually
drawn to the places where dark matter
was most dense, forming the first galaxies,
stars, and everything else seen today.

From studying the movement of galaxies,

it has been discovered that the universe
contains much more matter than is
accounted for by visible objects; stars,
galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. This
unseen matter is known as dark matter[17]
(dark means that there is a wide range of
strong indirect evidence that it exists, but
we have not yet detected it directly). The
ΛCDM model is the most widely accepted
model of the universe. It suggests that
about 69.2% ± 1.2% of the mass and
energy in the universe is dark energy which
is responsible for the acceleration of the
expansion of space, and about
25.8% ± 1.1% is dark matter.[18] Ordinary
('baryonic') matter is therefore only
4.84% ± 0.1% of the physical universe.[18]
Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only
form about 6% of the ordinary matter.[19]

There are many competing hypotheses

about the ultimate fate of the universe and
about what, if anything, preceded the Big
Bang, while other physicists and
philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting
that information about prior states will
ever be accessible. Some physicists have
suggested various multiverse hypotheses,
in which our universe might be one among
many universes that likewise exist.[3][20][21]

Definition

0:50

Hubble Space Telescope – Ultra deep field galaxies to Legacy field zoom out

(video 00:50; May 2, 2019)

The physical universe is defined as all of

space and time[a] (collectively referred to
as spacetime) and their contents.[10] Such
contents comprise all of energy in its
various forms, including electromagnetic
radiation and matter, and therefore
planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and the
contents of intergalactic space.[22][23][24]
The universe also includes the physical
laws that influence energy and matter,
such as conservation laws, classical
mechanics, and relativity.[25]

The universe is often defined as "the

totality of existence", or everything that
exists, everything that has existed, and
everything that will exist.[25] In fact, some
philosophers and scientists support the
inclusion of ideas and abstract concepts—
such as mathematics and logic—in the
definition of the universe.[27][28][29] The
word universe may also refer to concepts
such as the cosmos, the world, and
nature.[30][31]

Etymology
The word universe derives from the Old
French word univers, which in turn derives
from the Latin word universum.[32] The
Latin word was used by Cicero and later
Latin authors in many of the same senses
as the modern English word is used.[33]

Synonyms
A term for universe among the ancient
Greek philosophers from Pythagoras
onwards was τὸ πᾶν (tò pân) 'the all',
defined as all matter and all space, and τὸ
ὅλον (tò hólon) 'all things', which did not
necessarily include the void.[34][35] Another
synonym was ὁ κόσμος (ho kósmos)
meaning 'the world, the cosmos'.[36]
Synonyms are also found in Latin authors
(totum, mundus, natura)[37] and survive in
modern languages, e.g., the German words
Das All, Weltall, and Natur for universe. The
same synonyms are found in English, such
as everything (as in the theory of
everything), the cosmos (as in cosmology),
the world (as in the many-worlds
interpretation), and nature (as in natural
laws or natural philosophy).[38]

Chronology and the Big Bang

The prevailing model for the evolution of
the universe is the Big Bang theory.[39][40]
The Big Bang model states that the
earliest state of the universe was an
extremely hot and dense one, and that the
universe subsequently expanded and
cooled. The model is based on general
relativity and on simplifying assumptions
such as the homogeneity and isotropy of
space. A version of the model with a
cosmological constant (Lambda) and cold
dark matter, known as the Lambda-CDM
model, is the simplest model that provides
a reasonably good account of various
observations about the universe. The Big
Bang model accounts for observations
such as the correlation of distance and
redshift of galaxies, the ratio of the
number of hydrogen to helium atoms, and
the microwave radiation background.

In this schematic diagram, time passes from left to right, with the universe represented by a disk-shaped "slice" at any
given time. Time and size are not to scale. To make the early stages visible, the time to the afterglow stage (really the first
0.003%) is stretched and the subsequent expansion (really by 1,100 times to the present) is largely suppressed.
The initial hot, dense state is called the
Planck epoch, a brief period extending
from time zero to one Planck time unit of
approximately 10−43 seconds. During the
Planck epoch, all types of matter and all
types of energy were concentrated into a
dense state, and gravity—currently the
weakest by far of the four known forces—
is believed to have been as strong as the
other fundamental forces, and all the
forces may have been unified. The physics
controlling this very early period (including
quantum gravity in the Planck epoch) is
not understood, so we cannot say what, if
anything, happened before time zero. Since
the Planck epoch, space has been
expanding to its present scale, with a very
short but intense period of cosmic inflation
speculated to have occurred within the
first 10−32 seconds.[41] This was a kind of
expansion different from those we can see
around us today. Objects in space did not
physically move; instead the metric that
defines space itself changed. Although
objects in spacetime cannot move faster
than the speed of light, this limitation does
not apply to the metric governing
spacetime itself. This initial period of
inflation would explain why space appears
to be very flat, and much larger than light
could travel since the start of the universe.
Within the first fraction of a second of the
universe's existence, the four fundamental
forces had separated. As the universe
continued to cool down from its
inconceivably hot state, various types of
subatomic particles were able to form in
short periods of time known as the quark
epoch, the hadron epoch, and the lepton
epoch. Together, these epochs
encompassed less than 10 seconds of
time following the Big Bang. These
elementary particles associated stably
into ever larger combinations, including
stable protons and neutrons, which then
formed more complex atomic nuclei
through nuclear fusion. This process,
known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis, only
lasted for about 17 minutes and ended
about 20 minutes after the Big Bang, so
only the fastest and simplest reactions
occurred. About 25% of the protons and all
the neutrons in the universe, by mass, were
converted to helium, with small amounts
of deuterium (a form of hydrogen) and
traces of lithium. Any other element was
only formed in very tiny quantities. The
other 75% of the protons remained
unaffected, as hydrogen nuclei.[42][43]: 27–42 

After nucleosynthesis ended, the universe

entered a period known as the photon
epoch. During this period, the universe was
still far too hot for matter to form neutral
atoms, so it contained a hot, dense, foggy
plasma of negatively charged electrons,
neutral neutrinos and positive nuclei. After
about 377,000 years, the universe had
cooled enough that electrons and nuclei
could form the first stable atoms. This is
known as recombination for historical
reasons; in fact electrons and nuclei were
combining for the first time. Unlike plasma,
neutral atoms are transparent to many
wavelengths of light, so for the first time
the universe also became transparent. The
photons released ("decoupled") when
these atoms formed can still be seen
today; they form the cosmic microwave
background (CMB).[43]: 15–27 

As the universe expands, the energy

density of electromagnetic radiation
decreases more quickly than does that of
matter because the energy of a photon
decreases with its wavelength. At around
47,000 years, the energy density of matter
became larger than that of photons and
neutrinos, and began to dominate the large
scale behavior of the universe. This
marked the end of the radiation-dominated
era and the start of the matter-dominated
era.[44]: 390 
In the earliest stages of the universe, tiny
fluctuations within the universe's density
led to concentrations of dark matter
gradually forming. Ordinary matter,
attracted to these by gravity, formed large
gas clouds and eventually, stars and
galaxies, where the dark matter was most
dense, and voids where it was least dense.
After around 100 – 300 million
years,[44]: 333  the first stars formed, known
as Population III stars. These were
probably very massive, luminous, non
metallic and short-lived. They were
responsible for the gradual reionization of
the universe between about 200–500
million years and 1 billion years, and also
for seeding the universe with elements
heavier than helium, through stellar
nucleosynthesis.[45] The universe also
contains a mysterious energy—possibly a
scalar field—called dark energy, the
density of which does not change over
time. After about 9.8 billion years, the
universe had expanded sufficiently so that
the density of matter was less than the
density of dark energy, marking the
beginning of the present dark-energy-
dominated era.[46] In this era, the
expansion of the universe is accelerating
due to dark energy.

Physical properties
Of the four fundamental interactions,
gravitation is the dominant at astronomical
length scales. Gravity's effects are
cumulative; by contrast, the effects of
positive and negative charges tend to
cancel one another, making
electromagnetism relatively insignificant
on astronomical length scales. The
remaining two interactions, the weak and
strong nuclear forces, decline very rapidly
with distance; their effects are confined
mainly to sub-atomic length scales.[47]: 1470 

The universe appears to have much more

matter than antimatter, an asymmetry
possibly related to the CP violation.[48]
This imbalance between matter and
antimatter is partially responsible for the
existence of all matter existing today,
since matter and antimatter, if equally
produced at the Big Bang, would have
completely annihilated each other and left
only photons as a result of their
interaction.[49] The universe also appears
to have neither net momentum nor angular
momentum, which follows accepted
physical laws if the universe is finite.
These laws are Gauss's law and the non-
divergence of the stress–energy–
momentum pseudotensor.[50]
Size and regions

Television signals broadcast from Earth will never reach the edges of this image.

According to the general theory of

relativity, far regions of space may never
interact with ours even in the lifetime of the
universe due to the finite speed of light and
the ongoing expansion of space. For
example, radio messages sent from Earth
may never reach some regions of space,
even if the universe were to exist forever:
space may expand faster than light can
traverse it.[51]

The spatial region that can be observed

with telescopes is called the observable
universe, which depends on the location of
the observer.
The proper distance—the
distance as would be measured at a
specific time, including the present—
between Earth and the edge of the
observable universe is 46 billion light-
years[52] (14 billion parsecs), making the
diameter of the observable universe about
93 billion light-years (28 billion
parsecs).[52] The distance the light from
the edge of the observable universe has
travelled is very close to the age of the
universe times the speed of light,
13.8 billion light-years (4.2 ×109 pc), but
this does not represent the distance at any
given time because the edge of the
observable universe and the Earth have
since moved further apart.[53] For
comparison, the diameter of a typical
galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198
parsecs), and the typical distance between
two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-
years (919.8 kiloparsecs).[54] As an
example, the Milky Way is roughly
100,000–180,000 light-years in
diameter,[55][56] and the nearest sister
galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda
Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-
years away.[57]

Because we cannot observe space beyond

the edge of the observable universe, it is
unknown whether the size of the universe
in its totality is finite or infinite.[3][58][59]
Estimates suggest that the whole universe,
if finite, must be more than 250 times
larger than a Hubble sphere.[60] Some
disputed[61] estimates for the total size of
the universe, if finite, reach as high as

megaparsecs, as implied by a
suggested resolution of the No-Boundary
Proposal.[62][b]
Age and expansion

Assuming that the Lambda-CDM model is

correct, the measurements of the
parameters using a variety of techniques
by numerous experiments yield a best
value of the age of the universe at 13.799
± 0.021 billion years, as of 2015.[2]

Astronomers have discovered stars in the Milky Way galaxy that are almost 13.6 billion years old.
Over time, the universe and its contents
have evolved; for example, the relative
population of quasars and galaxies has
changed[63] and space itself has
expanded. Due to this expansion,
scientists on Earth can observe the light
from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away
even though that light has traveled for only
13 billion years; the very space between
them has expanded. This expansion is
consistent with the observation that the
light from distant galaxies has been
redshifted; the photons emitted have been
stretched to longer wavelengths and lower
frequency during their journey. Analyses of
Type Ia supernovae indicate that the
spatial expansion is accelerating.[64][65]

The more matter there is in the universe,

the stronger the mutual gravitational pull
of the matter. If the universe were too
dense then it would re-collapse into a
gravitational singularity. However, if the
universe contained too little matter then
the self-gravity would be too weak for
astronomical structures, like galaxies or
planets, to form. Since the Big Bang, the
universe has expanded monotonically.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, our universe has
just the right mass–energy density,
equivalent to about 5 protons per cubic
metre, which has allowed it to expand for
the last 13.8 billion years, giving time to
form the universe as observed today.[66][67]

There are dynamical forces acting on the

particles in the universe which affect the
expansion rate. Before 1998, it was
expected that the expansion rate would be
decreasing as time went on due to the
influence of gravitational interactions in the
universe; and thus there is an additional
observable quantity in the universe called
the deceleration parameter, which most
cosmologists expected to be positive and
related to the matter density of the
universe. In 1998, the deceleration
parameter was measured by two different
groups to be negative, approximately
−0.55, which technically implies that the
second derivative of the cosmic scale
factor has been positive in the last 5–6
billion years.[16][68]

Spacetime

Modern physics regards events as being

organized into spacetime.[69] This idea
originated with the special theory of
relativity, which predicts that if one
observer sees two events happening in
different places at the same time, a
second observer who is moving relative to
the first will be see those events happening
at different times.[70]: 45–52  The two
observers will disagree on the time
between the events, and they will disagree
about the distance separating the
events, but they will agree on the speed of
light , and they will measure the same
value for the combination
.[70]: 80  The square root of the absolute
value of this quantity is called the interval
between the two events. The interval
expresses how widely separated events
are, not just in space or in time, but in the
combined setting of
spacetime.[70]: 84, 136 [71]
The special theory of relativity cannot
account for gravity. Its successor, the
general theory of relativity, explains gravity
by recognizing that spacetime is not fixed
but instead dynamical. In general relativity,
gravitational force is reimagined as
curvature of spacetime. A curved path like
an orbit is not the result of a force
deflecting a body from an ideal straight-
line path, but rather the body's attempt to
fall freely through a background that is
itself curved by the presence of other
masses. A remark by John Archibald
Wheeler that has become proverbial
among physicists summarizes the theory:
"Spacetime tells matter how to move;
matter tells spacetime how to curve."[72][73]
(The Newtonian theory of gravity is a good
approximation to the predictions of
general relativity when gravitational effects
are weak and objects are moving slowly
compared to the speed of light.[74]: 327 [75])
The relation between matter distribution
and spacetime curvature is given by the
Einstein field equations, which require
tensor calculus to express.[76]: 43 [77] The
solutions to these equations include not
only the spacetime of special relativity,
Minkowski spacetime, but also
Schwarzschild spacetimes, which describe
black holes; FLRW spacetime, which
describes an expanding universe; and
more.

The universe appears to be a smooth

spacetime continuum consisting of three
spatial dimensions and one temporal
(time) dimension. Therefore, an event in
the spacetime of the physical universe can
therefore be identified by a set of four
coordinates: (x, y, z, t). On average, space
is observed to be very nearly flat (with a
curvature close to zero), meaning that
Euclidean geometry is empirically true with
high accuracy throughout most of the
Universe.[78] Spacetime also appears to
have a simply connected topology, in
analogy with a sphere, at least on the
length scale of the observable universe.
However, present observations cannot
exclude the possibilities that the universe
has more dimensions (which is postulated
by theories such as the string theory) and
that its spacetime may have a multiply
connected global topology, in analogy with
the cylindrical or toroidal topologies of
two-dimensional spaces.[79][80]

Shape
The three possible options for the shape of the universe

General relativity describes how spacetime

is curved and bent by mass and energy
(gravity). The topology or geometry of the
universe includes both local geometry in
the observable universe and global
geometry. Cosmologists often work with a
given space-like slice of spacetime called
the comoving coordinates. The section of
spacetime which can be observed is the
backward light cone, which delimits the
cosmological horizon. The cosmological
horizon (also called the particle horizon or
the light horizon) is the maximum distance
from which particles can have traveled to
the observer in the age of the universe.
This horizon represents the boundary
between the observable and the
unobservable regions of the universe.[81][82]
The existence, properties, and significance
of a cosmological horizon depend on the
particular cosmological model.

An important parameter determining the

future evolution of the universe theory is
the density parameter, Omega (Ω), defined
as the average matter density of the
universe divided by a critical value of that
density. This selects one of three possible
geometries depending on whether Ω is
equal to, less than, or greater than 1.
These are called, respectively, the flat,
open and closed universes.[83]

Observations, including the Cosmic

Background Explorer (COBE), Wilkinson
Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), and
Planck maps of the CMB, suggest that the
universe is infinite in extent with a finite
age, as described by the Friedmann–
Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW)
models.[84][79][85][86] These FLRW models
thus support inflationary models and the
standard model of cosmology, describing
a flat, homogeneous universe presently
dominated by dark matter and dark
energy.[87][88]

Support of life

The fine-tuned universe hypothesis is the

proposition that the conditions that allow
the existence of observable life in the
universe can only occur when certain
universal fundamental physical constants
lie within a very narrow range of values.
According to this hypothesis, if any of
several fundamental constants were only
slightly different, the universe would have
been unlikely to be conducive to the
establishment and development of matter,
astronomical structures, elemental
diversity, or life as it is understood.
Whether this is true, and whether that
question is even logically meaningful to
ask, are subjects of much debate.[89] The
proposition is discussed among
philosophers, scientists, theologians, and
proponents of creationism.[90]

Composition
The universe is composed almost
completely of dark energy, dark matter,
and ordinary matter. Other contents are
electromagnetic radiation (estimated to
constitute from 0.005% to close to 0.01%
of the total mass-energy of the universe)
and antimatter.[91][92][93]

The proportions of all types of matter and

energy have changed over the history of
the universe.[94] The total amount of
electromagnetic radiation generated within
the universe has decreased by 1/2 in the
past 2 billion years.[95][96] Today, ordinary
matter, which includes atoms, stars,
galaxies, and life, accounts for only 4.9%
of the contents of the Universe.[8] The
present overall density of this type of
matter is very low, roughly 4.5 × 10−31
grams per cubic centimetre, corresponding
to a density of the order of only one proton
for every four cubic metres of volume.[6]
The nature of both dark energy and dark
matter is unknown. Dark matter, a
mysterious form of matter that has not yet
been identified, accounts for 26.8% of the
cosmic contents. Dark energy, which is the
energy of empty space and is causing the
expansion of the universe to accelerate,
accounts for the remaining 68.3% of the
contents.[8][97][98]
The formation of clusters and large-scale filaments in the cold dark matter model with dark energy. The frames show the
evolution of structures in a 43 million parsecs (or 140 million light-years) box from redshift of 30 to the present epoch
(upper left z=30 to lower right z=0).

A map of the superclusters and voids nearest to Earth

Matter, dark matter, and dark energy are

distributed homogeneously throughout the
universe over length scales longer than
300 million light-years or so.[99] However,
over shorter length-scales, matter tends to
clump hierarchically; many atoms are
condensed into stars, most stars into
galaxies, most galaxies into clusters,
superclusters and, finally, large-scale
galactic filaments. The observable
universe contains as many as 200 billion
galaxies[100][101] and, overall, as many as
an estimated 1 × 1024 stars[102][103] (more
stars than all the grains of sand on planet
Earth).[104] Typical galaxies range from
dwarfs with as few as ten million[105] (107)
stars up to giants with one trillion[106]
(1012) stars. Between the larger structures
are voids, which are typically 10–150 Mpc
(33 million–490 million ly) in diameter. The
Milky Way is in the Local Group of
galaxies, which in turn is in the Laniakea
Supercluster.[107] This supercluster spans
over 500 million light-years, while the Local
Group spans over 10 million light-
years.[108] The Universe also has vast
regions of relative emptiness; the largest
known void measures 1.8 billion ly (550
Mpc) across.[109]

Comparison of the contents of the universe today to 380,000 years after the Big Bang as measured with 5 year WMAP data
(from 2008).[110] (Due to rounding errors, the sum of these numbers is not 100%). This reflects the 2008 limits of WMAP's
ability to define dark matter and dark energy.
The observable universe is isotropic on
scales significantly larger than
superclusters, meaning that the statistical
properties of the universe are the same in
all directions as observed from Earth. The
universe is bathed in highly isotropic
microwave radiation that corresponds to a
thermal equilibrium blackbody spectrum of
roughly 2.72548 kelvins.[7] The hypothesis
that the large-scale universe is
homogeneous and isotropic is known as
the cosmological principle.[111] A universe
that is both homogeneous and isotropic
looks the same from all vantage points[112]
and has no center.[113]
Dark energy

An explanation for why the expansion of

the universe is accelerating remains
elusive. It is often attributed to "dark
energy", an unknown form of energy that is
hypothesized to permeate space.[114] On a
mass–energy equivalence basis, the
density of dark energy (~ 7 × 10−30 g/cm3)
is much less than the density of ordinary
matter or dark matter within galaxies.
However, in the present dark-energy era, it
dominates the mass–energy of the
universe because it is uniform across
space.[115][116]
Two proposed forms for dark energy are
the cosmological constant, a constant
energy density filling space
homogeneously,[117] and scalar fields such
as quintessence or moduli, dynamic
quantities whose energy density can vary
in time and space. Contributions from
scalar fields that are constant in space are
usually also included in the cosmological
constant. The cosmological constant can
be formulated to be equivalent to vacuum
energy. Scalar fields having only a slight
amount of spatial inhomogeneity would be
difficult to distinguish from a cosmological
constant.
Dark matter

Dark matter is a hypothetical kind of

matter that is invisible to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum, but which
accounts for most of the matter in the
universe. The existence and properties of
dark matter are inferred from its
gravitational effects on visible matter,
radiation, and the large-scale structure of
the universe. Other than neutrinos, a form
of hot dark matter, dark matter has not
been detected directly, making it one of the
greatest mysteries in modern
astrophysics. Dark matter neither emits
nor absorbs light or any other
electromagnetic radiation at any
significant level. Dark matter is estimated
to constitute 26.8% of the total mass–
energy and 84.5% of the total matter in the
universe.[97][118]

Ordinary matter

The remaining 4.9% of the mass–energy of

the universe is ordinary matter, that is,
atoms, ions, electrons and the objects they
form. This matter includes stars, which
produce nearly all of the light we see from
galaxies, as well as interstellar gas in the
interstellar and intergalactic media,
planets, and all the objects from everyday
life that we can bump into, touch or
squeeze.[119] As a matter of fact, the great
majority of ordinary matter in the universe
is unseen, since visible stars and gas
inside galaxies and clusters account for
less than 10 per cent of the ordinary
matter contribution to the mass-energy
density of the universe.[120][121][122]

Ordinary matter commonly exists in four

states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas, and
plasma.[123] However, advances in
experimental techniques have revealed
other previously theoretical phases, such
as Bose–Einstein condensates and
fermionic condensates.[124][125]
Ordinary matter is composed of two types
of elementary particles: quarks and
leptons.[126] For example, the proton is
formed of two up quarks and one down
quark; the neutron is formed of two down
quarks and one up quark; and the electron
is a kind of lepton. An atom consists of an
atomic nucleus, made up of protons and
neutrons, and electrons that orbit the
nucleus.[47]: 1476  Because most of the
mass of an atom is concentrated in its
nucleus, which is made up of baryons,
astronomers often use the term baryonic
matter to describe ordinary matter,
although a small fraction of this "baryonic
matter" is electrons.
Soon after the Big Bang, primordial
protons and neutrons formed from the
quark–gluon plasma of the early universe
as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A
few minutes later, in a process known as
Big Bang nucleosynthesis, nuclei formed
from the primordial protons and neutrons.
This nucleosynthesis formed lighter
elements, those with small atomic
numbers up to lithium and beryllium, but
the abundance of heavier elements
dropped off sharply with increasing atomic
number. Some boron may have been
formed at this time, but the next heavier
element, carbon, was not formed in
significant amounts. Big Bang
nucleosynthesis shut down after about 20
minutes due to the rapid drop in
temperature and density of the expanding
universe. Subsequent formation of heavier
elements resulted from stellar
nucleosynthesis and supernova
nucleosynthesis.[127]

Particles
Standard model of elementary particles: the 12 fundamental fermions and 4 fundamental bosons. Brown loops indicate
which bosons (red) couple to which fermions (purple and green). Columns are three generations of matter (fermions) and
one of forces (bosons). In the first three columns, two rows contain quarks and two leptons. The top two rows' columns
contain up (u) and down (d) quarks, charm (c) and strange (s) quarks, top (t) and bottom (b) quarks, and photon (γ) and
gluon (g), respectively. The bottom two rows' columns contain electron neutrino (νe) and electron (e), muon neutrino (νμ)
and muon (μ), tau neutrino (ντ) and tau (τ), and the Z 0 and W± carriers of the weak force. Mass, charge, and spin are listed
for each particle.

Ordinary matter and the forces that act on

matter can be described in terms of
elementary particles.[128] These particles
are sometimes described as being
fundamental, since they have an unknown
substructure, and it is unknown whether or
not they are composed of smaller and
even more fundamental particles.[129][130]
All elementary particles are currently best
explained by quantum mechanics and
exhibit wave–particle duality: their
behavior has both particle-like and wave-
like aspects, with different features
dominating under different
circumstances.[131] Of central importance
is the Standard Model, a theory that is
concerned with electromagnetic
interactions and the weak and strong
nuclear interactions.[132] The Standard
Model is supported by the experimental
confirmation of the existence of particles
that compose matter: quarks and leptons,
and their corresponding "antimatter" duals,
as well as the force particles that mediate
interactions: the photon, the W and Z
bosons, and the gluon.[129] The Standard
Model predicted the existence of the
recently discovered Higgs boson, a
particle that is a manifestation of a field
within the universe that can endow
particles with mass.[133][134] Because of its
success in explaining a wide variety of
experimental results, the Standard Model
is sometimes regarded as a "theory of
almost everything".[132] The Standard
Model does not, however, accommodate
gravity. A true force–particle "theory of
everything" has not been attained.[135]

Hadrons

A hadron is a composite particle made of

quarks held together by the strong force.
Hadrons are categorized into two families:
baryons (such as protons and neutrons)
made of three quarks, and mesons (such
as pions) made of one quark and one
antiquark. Of the hadrons, protons are
stable, and neutrons bound within atomic
nuclei are stable. Other hadrons are
unstable under ordinary conditions and are
thus insignificant constituents of the
modern universe.[136]: 118–123  From
approximately 10−6 seconds after the Big
Bang, during a period known as the hadron
epoch, the temperature of the universe had
fallen sufficiently to allow quarks to bind
together into hadrons, and the mass of the
universe was dominated by hadrons.
Initially, the temperature was high enough
to allow the formation of hadron–anti-
hadron pairs, which kept matter and
antimatter in thermal equilibrium. However,
as the temperature of the universe
continued to fall, hadron–anti-hadron pairs
were no longer produced. Most of the
hadrons and anti-hadrons were then
eliminated in particle–antiparticle
annihilation reactions, leaving a small
residual of hadrons by the time the
universe was about one second
old.[136]: 244–66 

Leptons
A lepton is an elementary, half-integer spin
particle that does not undergo strong
interactions but is subject to the Pauli
exclusion principle; no two leptons of the
same species can be in exactly the same
state at the same time.[137] Two main
classes of leptons exist: charged leptons
(also known as the electron-like leptons),
and neutral leptons (better known as
neutrinos). Electrons are stable and the
most common charged lepton in the
universe, whereas muons and taus are
unstable particles that quickly decay after
being produced in high energy collisions,
such as those involving cosmic rays or
carried out in particle accelerators.[138][139]
Charged leptons can combine with other
particles to form various composite
particles such as atoms and positronium.
The electron governs nearly all of
chemistry, as it is found in atoms and is
directly tied to all chemical properties.
Neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and
are consequently rarely observed.
Neutrinos stream throughout the universe
but rarely interact with normal matter.[140]

The lepton epoch was the period in the

evolution of the early universe in which the
leptons dominated the mass of the
universe. It started roughly 1 second after
the Big Bang, after the majority of hadrons
and anti-hadrons annihilated each other at
the end of the hadron epoch. During the
lepton epoch the temperature of the
universe was still high enough to create
lepton–anti-lepton pairs, so leptons and
anti-leptons were in thermal equilibrium.
Approximately 10 seconds after the Big
Bang, the temperature of the universe had
fallen to the point where lepton–anti-
lepton pairs were no longer created.[141]
Most leptons and anti-leptons were then
eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving
a small residue of leptons. The mass of
the universe was then dominated by
photons as it entered the following photon
epoch.[142][143]
Photons

A photon is the quantum of light and all

other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
It is the carrier for the electromagnetic
force. The effects of this force are easily
observable at the microscopic and at the
macroscopic level because the photon has
zero rest mass; this allows long distance
interactions.[47]: 1470 

The photon epoch started after most

leptons and anti-leptons were annihilated
at the end of the lepton epoch, about 10
seconds after the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei
were created in the process of
nucleosynthesis which occurred during the
first few minutes of the photon epoch. For
the remainder of the photon epoch the
universe contained a hot dense plasma of
nuclei, electrons and photons. About
380,000 years after the Big Bang, the
temperature of the Universe fell to the
point where nuclei could combine with
electrons to create neutral atoms. As a
result, photons no longer interacted
frequently with matter and the universe
became transparent. The highly redshifted
photons from this period form the cosmic
microwave background. Tiny variations in
temperature and density detectable in the
CMB were the early "seeds" from which all
subsequent structure formation took
place.[136]: 244–66 

Cosmological models

Model of the universe based on

general relativity

General relativity is the geometric theory of

gravitation published by Albert Einstein in
1915 and the current description of
gravitation in modern physics. It is the
basis of current cosmological models of
the universe. General relativity generalizes
special relativity and Newton's law of
universal gravitation, providing a unified
description of gravity as a geometric
property of space and time, or spacetime.
In particular, the curvature of spacetime is
directly related to the energy and
momentum of whatever matter and
radiation are present. The relation is
specified by the Einstein field equations, a
system of partial differential equations. In
general relativity, the distribution of matter
and energy determines the geometry of
spacetime, which in turn describes the
acceleration of matter. Therefore,
solutions of the Einstein field equations
describe the evolution of the universe.
Combined with measurements of the
amount, type, and distribution of matter in
the universe, the equations of general
relativity describe the evolution of the
universe over time.[144]

With the assumption of the cosmological

principle that the universe is homogeneous
and isotropic everywhere, a specific
solution of the field equations that
describes the universe is the metric tensor
called the Friedmann–Lemaître–
Robertson–Walker metric,

where (r, θ, φ) correspond to a spherical

coordinate system. This metric has only
two undetermined parameters. An overall
dimensionless length scale factor R
describes the size scale of the universe as
a function of time (an increase in R is the
expansion of the universe),[145] and a
curvature index k describes the geometry.
The index k is defined so that it can take
only one of three values: 0, corresponding
to flat Euclidean geometry; 1,
corresponding to a space of positive
curvature; or −1, corresponding to a space
of positive or negative curvature.[146] The
value of R as a function of time t depends
upon k and the cosmological constant
Λ.[144] The cosmological constant
represents the energy density of the
vacuum of space and could be related to
dark energy.[98] The equation describing
how R varies with time is known as the
Friedmann equation after its inventor,
Alexander Friedmann.[147]

The solutions for R(t) depend on k and Λ,

but some qualitative features of such
solutions are general. First and most
importantly, the length scale R of the
universe can remain constant only if the
universe is perfectly isotropic with positive
curvature (k=1) and has one precise value
of density everywhere, as first noted by
Albert Einstein.[144] However, this
equilibrium is unstable: because the
universe is inhomogeneous on smaller
scales, R must change over time. When R
changes, all the spatial distances in the
universe change in tandem; there is an
overall expansion or contraction of space
itself. This accounts for the observation
that galaxies appear to be flying apart; the
space between them is stretching. The
stretching of space also accounts for the
apparent paradox that two galaxies can be
40 billion light-years apart, although they
started from the same point 13.8 billion
years ago[148] and never moved faster than
the speed of light.
Second, all solutions suggest that there
was a gravitational singularity in the past,
when R went to zero and matter and
energy were infinitely dense. It may seem
that this conclusion is uncertain because it
is based on the questionable assumptions
of perfect homogeneity and isotropy (the
cosmological principle) and that only the
gravitational interaction is significant.
However, the Penrose–Hawking singularity
theorems show that a singularity should
exist for very general conditions. Hence,
according to Einstein's field equations, R
grew rapidly from an unimaginably hot,
dense state that existed immediately
following this singularity (when R had a
small, finite value); this is the essence of
the Big Bang model of the universe.
Understanding the singularity of the Big
Bang likely requires a quantum theory of
gravity, which has not yet been
formulated.[149]

Third, the curvature index k determines the

sign of the mean spatial curvature of
spacetime[146] averaged over sufficiently
large length scales (greater than about a
billion light-years). If k=1, the curvature is
positive and the universe has a finite
volume.[150] A universe with positive
curvature is often visualized as a three-
dimensional sphere embedded in a four-
dimensional space. Conversely, if k is zero
or negative, the universe has an infinite
volume.[150] It may seem counter-intuitive
that an infinite and yet infinitely dense
universe could be created in a single
instant when R = 0, but exactly that is
predicted mathematically when k does not
equal 1. By analogy, an infinite plane has
zero curvature but infinite area, whereas an
infinite cylinder is finite in one direction and
a torus is finite in both. A toroidal universe
could behave like a normal universe with
periodic boundary conditions.

The ultimate fate of the universe is still

unknown because it depends critically on
the curvature index k and the cosmological
constant Λ. If the universe were sufficiently
dense, k would equal +1, meaning that its
average curvature throughout is positive
and the universe will eventually recollapse
in a Big Crunch,[151] possibly starting a new
universe in a Big Bounce. Conversely, if the
universe were insufficiently dense, k would
equal 0 or −1 and the universe would
expand forever, cooling off and eventually
reaching the Big Freeze and the heat death
of the universe.[144] Modern data suggests
that the rate of expansion of the universe
is not decreasing, as originally expected,
but increasing; if this continues indefinitely,
the universe may eventually reach a Big
Rip. Observationally, the universe appears
to be flat (k = 0), with an overall density
that is very close to the critical value
between recollapse and eternal
expansion.[152]

Multiverse hypotheses

Some speculative theories have proposed

that our universe is but one of a set of
disconnected universes, collectively
denoted as the multiverse, challenging or
enhancing more limited definitions of the
universe.[20][153] Scientific multiverse
models are distinct from concepts such as
alternate planes of consciousness and
simulated reality.

Max Tegmark developed a four-part

classification scheme for the different
types of multiverses that scientists have
suggested in response to various
problems in physics. An example of such
multiverses is the one resulting from the
chaotic inflation model of the early
universe.[154] Another is the multiverse
resulting from the many-worlds
interpretation of quantum mechanics. In
this interpretation, parallel worlds are
generated in a manner similar to quantum
superposition and decoherence, with all
states of the wave functions being realized
in separate worlds. Effectively, in the
many-worlds interpretation the multiverse
evolves as a universal wavefunction. If the
Big Bang that created our multiverse
created an ensemble of multiverses, the
wave function of the ensemble would be
entangled in this sense.[155] Whether
scientifically meaningful probabilities can
be extracted from this picture has been
and continues to be a topic of much
debate, and multiple versions of the many-
worlds interpretation exist.[156][157][158]
(The subject of the interpretation of
quantum mechanics is in general marked
by disagreement.[159][160][161])
The least controversial, but still highly
disputed, category of multiverse in
Tegmark's scheme is Level I. The
multiverses of this level are composed by
distant spacetime events "in our own
universe". Tegmark and others[162] have
argued that, if space is infinite, or
sufficiently large and uniform, identical
instances of the history of Earth's entire
Hubble volume occur every so often,
simply by chance. Tegmark calculated that
our nearest so-called doppelgänger, is
10115
10 metres away from us (a double
exponential function larger than a
googolplex).[163][164] However, the
arguments used are of speculative
nature.[165] Additionally, it would be
impossible to scientifically verify the
existence of an identical Hubble volume.

It is possible to conceive of disconnected

spacetimes, each existing but unable to
interact with one another.[163][166] An easily
visualized metaphor of this concept is a
group of separate soap bubbles, in which
observers living on one soap bubble
cannot interact with those on other soap
bubbles, even in principle.[167] According to
one common terminology, each "soap
bubble" of spacetime is denoted as a
universe, whereas humans' particular
spacetime is denoted as the universe,[20]
just as humans call Earth's moon the
Moon. The entire collection of these
separate spacetimes is denoted as the
multiverse.[20] With this terminology,
different universes are not causally
connected to each other.[20] In principle,
the other unconnected universes may have
different dimensionalities and topologies
of spacetime, different forms of matter
and energy, and different physical laws
and physical constants, although such
possibilities are purely speculative.[20]
Others consider each of several bubbles
created as part of chaotic inflation to be
separate universes, though in this model
these universes all share a causal
origin.[20]

Historical conceptions
Historically, there have been many ideas of
the cosmos (cosmologies) and its origin
(cosmogonies). Theories of an impersonal
universe governed by physical laws were
first proposed by the Greeks and
Indians.[13] Ancient Chinese philosophy
encompassed the notion of the universe
including both all of space and all of
time.[168] Over the centuries, improvements
in astronomical observations and theories
of motion and gravitation led to ever more
accurate descriptions of the universe. The
modern era of cosmology began with
Albert Einstein's 1915 general theory of
relativity, which made it possible to
quantitatively predict the origin, evolution,
and conclusion of the universe as a whole.
Most modern, accepted theories of
cosmology are based on general relativity
and, more specifically, the predicted Big
Bang.[169]

Mythologies

Many cultures have stories describing the

origin of the world and universe. Cultures
generally regard these stories as having
some truth. There are however many
differing beliefs in how these stories apply
amongst those believing in a supernatural
origin, ranging from a god directly creating
the universe as it is now to a god just
setting the "wheels in motion" (for example
via mechanisms such as the big bang and
evolution).[170]

Ethnologists and anthropologists who

study myths have developed various
classification schemes for the various
themes that appear in creation
stories.[171][172] For example, in one type of
story, the world is born from a world egg;
such stories include the Finnish epic poem
Kalevala, the Chinese story of Pangu or the
Indian Brahmanda Purana. In related
stories, the universe is created by a single
entity emanating or producing something
by him- or herself, as in the Tibetan
Buddhism concept of Adi-Buddha, the
ancient Greek story of Gaia (Mother Earth),
the Aztec goddess Coatlicue myth, the
ancient Egyptian god Atum story, and the
Judeo-Christian Genesis creation narrative
in which the Abrahamic God created the
universe. In another type of story, the
universe is created from the union of male
and female deities, as in the Maori story of
Rangi and Papa. In other stories, the
universe is created by crafting it from pre-
existing materials, such as the corpse of a
dead god—as from Tiamat in the
Babylonian epic Enuma Elish or from the
giant Ymir in Norse mythology—or from
chaotic materials, as in Izanagi and
Izanami in Japanese mythology. In other
stories, the universe emanates from
fundamental principles, such as Brahman
and Prakrti, the creation myth of the
Serers,[173] or the yin and yang of the Tao.

Philosophical models

The pre-Socratic Greek philosophers and

Indian philosophers developed some of
the earliest philosophical concepts of the
universe.[13][174] The earliest Greek
philosophers noted that appearances can
be deceiving, and sought to understand the
underlying reality behind the appearances.
In particular, they noted the ability of
matter to change forms (e.g., ice to water
to steam) and several philosophers
proposed that all the physical materials in
the world are different forms of a single
primordial material, or arche. The first to
do so was Thales, who proposed this
material to be water. Thales' student,
Anaximander, proposed that everything
came from the limitless apeiron.
Anaximenes proposed the primordial
material to be air on account of its
perceived attractive and repulsive qualities
that cause the arche to condense or
dissociate into different forms.
Anaxagoras proposed the principle of
Nous (Mind), while Heraclitus proposed
fire (and spoke of logos). Empedocles
proposed the elements to be earth, water,
air and fire. His four-element model
became very popular. Like Pythagoras,
Plato believed that all things were
composed of number, with Empedocles'
elements taking the form of the Platonic
solids. Democritus, and later philosophers
—most notably Leucippus—proposed that
the universe is composed of indivisible
atoms moving through a void (vacuum),
although Aristotle did not believe that to be
feasible because air, like water, offers
resistance to motion. Air will immediately
rush in to fill a void, and moreover, without
resistance, it would do so indefinitely
fast.[13]

Although Heraclitus argued for eternal

change,[175] his contemporary Parmenides
emphasized changelessness. Parmenides'
poem On Nature has been read as saying
that all change is an illusion, that the true
underlying reality is eternally unchanging
and of a single nature, or at least that the
essential feature of each thing that exists
must exist eternally, without origin, change,
or end.[176] His student Zeno of Elea
challenged everyday ideas about motion
with several famous paradoxes. Aristotle
responded to these paradoxes by
developing the notion of a potential
countable infinity, as well as the infinitely
divisible continuum.[177][178] Unlike the
eternal and unchanging cycles of time, he
believed that the world is bounded by the
celestial spheres and that cumulative
stellar magnitude is only finitely
multiplicative.

The Indian philosopher Kanada, founder of

the Vaisheshika school, developed a
notion of atomism and proposed that light
and heat were varieties of the same
substance.[179] In the 5th century AD, the
Buddhist atomist philosopher Dignāga
proposed atoms to be point-sized,
durationless, and made of energy. They
denied the existence of substantial matter
and proposed that movement consisted of
momentary flashes of a stream of
energy.[180]

The notion of temporal finitism was

inspired by the doctrine of creation shared
by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism,
Christianity and Islam. The Christian
philosopher, John Philoponus, presented
the philosophical arguments against the
ancient Greek notion of an infinite past and
future. Philoponus' arguments against an
infinite past were used by the early Muslim
philosopher, Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish
philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben
Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-
Ghazali (Algazel).[181]

Astronomical concepts

3rd century BCE calculations by Aristarchus on the relative sizes of, from left to right, the Sun, Earth, and Moon, from a 10th-
century AD Greek copy
The earliest written records of identifiable
predecessors to modern astronomy come
from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
from around 3000 to 1200 BCE.[182][183]
Babylonian astronomers of the 7th century
BCE viewed the world as a flat disk
surrounded by the ocean,[184][185] and this
forms the premise for early Greek maps
like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus
of Miletus.

Later Greek philosophers, observing the

motions of the heavenly bodies, were
concerned with developing models of the
universe based more profoundly on
empirical evidence. The first coherent
model was proposed by Eudoxus of
Cnidos, a student of Plato who followed
Plato's idea that heavenly motions had to
be circular. In order to account for the
known complications of the planets'
motions, particularly retrograde
movement, Eudoxus' model included 27
different celestial spheres: four for each of
the planets visible to the naked eye, three
each for the Sun and the Moon, and one
for the stars. All of these spheres were
centered on the Earth, which remained
motionless while they rotated eternally.
Aristotle elaborated upon this model,
increasing the number of spheres to 55 in
order to account for further details of
planetary motion. For Aristotle, normal
matter was entirely contained within the
terrestrial sphere, and it obeyed
fundamentally different rules from
heavenly material.[186][187]

The post-Aristotle treatise De Mundo (of

uncertain authorship and date) stated,
"Five elements, situated in spheres in five
regions, the less being in each case
surrounded by the greater—namely, earth
surrounded by water, water by air, air by
fire, and fire by ether—make up the whole
universe".[188]
This model was also refined by Callippus
and after concentric spheres were
abandoned, it was brought into nearly
perfect agreement with astronomical
observations by Ptolemy.[189] The success
of such a model is largely due to the
mathematical fact that any function (such
as the position of a planet) can be
decomposed into a set of circular
functions (the Fourier modes). Other Greek
scientists, such as the Pythagorean
philosopher Philolaus, postulated
(according to Stobaeus' account) that at
the center of the universe was a "central
fire" around which the Earth, Sun, Moon
and planets revolved in uniform circular
motion.[190]

The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of

Samos was the first known individual to
propose a heliocentric model of the
universe. Though the original text has been
lost, a reference in Archimedes' book The
Sand Reckoner describes Aristarchus's
heliocentric model. Archimedes wrote:

You, King Gelon, are aware the

universe is the name given by
most astronomers to the sphere
the center of which is the center
of the Earth, while its radius is
equal to the straight line
between the center of the Sun
and the center of the Earth. This
is the common account as you
have heard from astronomers.
But Aristarchus has brought out
a book consisting of certain
hypotheses, wherein it appears,
as a consequence of the
assumptions made, that the
universe is many times greater
than the universe just
mentioned. His hypotheses are
that the fixed stars and the Sun
remain unmoved, that the Earth
revolves about the Sun on the
circumference of a circle, the
Sun lying in the middle of the
orbit, and that the sphere of
fixed stars, situated about the
same center as the Sun, is so
great that the circle in which he
supposes the Earth to revolve
bears such a proportion to the
distance of the fixed stars as the
center of the sphere bears to its
surface.[191]
Aristarchus thus believed the stars to be
very far away, and saw this as the reason
why stellar parallax had not been
observed, that is, the stars had not been
observed to move relative each other as
the Earth moved around the Sun. The stars
are in fact much farther away than the
distance that was generally assumed in
ancient times, which is why stellar parallax
is only detectable with precision
instruments. The geocentric model,
consistent with planetary parallax, was
assumed to be the explanation for the
unobservability of stellar parallax.[192]
Flammarion engraving, Paris 1888

The only other astronomer from antiquity

known by name who supported
Aristarchus's heliocentric model was
Seleucus of Seleucia, a Hellenistic
astronomer who lived a century after
Aristarchus.[193][194][195] According to
Plutarch, Seleucus was the first to prove
the heliocentric system through reasoning,
but it is not known what arguments he
used. Seleucus' arguments for a
heliocentric cosmology were probably
related to the phenomenon of tides.[196]
According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was
the first to state that the tides are due to
the attraction of the Moon, and that the
height of the tides depends on the Moon's
position relative to the Sun.[197]
Alternatively, he may have proved
heliocentricity by determining the
constants of a geometric model for it, and
by developing methods to compute
planetary positions using this model, like
what Nicolaus Copernicus later did in the
16th century.[198] During the Middle Ages,
heliocentric models were also proposed
by the Persian astronomers Albumasar[199]
and Al-Sijzi.[200]

Model of the Copernican Universe by Thomas Digges in 1576, with the amendment that the stars are no longer confined to
a sphere, but spread uniformly throughout the space surrounding the planets

The Aristotelian model was accepted in

the Western world for roughly two
millennia, until Copernicus revived
Aristarchus's perspective that the
astronomical data could be explained
more plausibly if the Earth rotated on its
axis and if the Sun were placed at the
center of the universe.[201]

In the center rests the Sun. For

who would place this lamp of a
very beautiful temple in another
or better place than this
wherefrom it can illuminate
everything at the same time?

— Nicolaus Copernicus, in
Chapter 10, Book 1 of De
Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestrum (1543)
As noted by Copernicus himself, the notion
that the Earth rotates is very old, dating at
least to Philolaus (c. 450 BC), Heraclides
Ponticus (c. 350 BC) and Ecphantus the
Pythagorean. Roughly a century before
Copernicus, the Christian scholar Nicholas
of Cusa also proposed that the Earth
rotates on its axis in his book, On Learned
Ignorance (1440).[202] Al-Sijzi[203] also
proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis.
Empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation
on its axis, using the phenomenon of
comets, was given by Tusi (1201–1274)
and Ali Qushji (1403–1474).[204]
This cosmology was accepted by Isaac
Newton, Christiaan Huygens and later
scientists.[205] Newton demonstrated that
the same laws of motion and gravity apply
to earthly and to celestial matter, making
Aristotle's division between the two
obsolete. Edmund Halley (1720)[206] and
Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux (1744)[207]
noted independently that the assumption
of an infinite space filled uniformly with
stars would lead to the prediction that the
nighttime sky would be as bright as the
Sun itself; this became known as Olbers'
paradox in the 19th century.[208] Newton
believed that an infinite space uniformly
filled with matter would cause infinite
forces and instabilities causing the matter
to be crushed inwards under its own
gravity.[205] This instability was clarified in
1902 by the Jeans instability criterion.[209]
One solution to these paradoxes is the
Charlier Universe, in which the matter is
arranged hierarchically (systems of
orbiting bodies that are themselves
orbiting in a larger system, ad infinitum) in
a fractal way such that the universe has a
negligibly small overall density; such a
cosmological model had also been
proposed earlier in 1761 by Johann
Heinrich Lambert.[54][210]
During the 18th century, Immanuel Kant
speculated that nebulae could be entire
galaxies separate from the Milky Way,[206]
and in 1850, Alexander von Humboldt
called these separate galaxies Weltinseln,
or "world islands", a term that later
developed into "island universes".[211][212]
In 1919, when the Hooker Telescope was
completed, the prevailing view still was
that the universe consisted entirely of the
Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker
Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified
Cepheid variables in several spiral nebulae
and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that
Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum
among others, were entire galaxies outside
our own, thus proving that universe
consists of a multitude of galaxies.[213]

The modern era of physical cosmology

began in 1917, when Albert Einstein first
applied his general theory of relativity to
model the structure and dynamics of the
universe.[214] The discoveries of this era,
and the questions that remain
unanswered, are outlined in the sections
above.
Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases
exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.

Location of the Earth in the Universe

Earth Solar System Radcliffe Wave Orion Arm Milky Way

 Local Group Virgo SCl Laniakea SCl Our Universe

See also
Cosmic Calendar (scaled down timeline)
Cosmic latte
Detailed logarithmic timeline
Earth's location in the universe
False vacuum
Future of an expanding universe
Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey
Heat death of the universe
History of the center of the Universe
Illustris project
 Non-standard cosmology
Nucleocosmochronology
Parallel universe (fiction)
Rare Earth hypothesis
Space and survival
Terasecond and longer
Timeline of the early universe
Timeline of the far future
Timeline of the near future
Zero-energy universe

References
Footnotes
 a. According to modern physics, particularly
the theory of relativity, space and time are
intrinsically linked as spacetime.
b. Although listed in megaparsecs by the
cited source, this number is so vast that its
digits would remain virtually unchanged for
all intents and purposes regardless of
which conventional units it is listed in,
whether it to be nanometres or
gigaparsecs, as the differences would
disappear into the error.

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External links
Universe
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Commons
Quotations
from
Wikiquote
NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
(NED) (http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/) /
(NED-Distances (http://ned.ipac.caltech.
edu/Library/Distances/) ).
There are about 1082 atoms in the
observable universe (https://www.livesci
ence.com/how-many-atoms-in-univers
e.html) – LiveScience, July 2021.
This is why we will never know everything
about our universe (https://www.forbes.c
om/sites/startswithabang/2019/05/21/
this-is-why-we-will-never-know-everythin
g-about-our-universe/) – Forbes, May
2019.

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