University of Hail CE 305

Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Structural Analysis l
CE 305

Types of structures and loads

&
Statically determinate structures

Instructor: Dr. Omar Algassem

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Introduction:
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in
other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels,
mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures are important.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Classification of structures:
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of elements
composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as to their form and
function.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Structural elements:
Some of the more common elements from which structures are composed are as follows.

Tie rods Beams columns

Structural members subjected to a tensile Beams are usually straight horizontal members used Members that are generally vertical and
force are often referred to as tie rods or primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are resist axial compressive loads are
bracing struts. classified according to the way they are supported. referred to as columns,

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of structures:
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.

Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss
may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of structures:
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.

Cables and Arches

Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible
and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges. The arch achieves its strength in
compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the cable.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of structures:
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.

Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin or fixed
connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of structures:
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.

Surface Structures
A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared to its other dimensions.
Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of loads:
Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it becomes necessary to determine the
loads the structure must support. A structure is generally subjected to several types of loads including:

Dead Loads
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any objects that are
permanently attached to the structure.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of loads:
Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it becomes necessary to determine the
loads the structure must support. A structure is generally subjected to several types of loads including:

Live Loads
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of objects
temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. Various types of live loads include:
• Building Loads: The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads.
• Highway Bridge Loads: The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the heaviest
vehicle loading encountered is that caused by a series of trucks.
• Railroad Bridge Loads: The loadings on railroad bridges are specified in the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges
• Impact Loads: Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and therefore they
impart an impact to the deck.
• Wind Loads: When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of
pressure, which causes a wind loading.
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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 1: Types of structures and loads

Types of loads:
Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it becomes necessary to determine the
loads the structure must support. A structure is generally subjected to several types of loads including:

Live Loads
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of objects
temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. Various types of live loads include:
• Snow Loads: In some parts of the country, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe, and therefore protection
against possible failure is of primary concern..
• Earthquake Loads: Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and its
response characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion caused by the
ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the structure.
• Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure: When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure
developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their design. Examples
of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining walls.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:
An exact analysis of a structure can never be carried out, since estimates always have to be made of the loadings
and the strength of the materials composing the structure. Furthermore, points of application for the loadings
must also be estimated. It is important, therefore, that the structural engineer develop the ability to model or
idealize a structure so that he or she can perform a practical force analysis of the members

Support Connections
Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on the intent of the designer. The three types
of joints most often specified are the pin connection, the roller support, and the fixed joint.

A pin-connected joint and a roller support allow some freedom for slight rotation, whereas a fixed joint allows no
relative rotation between the connected members and is consequently more expensive to fabricate.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:

Support Connections
Examples of these joints, fashioned in metal and concrete, are shown in Figs. 2–1 and 2–2.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:

Support Connections
Idealized models used in structural analysis that represent pinned and fixed supports and pin-connected and
fixed-connected joints are shown in Figs. 2–3a and 2–3b.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:

Support Connections
When selecting a particular model for each support or joint, the engineer must be aware of how the
assumptions will affect the actual performance of the member and whether the assumptions are reasonable for
the structural design. For example, consider the beam shown in Fig. 2–4a, which is used to support a
concentrated load P. The angle connection at support A is like that in Fig. 2–1a and can therefore be idealized as
a typical pin support. Furthermore, the support at B provides an approximate point of smooth contact and so it
can be idealized as a roller. The beam’s thickness can be neglected since it is small in comparison to the beam’s
length, and therefore the idealized model of the beam is as shown in Fig. 2–4b.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:

Support Connections
Other types of connections most commonly encountered on coplanar structures are given in Table 2–1. It is
important to be able to recognize the symbols for these connections and the kinds of reactions they exert on
their attached members.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:
Having stated the various ways in which the connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now ready to
discuss some of the techniques used to represent various structural systems by idealized models.

As a first example, consider the jib crane and trolley in Fig.

2–5a. For the structural analysis we can neglect the
thickness of the two main members and will assume that
the joint at B is fabricated to be rigid. Furthermore, the
support connection at A can be modeled as a fixed support
and the details of the trolley excluded. Thus, the members
of the idealized structure are represented by two
connected lines, and the load on the hook is represented
by a single concentrated force F, Fig. 2–5b.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:
Having stated the various ways in which the connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now ready to
discuss some of the techniques used to represent various structural systems by idealized models.

Consider, for example, the framing used to support a typical

floor slab in a building, Fig. 2–6a. Here the slab is supported
by floor joists located at even intervals, and these in turn
are supported by the two side girders AB and CD. For
analysis it is reasonable to assume that the joints are pin
and/or roller connected to the girders and that the girders
are pin and/or roller connected to the columns. The top
view of the structural framing plan for this system is shown
in Fig. 2–6b.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:
Having stated the various ways in which the connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now ready to
discuss some of the techniques used to represent various structural systems by idealized models.

If reinforced concrete construction is used, the beams and

girders are represented by double lines. These systems are
generally all fixed connected and therefore the members
are drawn to the supports. For example, the structural
graphic for the cast-in-place reinforced concrete system in
Fig. 2–9a is shown in top view in Fig. 2–9b. The lines for the
beams are dashed because they are below the slab.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Idealized structure:
Having stated the various ways in which the connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now ready to
discuss some of the techniques used to represent various structural systems by idealized models.

Structural graphics and idealizations for timber structures

are similar to those made of metal. For example, the
structural system shown in Fig. 2–10a represents beam-wall
construction, whereby the roof deck is supported by wood
joists, which deliver the load to a masonry wall. The joists
can be assumed to be simply supported on the wall, so that
the idealized framing plan would be like that shown in Fig.
2–10b.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Tributary loadings:
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are supported by a structural frame, it is necessary to
determine how the load on these surfaces is transmitted to the various structural elements used for their
support. There are generally two ways in which this can be done. The choice depends on the geometry of the
structural system, the material from which it is made, and the method of its construction.

Consider the slab and framing plan in Fig. 2–12b.

According to the American Concrete Institute, ACI 318
code, if L2/L1 and if the span ratio (L2/L1 > 2), the slab
will behave as a one-way slab, since as becomes
smaller, the beams AB, CD, and EF provide the greater
stiffness to carry the load.
If, according to the ACI 318 concrete code the support
ratio in Fig. 2–12b is the load is assumed to be
delivered to the supporting beams and girders in two
directions. When this is the case the slab is referred to
as a two-way slab.
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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Tributary loadings:
One-Way System: A slab or deck that is supported such that it
delivers its load to the supporting members by one-way action, is
often referred to as a one-way slab. To illustrate the method of load
transmission, consider the framing system shown in Fig. 2–11a
where the beams AB, CD, and EF rest on the girders AE and BF. If a
uniform load of is placed on the slab, then the center beam CD is
assumed to support the load acting on the tributary area shown
dark shaded on the structural framing plan in Fig. 2–11b. Member
CD is therefore subjected to a linear distribution of load of shown on
the idealized beam in Fig. 2–11c. The reactions on this beam (2500
lb) would then be applied to the center of the girders AE (and BF),
shown idealized in Fig. 2–11d.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Tributary loadings:
To show one method of treating this case, consider the square reinforced concrete slab in Fig. 2–13a, which is
supported by four 10-ft-long edge beams, AB,BD, DC, and CA. Here Due to two-way slab action, the assumed
tributary area for beam AB is shown dark shaded in Fig. 2–13b. This area is determined by constructing diagonal
45° lines as shown. Hence if a uniform load of is applied to the slab, a peak intensity of will be applied to the
center of beam AB, resulting in a triangular load distribution shown in Fig. 2–13c.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Part 2: Analysis of statically determinate structures

Tributary loadings:
For other geometries that cause two-way action, a similar procedure can be used. For example, if it is then
necessary to construct 45° lines that intersect as shown in Fig. 2–14a. A loading placed on the slab will then
produce trapezoidal and triangular distributed loads on members AB and AC, Fig. 2–14b and 2–14c, respectively.

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 University of Hail CE 305
Civil Engineering Department Structural Analysis l

Thank you
for
listening

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