MODULE 3: BASIC ELECTRICITY

Learning Objectives:
After finishing this lesson, you must be able to:
1. comprehend on the basic principles of electricity;
2. discuss the basic types of electrical circuits;
3. identify basic automotive electrical components; and
4. describe and explain the function/s of various automotive electrical systems.

I. Fundamentals of Electricity

What Is Electricity?

Electricity is everywhere in our lives. Electricity can exist in a number of forms,

but there are two types of commonly used electricity:

1. Direct Current, which is provided by batteries; and

2. Alternating Current which is provided by electric utilities or other power

generators in the form of electrons--called current--flowing through a wire--
called a conductor.

But what is electricity? Where does it come

from? How does it work? What are the hazards?
Before we understand all that, we need to know a
little bit about atoms and their structure.

Electrons

To gain an insight into how electricity flows through a

material, we need to understand the structure of atoms – the
nature's building blocks.

All matter is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms. Each atom is
comprised of protons, which are positively charged; neutrons, which have no charge;
and electrons, which are negatively charged. The protons form the nucleus of the atom
and the electrons travel in orbits around the nucleus much like the earth travels
around the sun.

Protons and electrons follow specific laws of attraction. Since they have opposite
charges, they attract to one another. If an atom has the same number of protons as
electrons, then the atom is balanced, and stable. The orbiting electrons remain in their
orbits as long as nothing upsets the balance.
 When something upsets this balance, then some of the electrons become "knocked"
out of their orbits. The are called "free electrons". This unbalanced condition can be
caused by rubbing cat's fur on amber, passing a wire through a magnetic field, or
putting two chemicals together, as in a dry cell battery.

The free electrons are attracted to atoms where there is an electron missing and will
fill the space just vacated by the first free electron. When this conditions occurs
continuously, the movement of electrons becomes the basis for the flow of electrical
energy we call "current".

Conductors

Materials that are made up of atoms whose electrons are easily freed are called
conductive materials or "conductors". Platinum, gold, and silver are examples of the
very best conductors of electricity. Gold is used extensively in small quantities for
high-value products like microelectronics, high quality audio components, computer
chips and telecommunications satellites.

Copper and aluminum are also quite excellent conductors of electricity and much
less expensive. Almost all electrical wiring is
aluminum or copper.

Insulators

Insulators are materials that have structural properties

exactly opposite of conductors. These materials are made up
of atoms whose electrons are not easily "freed". These
electrons are said to be tightly bound to the nucleus, and are
very stable.
 Insulators are used to prevent the flow of electrical
current. The rubberized power cord and plastic
coverings on appliances are typical examples of
insulators. Glass, rubber, porcelain, and most plastics
are good insulators.

Voltage

Voltage is the electrical force that causes free

electrons to move from one atom to another. Just as
water needs some pressure to force it through a pipe,
electrical current needs some force to make it flow.
"Volts" is the measure of "electrical pressure" that
causes current flow. Voltage is sometimes referred to
as the measure of a potential difference between two points along a conductor.

The scientific symbol for voltage is an "E", dating to early days of electricity when
it was called the "Electromotive force". Scientists and engineers use the "E" symbol for
voltage, while electricians and wiring books use "V" as the voltage symbol.

Current

Current is a measure of the rate of electron flow

through a material. Electrical current is measured
in units of amperes or "amps" for short. This flow of
electrical current develops when electrons are
forced from one atom to another.

When current flows in a conductor, heat is produced. This happens because every
conductor offers some resistance to current flowing.

That is why the amperage flow in a circuit is important, since the more amps
flowing, the more heat is produced. Most people notice this heating effect when the
cord of any appliance or electrical device heats up after the device has been running
for an extended period.

The scientific symbol for amperage is an "I", dating back to the early days of
electricity. It is still used by scientists and engineers. Electricians and wiring guides
use "A" as the amperage symbol.

Resistance

Electrical resistance is defined as the resistance to flow of electricity through a

material. Resistance can also be considered a measurement of how tightly a material
holds onto its electrons. For example, common resistance elements in a circuit are
lights, motors, and electrical resistance heaters.
 The electrical resistance of a material is measured in units called "ohms". The lower
the resistance of a material, the better the material acts as a conductor. For example,
copper has a lower electrical resistance than aluminum; copper is a better conductor.

We can use a water piping system as an

analogy. The resistance in the water pipe to the
flow of water comes mainly from the size of the
pipe. Rust and corrosion inside the pipe,
objects stuck inside the pipe, and the number
of bends and fittings all add up to increase the
resistance to the flow of water.

The scientific symbol for electrical

resistance, which is measured in ohms, is the
Greek letter Omega. Electricians and practical
wiring books typically use an "R" to represent resistance.

Power

The ability to do work. Watt is the standard unit in the metric system. 746 watts
equals one horsepower in the English system of units.

Energy

Electrical energy is the average amount of power used over a given time period and
is commonly measured in "kilowatt-hours." Electric utility electric meters accurately
measure the kilowatt-hour energy use by the customer, and may also measure peak
power use during a specified time interval.
The Ohm’s Law - How Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Units of Measurement

To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we

need to be able to describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify
mass, temperature, volume, length, or any other kind of physical quantity. For mass
we might use the units of “kilogram” or “gram.”

Here are the standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and
resistance:

The “symbol” given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to
represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are
common in the disciplines of physics and engineering and are internationally
recognized.

Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity:

The amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian
Alessandro Volta, and the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm.

The Ohm’s Law Equation

Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal
conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for
any given temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation,
describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by

resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two
variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:
Analyzing Simple Circuits with Ohm’s Law

Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and
only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very
easy to apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the values of any two of the three quantities
(voltage, current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine
the third.

Example 1: We will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit, given values of
voltage (E) and resistance (R):

Problem: What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?

Example 2: We will calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit, given values of voltage
(E) and current (I):

Problem: What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the lamp?

Example 3: We will calculate the amount of voltage supplied by a battery, given values
of current (I) and resistance (R):

Problem: What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?

Ohm’s Law Triangle Technique

Ohm’s Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits. It is used
so often in the study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to
memory by the serious student. For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra,
there’s a trick to remembering how to solve for anyone quantity, given the other two.
First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:

If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate

R from the picture and see what’s left:

If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and

see what’s left:

Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate

E and see what’s left:
Automotive Electrical Components and Circuits

Cars and light trucks have extensive electrical systems with lots of wiring and
hundreds of circuits. An electrical circuit is basically a route or path through which
electrons flow. An electrical circuit must form a complete loop so the current will
continue to flow. The electrons need a return path back to their source (the battery or
alternator) otherwise they have no place to go.

The Components of an electrical circuit are the following:

1. Power source
2. Circuit protection device
3. Conductors
4. Load
5. Control device
6. Ground

1. Power Source - In
automotive circuits, the
source is typically the
battery. It provides
electrical energy to all
circuits in the vehicle.

2. Protection device - Circuits require protection from excessive current.

Excessive current generates heat and can damage wires, connectors, and
components. Fuses, fusible links, and circuit breakers protect circuits by
opening the circuit path when there is too much current.

a. Automotive fuses are a class of fuses used to protect the wiring and
electrical equipment for vehicles. They are generally rated for circuits no
higher than 32 volts direct current, but some types are rated for 42-volt
 electrical systems. Automotive fuses are typically housed inside one or
more fuse boxes (also called an integrated power module (IPM)) within the
vehicle, typically on one side of the engine compartment and/or under the
dash near the steering wheel.

Types of Fuses used in automotive application

Color Coding for Fuses of Different Amperage Ratings

b. Fusible link is a short piece of insulated low-voltage cable within

an automotive wiring harness that is designed to protect the harness in
applications where a fuse is unsuitable.
 c. Circuit breaker is an electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overcurrent/overload or short circuit. Its basic
function is to interrupt current flow after protective
relays detect a fault.

3. Load - The load can be any component that uses electricity to do work:

a. Light
b. Coil
c. Motor

4. Control device - The simplest control device is a switch. A switch opens or

closes the path for current. Close the switch and current is present to operate
the load. Open the switch and current stops. The load no longer operates.

A control device can do more than just turn the load on or off. It can also regulate
how the load works by varying the amount of current in the circuit. A dimmer
is an example of such a control device.

There are other types of control devices:

a. Relays- Relays are switches controlled by electrical power, like another

switch, computer or control module. The purpose of an automotive
relay is to automate this power to switch electrical circuits on and
off at particular times. However, the real benefit behind a relay is more
than just automation; they also provide the ability to switch multiple
circuits, including different voltage types, within the same relay at the
same time.

b. Transistors- A transistor can be used as an amplifier to control

electric motor speed such as AC blower motors, or as solid-state
switches to control actuators such as fuel injectors.
c. ECUs (Electronic Control Unit)- An engine control unit (ECU), also
commonly called an engine control module (ECM) is a type
of electronic control unit that controls a series of actuators on
an internal combustion engine to ensure optimal engine performance.
It does this by reading values from a multitude of sensors within the
engine bay, interpreting the data using multidimensional performance
maps and adjusting the engine actuators.
5. Ground - The connection to
ground provides a "shortcut"
back to the source. Ground is
typically any major metal part of
a vehicle. You can think of
ground as a zero-voltage
reference. Ground provides a
common connection that all
circuits can use so that they do
not have to be wired all the way
back to the battery.

The circuit type is determined by how the power source, protection

devices, conductors, loads, control devices, and grounds are connected.

There are essentially two kinds of automotive electrical circuits:

1. Series Circuit is one in which all the circuit elements are connected end-to-end
in chain-like fashion. The current has only one path to follow so the amount of
current passing through it will be the same throughout. The total resistance in
a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances within each
circuit element. If one
element in a series circuit
goes bad, continuity is
broken and the entire circuit
goes dead because the
current cannot complete its
journey through the circuit.

Example of a series circuit

2. Parallel Circuit- In a parallel circuit more than one electrical component is

connected across the same electrical supply or connections. Both headlamps
are effectively connected across the battery and therefore both have 12 volts fed
to them. Because the headlamp bulbs have the same resistance, the same
current will flow through them.
 Parallel circuits are
often used with lighting
systems. Their great
advantage is that if one
bulb breaks, current will
still reach the others.

Example of Parallel Circuit

3. Series-Parallel- In this type of circuit, part of the circuit might have loads in
series while in another part the loads would be parallel.
Automotive Electrical Systems

The vehicle’s electrical system's main function is to generate, store and supply the
electric current to various systems of a vehicle. It operates the electrical
components/parts in vehicles. These components include several electrical gauges,
digital gadgets, power windows, central locking mechanisms, and many more.

1. Charging System - The purpose of the charging system is to: (a) maintain the
charge in the vehicle’s battery, and (b) to provide the main source of electrical
energy while the engine is running.

If the charging system stopped working, the battery’s charge would soon be
depleted, leaving the car with a “dead battery.” If the battery is weak and the
alternator is not working, the engine may not have enough electrical current to
fire the spark plugs, so the engine will stop running.

The charging system has three main components: the alternator, the
voltage regulator, and the batteries.

a. The alternator generates electrical power to run accessories and to

recharge the batteries. It is normally driven by a belt located off the
crankshaft.

b. The voltage regulator controls the alternator’s output. It senses when

the batteries need recharging, or when the vehicles electrical needs
increase, and adjusts the alternators output accordingly.

c. The batteries are a reservoir of chemical electrical power. Their

primary purpose is to crank the engine. They also supply power to vehicle
accessories when the electrical load is too great for the alternator to
handle alone.
 A Charging system using A Charging system using IC voltage
mechanical voltage regulator which is located inside the
regulator (obsolete type) alternator itself (used in today’s vehicles)

2. Starting System- The starting system converts electrical energy from the
batteries into mechanical energy to turn the engine over. A malfunction within
the starting system will make it difficult to get the engine running.

In order to properly service the starting system, you need to understand how
it operates. The starting system has five main components: the ignition switch
or start button, a neutral safety switch (an option on some vehicles), the
starter solenoid, the starter motor, and the batteries.

a. A cars ignition switch has multipurpose utility. As its name implies, the
first and foremost function is to engage the ignition system of the car, or to
start the car from a dead state. Secondly, it can provide access to various
features or accessories of the car, like the stereo system, the radio, the
windshield wiper, the headlights, brake oil levels, gasoline levels, dashboard
backlight etc.

b. The neutral safety switch is a safety device that only allows you to start
your engine when the automatic transmission is in either Park or Neutral.
The purpose of the neutral safety switch is to prevent the car from starting
while in gear, which would cause it to launch forward unexpectedly.

c. The starter solenoid serves primarily as an electric switch for the starter
motor. When the ignition is engaged, the solenoid completes the circuit
between the vehicle's battery and the starter motor.

d. A starter or starter motor is an electrical device that used to rotate (crank)

internal combustion engines so as to initiate the engine’s operation under its
own power. As soon as the engine begins to run, it got disconnected from the
 engine, which now relies on the combustion process. The component is
mounted on the engine’s gearbox housing.

e. Battery (already discussed under charging system)

3. Lighting System- The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lighting

and signaling devices mounted on the front, rear, sides, and in some cases on
the top of a motor vehicle, and lights the roadway for the driver. The lighting
system also makes the vehicle more visible, especially in low light conditions.