ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENTS

DESIGN AND SIMULATION

OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
WITH MATLAB

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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DEVELOPMENTS

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 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENTS

DESIGN AND SIMULATION

OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
WITH MATLAB

L. ASHOK KUMAR
S. ALBERT ALEXANDER
AND
Y. UMA MAHESWARI
Copyright © 2022 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52305/TENI4746

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Contents

Preface ........................................................................................ xi
Acknowledgments ................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to MATLAB ............................................ 1
Abstract ........................................................................... 1
1.1. Introduction .............................................................. 1
1.2. How to Start with MATLAB?.................................. 3
1.3. MATLAB: A Calculator .......................................... 5
1.4. Basic Features of MATLAB .................................. 12
1.5. Creating Files in MATLAB ................................... 31
1.6. Circuit Descriptions ............................................... 37
1.7. Types of other Circuit Simulators .......................... 44
1.8. Merits and Demerits of MATLAB......................... 47
Conclusion .................................................................... 48
References ..................................................................... 51
Chapter 2 Introduction to Electrical Machines .......................... 53
Abstract ......................................................................... 53
2.1. Introduction ............................................................ 53
2.2. Generation, Transmission
and Distribution Systems ........................................ 54
2.3. Electromechanical Energy Conversion .................. 59
2.4. Magnetic Circuits ................................................... 61
vi Contents

2.5. Single and Three Phase AC Circuits ...................... 62

2.6. Transformers .......................................................... 66
2.7. Overview of Basic Electrical Machines ................. 69
Conclusion .................................................................... 72
References ..................................................................... 75
Chapter 3 DC Machines Using MATLAB .................................. 77
Abstract ......................................................................... 77
3.1. Introduction to DC Generator ................................ 77
3.2. Theory of Operation ............................................... 78
3.3. Modelling of DC Generator ................................... 79
3.4. Introduction to DC Motor ...................................... 82
3.5. Theory of Operation ............................................... 82
3.6. Starting of DC Motor ............................................. 85
3.7. Speed Control of DC Motor ................................... 87
3.8. Two Quadrant Operation of DC Drives
(Single Phase Rectifier) .......................................... 89
3.9. Two Quadrant Operation of DC Drives
(Three Phase Rectifier) ........................................... 92
3.10. Chopper Fed DC Drive ........................................ 94
3.11. One Quadrant Chopper Fed DC Drive ................. 98
3.12. Two Quadrant Chopper Fed DC Drive .............. 102
3.13. Four Quadrant Chopper Fed DC Drive .............. 103
3.14. Four Quadrant Operation of DC Drive
with Rectifier ........................................................ 105
3.15. Four Quadrant Operation with Three
Phase Rectifier ...................................................... 108
Conclusion .................................................................. 111
References ................................................................... 112
 Contents vii

Chapter 4 Induction Machines and Drives

Using MATLAB ........................................................ 115
Abstract ....................................................................... 115
4.1. Induction Generator ............................................. 116
4.2. Simulink Model of an Induction Generator ......... 117
4.3. Induction Motor ................................................... 119
4.4. Simulink Model of an Induction Motor ............... 120
4.5. Speed Control Methods of
an Induction Motor ............................................... 123
4.6. Speed Control of Single Phase
Induction Motor .................................................... 127
4.7. Phase Controlled Induction Motor ....................... 128
4.8. Frequency Controlled Induction Motor
Drive ..................................................................... 130
4.9. Vector Controlled Induction Motor Drive ........... 132
4.10. Real Time Application of
Induction Machine .............................................. 136
Conclusion .................................................................. 137
References ................................................................... 138
Chapter 5 Synchronous Machines and Drives
Using MATLAB ........................................................ 139
Abstract ....................................................................... 139
5.1. Introduction .......................................................... 139
5.2. Construction of Synchronous Motor .................... 140
5.3. Types of Synchronous Motor ............................... 144
5.4. Working Principle of Synchronous Motor ........... 146
5.5. Characteristics of Synchronous Motor ................. 148
5.6. Starting Methods of Synchronous Motor ............. 148
5.7. Simulink Model of Cylindrical-Rotor
Synchronous Generator ........................................ 149
5.8. Simulink Model of Synchronous Generator
Connected to Grid................................................. 150
5.9. Simulink Model of Synchronous Motor .............. 152
viii Contents

5.10. Effect of Field Excitation

and Mechanical Load ........................................... 154
5.11. Starting Methods Using Matlab/Simulink ......... 157
5.12. Simulink Models of Real
Time Applications .............................................. 163
5.13. Application Areas of Synchronous Motor ......... 166
Conclusion .................................................................. 172
References ................................................................... 172
Chapter 6 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB ........ 173
Abstract ....................................................................... 173
6.1. Introduction .......................................................... 173
6.2. Stepper Motors ..................................................... 174
6.3. Types of Stepper Motor ....................................... 175
6.4. Applications of Stepper Motors ........................... 178
6.5. Simulink Model of Variable Reluctance
Stepper Motor ....................................................... 179
6.6. Simulink Model of Permanent Magnet
Stepping Motor ..................................................... 182
6.7. Simulink Model of Hybrid Stepper Motor ........... 183
6.8. Simulink Model of PMDC Motor ........................ 185
6.9. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor............... 187
6.10. Simulink Model of Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor .............................................. 189
6.11. Servomotors (AC and DC) ................................. 192
6.12. BLDc Motor ....................................................... 200
Conclusion .................................................................. 212
References ................................................................... 212
 Contents ix

Appendix ..................................................................................... 215

Simulation of Four Quadrant Operation
of Three-Phase Induction Motor........................... 215
Simulation of Single Phase Fully Controlled
Converter for RLE Load ....................................... 218
Simulation of Single-Phase Dual Converter ............... 220
Simulation of Three-Phase Fully Controlled
Converter with RLE Load .................................... 223
Simulation of Three-Phase Full Bridge Inverter ......... 226
Simulation of Single Phase PWM Inverter ................. 231
Simulation of Multilevel Inverter ............................... 234
Simulation of Three Phase AC
Voltage Controller ................................................ 237
Simulation of Three Phase Cycloconverter................. 240
Simulation of Current Source Inverter ........................ 242
Simulation of Automatic Voltage Regulation
of Three Phase Synchronous Generator ............... 245
Authors’ Contact Information ........................................................... 249
Index ..................................................................................... 251
 PREFACE

The book covers the wide range of topics ranging from the
fundamentals of MATLAB, electrical machines and the step by step
approach in simulation for real time applications with its corresponding
results. The performance improvement paradigms by means of its overall
analysis will certainly make the readers to understand the nuances of
electrical machines from its fundamental concepts to control applications.
The readers can experience the various novel topologies in electrical
machines with aid of MATLAB simulation platform. This book will
serve as the reference manual for the electrical, instrumentation,
automation and electronics engineers for the purpose of academic
research, design, analysis and interpretation.

L. Ashok Kumar
S. Albert Alexander
Y. Uma Maheswari
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are always thankful to the Almighty for their

perseverance and achievements. The authors owe their gratitude to Shri
L. Gopalakrishnan, Managing Trustee, PSG Institutions, and all the
trustees of Kongu Vellalar Institute of Technology Trust, Perundurai. The
authors also owe their gratitude to Dr K Prakasan, Principal in Charge,
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India, and Prof.V.Balusamy,
Principal, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, India, for their
wholehearted cooperation and great encouragement in this successful
endeavor.
I, Dr. L. Ashok Kumar would like to take this opportunity to
acknowledge those people who helped me in completing this book. I am
thankful to all my research scholars and students who are doing their
project and research work with me. But the writing of this book is
possible mainly because of the support of my family members, parents,
and sisters. Most importantly, I am very grateful to my wife, Y. Uma
Maheswari, for her constant support during writing. Without her, all these
things would not be possible. I would like to express my special gratitude
to my daughter, A. K. Sangamithra, for her smiling face and support; it
helped a lot in completing this work. I would like to dedicate this work to
her.
xiv L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

I, Dr. S. Albert Alexander would like to take this opportunity to

acknowledge those people who helped me in completing this book. I am
thankful to all my research scholars and students who are doing their
project and research work with me. But the writing of this book is
possible mainly because of the support of my family members, parents,
and brothers. Most importantly, I am very grateful to my wife, A. Lincy
Annet, for her constant support during writing. Without her, all these
things would not be possible. I would like to express my special gratitude
to my son, A. Albin Emmanuel, for his smiling face and support; it
helped a lot in completing this work.
Y. Uma Maheswari would like to thank her daughter A.K
Sangamithra in being patient and giving her all the love, time and space
to finish her work. She wishes to acknowledge her husband Aski’s
support and guidance in the successful completion of this book. She
dedicates this book to her father Mr. S. Yuvaraj and mother Y. Kalavathy
who laid the foundation for all her successes and special thanks to her
brother Y. Dhayaneswaran and to every one of the publishing team.
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

ABSTRACT

MATLAB is extensively used for simulation, analysis, curve

plotting and other engineering applications in various domains. This
chapter brings the basics of MATLAB and its utilzation with respect to
programming, model creation and control architectures. It also
illustrates the step by step procedure from initialization, writing simple
codes for arithmetic and numeric equations and analyzing the results
from it.

Keywords: MATLAB, programming, mathematical operations,

calculations, analysis

1.1. INTRODUCTION

The MATrix LABoratoy (MATLAB) is an elite and an intelligent

multi-paradigm numerical computing software system created by
Mathworks. Cleve Moler began creating MATLAB in the late 1960s and
it was reworked in C during 1984. MATLAB was initially embraced by
scientists and professionals in control engineering and later it has spread
2 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

to all application areas. The MATLAB function is built roughly around

the MATLAB dialect and the fundamental utilization of MATLAB
involves the use of MATLAB guidelines into the command window as an
intuitive mathematical model, or execution of content documents which
contain the MATLAB code, including functions or scripts.
MATLAB gives an improvement domain to overseeing different
arrangements of records, codes and numerous informational collections.
MATLAB is considered to tackle issues numerically and it is the best
intuitive tool for investigating the different levels of iterations, design,
analysis and problem solving. What’s more, MATLAB which is a
contemporary programming language has its own particular beautiful
information structures which likewise contain built-in cutting and
debugging tools, and ropes object-oriented programming [1].
MATLAB can deal with plain numerical expressions and scientific
equations. MATLAB coordinates in different stages of calculation,
visualization, linear polynomial math, separating Fourier investigation,
measurements, and numerical integration in the programming
environment. MATLAB is exclusively intended for matrix calculations
which involve explaining of linear systems, to compute eigenvectors,
factoring matrices and arrays. Including, it has an assortment of custom
graphics capacities with manipulator boundaries, and can be prolonged
over lists inscribed in its particular program plan.
The broadened capacity of MATLAB is to provide answers for
nonlinear issues, for example, the elucidation of conventional differential
conditions. Along these lines, it is better that MATLAB produces fairly
precise arrangements instead of correct arrangements when contrasted
with other scientific apparatuses. Subsequently MATLAB is an
instrument intended for various undertakings and is along these lines not
directly compatible. The functionalities used to incorporate MATLAB
with fringe applications are FORTRAN, C, C+ and Java.
These days, MATLAB is very famous among the researchers and
utilized as the best dialect for encoding. Variery of its uses are stuffed
with reference to the tool kits. The tool kits include optimization,
simulation, control systems, and every connected field of engineering.
 Introduction to MATLAB 3

These are the one kind of variables that make MATLAB a huge tool for
education and investigation [2].

1.2. HOW TO START WITH MATLAB?

Before we install, we should proceed with the following steps shown

in Table 1 and Table 2.

Table 1.1. Installing and activating using an internet connection

Step 1 Commence the installer

Step 2 Select “installation using internet”
Step 3 Evaluate the agreement of software license
Step 4 Mathwork account login
Step 5 Choose the license to be installed
Step 6 Select the type of Installation
Step 7 Mention the installation folder
Step 8 Select the products to be installed
Step 9 Select the installation options
Step 10 Confirm the choice of selection
Step 11 Installation is complete
Step 12 Activate your installation
Step 13 Mention license file path
Step 14 Activation complete

Once when the installation is completed,

• GOTO start menu

• Double click MATLAB icon

Here the desktop appears with the default layout as shown if Figure 1
which is the startup page of the MATLAB.
From the Figure 1.1, we can analyze some of the default panels
which include: Start button, command window, current folder, workspace
and the command history.
4 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

• Start button: Single click the button for better access of tools and
functions.
• Command window: We can enter the commands at the command
line which is indicating fx>> (This is the command prompt).
• Current folder: We can access all the MATLAB files from the
directory.
• Workspace: We can explore all the datasets which are imported
from the files.
• Command History: We can view or analyze the commands given
in the command window. As we start up with MATLAB, by
means of its intend, in the interpretive computing environment
type some of the commands like helpwin, helpdesk, demo for
better understanding of MATLAB functions and operations.
Customizing is possible to meet the suitable needs is an
additional credit.

Figure 1.1. Start up page of MATLAB.

 Introduction to MATLAB 5

Table 1.2. Installing and activating without using

an internet connection

Step 1 Commence the installer

Step 2 Select “installation without using Internet”
Step 3 Review the license agreement
Step 4 Specify the file installation key
Step 5 Select the type of Installation
Step 6 Mention the installation folder
Step 7 Select the products to be installed
Step 8 Select the installation options
Step 9 Confirm the choice of selection
Step 10 Installation is complete
Step 11 Activate your Installation
Step 12 Mention license file path
Step 13 Activation complete

1.3. MATLAB: A CALCULATOR

When we begin MATLAB, we come across a notation or a prompt

sign frequently such as to get started,

>> _

Since MATLAB is an inferred type, language, the variables can be

assigned using the operator “=” without the declaration of their type.
Some of the examples of computation involving variables and constants
are shown below:

Example: 1
>>y=1000
MATLAB responds with
y=
1000
6 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 2
>>y="matlab"
MATLAB responds with
y="matlab"
|
Error: The input character is not valid in MATLAB statements or
expressions.

Example: 3
>>y=hii
MATLAB responds with
Undefined function or variable 'hii'.

Example: 4
>>y=pi
MATLAB responds with
y=
3.1416

1.3.1. Basic Arithmetic Operations

To perform basic arithmetic operations, MATLAB can be worn as an

evaluator of expressions. To execute the mathematical expression just
type the numeric constants into the command window after the prompt
and press ENTER. As a result, MATLAB will print the result back in the
command window. When an output variable is not assigned, MATLAB
utilizes the default variable “ans” to display the results of the operation.

Example 5: To perform addition

>> 6+2
MATLAB responds with
ans =
8
 Introduction to MATLAB 7

Figure 1.2. MATLAB as a calculator.

Example 6: To perform subtraction

>>6-2
MATLAB responds with
ans=
4

Example 7: To perform multiplication

>>6*2
MATLAB responds with
ans=
12

Example 8: To perform division

>>6/2
8 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

MATLAB responds with

ns=
3

Example 9: To perform trigonometric calculations

>>tan(pi/4)
MATLAB responds with
ans=
1.0000

In Figure 2, the mathematical computations of arithmetic operations

are shown in the MATLAB window. Thus it is clearly defined that the
MATLAB tool is purely a calculator which performs mathematical and
scientific operations.

1.3.2. Assigning Values to Variables

Another method for performing arithmetic operations in MATLAB is

assigning necessary values to the variables. To create a variable using
MATLAB, just initialize the variables say a,b,c to some values.
The syntax of assigning variables is denoted as,

Variable name = a value

Here the expressions can be function call, operator, variable or a

numerical value. Refer the example to assign values to the variable.

Example: 10
>>a=3
MATLAB responds with
a=
3
 Introduction to MATLAB 9

Example: 11
b=pi/7
MATLAB responds with
b=
0.4488

Example: 12
c=a^2
MATLAB responds with
c=
9

In Ex: 12 it is noted that, the variable which is named ‘c’ exists only
as a numerical value.

Example: 13
>>who
Your variables are
abc

The “who” command represent the list of variables that are active
currently.

Example: 14
>>clc

The “clc” command clears the screen. It refreshes or empties the

command window for a new set of operations.
Figure 3 represents the concept of assigning values to variables in the
MATLAB window.
10 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure1.3. Working with variables.

Other additional tasks available in MATLAB include overwriting of

variables, controlling the hierarchy, controlling the floating number,
multiple statements, and display error message.

Example: 15 overwriting of variables

>>a=20;
>>a=a+12
a=
32
The purpose of semicolon [;] is to end the result after execution.

Example: 16 controlling the hierarchy

>>(2+8)*9
ans =
90
 Introduction to MATLAB 11

2+8*9
ans =
74

Here the similar expressions produce different results. To avoid

ambiguous results MATLAB considers hierarchy of mathematical
operators to perform calculations.

Example: 17 controlling the floating number

The length of floating number of the assigned variable can be

increased or decreased by using the syntax.

“format short”
“format long”
>> format short
>> 1/2345678
ans =
4.2632e-07
>> format long
>> 1/2345678
ans =
4.263159734626833e-07

Example: 18 Multiple statements

>> b=2;
>> c=sin(b)*tan(b)
c=
-1.986851125175239

The execution of multiple statements involves execution of multiple

expressions separated by commas (,) or semicolons (;).
12 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 19
>> a=13;b=12;
>> c=b*x
Undefined function or variable 'x'.

If an undefined variable is being executed, the MATLAB responses

with an error stating “undefined function or variable.”
To terminate with the session, just use the command called “quit” in
the command window, to exit the application.

1.4. BASIC FEATURES OF MATLAB

1.4.1. Investigation of a MATLAB Function

In specialized processing, a huge arrangement of predefined

mathematical methods is critical. Since MATLAB is an intuitive
instrument for calculation, it stores a long arrangement of scientific
capacities in the in-built mode. These arrangements of stored functions
are called as in-built functions. A huge proportion of mathematical
calculations are executed using the built-in functions. A collection of
mathematical methods is called a MATLAB program. Henceforth the
MATLAB projects are put away as plain content as files indicating with
an expansion “m”. Such arrangement of documents is called m-records.
The special nature of MATLAB is that they can be utilized intuitively
which additionally supports the way toward debugging the records for
gigantic projects [3].

1.4.2. Mathematical Functions

Like BASIC language, the large set of various arithmetic operations

can be assigned to the variables that are defined. The basic syntax of
mathematical functions is listed below:
 Introduction to MATLAB 13

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

exp(x) Exponential; ex
log(x) Natural logarithm; ln(x)
log10(x) Common (base 10) logarithm; log(x)= log10(x)
sqrt(x) Square root; x

Trigonometric Functions

acos(x) Inverse cosine; arcos x = cos –1 (x)

asin(x) Inverse sine; arcsin x = sin –1 (x).
atan(x) Inverse tangent; arctan x = tan –1 (x).
cos(x) Cosine; cos(x).
sin(x) Sine; sin(x).
tan(x) Tangent; tan(x).

Some of the other types of trigonometric functions: acot(x),acsc(x),

asec(x), atan2(y,x), cot(x) ,csc(x), sec(x).

Hyperbolic Functions

acosh(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosine; cosh –1 (x)

acoth(x) Inverse hyperbolic cotangent; coth –1 (x)
cosh(x) Hyperbolic cosine; cosh(x)
coth(x) Hyperbolic cotangent; cosh(x)/sinh(x)
sech(x) Hyperbolic secant; 1/cosh(x)
sinh(x) Hyperbolic sine; sinh(x)

Some of the other type of hyperbolic functions includes: acoth(x),

acsch(x), asech(x), atanh(x), asinh(x), csch(x), tanh(x).

Complex Functions
14 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

abs(x) Absolute value; |x|

angle(x) Complex number Angle x
conj(x) Complex conjugate of x
imag(x) Imaginary part of a complex number x
real(x) Real part of a complex number x

Statistical Functions

erf(x) Compute error function f(x).

mean Compute mean or average.
median Compute median.
std Compute standard deviation.

Random Number Functions

rand Generates uniformly distributed random numbers

between 0 and 1.
randn Generates normally distributed random numbers.

Numeric Functions

ceil Rounds to the nearest integer toward •.

Fix Round value to the nearest integer toward zero
floor Rounds to the nearest integer toward - •.
round Rounds to the nearest integer
Sign Signup function.

String Functions

findstr Occurrence of a string

strcmp String comparison
Char String array character
 Introduction to MATLAB 15

A typical example which relates to the basic mathematical functions

is shown below,

Example: 20
Solve for the expression y=tan(a)+cos(b)+e-x+log(b)
with values a=2,b=3,x=7
>> a=2;b=3;x=7;
y=tan(a)+cos(b)+exp(-x)+log(b)
y=
-2.075508189228300

1.4.3. Vector and Matrix Operations

1.4.3.1. Vector Operations

MATLAB is a straightforward tool which helps in controlling
matrices and vector thoughts. The basic requests of MATLAB turn
around the utilization of vectors and a Vector is portrayed by putting a
progression of numbers inside the grids, however structure could be
described as the crucial dataset part in MATLAB.
A column vector could be described with a show of 1xn estimation.
The estimations of a vector could be encased inside a square section and
may be isolated by commas or by spaces.

Example: 21
>> v= [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70] click ENTER
v=
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

A column vector could be portrayed with a show of mx1 estimations.

Like the line vector, the qualities could be encased inside a square
segment nearby spaces or with commas (,).
Column vectors can even be made by using semi colons (;) inside the
square areas to separate the qualities. To make a column vector,
16 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

essentially take the transpose of the Row vector using the picture ('), and
here goes delineation for a section vector:

Example: 22
a=[12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20]'
a=
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Example: 23
>> v= [11;12;13;14]'
v=
11 12 13 14
>> v=[12;13;14;15]
v=
12
13
14
15

A vector could be any length and an exchange method for

characterizing a vector for a set of qualities could be,

Example: 24
>> v=[10:15]
v=
10 11 12 13 14 15
 Introduction to MATLAB 17

Exchange signs of addressing a vector could be the expansion of the

vector with scaling. To get to a bit of part use the picture colon (:).
Accept, if we have to portray a vector with a starting quality and the
conclusion regard close by the expansion regard, the vector could be
written as,

Example: 25
>> v=[1:.5:6]
v=
Columns 1 through 6
1.000000000000000 1.500000000000000 2.000000000000000
2.500000000000000 3.000000000000000 3.500000000000000
Columns 7 through 11
4.000000000000000 4.500000000000000 5.000000000000000
5.500000000000000 6.000000000000000

From the above illustration it is expressed that, a line of vectors

beginning from 1 to 6 with augmentation in the estimation of .5 is
continuously registered. MATLAB unmistakably executes the entrances
that are needed. Subsequently, a set of 11 sections are spoken
continuously to characterize the given vector.

Example: 26
>> v(6)
ans =
3.500000000000000

The result brings out the estimation of the vector which is accessible
in section 6 i.e., sixth entrance of the vector has been printed. The
passage which has been printed does exclude any task. Henceforth the
result is continuously printed with the mark answer.
To obtain the result through the last, to signify the end value of the
vector, type as,
18 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 27
>> v(1,end)
ans =
6

To track the recent or the past result of vector, type as,

Example: 28
>>ans'
ans =
6

A simple example for operating with vector is shown below:

Example: 29
>> v=[1:2:3];u=[2:3:4];
>>u+v
ans =
35

Column vector:

Example: 30
>> v=[2;3;4];u=[1;2;3];
>> 10*(u+v)
ans =
30
50
70

Example: 31
>> v(:) for column vector
>> v(1:end) for row vector
 Introduction to MATLAB 19

MATLAB, as a matter of course stores all the comes about that have
been executed, which gets to be convenient when substantial set of
operations or reckonings are continuously done.

1.4.3.2. Matrix Operation

To perform matrix operations, a framework in MATLAB could be
characterized as a show of numbers. A network is like a vector with a
gathering of column and segment vectors.
To represent a matrix with rows of column vectors or with column of
row vectors of 3x3 matrix,

Example: 32
>> y=[1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9]
y=
123
456
789

The transpose of the above matrix can be obtained using the symbol
(‘).

Example: 33
>> y=[1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9]'
y=
147
258
369

Henceforth to manage matrix operations in MATLAB, the images to

be considered are square section, commas, semicolon as said prior in the
vector operations.
To extract a particular element in a matrix, type as,
20 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 34
>> y(3,1)
ans =
3

The element being located in row 1and column 3 is executed.

1.4.3.2.1. Indexing of a Matrix

Indexing of a network is the choice of a matrix as accomplished for
the vector. The components could be named as i and j for a column and a
section for a matrix x. It could be indicated as x (i, j) or xij. The record of
a network is part into two. The main file could be the line number and the
second one could be the segment number.
For example:
In a matrix

y=
147
258
369

To replace the second column and second row value 4, by any other
value, substitute x(2,2)=6, the result would be,

Example: 35
>> y(3,3)=5
y=
147
258
365

Zero and negative qualities are not acknowledged though the

components are gotten to as x(i, j) where i≥1 and j.
 Introduction to MATLAB 21

1.4.3.2.2. Inverse of a Matrix

To operate with the matrix in terms of inverse.

Example: 36
y=
147
258
365

The result is

Example: 37
>>inv(y)
ans =
-1.916666666666667 1.833333333333334 -0.250000000000000
1.166666666666667 -1.333333333333334 0.500000000000000
-0.250000000000000 0.500000000000000 -0.250000000000000

To calculate the Eigen values of the matrix x,

Example: 38
y=
147
258
365
>>eig(y)
ans =
14.050092799816429
-0.311918361983059
-2.738174437833377

To manipulate the Eigen vector and the Eigen values:

22 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 39
>> [a,b]=eig(y)
a=
-0.507979045561026 -0.817389518013407 -0.644687000188239
-0.630778042629438 0.552658668460206 -0.462574974257327
-0.586580216345116 -0.162612336609507 0.608607480219495
b=
14.050092799816429 0 0
0 -0.311918361983059 0
0 0 -2.738174437833377

To manipulate the diagonal values:

Example:40
>>diag(y)
ans =
1
5
5

The other subroutines under matrix operations are the approximation

values of linear expressions.
For example, to obtain the solution for Ay=B,

Example: 41
>>>> v=[1 2 3];B=[3 4 1];
>> x=[1 2 3 ; 4 6 7; 8 9 10];
>> A=x/v
A=
1.000000000000000
2.642857142857142
3.999999999999999
>> A=B/v
A=
 Introduction to MATLAB 23

1.000000000000000
>> A*B
ans =
2.999999999999999 3.999999999999999 1.000000000000000
>> A1=v/B
A1 =
0.538461538461538
>> A1*B
ans =
1.615384615384615 2.153846153846154 0.538461538461538

1.4.3.2.3. Concatenating of Matrices

Concatenation includes the creation of sub matrix which includes,

Example:42
>> x=[1 4 7; 2 5 8;3 6 5]
x=
147
258
365

The sub-matrix would be

>> y = [x 10*x; -x [1 0 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]]

y=
1 4 7 10 40 70
2 5 8 20 50 80
3 6 5 30 60 50
-1 -4 -7 1 0 0
-2 -5 -8 0 1 0
-3 -6 -5 0 0 1

To delete a row or a column

Use the empty vector to delete any row or a column;
24 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Example: 43
>> x(3,:)
ans =
365

The other matrix generators includes functions like eye, zeros and
ones and the intellectual properties of matrix includes hilb, invhilb,
magic, pascal, toeplitz, vander and Wilkinson.
The “whos” command will identify the set of variables in the
workspace.

Example: 44
>>whos
Name Size Bytes Class Attributes
A 3x1 24 double
X 2x3 48 double
a 3x3 72 double
ans 1x3 24 double
b 3x3 72 double
c 1x1 8 double
u 3x1 24 double
v 1x3 24 double
x 3x3 72 double
y 6x6 288 double

1.4.4. Arrays

In MATLAB, the vector could be array of single dimension and the

matrix could be an array of two dimensions. The variables are multi-
dimensional.
The basic type of an array includes two types:
A double argument creates a rectangular array.
 Introduction to MATLAB 25

Example: 45
>>>> ones(5)
ans =
11111
11111
11111
11111
11111
Square array
A single argument creates a square array

Example: 46
>> zeros(1,5)
ans =
00000

The function “eye” represents the identity matrix

Example: 47
>> eye(2)
ans =
10
01

The function “random” creates a distributed random numbers.

Example: 48
>> rand(3,5)
ans =
0.097540404999410 0.957506835434298 0.970592781760616
0.800280468888800 0.915735525189067
0.278498218867048 0.964888535199277 0.957166948242946
0.141886338627215 0.792207329559554
0.546881519204984 0.157613081677548 0.485375648722841
26 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

0.421761282626275 0.959492426392903

These are the set of special arrays which favors MATLAB

functionalities.

1.4.4.1. Multidimensional Arrays

A multidimensional cluster in MATLAB has more than two
measurements. They are the expansion of typical two-dimensional
matrix. A two dimensional cluster might be reached out to turn into a
multidimensional matrix

x=
147
258
365
>> x(:, :, 3)= [ 2 3 1; 2 1 1; 1 1 1]
x(:,:,1) =
147
258
365
x(:,:,2) =
000
000
000
x(:,:,3) =
231
211
111

The multidimensional arrays can be implemented for special arrays

also. Table 1.3 represents the list of array functions available in
MATLAB.
 Introduction to MATLAB 27

Table 1.3. Array functions

Length Vector Length

Ndims Array dimensions count
Numel Array elements count
Size Dimension of Array
iscolumn Identify column vector
isempty Identify empty vector
circshift Shift array circularly
Flipdim Flip array along specified dimension
Flipud Flip matrix up to down
permute Rearrange dimensions of N-D array
Repmat Replicate and tile array

Some of the other type of array functions includes: blkdiag, ismatrix,

isrow, isscalar, isvector, ctranspose, diag, fliplr, ipermute, reshape,
rot90, issorted, sort, sortrows, shiftdim, squeeze, transpose, vectorize,
ctranspose.

1.4.5. Basic Plotting

Plotting a chart utilizing the datasets within MATLAB is simple with

changes. It is agreeable to make the required vectors to plot utilizing the
implicit capacity. Plotting straightforward charts could be fulfilled
utilizing clusters of matrices [4].

Example: 50
>> x=[1 2 3 4 5];y=[5 3 4 2 1];
>> plot(x,y)
The MATLAB responds with the result as shown in Figure 1.4.
28 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 1.4. Basic plotting 1.

As a second example, the following function is plotted:

Example: 51
t = [0:0.1:2*pi];
>> a=tan(t);
>> plot(t,a)
MATLAB opens up a graphics window and displays the result in
Figure 1.5.
 Introduction to MATLAB 29

Figure 1.5. Basic plotting 2.

1.4.5.1. Labeling and Annotations in Plotting

While plotting a set of variables the x axis names and the y axis
marks are needed. The x name and the y mark alongside the title of the
plot might be executed utilizing the accompanying orders: (see Figure
1.6).

Example: 52
>> x=[1.62 3.2 5 5.86 6.07 6.21 6.31 6.33 6.36];
>> y=[0 0.001 0.004 0.014 0.029 0.077 1.931 7 20.7];
>> title('VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE')
>>xlabel('voltage')
>>ylabel('current')
>> plot(x,y)
30 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 1.6. Plot with label and annotation.

Arranging of the plot is empowered in MATLAB instrument for

client’s comfort to enhance the nature of the plot. All the MATLAB
commands are executed using the prompt where it provides the
experimental solution even for hectic problems. Programming with
MATLAB can be executed in the editor window. The MATLAB editor is
the editor window which is used to create .m files. To start up with
programming,

Scripts - script documents are system records with .m expansion. In

these documents, we compose arrangement of orders, which should be
executed at the same time. Without any acknowledgements the scripts on
the work space can be executed.
Or
Goto file menu> New> Function
Function - functions are likewise program records with .m extension.
 Introduction to MATLAB 31

1.5. CREATING FILES IN MATLAB

1.5.1. Creating m-files

There are two ways of writing files in MATLAB. Figure 1.7 shows
the MATLAB editor window.

Figure 1.7. Editor Window.

A script report contains distinctive succeeding outlines of MATLAB

guidelines and calling of functions. The script can be run by writing its
name on the command line. One can sort in every one of the contents in a
record having an extension of “m”. This “script” record must be put in
the present work file. Exactly when the name of this “m” report is entered
at brief level, MATLAB examines the substance of this record and
executes every one charge in this document one by one sequentially. For
sure, what is made is a MATLAB extend called “m-code.”
32 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

1.5.2. M File Functions

The assortment of a function can incorporate legitimate MATLAB

outflows, control streams, remarks, clear lines, and settled functions. Any
variables that we make inside a capacity are put away inside a workspace
particular to that function, which is partitioned from the base workspace.
Functions end with either an end declaration, the end of the document, or
the definition line for an alternate capacity, whichever starts things out.
The end explanation is obliged just when a function in the document
contains a settled function.

Example: 53
>> s=sqrt(9)
s=
3

System documents can contain various functions. The principal

function is the fundamental function, and is the function that MATLAB
partners with the document name. Resulting functions that are not settled
are called local functions. They are just accessible to different functions
inside the same record.
Listed below are the types of file functions:
Functions and Scripts

depdir: Lists our dependent folders for a function or for a p-file

echo: Displays the statements of a function during the execution of a
function
function: Function declaration
input: requests the user for an input
mfilename: the file name of the currently running function
onCleanup: Clean up the task after completion of the execution
script: Sequence of the MATLAB statements in the file
syntax: to call a MATLAB function
 Introduction to MATLAB 33

Some of the other types of functions includes: depfun, end, input

name, input Parser, namelengthmax, nargchk, nargin, narginchk,
nargout, nargoutchk, pcode, varargin, varargout.

Evaluation

ans The most latest answer

builtin the built in function executed from overloaded method
pause top execution in the interim
run runs the script that is not on the current path
Some of the other types of Evaluation functions includes: arrayfun,
assert, cellfun, echo, evalc, evalin, feval, isvarname, script, structfun,
symvar, tic, toc.

Variables and functions in memory:

Global declaration of global variables

Memory displays the memory information
Mlock prevent clearing function from memory
Pack consolidate workspace memory
Persistent defines persistent variable

Some of the other types of Evaluation functions includes: ans,

assignin, clearvars, datatipinfo, genvarname, inmem, isglobal, mislocked.

1.5.3. Control Structures and Operators

MATLAB is likewise a programming dialect. Like other machine

programming dialects, MATLAB has some choice making structures for
control of command execution. These choice making or control flow
structures incorporate for loops, and if-else-end developments. Control
flow structures are frequently utilized within script M-files and M-files.
By making a file with the augmentation .m, we can without much of a
34 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

stretch compose and run programs. We don't have to assemble the system
since MATLAB is an interpretative dialect. MATLAB has thousands of
functions, and you can include your own particular utilizing m-files.
MATLAB gives a few instruments that could be utilized to control the
flow of a project.
The four control flow structures of MATLAB are: the if statement,
the for loop, the while loop, and the switch statement.

The if end statement:

if ... else if ... else ... end

Example: 54
decide=rem(a,2);
if(decide==0)
disp('number is even');
else
disp('number is odd');
end
The for...end statement:
for variable = expression
………
End

Example: 55
s:= 0:
for i from 1 to 3 do
for j from 1 to 3 do
s := i + j;
if i + j > 4 then
break;
end
end
end
 Introduction to MATLAB 35

The while...end statement:

while expression
……….
End

Example:56
n=x;
while (x>0)
n=x*n;
x=x-1;
end
display(n);

To display the results on the window use the following set of

commands:

• Open a file using fopen

• Write the output u
• sing fprintf
• Close the file using fclose

1.5.4. Debugging M-Files

MATLAB discovers sentence errors during compilation. These errors

are typically simple to settle. MATLAB can likewise experience errors
during a run-time; these mistakes have a tendency to be harder to find, in
light of the fact that the workspace neighborhood to the capacity is lost
when the lapse compels a come back to the MATLAB brief and the base
workspace.
Listed are the set of debugging commands:

dbstop - Set breakpoint

dbclear - Remove breakpoint
36 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

dbcont - Resume execution

dbdown - Change local workspace context
dbstack - List who called whom
dbstatus - List all breakpoints
dbstep - Execute one or more lines
dbtype - List M-files with line numbers
dbup - Change local workspace context
dbquit - Quit debug mode

During an error in a M-function, utilize the debugging charges to set

breakpoints to help you debug the blunder. At the point when execution
stops at a breakpoint, that line shows, alongside a console charge brief.
You can then enter any legitimate MATLAB order at the console brief.
Some essential focuses to recollect about MATLAB’s debugging orders
are:

• the debugging orders deal with M-functions, not scripts.

• the M-file breakpoint data is nearly connected with the arranged
M-file. On the off chance that the M-file is cleared either by
altering or by the acceptable command, all M-file breakpoints are
erased. You can utilize this strategy when it is important to clear
various breakpoints from one or more M-documents.

1.5.5. Creating Plots

MATLAB gives numerous strategies to plotting numerical

information. Graphical abilities of MATLAB incorporate plotting
apparatuses, standard plotting functions, realistic control and information
investigation instruments, and devices for printing and trading
representation to standard configurations. Typical Math Toolbox extends
these graphical abilities and gives you a chance to plot typical capacities.
 Introduction to MATLAB 37

ezplot: to create 2-D plots of symbolic expressions, equations,

or functions
ezplot3 : to create 3-D parametric plots.
ezpolar : that creates plots in polar coordinates.
ezsurf : to create surface plots.
ezcontour: to create contour plots.
ezmesh: to create mesh plots.

1.6. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTIONS

MATLAB simulink gives segment libraries and investigation

instruments for displaying and mimicking electrical frameworks. The
libraries offer models of electrical segments, including three-stage
machines, electric drives, and parts for applications, for example,
adaptable AC transmission frameworks (FACTS) and renewable
frameworks. THD, load flow, and other key electrical force framework
investigations are robotized [1,5].
MATLAB simulink models can be utilized to create control
frameworks and test framework level execution. We can parameterize
your models utilizing MATLAB variables and representations, and
outline control frameworks for our electrical force framework in
Simulink. To convey models to other recreation situations, including
fittings tuned in (HIL) frameworks, Sim-power systems helps C-code era.

1.6.1. Format and Layout

Simulink is a piece outline environment for multi domain recreation

and Model-Based Design. It underpins simulation, programmed code era,
and consistent test and check of installed frameworks. Simulink gives a
graphical proofreader, adaptable block libraries, and solvers for
demonstrating and reenacting element frameworks.
38 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

In Simulink, it is exceptionally clear to speak to and afterward

recreate a scientific model speaking to a physical framework. Models are
spoken to graphically in Simulink as block outlines. Wide exhibits of
blocks are accessible to the client in given libraries to speaking to
different phenomena and models in a scope of configurations. One of the
essential preferences of utilizing Simulink for the examination of element
frameworks is that it permits us to rapidly examine the reaction of
confounded frameworks that may be restrictively hard to break down
systematically. Simulink can numerically estimate the answers for
scientific models that we are not able to get a solution. By and large, the
scientific comparisons speaking to a given framework that serves as the
premise for a Simulink model might be inferred from physical laws.
Simulink exhibit how to determine a numerical model and after that
actualize that model. Some of the features of Simulink include the
following listed in Table 1.4:

Table 1.4. Simulink Features

Building the Model various leveled subsystems with predefined library pieces.
Model
Recreating the Simulate the element conduct of your framework and perspective
Model comes about as the reenactment runs.
Examining View recreation comes about and debug the reenactment
Simulation
Results
Overseeing Easily oversee records, parts, and a lot of information for your task
Projects
Associating with Connect your model to equipment for ongoing testing and inserted
Hardware framework

1.6.2. Electrical Circuit Description

MATLAB simulink favors segment libraries and investigation

apparatuses for demonstrating and recreation of frameworks. The
libraries offer models of electrical power parts, including three-stage
 Introduction to MATLAB 39

machines, electric drives, and fragments for applications, say for

instance: FACTS and renewable imperativeness schemas. THD analysis,
Load flow investigation and other key electrical force framework
investigations can be customized. MATLAB simulink models could be
used to make Power Electronics schemas and test system level execution.
We can parameterize the models using MATLAB variables and
affirmations, and setup equipment structures for our electrical power
structure in Simulink. It can be incorporated mechanical, pneumatic, and
diverse parts to the model using Simscape and test them together in a
singular nature’s turf.

1.6.3. Simulink Library Browser

To get exposed to Simulink,

Open library browser> click new simulink model (See Figure 1.8).
On the left side window pane, shown in Figure 1.8, the library is
categorized by sub systems, on clicking each one will display the blocks
on the right window.

1.6.3.1. Building the Model

Simulink contributes an established set of predefined hinders which
can be joined together to make a complete framework. Some of the
various tools which are available for progressive displaying, information
administration and subsystem customization which empower to speak
even the most mind boggling framework succinctly and exactly. The
Simulink Library Browser includes specialized components foraerospace,
communications, control system tool box, optimization and some of the
other applications.
40 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 1.8. Simulink Library Browser.

MATLAB is accessible for electrical mechanical and hydraulic

components also. Displaying physical frameworks with mechanical,
electrical, and water powered segments is possible. We can construct the
works by utilizing these pieces or by consolidating written by MATLAB
C, ADA and FORTRAN in the model.

1.6.3.2. Circuit Elements

Electrical components are reasonable reflections speaking to admired
electrical parts, for example, resistors, capacitors, and inductors, utilized
within the examination of electrical systems. Any electrical system could
be examined as various, interconnected electrical components in a
schematic chart or circuit graph, each of which influences the voltage in
the system or present through the system. These perfect electrical
components speak to genuine, physical electrical or electronic segments
however they don’t exist physically and they are expected to have perfect
properties. A model can be assembled by dragging the block from the
 Introduction to MATLAB 41

Simulink Library browser in the Simulink editor window. Using

connection lines the block can be interlinked with each other.
To simulate a MATLAB model,
First, open Simulink and open a new model window

Open Simulink Library

Browser>Libraries>Simscape>SimPowerSystems
To Select AC Voltage Source,
GotoSimPower Systems>Application libraries>Electrical Sources>
AC Voltage Source
To Select AC Current Source,
GotoSimPower Systems> Application libraries>Electrical Sources>
AC Current Source
To measure Voltage and Current values,
GotoSimPower Systems>Extra Library>Measurements>Current
Measurement
GotoSimPower Systems>Extra Library>Measurements>Voltage
Measurement

By dragging the selected blocks into the Simulink Editor, connect all
the blocks using the pointer to make it a closed circuit. The Simulink
Editor provides a finished control over what we see and use inside the
model. Likewise, we can add orders and submenus to the manager and
setting menus by twofold clicking each one piece. We can likewise add a
custom interface to a subsystem or model by utilizing a cover that
shrouds the subsystem’s substance and furnishes the subsystem with its
symbol and parameter dialog box.

1.6.3.3. Simulating the Model

To simulate the behavior of the structure and point of view the
results, focus amusement decisions, including the sort and properties of
the solver, reenactment start and stop times, and whether to load or extra
propagation data. Different combinations could be saved with the model.
We can run our change spontaneously from the Simulink Editor or
42 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

proficiently from the MATLAB summon line. The going hand in hand
with propagation modes is available:

• normal (the default), which interpretively reproduces your model

• accelerator, which grows generation execution by making and
executing requested target code yet in the meantime gives the
flexibility to change model parameters in the midst of
amusement.
• rapid Accelerator, which can reproduce shows snappier than
Accelerator mode by making an executable that can run outside
Simulink on a second changing focus.

To reduction the time required to run different reenactments, you can

run those diversions in parallel on a multi-focus machine or machine
bundle. In the wake of running an entertainment, you can break down the
reenactment achieves MATLAB and Simulink. Simulink fuses
debugging instruments to help you understand the proliferation conduct.
You can picture the amusement lead by study markers with the
showcases and degrees gave in Simulink. With the Simulink debugger
you can wander through a proliferation one framework without a
moment’s delay and break down the eventual outcomes of executing the
technique.

Example: 57
Regulation of 6-pulse generator
Simulation Model as depicted in Figure 1.9.

1.6.3.4. Circuit Description

A pulse is being synchronized on the voltage source thereby the
pulses are being triggered. The DC motor shown in Figure 1.9
representing a basic RL-E model is encouraged from an inductive three-
stage source through a six-pulse thyristor span. The converter output
current is controlled by a PI current controller assembled with Simulink.
 Introduction to MATLAB 43

A step sign is connected to the reference information to test the element

reaction of the current controller.

Figure 1.9. Regulation of 6 pulse generator.

1.6.3.5. Scope Output

Save the simulink block and compile for any errors and then click
run. The response of the voltage and current measurements can be
viewed in the scope which is shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10. Scope output of Regulation of pulse generator.

44 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

1.7. TYPES OF OTHER CIRCUIT SIMULATORS

MATLAB is more expedient for mathematical analysis and linear

algebra [6]. It is recurrently used in engineering society. The other types
of circuit simulators includes,

• PSpice
• LabVIEW
• PSIM
• Scilab
• VisSim

1.7.1. PSpice

PSpice may be a general purpose software package that simulates

completely different circuits and might perform varied analysis of
electrical and electronic circuits together with time domain response, tiny
signal rate response, total power indulgence, purpose of nodal voltages
and division current during a circuit, transitory analysis, determination of
equipped use of transistors, determinations of shift response etc. This
software package is meant in such the way in order that it will simulate
completely different circuit operations involving transistors; operational
amplifiers etc. and contain models for circuit parts. PSpice has the
subsequent limitations:

• Certain version of PSpice is constrained to investigate circuit up

to ten transistors exclusively.
• PSpice doesn’t support repetitious methodology of answer.
• Distortion analysis is not attainable.
 Introduction to MATLAB 45

1.7.2. LabVIEW

LabVIEW may be an absolutely featured programming language

created by National Instruments.It is a graphical language which is quite
distinctive within the technique bywhich the code is prepared and saved.
There is no text based code in and of it; however the data flows through
the program.Therefore LabVIEW may be a favorite tool of the mortal
and engineering world which usually visualizes the information flow
instead of however a text based typical programming language should be
engineered to realize a task.

1.7.3. PSIM

Physical security information management (PSIM) may be a class of

computer code that has a stage and application which are created by
middleware designers, developed to integrate numerous independent
protection applications and strategy to manage them through one
inclusive computer program. PSIM is an Electronic circuit simulation
computer code package, designed specifically to be used in power
electronics and motor drive simulation show ever to simulate any
electronic circuit. PSIM uses nodal analysis and also the tetragon rule
integration because the basis of its simulation rules. PSIM provides a
schematic capture interface and awavereader Sim view.
PSIM has many modules that stretch its practicality into specific
areas of circuit simulation and style including: management theory,
electrical motors, and wind turbines. PSIM is employed by business for
analysis and merchandise development. It is employed by instructional
establishments for analysis and teaching.
46 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

1.7.4. Scilab

Scilab is an open source, cross-stage numerical methodology bundle

and an abnormal state, numerically bound programming dialect. It is
utilized for sign methodology, factual investigation, picture transforming,
liquid progress reenactments, numerical advancement, and
demonstrating, reenactment of particular and understood changing
frameworks and typical controls. The dialect gives a programming
environment, with grids in view of the principle learning sort. By
exploitation framework based processing, element composing, and
programmed memory administration, a few numerical issues is likewise
communicated amid a diminished scope of code lines, as contrasted with
comparable arrangements exploitation old dialects, in the same way as
FORTRAN, C, or C++. This empowers clients to rapidly build models
for an assortment of scientific issues. While the dialect gives straight
forward lattice operations like increase. The Scilab bundle gives gigantic
records of abnormal state operation, for example, connect and
troublesome third-dimensional figuring.

1.7.5. VisSim

VisSim is a pictorial slab diagram language which can be used for

dynamic system simulation also used for model based design of
embedded systems. The Vis Si software has been developed by the
Visual Solutions of Westford, Massachusetts. VisSim is engaged with the
paradigm of graphical data flow to implement the differential equations
on dynamic systems. The modelling of startup sequencing and serial
protocol decoding is much easier in VisSim. Some of the demerits
include:

• Coding requirements are significant

• Difficulty in usage
• Less intuitive than other models
 Introduction to MATLAB 47

• Learning curve may be steeper

• Runtimes can be slow, especially in 3-D mode or for large
network
• Occasionally get cryptic German error messages

1.8. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF MATLAB

1.8.1. Merits

MATLAB is an interpret language for arithmetical working out. It

allows one to execute numerical calculations, and envisage the outcome
without the need for intricate and time consuming encoding. MATLAB
allows the users to precisely resolve troubles, create graphics simply and
construct rules competently.

• MATLAB lets you do some convoluted calculation promptly,

devoid of writing a complete program or worksheet.
• Plenty of workbench and add-ons are accessible to do multiple
ranges of jobs.
• MATLAB’s functionality can be significantly stretched out by
adding up of number of toolboxes.
• MATLAB lets you work in Matrices without difficulty.
• MATLAB is relatively vector operated
• Plotting can be done easily using graphical interactive tools

1.8.2. Demerits

MATLAB is a highly interpreted language which utilizes large

amount of memory which slows down the operating speed which in turn
will affect the real time applications and makes it complicated.
48 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

CONCLUSION

On the onset of this chapter, the beginner will be able to compute

numerical concepts from basics to the complexities. One can easily
understand the design concepts of various fields using MATLAB and
will be able to excel in various levels of programming in MATLAB. The
programming sequences are given step by step which could facilitate.

Practice Questions

1. Compute: 10000-100000345
2. Compute to 10 digits:
(a) sinh(0.1).
(b) tan(5).
(c) arccos(1/2)
3. Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 7/(1 + 3/(1 + 1a))
(b) cosh2x− tan5x
4. Compute 33378945669701, both as an approximate floating point
number and as an exact integer .
5. Try to solve the system of linear equations
x − 1y + 8z =9
9x − 4y + 7z= −9
3x− 6y + 4z = 5. Cross check the answer using matrix functions.
6. Use plot or ezplot, to graph the following functions:
(a) x= a1 − a for −8≤ a ≤ 4.

(b) y= tan(x/4) for −π ≤ x ≤ 2π,−10 ≤ y ≤ 9

(c) y= e−4x2 and y = x4− 3x2 for −4≤ x ≤ 4

7. Plot the functions x5and 7x3on the same graph and determine how
many times their graphs intersect.
8.Plot the following surfaces:
 Introduction to MATLAB 49

(a) z= tan x cosy for −3π ≤ x ≤ 3π and −4π ≤ y ≤ 4π.

(b) z= (x2 + y2) cosh(x2 + y2) for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −5≤ y ≤ 5.

9. Enter the matrix M by
> X = [1,3,4,6; 2,4,0,-1; 0,-2,3,-1; -1,2,-5,1]
and also the matrix
Y=
325
436
313
657
Multiply X and Y using X * Y. Can the order of multiplication be
switched?
10. Set up a vector x which contains the values from zero to one in
steps of one third.
11. Debug the code which is supposed to set up the function f(x) =
2
x sinh(x + 1) on the grid x = 0 to 5 in steps of 0.23 and give the value of
the function at x = 2 and x = 6.
12. Calculate the integration of matrices using MATLAB for
(cos^3(x)*log^10(x) ranging from 0 to 2π.
13. Consider two one dimensional arrays namely a and b using the
function interleave for c, at the instance where a=[2,5,6,7,6] and
b=[5,5,6,7] and c=[-3,5,6,6,6,-2]
14. Write a MATLAB function to plot the graph of an isosceles
triangle with the vertices (a,a) and (a,b).
15. Solve the below equations using the functions solve or fzero.
(a) 6x5+ 4 = 0
(b) 8x2+ 3 = 0 (numerical solution to 10 places)
(c) x2+ px+ q = 0 (Solve for x in terms of p and q)
(d) ex= 6x − 3(all real solutions). It helps to draw a picture first.
16. Solve the below question using contour function:
Plot the level curves of the function f (x, y) = 4y + y2–x2in the region
where x and y are between −1 and 6.
17. For the integrals given below check the results by differentiating.
50 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

𝛑𝛑/𝟐𝟐
(a)∫𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐬𝐬𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱
(b) xsin(x2) dx.
(c) sin(3x)√1 − cos(3x) dx.

(d) ᶴx2√x + 4 dx.

∞
(e)∫−∞ 𝐞𝐞 − 𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱𝐱.
18. Determine the Taylor polynomial for the functions given below.
(a) f(x) = ex, n = 7, c = 0.
(b) f(x) = sin x, n = 5 and 6, c = 0.
(c) f(x) = sin x, n = 6, c = 2.
(d) f(x) = tan x, n = 7, c = 0.
(e) f(x) = lnx, n = 5, c = 1.
(f) f(x) = erf (x), n = 9, c = 0.
19.Plot the following equations:
(a) z= sin x sin y for −3π ≤ x ≤ 3π and −3π ≤ y ≤ 3π.

(b) z= (x2 + y2) cos(x2 + y2) for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

20. Plot the following surfaces filled with red circles.
(a) z= sin x sin y for −3π ≤ x ≤ 3π and −3π ≤ y ≤ 3π.

(b) z= (x2 + y2) cos(x2 + y2) for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

21. For the given function f(x)=x4, write the code to plot the rotation
around
22. Computee14 and 31π to 15 digits each. Which is greater?
23. The fractions 10/134, 2/400, and 345/75. Which of these is the
best approximation to √7?
24. Plot the curve 3y + y3–x4= 5.
25. Plot the level curve of the function f (x, y) = y lnx + x lny that
contains the point (-2, 2).
 Introduction to MATLAB 51

Review Questions

1. Explain the role of MATLAB as a calculator in today’s trend

with suitable examples.
2. Brief the various arithmetic models used in MATLAB with
relevant examples.
3. Comment your view on MATLAB over other simulation
software’s used for Electrical Engineering.
4. Brief the concepts of Vectors and Matrices using relevant
examples in MATLAB.
5. Explain the concept of Arrays used in MATLAB with suitable
examples.
6. Demonstrate the concept of plotting methods available in
MATLAB with relevant examples.
7. The control structures and conditional statements play a vital role
in MATLAB applications. Comment on this with suitable
examples.
8. Classify the merits and demerits of MATLAB applications,
Justify.

REFERENCES

[1] Abdulrahman, I., (2020). MATLAB-Based Programs for Power

System Dynamic Analysis. IEEE Open Access Journal of Power
and Energy, 7, 59-69, doi: 10.1109/OAJPE.2019.2954205.
[2] Jovanovic Dolecek, G., (2012). MATLAB-Based Program for
Teaching Autocorrelation Function and Noise Concepts. IEEE
Transactions on Education, 55(3), 349-356, doi: 10.1109/
TE.2011.2176736.
[3] Kwonhue Choi., Huaping Liu., (2016). Matlab and Simulink Basics
in Problem-Based Learning in Communication Systems Using
MATLAB and Simulink, IEEE, 1-15, doi: 10.1002/
9781119060239.ch1.
52 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

[4] Mozeson, E., Levanon, N., (2002). MATLAB code for plotting
ambiguity functions. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and
Electronic Systems, 38(3), 1064-1068, doi: 10.1109/
TAES.2002.1039423.
[5] Oge Marques (2011). MATLAB Basics in Practical Image and
Video Processing Using MATLAB, IEEE, 35-60, doi: 10.1002/
9781118093467.ch3.
[6] Alexander, S.A., Manigandan, T., Kumar, M.D. and Vardhan, R.V.,
(2012). A comparison of simulation tools for power electronics. In
Proceedings of International Simulation Conference, India.
Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION
TO ELECTRICAL MACHINES

ABSTRACT

Electrical machines play a pivotal role in different sectors such as

residential, industrial and commercial. In addition, the presence of
electrical machines makes the work easier leading the way for industrial
automation. This chapter covers the basic fundamentals of electrical
machines along with their clear illustrations. Moreover, the electrical
machines convert the energy from one form to another which is
normally referred as motor, generator and transfomer. The chapter also
includes the practice exercises.

Keywords: motor, generator, transformer, star, delta, electrical field

2.1. INTRODUCTION

In electrical building, electric machine is a general term for machines

utilizing electromagnetic powers, for example, electric engines, electric
generators, and others [1-2]. They are referred as electromechanical
vitality converters. An electric engine changes over power to mechanical
54 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

power while an electric generator changes over mechanical capacity to

power. The moving parts in a machine can be pivoting (turning
machines) or direct (straight machines). Other than engines and
generators, the next type regularly included is transformers, which in
spite of the fact that they donot have any moving parts are additionally
vitality converters, changing the voltage level of an exchanging current.
Electric machines (generators) deliver essentially all electric power
on earth and electric engines devour around 60% of all electric power
created. Electric machines were developed starting in the mid nineteenth
century and since that time have been a universal segment of the
framework. Growing more productive electric machine innovation is vital
to any worldwide protection, environmentally friendly power vitality, or
elective vitality technique.

2.2. GENERATION, TRANSMISSION

AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Before the revelation of Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic dialog,

electrical power was accessible from batteries with constrained voltage
what’s more, current levels. Albeit entangled in development, D.C
generators were produced first to create control in mass. Be that as it
may, because of impediment of the D.C machine to produce voltage past
couple of hundred volts, it was not prudent to transmit expansive measure
of control over a long separation.
For a given measure of intensity, the present size (I= P/V),
consequently segment of the copper transmitter will be expansive. In this
manner age, transmission and appropriation of d.c control were limited to
territory of few kilometer range without any interconnections between
creating plants. In this way, zone particular producing stations alongside
its dissemination systems must be utilized.
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 55

2.2.1. Changeover from D.C to A.C

In later 50% of eighties and also in nineteenth century, it was

proposed to have a power framework with 3-stage, 50 Hz AC based
transmission and distribution systems. Once AC framework was
received, transmission of expansive power (MW) at higher transmission
voltage turns into a reality by utilizing transformers. Level of voltage can
be changed to some other wanted level with transformers – which were
until now unthinkable with DC framework. Nicola Tesla proposed
constructionally less difficult electrical engines (acceptance engines
without the multifaceted nature of commutator fragments of DC engines)
working from 3-stage AC supply.

2.2.2. AC Generator

AC power can be produced as a solitary stage or as an adjusted poly-

stage framework. Be that as it may, it was discovered that 3-stage control
at 50 Hz will be temperate and generally reasonable. Three stage
generators are used to produce 3-stage control and are called as
alternators (synchronous generators). An alternator has an adjusted three
stage twisting on the stator termed as armature. The three loops are so set
in space that is commonly 120° apart as shown in Figure 2.1.
From the terminals of the armature, 3-stage control is acquired. Rotor
houses a field curls and excited by DC. The field loop produces motion
and electromagnetic posts on the rotor surface. On the off chance that the
rotor is driven by an outer organization, the motion linkages with three
stator curls winds up sinusoidal capacity of time and sinusoidal voltage is
instigated in them. Be that as it may, the prompted voltages in the three
loops (or stages) will contrast in stage by 120° because the present
estimation of motion linkage with R-stage curl will occur after 120° with
Y-stage curl and further 120°after, with B-stage curl. A notable post
alternator has anticipated shafts as given in Figure 2.1. It has non uniform
air hole and is for the most part utilized where speed is low. A non-
56 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

striking post alternator has uniform air hole in Figure 2.1 and utilized
when speed is high.

Figure 2.1. Alternator with shaft.

2.2.3. Power System

A power station has in excess of one generator and these generators

are associated in parallel. Additionally there exist countless stations
spread over a locale or a nation. A territorial power network is made by
interconnecting these stations through transmission lines. As such, every
one of the generators of various power stations, a network is basically
associated in parallel. One of the benefits of interconnection is self-
evident because of specialized issue that the plant moves toward
becoming nil or less at that point. A bit of the request of intensity around
there still can be produced using the other power stations associated with
the framework. One would thus be able to stay away from finish
shutdown of intensity in a territory if there should be an occurrence of
specialized issue in a specific station.
Substations are where the level of voltage experiences change with
the assistance of transformers. Aside from transformers, a substation will
house switches (called circuit breakers), meters, transfers for security and
other control hardware. Extensively, a major substation will get control
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 57

through approaching lines at some voltage (say 400 kV) changes level of
voltage (say to 132 kV) utilizing a transformer and afterward guides it
out wards through active lines. Pictorially such an average power
framework is appeared in Figure 2.2 of every a shy of square outline. At
the most minimal voltage level of 400 V, by and large 3-stage, 4-wire
framework is embraced for residential associations. The fourth wire is
known as the nonpartisan wire (N) which is taken out from the regular
purpose of the star connected secondary of the 6 kV/400 V dissemination
transformer.

Figure 2.2. Typical power system.

2.2.4. Single Line Representation of Power System

Trying to represent a practical power system where a lot of

interconnections between several generating stations involving a large
number of transformers using three lines corresponding to R, Y and B
phase will become unnecessary clumsy and complicated. To avoid this, a
single line along with some symbolical representations for generator,
transformers substation buses are used to represent a power system rather
neatly. For example, the system shown in Figure 2.3.
58 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 2.3. Single line power system.

Till now the control at fairly high voltage (say 33 kV) in a substation
arranged as close load focus (a major city) is analyzed. The heaps of a
major city are fundamentally private buildings, workplaces, schools,
lodgings, road lighting and so forth. These kinds of customers are called
LT (low pressure) buyers. Aside from this, there might be medium and
little scale enterprises situated in the edges of the city. LT purchasers are
to be provided with single stage, 220 V, 40 Hz. It is imperative to discuss
about its accomplishment in the substation getting power at 33 kV. Power
at 33 kV substation is first ventured down to 6 kV and with the assistance
of underground links (called feeder lines) while control stream is
coordinated to various bearings of the city.
At the last level, advance down transformers are utilized to stepdown
the voltage shape of 6 kV to 400 V. These transformers are called
dispersion transformers with 400 V and star associated auxiliary. It is not
much likely to glimpse such transformers mounted on posts in urban
communities adjacent to the streets. These are called post mounted
substations.
From the optional of these transformers 4 terminals (R, Y, B and
furthermore, N) turn out. Here, N is known as the impartial and taken out
from the regular purpose of star associated auxiliary. Voltage between
any two stages (i.e., R-Y, Y-B and B-R) is 400 V and between any stage
and nonpartisan is 230 V. Private structures are provided with single
stage 230V, 50Hz.
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 59

Supply expert endeavors to see that the heaps remain equitably

adjusted among the stages beyond what many would consider possible. It
implies around 33% of the purchasers will be provided from R-N, next
33% from Y-N and the staying 33% from B-N. The circulation of
intensity from the shaft mounted substation should be possible either by
(1) overhead lines (uncovered conductors) or by (2) underground links.
Utilization of overhead lines albeit shoddy, is frequently clumsy and
furthermore burglary of intensity by snaring from the lines occurs. Albeit
exorbitant, in enormous urban communities and thickly populated regions
underground links for circulation of intensity, are utilized.

2.3. ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered the fundamental relationship

between the voltage and magnetic flux in a circuit. This relationship is
now known as Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states:
If the flux linking a conductor forming a loop changes with time, a
voltage is induced at its terminal. The magnitude of the induced voltage
is proportional to the rate of change in the magnetic flux where,

E=NdΦ/dt (1)
E = induced voltage (in volts)
N = number of turns in the conductor
Φ = Flux linking the conductor

Note that the induced voltage E depends on the rate of change of flux
linking the conductor. The flux linkage can vary either by a magnetic
field that is changing with time (due to AC current) or by moving the
conductor in a stationary magnetic field.
Figure 2.4 shows a conductor being moved in a magnetic field. When
the conductor is moved horizontally (right to left) a voltage is induced in
the conductor due to the changing flux linkage. If the conductor forms a
60 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

closed loop, the induced voltage would cause a current to flow though the
conductor.

Figure 2.4. Conductor in a magnetic field.

Note that the polarity of the induced voltage and the direction of the
current through the conductor would reverse when the conductor is
moved back from left to right. Furthermore, no voltage would be induced
if the conductor in Figure 3.4 is moved vertically because the flux
through the conductor would not change in the vertical movement.
Alternatively, the induced voltage can be expressed as,

E=blv (2)

where B is the flux density, l is the conductor length and v is the relative
speed of the conductor. A current carrying conductor, when placed in a
magnetic field, experiences a force known as electromagnetic force (also
called Lorentz force). This force is the basis of the operation of the
electrical motors and generators.
The maximum force is exerted on the current carrying conductor
when it is perpendicular to the magnetic field and it is zero when the
conductor is parallel to the field. Mathematically, electromagnetic force
can be expressed as,

F=BIl (3)
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 61

F is the force exerted, B is the flux density, I is the current carried by

the conductor and l is the active length of the conductor.

2.4. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic

field as shown in the figure. The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise
direction at a uniform angular velocity of ω rad/sec. When the coil is in
the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of
the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this
position, the emf induced in the coil is zero.
When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction,
there is a rate of change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is
induced in the coil. When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the
flux linking the coil is maximum and hence the emf induced is also
maximum. When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction,
the emf induced in the coil reduces.
Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced
becomes zero. After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in
the opposite direction. When the coil completes one complete revolution,
one cycle of AC voltage is generated. The generation of sinusoidal AC
voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic
field in the position shown in the Figure 2.5. The maximum flux linking
the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the Figure. This flux
can be divided into two components, one component acting along the
plane of the coil Φmaxsinωt and another component acting perpendicular
to the plane of the coil Φmaxcosωt.
The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not
induce any flux in the coil. Only the component acting perpendicular to
the plane of the coil i.e., Φmaxcosωt induces an emf in the coil.
62 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 2.5. Generation of AC voltage.

2.5. SINGLE AND THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

2.5.1. Single Phase Circuits

A current carrying conductor, when placed in a magnetic field,

experiences a force known as electromagnetic force (also called Lorentz
force). This force is the basis of the operation of the electrical motors and
generators. The maximum force is exerted on the current carrying
conductor when it is perpendicular to the magnetic field and it is zero
when the conductor is parallel to the field. The AC voltage is shown in
Figure 2.6.
Frequency (f) is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The
unit for frequency is Hz or cycles/sec. The relationship between
frequency and time period can be derived as follows:

Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second

Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 63

Figure 2.6. Single phase AC waveform.

The advantages of AC system over DC system are as follows:

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer

2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC
motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system

2.5.2. Three Phase Circuits

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three phases are
sending together from the generator to the load. Each phase is having a
phase difference of 120o, i.e., 120o angle electrically. So from the total of
360o, three phases are equally divided into 120o each. The power in three
phase system is continuous as all the three phases are involved in
generating the total power. The three phases can be used as single phase
each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase can be taken from the
three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.
The three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:
64 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

1. Star connection and

2. Delta connection

In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and
fourth is neutral which is taken from the star point.

2.5.2.1. Star Connection

Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission
because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the
concept of balanced and unbalanced current in power system. When
equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as
balanced current. When the current will not be equal in any of the phase,
then it is unbalanced current. In this case, during balanced condition there
will be no current flowing through the neutral line and hence there is no
use of the neutral terminal. But, when there will be unbalanced current
flowing in the three phase circuit, neutral is having a vital role. It will
take the unbalanced current through to the ground and protect the
transformer. Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also
cause damage to the transformer and for this star connection is preferred
for long distance transmission. The star connection is shown in Figure
2.7.

Figure 2.7. Star connection.

 Introduction to Electrical Machines 65

In star connection shown in Figure 2.7, the line voltage is 3 times

of phase voltage. Line voltage is the voltage between two phases in three
phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to the
neutral line. The current is same for both line and phase. The line voltage
are line current expressed as,

ELine= 3 Ephase and ILine= Iphase.

2.5.2.2. Delta Connection

In delta connection shown in Figure 2.8, there are three wires alone
and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally delta connection is preferred
for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the circuit.
The figure is shown below for delta connection. In the load station,
ground can be used as neutral path if required.
In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase
voltage. The line current is 3 times of phase current. The line voltage
and line current are expressed as, ELine= Ephase and ILine= 3 Iphase.The net
power in the circuit will be same in both star and delta connection. The
power in three phase circuit can be calculated from the equation, PTotal=3
x Ephase x Iphase x PF.Since, there is three phases, so the multiple of 3 is
made in the normal power equation and the PF is power factor. Power
factor is a very important factor in three phase system and sometimes due
to certain error; it is corrected by using capacitors [3].

Figure 2.8. Delta connection.

66 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

2.6. TRANSFORMERS

A transformer shown in Figure 2.9 can be characterized as a static

gadget which helps in the change of electric power in one circuit to
electric intensity of a similar recurrence in another circuit. The voltage
can be brought or brought down up in a circuit, yet with a corresponding
increment or lessening in the present evaluations.
The primary guideline of task of a transformer is shared inductance
between two circuits which is connected by a typical attractive motion. A
fundamental transformer comprises of two loops that are electrically
partitioned and Inductive, however are attractively connected through a
way of hesitance. The working rule of the transformer can be
comprehended from the Figure 2.9.
The two loops are protected from each other and from the steel
center. The gadget will likewise require some appropriate holder for the
amassed center and windings, a medium with which the center and its
windings from its compartment can be protected. Keeping in mind the
end goal to protect and to draw out the terminals of the twisting from the
tank, well-suited bushings that are produced using either porcelain or
capacitor compose must be utilized.

Figure 2.9. Transformer.

In all transformers that are utilized financially, the center is made out
of transformer sheet steel overlays collected to furnish a nonstop
attractive way with least of air-hole included. The steel ought to have
high penetrability and low hysteresis misfortune. For this to happen, the
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 67

steel ought to be made of high silicon content and should likewise be

warm treated. By successfully overlaying the center, the vortex current
misfortunes can be diminished. The overlay should be possible with the
assistance of a light layer of center plate varnish or lay an oxide layer at
first glance. For a recurrence of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the overlay
fluctuates from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a recurrence of 25 Hertz [4].

2.6.1. EMF Equation of a Transformer

In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the

primary winding.Due to this, the current in the primary winding (called
as magnetizing current) producesalternating flux in the core of
transformer. This alternating flux gets linked with thesecondary winding,
and because of the phenomenon of mutual induction an emf getsinduced
in the secondary winding. Magnitude of this induced emf can be found by
usingthe following:

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
The flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0.
It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e., in
T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Φm /(T/4) = Φm /(1/4f)
Therefore, average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm....... (Wb/s).
Now, Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm.......... (Volts).
Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor x average emf
per turn.
As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11.
68 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm.

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS
value of emf per turn x Number of turns in primary winding.

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm (4)

Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given

as,

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. (5)

From the above equations 4 and 5,

E1/N1=E2/N2=K=4.44f Φm

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows,

emf/number of turns is same for both primary and secondary winding.
For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2.
where,
V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding

As derived above,E1/N1=E2/N2

where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

• If N2> N1, i.e., K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up

transformer.
• If N2< N1, i.e., K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down
transformer.
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 69

2.7. OVERVIEW OF BASIC ELECTRICAL MACHINES

An electrical machine is a gadget which changes over mechanical

vitality into electrical vitality or the other way around. Electrical
machines likewise incorporate transformers, which don’t really influence
change amongst mechanical and electrical shape however they to change
over AC current starting with one voltage level then onto the next voltage
level.
An electric generator is an electrical machine which changes over
mechanical vitality into electrical vitality. A generator takes a shot at the
guideline of electromagnetic enlistment. It expresses that at whatever
point a conductor moves in an attractive field, an emf gets prompted
inside the conductor. This marvel is called as generator activity. A
generator essentially comprises of a stator and a rotor. Mechanical
vitality is given to the rotor of a generator by methods for a prime mover
(i.e., a turbine). Turbines are of various sorts like steam turbine, water
turbine, wind turbine and so on. Mechanical vitality can likewise be
given by IC motors or comparative other sources.
An engine is an electrical machine which changes over electrical
vitality into mechanical vitality. At the point when a current conveying
conductor is put in an attractive field, the conductor encounters a
mechanical power and this is the standard behind motoring activity.
Much the same as generators, engines likewise comprise of two essential
parts, stator and rotor. In numerous sorts of engines, electric supply
should be accommodated both stator and rotor winding. Be that as it may,
in a few kinds, as settled magnet engines and acceptance engines, supply
might be vital for just a single winding. Electromagnetic power between
the two windings makes the rotor turn [5-12].

2.7.1. Classification of Electrical Machines

Every DC machine can go about as a generator or an engine. Thus,

this grouping is legitimate for both: DC generators and DC engines. DC
70 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

machines are typically grouped based on their field excitation strategy.

This makes two general classes of dc machines, such as: (i) Separately
excited and (ii) Self-excited. Refer Figure 2.10.
In Self excited dc machines, the field winding is provided from a
different power source. That implies the field winding is electrically
isolated from the armature circuit. Self excited DC generators are not
regularly utilized on the grounds that they are generally costly because of
the necessity of an extra power source or hardware. They are utilized as a
part of labs for explore work, for precise speed control of DC engines
with Ward-Leonard framework and in couple of different applications
where self-excited DC generators are unacceptable. In this write, the
stator field motion may likewise be furnished with the assistance of
changeless magnets, (for example, in perpetual magnet DC engines).
PMDC (permanent magnet DC) engines are prominently utilized as a part
of little toys, e.g., a toy auto.

Figure 2.10. Classification of electrical machines.

 Introduction to Electrical Machines 71

The field winding and armature winding are interconnected in

different approaches to accomplish an extensive variety of execution
qualities (for instance, field twisting in arrangement or parallel with the
armature winding).
In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is stimulated
by the current delivered independent from anyone else. A little measure
of transition is constantly present in the posts because of the lingering
attraction. In this way, at first, current initiates in the armature conductors
of a DC generator just because of the lingering attraction. The field
transition steadily increments as the initiated current begins moving
through the field winding.
Self-excited machines can be additionally delegated –

• Series wound DC machines – The field winding is associated in

arrangement with the armature winding. Thus, the field winding
conveys entire of the heap current (armature current). That is the
reason arrangement winding is outlined with few turns of thick
wire and the obstruction is kept low (around 0.5 Ω).
• Shunt wound DC machines – Here, field winding is associated in
parallel with the armature winding. Subsequently, the full voltage
is connected over the field winding. Shunt winding is made with
countless and the obstruction is kept high (around 100 Ω). It
takes just little current which is under 5% of the appraised
armature current.
• Compound wound DC machines –There are two arrangements of
field winding. One is associated in arrangement and the other is
associated in parallel with the armature winding. Compound
wound machines are additionally partitioned as -
• Short shunt – field winding is associated in parallel with just the
armature winding
• Long shunt – field winding is associated in parallel with the mix
of arrangement field winding and armature winding.
72 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

CONCLUSION

The readers can get an overview about the basic concepts involved in
energy conversion and various the types of machineries available in the
field of electrical engineering.

Practice Questions

1. A 4 pole DC shunt generator with lap connected armature supplies

5kW at 230V.The armature and field copper losses are 360W and 200W
respectively. Calculate the armature current and generated emf.

Solution:

Power= 5kW
V=230V
Field copper losses=200W
Armature copper losses=360W
P 5000
IL = = = 21.7A
V 230
Field copper losses=200W
VIsh = 200
200 200
I sh = = = 0.86A
V 230
Armature Current Ia= IL+Ish= 23.7+0.86= 22.56A
Armature copper losses=Ia2Ra=360W

2. A 400 V DC shunt motor has no load speed of 1450 rpm, the line
current being 9A. At full loaded condition, the line current is 75A. If the
shunt field resistance is 200 ohms and armature resistance is 0.5 ohms.
Calculate full load speed.
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 73

Solution:

V=400V
N1=1450 rpm
IL1=9A
IL2=75A
Rsh=200 ohms
Ra=0.5 A
N2=?
V 400
I sh = = = 2A
R sh 200
Ia1= IL1 - Ish = 9-2 = 7A
Eb1=V-Ia1Ra = 400 – (7x0.5) = 396.5V
Ia2=IL2-Ish = 75 – 2 = 73 A
Eb2=V-Ia2Ra =400 – (73x0.5) = 363.5V

3. A 230 V DC shunt motor on no load runs at a speed of 1200 rpm

and draws a current of 4.5 A. The armature and shunt field resistance are
0.3 ohms and 230 ohms respectively. Calculate the back emf and speed,
when loaded and drawing a current of 36A.
Solution:

V=230V
N1=1200rpm
IL1=4.5A
Ra=0.3A
Rsh=230Ω
IL2=36 A
EB2=?
Ia2= IL2+Ish =36-1 = 35A
EB1=230 – (3.5 x 0.3) = 228.95V
EB2=230 – (35 x 0.3) =219.5V
E B2 219.5
N2 = xN 1 = = 1150rpm
E B1 228.9
74 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

The Hopkinson test on two similar shunt machines gave the

following data’s line voltage =110V, line current= 48A, Armature current
=230A, field current =3A and 3.5A for motor and generator respectively.
Armature resistance is 0.035 Ω. Calculate efficiency for both machines.
Solution:

Armature Cu loss of Motor= (230)2 x 0.035=1851.5

Field Cu loss of motor= 110 x 3=330
Total loss of motor= 1851.5+330=2181.5
Armature Cu loss of Generator= (188.5)2 x 0.035= 1243.6
Field Cu loss of Generator= 110 x 3.5= 385
Total loss of Generator=1243.6+385=1628.6
Stray Loss= VI1+[Total loss of motor+ Total loss of Generator]Ws
=1469.9
Ws/2=1469.9/2=734.9

Efficiency of Motor:
inputpower − losses
Efficiency =
inputpower
V( I1 + I 2 ) − [Totallossesofmotor + Ws / 2]
Efficiency =
V( I1 + I 2 )
110( 233) − [2181.5 + 734.9]
Efficiency =
110( 233)
Efficiency =88.6%

The primary of the transformer is rated at 10A and 1000V. The open
circuit readings are: V1=1000 V, V2=500 V, I=0.42, Pac=100W. The short
circuit readings are: I1=10 A, V1=125V and Pac=400V. Find the
equivalent circuit parameters for the output voltage of ZL=19+12j ohms.
Solution:

Po= 100W
Vo= 500V
Io= 0.42A
 Introduction to Electrical Machines 75

Po 100
cosφo = = = 0.47
Vo I o 500 ∗ 0.42
Po= VoIo cosφo
Open circuit test:
Im= Io sinφo = 0.369A
Ic= Io cosφo = 0.1992A
Vo
Xo= = 1355.01Ω
Im
Vo
Ro= = 2532.9Ω
Ic

Review Questions

1. What is electromechanical energy conversion? Explain in detail.

2. Classify the types of AC circuits and brief them.
3. What is a transformer? Derive the EMF equation of a
transformer.
4. Classify DC machines in detail.

REFERENCES

[1] Liu, C., Chau, K.T., Lee, C.H.T., Song, Z., (2021). A Critical
Review of Advanced Electric Machines and Control Strategies for
Electric Vehicles. IEEE, 109(6), 1004-1028, doi: 10.1109/JPROC.
2020.3041417.
[2] Kumar, L.A. and Alexander, S.A., (2020). Power Converters for
Electric Vehicles. CRC Press, USA.
[3] Konghirun, M., (2007). A Three-Phase Space-Vector Based PWM
Rectifier with Power Factor Control. Power Conversion Conference
- Nagoya, 57-61, doi: 10.1109/PCCON.2007.372948.
76 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

[4] Akbari, M., Rezaei-Zare, A., Cheema, M.A.M., Kalicki, T., (2021).
Air Gap Inductance Calculation for Transformer Transient Model.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 36(1), 492-494, doi:
10.1109/TEC.2020.3009818.
[5] Finken, T., Felden, M., Hameyer, K., (2008). Comparison and
design of different electrical machine types regarding their
applicability in hybrid electrical vehicles. 18th International
Conference on Electrical Machines, Portugal 1-5, doi: 10.1109/
ICELMACH.2008.4800044.
[6] Ashok Kumar, L., Indargandhi, V., Uma Maheswari, Y., (2020).
Software Tools for the Simulation of Electrical Systems: Theory
and Practice. 1st Edition, Academic Press, Elsevier, USA.
[7] Ashok Kumar, L., Kalaiarasi, A., Umaheswari, Y., (2017). Power
Electronics with MATLAB. Cambridge University Press, London.
[8] Sheeba Babu, Ashok Kumar, L., Indragandhi, V., (2018).
Optimizing Electrical Generators of Wind Energy Conversion
System for Efficient Power Extraction, Gazi Univiersity, Journal of
Science, 31(4). 1141-1154.
[9] Dhayaneswaran, Y., Ashok Kumar, L., (2014). A study on current
characteristics of induction motor while operating at its base
frequency in textile industry Energy, 74, 340-345.
[10] Prithivi, K., Sathyapriya, M., Ashok Kumar, L., (2017). An
Optimized DC-DC Converter for Electric Vehicle Application,
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology,
8(9), 173–182.
[11] Banu Rekha., Somasundaram, Ashok Kumar, L., Pruthviraj
Balekai., (2018), A Technical Review on Advantages of Using EC
BLDC Fans in Factory and Commercial Buildings. Energy
Engineering, 115(3), 57-74.
Chapter 3

DC MACHINES USING MATLAB

ABSTRACT

A machine which converts mechanical power into DC electrical

power is called a DC generator. The same machine when used to
convert DC electrical power into mechanical power is known as a DC
motor. From construction point of view there is no difference between a
DC generator and motor. The DC motors are very useful where wide
range of speeds and good speed regulation is required such as electric
fraction. This chapter illustrates the simulation and modeling of DC
machines.

Keywords: direct current, motor, generator, modeling, starting

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO DC GENERATOR

A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical

energy into direct current electricity. The mechanical torque is given as
input to the shaft of the generator. The mechanical torque is provided by
a turbine of any type of conventional energy sources. The field of the DC
generator is supplied with a DC voltage source in order to provide
excitation to the field coil. When the torque is applied, due to the emf the
78 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

armature coils gets excited and starts generating the DC voltage. The
output DC voltage is proportional to the input mechanical torque. The
armature coil is connected to electrical load.

3.2. THEORY OF OPERATION

A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical

energy into direct current electricity. This energy conversion is based on
the principle of production of dynamically induced emf.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, whenever
a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (or a conductor is
moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in
the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the
emf equation of DC generator. If the conductor is provided with the
closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC
generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically
induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of
induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced
current changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor
changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor
at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half
rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be
reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature
conductor will be alternating. But with a split ring commutator,
connections of the armature conductors also get reversed when the
current reversal occurs and therefore, we get unidirectional current at the
terminals [1-2].
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 79

3.3. MODELLING OF DC GENERATOR

Figure 3.1 depicts the parameters of a DC generator in MATLAB.

Modelling of a DC generator is shown in Figure 3.2. The waveforms thus
obtained for a DC generator is shown in Figures 3.3 to 3.6.

Figure 3.1. Model parameters.

80 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.2. DC generator simulation in MATLAB.

Figure 3.3. Speed waveform.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 81

Figure 3.4. Torque waveform.

Figure 3.5. Voltage waveform.

Figure 3.6. Armature current waveform.

82 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

3.4. INTRODUCTION TO DC MOTOR

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that

converts direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields.
Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either
electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of
current flow in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be
powered from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems.
A DC motor’s speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a
variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field
windings.
The overall circuit pertaining to DC motor control with solid state
devices consists of electrical part and the mechanical part. In electrical
part a DC voltage source is applied through a H-bridge converter to the
armature of the DC motor. The current sensor is used to measure the
current drawn by the motor. In mechanical part, the motion sensor along
with a mechanical rotational reference is attached.

3.5. THEORY OF OPERATION

The construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature

which is connected to the supply end through commutator segments and
brushes as shown in Figure 3.7. The armature is placed in between north
south poles of a permanent or an electromagnet. As soon as we supply
direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due to
electromagnetic effect of the magnet. Now to go into the details of the
operating principle of DC motor its important that we have a clear
understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of
force acting on the armature conductors of DC motor. If a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 83

conductor experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to

both the direction of field and the current carrying conductor. Fleming’s
left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of our left hand perpendicular to each other, in such a way that the
middle finger is along the direction of current in the conductor, and index
finger is along the direction of magnetic field i.e., north to south pole,
then thumb indicates the direction of created mechanical force.

Figure 3.7. DC motor construction.

3.5.1. Modelling of DC Motor

Figure 3.8 depicts the parameters of a DC motor in MATLAB.

Modelling of a DC motor is shown in Figure 3.9. The waveforms thus
obtained for a DC motor is shown in Figures 3.10 and 3.11.
84 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.8. Model parameters.

Figure 3.9. DC Motor simulation in MATLAB.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 85

Figure 3.10. Speed waveform.

Figure 3.11. Current waveform.

3.6. STARTING OF DC MOTOR

A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting

and running of a shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor.
Now the question is why these types of DC motors require the assistance
of the starter in the first case. The only explanation to that is given by the
presence of back emf Eb, which plays a critical role in governing the
operation of the motor. The back emf, develops as the motor armature
starts to rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and
86 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

counters the supply voltage. This also essentially means that the back emf
at the starting is zero, and develops gradually as the motor gathers speed.

3.6.1. Modelling and Simulation

Modelling of a DC motor starting is shown in Figure 3.12. The

waveforms thus obtained are shown in Figures 3.13 to 3.15.

Figure 3.12. Modelling of DC motor starting.

Figure 3.13. Speed waveform.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 87

Figure 3.14. Current waveform.

Figure 3.15. Torque waveform.

3.7. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) when used for power

switching applications operates as an IGBT. When it is conducting (BJT
operating in the saturated region) a forward voltage Vf is developed
between collector and emitter (in the range of 1 V). Therefore the IGBT
block can be used to model the BJT device.
88 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

The IGBT block does not simulate the gate current controlling the
BJT or IGBT. The switch is controlled by a simulink signal (1/0). The
DC motor uses the preset model (5 HP, 24V, 1750 rpm). It simulates a
fan type load (where load torque is proportional to square of speed). The
armature mean voltage can be varied from 0 to 240 V when the duty
cycle (specified in the pulse generator block) is varied from 0 to 100%.
The H bridge consists of four BJT/diode pairs (BJT simulated by
IGBT models). Two transistors are switched simultaneously: Q1 and Q4
or Q2 and Q3. When Q1 and Q4 are fired, a positive voltage is applied to
the motor and diodes D2-D3 operate as free-wheeling diodes when Q1 and
Q3 are switched off. When Q2 and Q3 are fired, a negative voltage is
applied to the motor and diodes D1-D4 operate as free-wheeling diodes
when Q2 and Q3 are switched off.

3.7.1. Modelling and Simulation

Figure 3.16. Modelling of DC motor speed control.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 89

Figure 3.17. Output waveforms.

The motor starts in the positive direction with a duty cycle of 75%
(mean DC voltage of 180V). At t = 0.5 second, the armature voltage is
suddenly reversed and the motor runs in the negative direction.
Scope 1 shows motor speed, armature current and load torque and
Scope 2 shows currents flowing in BJT Q3 and diode D3.
Modelling of a DC motor speed control is shown in Figure 3.16. The
waveforms thus obtained are shown in Figure 3.17.

3.8. TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF DC DRIVES

(SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIER)

The 5 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V DC field

voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by a single-phase rectifier
controlled by two PI regulators. The rectifier is fed by a 220 V AC 50 Hz
voltage source followed by a linear transformer to boost the voltage up to a
sufficient value.
90 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.18. Simulink model of two quadrant DC drive.

Figure 3.19. Output measurement.

The regulators control the firing angle of the rectifier thyristor. The first
regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current regulator. The speed
regulator outputs the armature current reference (in p.u.) used by the current
controller in order to obtain the electromagnetic torque needed to reach the
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 91

desired speed. The speed reference change rate follows acceleration and
deceleration ramps in order to avoid sudden reference changes that could
cause armature over-current and destabilize the system. The current regulator
controls the armature current by computing the appropriate thyristor firing
angle. This generates the rectifier output voltage needed to obtain the desired
armature current. A 150 mH smoothing inductance is placed in series with
the armature circuit to reduce armature current oscillations.

Figure 3.20. Output waveforms.

92 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.21. Output Waveform converted signal.

3.9. TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF DC DRIVES

(THREE PHASE RECTIFIER)

The 200 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 310 V DC

field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by a three-phase
rectifier controlled by two PI regulators. The rectifier is fed by a 460 V AC
60 Hz voltage source.
The regulators control the firing angle of the rectifier thyristors. The
first regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current regulator. Since
we are here in torque regulation mode, the speed regulator is disabled and
only the current regulator is used. The current regulator controls the
armature current by computing the appropriate thyristor firing angle. This
generates the rectifier output voltage needed to obtain the desired
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 93

armature current and thus the desired electromagnetic torque. The current
controller takes two inputs. The first one is the current reference (in p.u).
This current reference is computed from the torque reference provided by
the user. The second input is the armature current flowing through the
machine. A 15 mH smoothing inductance is placed in series with the
armature circuit to reduce armature current oscillations.

Figure 3.22. (A) Simulink model. (B) Subsystem for torque reference.
94 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.23. Model for clock pulse.

Figure 3.24. Output measurement.

3.10. CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE

The DC motor is fed by the DC source through a chopper which

consists of GTO thyristor and free-wheeling diode D1. The motor drives a
mechanical load characterized by inertia J, friction coefficient B, and
load torque TL.
The hysteresis current controller compares the sensed current with
the reference and generates the trigger signal for the GTO thyristor to
force the motor current to follow the reference. The speed control loop
uses a proportional-integral controller which produces the reference for
the current loop. Current and voltage measurement blocks provide signals
for visualization purpose.
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 95

Figure 3.25. Output waveforms.

3.10.1. Discrete Operation

A DC motor is fed by a DC source through a chopper which consists

of GTO thyristor and a free-wheeling diode. The motor drives a
mechanical load characterized by inertia J, friction coefficient B, and
load torque TL. The motor uses the discrete DC machine provided in the
Machines library.
96 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.26. Output waveform converted signal.

Figure 3.27. Chopper fed DC drive.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 97

Figure 3.28. Output waveform.

Figure 3.29. Chopper fed DC drive.

98 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.30. Output waveforms.

The hysteresis current controller compares the sensed current with

the reference and generates the trigger signal for the GTO thyristor to
force the motor current to follow the reference. The speed control loop
uses a proportional-integral controller which produces the reference for
the current loop.

3.11. ONE QUADRANT CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE

The 5 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V DC

field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by an IGBT buck
converter controlled by two PI regulators. The buck converter is fed by a
280 V DC voltage source.
The first regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current
regulator. The speed regulator outputs the armature current reference (in
p.u.) used by the current controller in order to obtain the electromagnetic
torque needed to reach the desired speed. The speed reference change
rate follows acceleration and deceleration ramps in order to avoid sudden
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 99

reference changes that could cause armature over-current and destabilize

the system.

Figure 3.31. One quadrant chopper.

Figure 3.32. Output waveform.

100 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

The current regulator controls the armature current by computing the

appropriate duty ratio of the IGBT 5 kHz pulses (Pulse Width
Modulation). This generates the average armature voltage needed to
obtain the desired armature current. In order to limit the amplitude of the
current oscillations, a smoothing inductance is placed in series with the
armature circuit.

3.11.1. Hysterisis Current Control

The 5 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V DC

field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by an IGBT buck
converter controlled by two regulators. The buck converter is fed by a
280 V DC voltage source.

Figure 3.33. One quadrant chopper with hysteresis current control.

The first regulator is a PI speed regulator, followed by a hysteresis

current regulator. The speed regulator outputs the armature current
reference (in p.u.) used by the current controller in order to obtain the
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 101

electromagnetic torque needed to reach the desired speed. The speed

reference change rate follows acceleration and deceleration ramps in
order to avoid sudden reference changes that could cause armature over-
current and destabilize the system.

Figure 3.34. Output waveform.

The current regulator controls the armature current by delivering the

correct pulses to the IGBT device in order to keep the armature current
inside a user-defined hysteresis band. The switching frequency of the
IGBT device is limited by the motor inductance and an external
inductance placed in series with the armature circuit [3].
102 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

3.12. TWO QUADRANT CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE

The 200 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V

DC field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by an IGBT
buck-boost converter controlled by two PI regulators. The buck-boost
converter is fed by a 630 V DC bus obtained by rectification of a 460 V
AC 60 Hz voltage source. In order to limit the DC bus voltage during
dynamic braking mode, a braking chopper has been added

Figure 3.35. Two quadrant chopper.

The first regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current

regulator. The speed regulator outputs the armature current reference (in
p.u.) used by the current controller in order to obtain the electromagnetic
torque needed to reach the desired speed. The speed reference change
rate follows acceleration and deceleration ramps in order to avoid sudden
reference changes that could cause armature over-current and destabilize
the system. The current regulator controls the armature current by
computing the appropriate duty ratios of the 5 kHz pulses of the two
IGBT devices (Pulse Width Modulation). For proper system behaviour,
the two IGBT devices have opposite instantaneous pulse values. This
generates the average armature voltage needed to obtain the desired
armature current. In order to limit the amplitude of the current
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 103

oscillations, a smoothing inductance is placed in series with the armature

circuit.

Figure 3.36. Output waveforms.

3.13. FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE

The 200 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V

DC field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by an IGBT
converter controlled by two PI regulators. The converter is fed by a 515
V DC bus obtained by rectification of a 380 V AC 50 Hz voltage source.
In order to limit the DC bus voltage during dynamic braking mode, a
braking chopper has been added between the diode rectifier. The first
regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current regulator. The speed
regulator outputs the armature current reference (in p.u.) used by the
104 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

current controller in order to obtain the electromagnetic torque needed to

reach the desired speed [4-6].

Figure 3.37. Four quadrant DC drive.

Figure 3.38. Output waveforms.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 105

The speed reference change rate follows acceleration and

deceleration ramps in order to avoid sudden reference changes that could
cause armature over-current and destabilize the system. The current
regulator controls the armature current by computing the appropriate duty
ratios of the 5 kHz pulses of the four IGBT devices (Pulse Width
Modulation). For proper system behaviour, the instantaneous pulse
values of IGBT devices 1 and 4 are opposite to those of IGBT devices 2
and 3. This generates the average armature voltage needed to obtain the
desired armature current. In order to limit the amplitude of the current
oscillations, a smoothing inductance is placed in series with the armature
circuit.

3.14. FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION

OF DC DRIVE WITH RECTIFIER

The 5 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 150 V DC

field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by two single-
phase anti-parallel connected converters controlled by two PI regulators.
This allows bidirectional current flow through the DC motor armature
circuit and thus four-quadrant operation. The converters are fed by a 230
V AC 60 Hz voltage source followed by a linear transformer to boost the
voltage up to a sufficient value.
The regulators control the firing angles of both converter thyristor.
The first regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current regulator.
The speed regulator outputs the armature current reference (in p.u.) used
by the current controller in order to obtain the electromagnetic torque
needed to reach the desired speed. The speed reference change rate
follows acceleration and deceleration ramps in order to avoid sudden
reference changes that could cause armature over-current and destabilize
the system. The current regulator controls the armature current by
computing the appropriate thyristor firing angles. This generates the
converter output voltages needed to obtain the desired armature current.
106 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.39. Four quadrant single phase rectifier fed DC drive.

Figure 3.40. Measurement block.

Both converters operate simultaneously and the two firing angles are
controlled so that their sum gives 180 degrees. This produces opposite
average voltages at the converter dc output terminals and thus identical
average voltages at the DC motor armature, the converters being
connected in anti-parallel. One converter is working in rectifier mode
while the other is in inverter mode.
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 107

Figure 3.41. Output waveforms.

Figure 3.42. Output waveforms.

108 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.43. Output waveform.

The circulating current produced by the instantaneous voltage

difference at the terminal of both converters is limited by 80 mH
inductors connected between these terminals. A 50 mH smoothing
inductance is placed in series with the armature circuit to reduce armature
current oscillations.

3.15. FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION

WITH THREE PHASE RECTIFIER

The 200 HP DC motor is separately excited with a constant 310 V

DC field voltage source. The armature voltage is provided by two three-
phase anti-parallel connected converters controlled by two PI regulators.
This allows bidirectional current flow through the DC motor armature
circuit and thus four-quadrant operation. The converters are fed by a 380
V AC 50 Hz voltage source.
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 109

The regulators control the firing angles of both converter thyristor.

The first regulator is a speed regulator, followed by a current regulator.
Since we are here in torque regulation mode, the speed regulator is
disabled and only the current regulator is used. The current regulator
controls the armature current by computing the appropriate thyristor
firing angles. This generates the rectifier output voltages needed to obtain
the desired armature current and thus the desired electromagnetic torque.

Figure 3.44. Simulink diagram.

Figure 3.45. Measurement block.

110 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 3.46. Output waveforms.

Figure 3.47. Output waveforms.

 DC Machines Using MATLAB 111

Figure 3.48. Output waveforms.

Both converters operate simultaneously and the two firing angles are
controlled so that their sum gives 180 degrees. This produces opposite
average voltages at the converter dc output terminals and thus identical
average voltages at the DC motor armature, the converters being
connected in anti-parallel. One converter is working in rectifier mode
while the other is in inverter mode [7-8]
The circulating current produced by the instantaneous voltage
difference at the terminal of both converters is limited by 5 mH inductors
connected between these terminals. No smoothing inductance is placed in
series with the armature circuit, the armature current oscillations being
quite small due to the three-phase voltage source.

CONCLUSION

This chapter illustrated the simulation and modeling of DC machines

and the various control topologies used for industrial applications.
112 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

REFERENCES

[1] Khan, M.J., Iqbal, M.T., (2006). Simplified Modeling of Rectifier-

Coupled Brushless DC Generators. International Conference on
Electrical and Computer Engineering, 349-352, doi: 10.1109/
ICECE.2006.355643.
[2] Maksimov, N.M., Savosteenko, G.A., Yu, D.H., Savosteenko,
N.V., (2021). Mathematical Modeling of Operation Modes of the
Starter-Generator. IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers
in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Russia, 1009-1013, doi:
10.1109/ElConRus51938.2021.9396286.
[3] Jun, L., Dazhi, W., (2009). Study and Simulation of a Novel
Hysteresis Current Control Strategy. Second International
Conference on Intelligent Computation Technology and
Automation, 306-309, doi: 10.1109/ICICTA.2009.924.
[4] Kumari, S., Swain, S.K., (2018). Optimal control based PID tuning
for control of four quadrant chopper fed DC motor. Technologies
for Smart-City Energy Security and Power, India, 1-6, doi:
10.1109/ICSESP.2018.8376695.
[5] Joos, G., Cyr, C., Ziogas, P.D., Al-Haddad, K., (1989). A three
phase fully regenerative converter for chopper controlled DC
drives. 20th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists
Conference, USA, 2, 563-570, doi: 10.1109/PESC.1989.48535.
[6] Dewan, S.B., Mirbod, A., (1981). Microprocessor-Based Optimum
Control for Four-Quadrant Chopper. IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, IA-17(1), 34-40, doi: 10.1109/TIA.
1981.4503895.
 DC Machines Using MATLAB 113

[7] Ashok Kumar, L., Albert Alexander, S., (2020). Power Electronic
Converters for Solar Photovoltaic Systems, Academic Press,
Elsevier, USA.
[8] Vishnu Murthy, K., Ashok Kumar,L., Sampathraja, N.,
Dhayaneswaran, Y., (2017). Solar Powered Speed Control of
Brushless DC Motor Drive Using PID Fuzzy Controller,
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology,
8(8), 1135–1147
Chapter 4

INDUCTION MACHINES
AND DRIVES USING MATLAB

ABSTRACT

Induction machines are the backbone of any industry. Induction

motors may be either single-phase or three phase. The single phase
induction motors are usually built in small sizes and are employed with
light loads to handle domestic appliances. Three phase induction motors
are the most commonly used AC motors in the industry because they
have simple and rugged construction, low cost, high efficiency,
reasonably good power factor, self starting torque and low maintenance.
Almost more than 90% of the mechanical power used in industry is
provided by three phase induction motors. This chapter describes the
modeliing and simulation of induction machines and drives using
MATLAB.

Keywords: Induction machine, generator, capacitor, flux. Revolving

theory
116 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

4.1. INDUCTION GENERATOR

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of

alternating current electrical generator that uses the principles of
induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed.
Induction generators are useful in the applications such as mini hydro
plants, wind turbines or in reducing high pressure gas streams to lower
pressure, because they can recover energy with simple controls.
An induction generator usually draws its excitation power from an
electrical grid. Sometimes they are self-excited by phase correcting
capacitors.
The following are the conditions for the induction machine to behave
as an induction generator:

1. Slip becomes negative due to this the rotor current and rotor emf
attains negative value.
2. The prime mover torque becomes opposite to electric torque.

Electromagnetic induction is the key factor in a generator’s

operation. The main parts of the generator are carbon brushes, slip-rings,
rotor and stator. The rotor is an electromagnet made by coiling wires
around two or more poles of metal core. The stator is a pair of plates
attached to the axle. The brushes are connected to the source of energy
and work with commutator in order to let the induced current flow
around the system.
Once the shaft and coil start spinning around the shaft, there is some
current and electromotive force produced. This induced current moves in
the opposite direction of the rotation. For example, when the flux is
aligned with the magnetic field, then the flux is not cutting the field.
When the flux moves directly across the flux lines then, it is cutting the
field at a maximum therefore the emf is at its highest point. The
maximum emf could be calculated by the formula EMF= B*L*v*sin (α)
where L is the length if the segment, B corresponds to the magnetic field
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 117

and v the speed. When alpha is 90 degrees then, the voltage is at is

maximum value.
If the generator induced current is reversing direction every half turn
then it is an alternating current. On the other hand, if the induced current
always turns in the same direction then it is direct current.
If an induction generator is asynchronous, then at synchronous speed
no power is delivered because the difference between the synchronous
speed and the operating speed is zero. But if a motor is driven at a speed
higher than the synchronous speed, the torque will be negative and start
acting as a generator rather than a motor. The generator could deliver the
desired power if the slip is controlled according to the load requirements.
Figure 4.1 shows the layout of an induction generator.

Figure 4.1. Induction Generator.

4.2. SIMULINK MODEL OF AN INDUCTION GENERATOR

Figure 4.2. Simlunk model of an induction generator.

118 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 4.3. Block parameters.

Figure 4.4. Output waveforms.

 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 119

Figure 4.2 shows the simulink block of an induction generator and

Figure 4.3 depicts its block parameters [1-2].
The output voltage, current and real, reactive power waveforms are
given in Figure 4.4.

4.3. INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction motors are commonly used in industries as they are

economical, rugged, and reliable and are available in a range of fractional
horse power to multi-megawatt capacity. Squirrel-cage and Wound rotor
are the two configurations in three phase machines. In a wound rotor
machine, the rotor winding is similar to that of stator, whereas in a cage
machine, the rotor has a squirrel cage like structure with shorted end
rings. Figure 4.5 shows the layout of an induction motor.

Figure 4.5. Induction motor.

120 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

A three phase, two-pole induction motor is shown in Figure 4.5. The

three phase windings are connected in either delta or wye connection.
Ferromagnetic steel sheets are used for stator and rotor construction.
Stator slots are arranged in a manner so as to produce rotating magnetic
field. Rotor slots are skewed inorder to reduce the magnetic
An induction machine is analogous to a transformer with a rotating
and short-circuited secondary as the basic principle is mutual induction.
When the primary winding of the stator is connected to three phase AC
source, it establishes a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous
speed. An emf is induced in the rotor bars when they cut the magnetic
field, thereby rotating it. The difference between the synchronous speed
and the rotor speed gives the slip. The rotor speed cannot reach the
synchronous speed as there would be no generation of emf, current and
torque. Thus the three phase induction motor is self starting. However a
single phase induction motor is not self starting. The starting methods
used are capacitor – start, capacitor – start and run, split phase, shaded
pole, etc.

4.4. SIMULINK MODEL OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

The motor operates in capacitor-start-run mode where two capacitors

– run and start are used. During starting period, the auxiliary winding is
also connected in series with a 255 µF capacitor but, after the
disconnection speed has been reached, the auxiliary winding stays
connected in series with a 21.1 µF run capacitor. This capacitor value is
optimized to mitigate torque pulsations. The torque of 1 Nm is applied on
shaft at time t=2s, after the motor has reached the steady state. Figure 4.6
shows the simulink block of an induction motor and Figure 4.7 depicts its
block parameters.
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 121

Figure 4.6. Simulink block.

Figure 4.7. (Continued)

122 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 4.7. (A). Block parameters. (B). Block parameters.

The voltage, current, speed and real, reactive power waveforms are
given in Figure 4.8.
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 123

C
Figure 4.8. Output waveforms. (A) Input voltage. (B) Input current. (C) Speed.

4.5. SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF

AN INDUCTION MOTOR

Various speed control techniques implemented by modern-age VFD

are mainly classified in the following three categories [3].
124 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

4.5.1. Scalar Control (v/f CONTROL)

In this type of control, the motor is fed with variable frequency

signals generated by the PWM control from an inverter. Here, the V/f
ratio is maintained constant in order to get constant torque over the entire
operating range. Since only magnitudes of the input variables – frequency
and voltage – are controlled, this is known as “scalar control.” Generally,
the drives with such a control are without any feedback devices (open-
loop control). Hence, a control of this type offers low cost and is an easy
to implement solution. In such controls, very little knowledge of the
motor is required for frequency control. Thus, this control is widely used.

4.5.2. Vector Control

Figure 4.9 shows the general block diagram of vector control. This
control is also known as the field oriented control, flux oriented control
or indirect torque control. In general, there exists three possibilities for
such selection and hence, three different vector controls. They are:

• Stator flux oriented control

• Rotor flux oriented control
• Magnetizing flux oriented control

As the torque producing component in this type of control is

controlled only after transformation is done and is not the main input
reference, such control is known as “indirect torque control.”
The most challenging and ultimately, the limiting feature of the field
orientation, is the method whereby the flux angle is measured or
estimated. Depending on the method of measurement, the vector control
is divided into two subcategories: direct and indirect vector control.
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 125

Figure 4.9. Vector control.

In direct vector control, the flux measurement is done by using the

flux sensing coils or the Hall devices. This adds to additional hardware
cost and in addition, measurement is not highly accurate. Therefore, this
method is not a very good control technique. The more common method
is indirect vector control. In this method, the flux angle is not measured
directly, but is estimated from the equivalent circuit model and from
measurements of rotor speed, the stator current & the voltage.
Figure 4.10 shows the block diagram of indirect vector control and
Figure 4.11 depicts the block diagram of direct torque control
respectively.

Figure 4.10. Indirect vector control.

126 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 4.11. Direct torque control.

The heart of this technology is its adaptive motor model. This model
is based on the mathematical expressions of basic motor theory. This
model requires information about the various motor parameters, like
stator resistance, mutual inductance, saturation co efficiency; etc Torque
vector controlled drives are capable of controlling the stator flux and
torque more accurately than vector controlled drives, while the controller
complexity is reduced considerably. Field orientation is achieved without
rotor speed or position feedback using advanced motor theory to
calculate the motor torque directly without using modulation. The
controlling variables are motor magnetizing flux and motor torque. The
external speed set reference signal is decoded to generate the torque and
flux reference. Thus, in the DTC, the motor torque and flux become
direct controlled variables and hence, the name – Direct Torque Control.
The advantage of this technology is the fastest response time, elimination
of feedback devices, reduced mechanical failure. The disadvantage is due
to the inherent hysteresis of the comparator, higher torque and flux ripple
exist.
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 127

4.6. SPEED CONTROL OF SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 4.11 shows the general block diagram for speed control. The
design considerations for speed control system using frequency control
have been divided into three parts such as PWM control circuit, driver
circuit and H-Bridge inverter. Variable speed drive by using frequency
control method is commonly used to control and change the speed of the
single-phase induction motor. It can vary the desired speed by changing
the frequency using the variable resistance. Due to compact integrated
circuit to obtained low cost high performance speed control. In this
topology, two separate power supply has been used which is 240 V DC
and 12 V DC.

Figure 4.11. Speed control block diagram.

The 240 V DC was used to feed to H-bridge inverter while 12 V DC

was used in PWM control circuit and driver circuit. Only two MOSFET
are able to switch ON and OFF at the same time. The four MOSFET will
receiving the triggering pulses from the driver circuit to turn ON and
OFF continuously. There have six operation of the switching MOSFET.
128 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

4.6.1. Doubly Fed Slip Recovery Systems

A doubly fed slip recovery system feeds rectified slip power to a

smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC supply network via an
inverter, the speed of the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC
current.

4.6.2. Cycloconverters

Cycloconverter topologies are AC/AC converters that have no

intermediate DC link for energy storage. In this configuration, AC signal
is directly converted to a controlled voltage and frequency ac signal. In
this case, the motor torque and current can be controlled and a wide range
of speed variation can be obtained. However, 12 more diodes are used in
this configuration. The circuit topology of cycloconverter is shown in
Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12. Cycloconverter based circuit topology.

4.7. PHASE CONTROLLED INDUCTION MOTOR

To control a three-phase induction motor, an AC/AC converter can

be used. Each phase has two thyristors. The firing angles of the thyristors
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 129

in each phase are 180 degrees apart and are positioned opposite of each
other. In addition each phase is 120 degrees apart. Figure 4.13 illustrate
the simulink block and Figure 4.14 shows the speed and torque
waveforms.

Figure 4.13. Simulink block.

Figure 4.14. Output waveforms.

130 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

4.8. FREQUENCY CONTROLLED INDUCTION

MOTOR DRIVE

A cyclo-converter is a direct frequency changer that converts ac

power at one frequency at one frequency to ac power at another
frequency to AC to AC conversion without any intermediate DC link. It
converts the frequency without help of any intermediate DC link. The
output voltage and frequency of a cyclo-converter can be varied
continuously and independently using a control circuit. Therefore, unlike
other converters, it is a single stage frequency converter.

• Step-down cyclo-converter: It acts like a step-down transformer

that provides the output frequency less than that of input, fo < fi.
• Step-up cyclo-converter: It provides the output frequency more
than that of input, fo > fi.

In case of step-down cyclo-converter, the output frequency is limited

to a fraction of input frequency, typically it is below 20Hz in case 50Hz
supply frequency. In this case, no separate commutation circuits are
needed as SCRs are line commutated devices.
But in case of step-up cyclo-converter, forced commutation circuits
are needed to turn OFF SCRs at desired frequency. Such circuits are
relatively very complex. Therefore, majority of cyclo-converters are of
step-down type that lowers the frequency than input frequency.
Step-down cyclo-converter circuits can be further classified into
following types.

• Single-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters

• Three-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters
• Three-phase to three-phase cyclo-converters

Besides the frequency control, cyclo-converter output voltage can be

varied by applying phase control technique. These can be used to provide
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 131

either fixed frequency output from variable frequency input value or

variable frequency output from fixed frequency input.
These are mainly used in very high power, low speed AC motors and
traction systems, especially low frequency three-phase to single phase
systems.
The diodes connected in series with each voltage source represent the
unidirectional conduction of each two quadrant converter. If the output
voltage ripples of each converter are neglected, then it becomes ideal and
represents the desired output voltage.
If the firing angles of individual converters are modulated
continuously, each converter produces same sinusoidal voltages at its
output terminals. So the voltages produced by these two converters have
same phase, voltage and frequency. The average power produced by the
cyclo-converter can flow either to or from the output terminals as the
load current can flow freely to and from the load through the positive and
negative converters.
Therefore, it is possible to operate the loads of any phase angle (or
power factor), inductive or capacitive through the cyclo-converter circuit.
Due to the unidirectional property of load current for each converter, it is
obvious that positive converter carries positive half-cycle of load current
with negative converter remaining in idle during this period.
Similarly, negative converter carries negative half cycle of the load
current with positive converter remaining in idle during this period,
regardless of the phase of current with respect to voltage. This means that
each converter operates both in rectifying and inverting regions during
the period of its associated half cycles.
Figure 4.15 shows the simulink block of frequency controlled
induction motor and Figure 4.16 depicts the output waveforms.
132 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 4.15. Simulink Block.

Figure 4.16. Output waveforms.

4.9. VECTOR CONTROLLED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE

The conventional control method for Induction Motor is scalar

control technique. The disadvantage in scalar control is the inherent
coupling effect due to which the response is sluggish. Inherent effect
refers to the torque and current being functions of voltage or current and
frequency resulting in temporary dipping of flux. This problem is
overcome by vector control method. In vector control method, the stator
current of the motor is identified as two orthogonal components namely
 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 133

magnetic flux and torque. Control system of the drive calculates the
current component references from the flux and torque references given
by the drive’s speed control. PI controllers are used to keep the measured
current components at their reference values [4-7].
The principle of operation can be explained with the help of the
following diagram in Figure 4.17. The machine model is represented by
synchronously rotating reference frame. The inverter generates ia, ib, ic
as dictated by the controller. The controller makes two stages of inverse
transformation such that i*ds and i*qs correspond to ids and iqs
respectively. Machine model includes the conversion of terminal phase
currents ia, ib, ic into isds and isqs. These are then converted to
synchronously rotating reference frame by unit vector components cos θe
and sin θe before applying to the machine model.

Figure 4.17. Vector Control Implementation Principle.

Figure 4.18. Simulink block.

134 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

A single phase induction motor is fed by a current-controlled PWM

inverter. Universal Bridge block is used to build the PWM inverter. The
speed control loop uses a proportional-integral-derivative controller to
produce the quadrature-axis current reference iq* which controls the
motor torque. The motor flux is controlled by the direct-axis current
reference id*. Block DQ-ABC is used to convert id* and iq* into current
references ia*, ib*, and ic* for the current regulator. Figure 4.18 shows
the simulation block and Figure 4.19 depicts the block parameters.

Figure 4.17. (Continued)

 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 135

Figure 4.17. (A). Block parameters. (B). Block parameters.

Figure 4.18. Output waveforms.

136 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figures 4.18 shows the output waveforms obtained.

4.10. REAL TIME APPLICATION

OF INDUCTION MACHINE

This example shows an induction machine used as a wind turbine

generator. The simple turbine block converts wind speed to turbine
output power by a simple output power versus wind speed characteristic.
When the wind speed is below the cut-in speed or above the cut-out
speed, the machine generates zero real power. The machine always
consumes reactive power. The reactive compensation block offsets the
machine's reactive power requirement. The local load consumes 75kW.
The infeed from the power grid meets any wind turbine generation
shortfall. When the generator produces more than 75kW, excess power is
exported to the grid.
Figure 4.19 shows the simulation block showing the three phase
asynchronous wind turbine generator. Figure 4.20 gives the output
waveforms.

Figure 4.19. Simulation block.

 Induction Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 137

Figure 4.20. Output waveforms.

CONCLUSION

This chapter illustrated the simulation and modeling of AC machines

and the various control topologies used for industrial applications.
138 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

REFERENCES

[1] Bizzarri, F., Brambilla, A., Milano, F., (2018). Simplified Model to
Study the Induction Generator Effect of the Subsynchronous
Resonance Phenomenon. IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion, 33(2), 889-892, doi: 10.1109/TEC.2018.2799479.
[2] Padilha, J.B., Kuo-Peng, P., Sadowski, N., Batistela, N.J., (2016).
Vector Hysteresis Model Associated With FEM in a Self-Excited
Induction Generator Modeling. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
52(3), 1-4, doi: 10.1109/TMAG.2015.2483201.
[3] Patil, P.V., Naveed, S.A., (2020). Implementation of VFD
Application for Speed Control of Induction Motor. International
Conference on Smart Innovations in Design, Environment,
Management, Planning and Computing, India, 168-170, doi:
10.1109/ICSIDEMPC49020.2020.9299636.
[4] Gunabalan, R., Sanjeevikumar, P., Blaabjerg, F., Ojo, O.,
Subbiah,V., (2015). Analysis and Implementation of Parallel
Connected Two-Induction Motor Single-Inverter Drive by Direct
Vector Control for Industrial Application. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, 30(12), 6472-6475, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.
2015.2429591.
[5] De Souza, T.S., Bastos, R.R., Cardoso Filho, B.J., (2020).
Synchronous-Frame Modeling and dq Current Control of an
Unbalanced Nine-Phase Induction Motor Due to Open Phases.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 56(2), 2097-2106,
doi: 10.1109/TIA.2020.2965493.
[6] Ashok Kumar, L., Madhuvanthani Rajendran., (2020). Modeling
and Simulation of a DFIG-Based Wind Energy System, Lecture
Notes in Electrical Engineering book series, 687, 31-49 .
[7] Ashok Kumar, L., Indragandhi, V., (2020). PMSM Drive Using
Predictive Current control Technique for HVAC Applications,
Proceedings of International Conference on Artificial Intelligence,
Smart Grid and Smart City Applications, Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020, 31-41.
Chapter 5

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
AND DRIVES USING MATLAB

ABSTRACT

A synchronous machine is just an electro-mechanical transducer

which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa.
The fundamental phenomenon which make these conversions possible
are : (i) the law of electro-magnetic induction and (ii) law of interaction.
This chapter gives the simulation of synchronous machines using
MATLAB.

Keywords: synchronous machine, slip, salient, non-salient, salient pole

5.1. INTRODUCTION

In the electrical systems, we use either in industries, power stations

or domestic needs, motors and generators have become a common thing.
With the demand for high energy efficient and less power consuming
systems, the invention of new models of these electrical devices is seen.
The basic calculating factor for motors and generators reliable operation
is the power factor. It is the ratio of applied power over the required
140 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

power. Usually, the total powered consumed at the industries and

factories are calculated based on the power factor. So, power factor
should always be maintained at unity. But due to the rise of reactive
power in these devices power factor decreases. To maintain power factor
at unity many methods are introduced. The synchronous motor concept is
one of them [1-3].
An AC motor is shown in Figure 5.1 in which at steady state, rotation
of the shaft is in sync with the frequency of applied current. The
synchronous motor works as AC motor but here the total number of
rotations made by the shaft is equal to the integer multiple of the
frequency of the applied current. The synchronous motor doesn’t rely on
induction current for working. In these motors, unlike induction motor,
multiphase AC electromagnets are present on the stator, which produces
a rotating magnetic-field. Here rotor is of a permanent magnet which gets
synced with the rotating magnetic-field and rotates in synchronous to the
frequency of current applied to it.

Figure 5.1. Synchronous motor.

5.2. CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The structure is same as of other motor which is shown in Figure 5.2.

Stator and rotor are the main parts of a synchronous motor while a frame
is the cover and both stator and rotor make up the electric and magnetic
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 141

circuitry of the Synchronous motors. The main components of the motor

are:

• Stator
• Rotor
• Exciter
• Frame

Figure 5.2. Construction of Synchronous motor.

5.2.1. Stator

Figure 5.3. Stator frame of a Synchronous machine.

142 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Stator is the stationary part of the motor which is shown in Figure

5.3. It has a cylindrical frame which has slots to carry winding circuitry.
The Stator consists of the core, which is generally made up of steel. This
core is insulated to prevent the flow of eddy currents.

5.2.2. Rotor
Rotor is the rotating part that rotates exactly at the same speed as the
stator magnetic field. It is excited by a DC source. The rotor consists of a
number of poles, which depends on the speed and frequency of the
machine. The relation between the pole, speed and frequency is defined
as,

𝑓𝑓
N=120( ) (1)
𝑝𝑝
where
N = Motor speed in rpm
f = frequency, and
p = No. of poles

5.2.3. Types of Rotor Construction in Synchronous Motor

There are two types of rotor constructions in synchronous motors.

They are:

• Salient Pole Rotors

• Non-Salient Pole Rotors
• Salient pole rotors

In salient pole rotors given in Figure 5.4, the poles protrude from the
rotor surface.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 143

Figure 5.4. Salient pole rotor.

5.2.3.1. Non-Salient Pole Rotors

In non-salient pole rotors depcited in Figure 5.5, winding are placed
in slots machined rotors.

Figure 5.5. Non-salient pole rotor.

5.2.2.2. Exciter
It is a small generator placed in the rotor, which provides excitation
power for excitation. It consists of a field winding and armature winding.
The field winding is placed in stator and the armature winding is placed
in the rotor of the machine.

5.2.2.3. Frame
It protects the motor and covers the whole assembly.
144 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

5.3. TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Synchronous motors can be classified into two types based on the

magnetization of rotor.

• Non-excited synchronous motors

• Direct Current (DC) excited synchronous motors

5.3.1. Non Excited Synchronous Motor

The rotor is made up of steel. At synchronous speed, it rotates with

the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant
magnetic field through it. The rotor is made of high-retentively steel such
as cobalt steel. Non-excited synchronous motors is available in three
designs:

• Hysteresis synchronous motors

• Reluctance synchronous motors
• Permanent magnet synchronous motors

5.3.1.1. Hysteresis Synchronous Motors

Hysteresis motors shown in Figure 5.6 are single phase motors where
the rotor is made of ferromagnetic material. The rotors has high
hysteresis loss property. They are made up of chrome, cobalt steel or
alnico.
They are self-starting and do not need additional winding. This has a
wide hysteresis loop which means once it is magnetized in a given
direction; it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse the
magnetization.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 145

Figure 5.6.Hysteresissynchronous motor.

5.3.1.2. Reluctance Synchronous Motors

Reluctance is always minimum when a piece of iron rotates to
complete a magnetic flux path. The reluctance increases with the angle
between them when the poles are aligned with the magnetic field of the
stator. This will create a torque pulling the rotor into alignment with the
pole near to the stator field.

Figure 5.7.Reluctancesynchronous motor.

The rotor poles generally have squirrel-cage winding embedded, to

provide torque below synchronous speed to start the motor as depicted in
Figure 5.7.
146 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

5.3.1.3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

A permanent magnet motor shown in Figure 5.8 uses permanent
magnets in the steel rotor in order to create a constant magnetic flux. The
rotor locks in when the speed is near synchronous speed.

Figure 5.8.Permanent magnet synchronous motor.

The stator carries winding which are connected to an AC supply to

produce a rotating magnetic field. Permanent magnet motors is similar to
brushless DC motors.

5.3.2. Direct Current(DC) Excited Synchronous Motor

Direct Current (DC) excited synchronous motor requires DC supply

to the rotor to generate a magnetic field. It has both stator winding as well
as rotor winding. The direct current can be supplied from a separate DC
source or from a DC generator connected to the motor shaft.

5.4. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The operation of a synchronous motors shown in Figure 5.9 is that

the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field of a stator and rotates at a
speed approaching it. The rotor winding is excited by a DC source and
the stator winding is excited by AC source.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 147

Figure 5.9. Working of synchronous motor.

Salient points regarding the working principle of synchronous motor

are:

• Due to 3 phase AC, a 3 phase rotating magnetic field is produced

by stator winding
• Rotor winding produces a constant magnetic field
• At some rotations, the poles of two magnetic fields attract each
other while at some instant, they repel each other
• The rotor will not start to rotate due to its inertia. So an external
source will provide initial rotation
• Once the rotor starts moving at the synchronous speed, the
external source is shut off
• The magnetic field of a rotor is not produced by the magnetic
field of the rotor but through induction. Hence, the air gap
between rotor and stator is not kept very small
148 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

5.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Some of the key characteristics of a synchronous motor which

differentiates it from other motors are as follows:
Speed: Speed of ranges from 150 rpm to 1800 rpm. The speed is
synchronous and does not depend on load conditions. Speed always
remain constant from no load to full load. The relation between the pole,
speed, and frequency is defined as

• Starting Torque: External force is required to start the

synchronous motor as it has no starting torque.
• Rating: The power rating of synchronous motors ranges between
150kW to 15MW.
• Efficiency: The synchronous motors are highly efficient
machines and their efficiency is much greater than induction
motors.
• Maintenance: The synchronous motors use brushless exciter
which decreases the maintenance problem.
• Power Factor Correction: These motor have high power factor
correction, Hence they are used in areas where power factor
correction is needed.

5.6. STARTING METHODS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The synchronous motors cannot self-start because it has no starting

torque. Therefore different ways are used to start the motor. External
force is used at start for bringing up the speed up to synchronous speed.
The three main ways are:

• Reduce frequency of stator to a safe starting level.

• Use external prime mover.
• Use of damper winding.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 149

5.7. SIMULINK MODEL OF CYLINDRICAL-ROTOR

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

The synchronous machine block shown in Figure 5.10 operates in

generator or motor modes. The operating mode is dictated by the sign of
the mechanical power (positive for generator mode, negative for motor
mode).
The electrical part of the machine is represented by a sixth-order
state-space model and the mechanical part is the same as in the
Simplified Synchronous Machine block. The model takes into account
the dynamics of the stator, field, and damper windings. The equivalent
circuit of the model is represented in the rotor reference frame (qd
frame). All rotor parameters and electrical quantities are viewed from the
stator. They are identified by primed variables.

Figure 5.10. Simulink model of synchronous generator.

150 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.11. Output waveform (a) three phase voltage (b) field current (c) stator
current phase A.

The machines initially operate in steady state at virtually no load

(load = 0.1% of nominal power) with constant field voltage and
mechanical power. The Scope shown in Figure 5.11 shows the
comparison between line-to-line AB voltage, phase A stator current, and
field current of the machine.

5.8. SIMULINK MODEL OF SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATOR CONNECTED TO GRID

The simplified synchronous machine block (refer Figure 5.12) is used

as a synchronous generator. The internal resistance and reactance are set
respectively to 0.02 pu (1.9845 Ω) and 0.2 pu (X = 19.845 Ω; L = 0.0526
H). The inertia of the machine is J = 168,870 kg.m2, corresponding to an
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 151

inertia constant H = 3s. The electrical frequency is ωs= 2 x π x 60 = 377

rad/s. The machine has two pairs of poles such that its synchronous speed
is 2 x π x 60/2 = 188.5 rad/s or 1800 rpm.
The load flow option of the power gui has been used to initialize the
machine to start simulation in steady state with the machine generating
500 MW. The required internal voltage computed by the load flow is
1.0149 pu. Therefore, an internal voltage E = 315e3 x 1.0149 = 319,690
Vrms phase-to-phase is specified in the constant block connected to the
E input. The maximum power that can be delivered by the machine with
a terminal voltage Vt= 1.0 pu and an internal voltage E = 1.0149 pu is
Pmax= Vt x E/X = 1.0149/0.2 = 5.0745 pu.
In this model, shown in Figure 5.13 a step is performed on the
mechanical power applied to the shaft. The machine is initially running in
steady state with a mechanical power of 505 MW (mechanical power
required for an output electrical power of 500 MW, considering the
resistive losses). At t = 0.5s, the mechanical power is suddenly increased
to1000MW.

Figure 5.12. Simulink model of synchronous generator connected to grid.

152 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.13. Output waveform (a) power angle delta (b) speed (c) electrical power.

5.9. SIMULINK MODEL OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The synchronous machine block shown in Figure 5.14 operates in

generator or motor modes. The operating mode is dictated by the sign of
the mechanical power (positive for generator mode, negative for motor
mode). The electrical part of the machine is represented by a sixth-order
state-space model and the mechanical part is the same as in the simplified
synchronous machine block. The model takes into account the dynamics
of the stator, field, and damper windings. The equivalent circuit of the
model is represented in the rotor reference frame (qd frame). All rotor
parameters and electrical quantities are viewed from the stator. They are
identified by primed variables.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 153

Figure 5.14. Simulink model of synchronous motor operation.

The simulated system shown in Figure 5.15 consists of an industrial

grade synchronous motor (150 HP (112 kVA),762 V) connected to a
network with a 10 MVA short-circuit level. The machine is initialized for
an output electrical power of −50 kW (negative value for motor mode),
corresponding to a mechanical power of −48.9 kW. The corresponding
values of mechanical power and field voltage are specified by the Pm Step
block and in the Vf constant block. The Pm step block applies a sudden
increase of mechanical power from −48.9 kW to −60 kW at time t = 0.1s.
After the load has increased from 48.9 kW to 60 kW at t = 0.1s, the
machine speed oscillates before stabilizing to 1800 rpm. The load angle
(angle between terminal voltage and internal voltage) increases from −21
degrees to −53 degrees.
154 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.15. Output waveform (a) output current stator current (b) rotor speed (c)
load angle (d) power.

5.10. EFFECT OF FIELD EXCITATION

AND MECHANICAL LOAD

Figure 5.16 is the model, in which the use of the synchronous

machine associated with the Hydraulic Turbine and Governor (HTG) and
excitation system blocks.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 155

It also demonstrates the use of the machine initialization tool of the

Powergui block to initialize machine currents and initial mechanical
power of the HTG block.

Figure 5.16. Simulink model of effect of field excitation and mechanical load.

Figure 5.17. (Continued).

156 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.17. (A). Stator current. (B). Rotor speed in pu. (C). Field voltage. (D). Phase
voltage.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 157

A three-phase generator rated 200 MVA, 13.8 kV, 112.5 rpm is

connected to a 230 kV network through a delta-Y 210 MVA transformer.
The system starts in steady state with the generator supplying 150 MW of
active power. At t = 0.1 s, a three-phase to ground fault occurs on the
230 kV bus of the transformer. The fault is cleared after six cycles
(t = 0.2 s).
In order to start the simulation in steady state, we must initialize the
synchronous machine block for the desired load flow. Open the Powergui
and select machine initialization. The machine bus type should be already
initialized as PV generator, indicating that the load flow is performed
with the machine controlling the active power and its terminal voltage.
Refer Figure 5.17 for output responses.
The machine initialization tool also initializes the HTG and
excitation system blocks. Open the HTG block dialog and notice that the
initial mechanical power is set to 0.751606 pu. Then open the excitation
system block dialog and note that the initial terminal voltage and field
voltage are set respectively to 1.0 and 1.291 pu.

5.11. STARTING METHODS USING MATLAB/SIMULINK

Synchronous motors run at synchronous speed. The synchronous

speed of a motor depends on the supply frequency and the number of
poles in the motor. Synchronous speed is given by Ns=120 f/p, where, f =
supply frequency and p = number of poles.
We can change the synchronous speed of the motor by changing the
supply frequency and the number of poles. But the motor would always
run with this speed for a given supply frequency and the number of poles.
A synchronous motor is not self-starting. It is necessary to rotate the
rotor at a speed very near to synchronous speed. This is possible by
various methods in practice. The various methods to start the
synchronous motor are,
158 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

• Using auxiliary motors

• Using damper winding
• As a slip ring induction motor
• Using small DC machine coupled to it.

5.11.1. Using Auxiliary Motors

In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the
help of some external device like small induction motor. Such an external
device is called ‘pony motor’. Once the rotor attains the synchronous
speed, the DC excitation to the rotor is switched on. Once the
synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then
continues to rotate as synchronous motor.

5.11.2. Using Damper Winding

In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the

additional winding consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the
pole faces. The bars are short circuited with the help of end rings. Such
an additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding. This
winding as short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an
induction motor. The schematic representation of such damper winding is
shown in Figure 7.18.
Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motor starts
rotating as an induction motor at sub synchronous speed. Then DC
supply is given to the field winding. At a particular instant motor gets
pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a synchronous speed. As
rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper
winding and the rotating magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is
running as synchronous motor, there cannot be any induced e.m.f. in the
damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start, to run the
motor as an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is out of the circuit. As
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 159

damper winding is short circuited and motor gets started as induction

motor, it draws high current at start so induction motor starters like star-
delta, autotransformer etc. used to start the synchronous motor as an
induction motor.

Figure 5.18. Damper winding.

5.11.3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor

The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage

induction motor does not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this,
instead of shorting the damper winding, it is designed to a form a three
phase star or delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding are
brought out through slip rings. An external rheostat then can be
introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the
motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance added in
the rotor provides high starting torque. The resistance is then gradually
cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near
synchronous. If the DC excitation is provided to the rotor, then motors
gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at synchronous speed.
The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial
resistance added in the rotor not only provides high starting torque but
also limits high inrush of starting current. Hence it acts as a motor
resistance starter.
160 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.19. Slip ring Induction motor.

It can be observed from the Figure 5.19 that the same three phase
rotor winding acts as a normal rotor winding by shorting two of the
phases. From the positive terminal, current ‘I’ flows in one of the phases,
which divides into two other phases at start point as 1/2 through each,
when switch is thrown on DC supply side.

5.11.4. Using Small DC Machine

Many a times, large synchronous motors are provided with a coupled

DC machine. This machine is used as a DC motor to rotate the
synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then the excitation to the
rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous motor, the
same DC machine acts as a DC generator called exciter. The field of the
synchronous motor is then excited by this exciter itself.
When a synchronous motor is started, the excitation DC voltage is
not applied to the field winding. The motor is started in induction
machine mode with currents induced in the damper and field windings. A
resistor is connected across the field winding in order to produce an
acceptable field current and to limit voltage induced across the field
winding. Then when speed reaches a preset value near synchronous
speed, the field winding is connected to the DC voltage source and the
motor synchronizes on the system frequency.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 161

In the synchronous machine model, the field winding terminals are

not available. Instead, a Simulink® signal representing the field voltage
must be applied at the Vf input of the machine. Therefore, if the Vf input
is left unconnected, a zero-field voltage is applied on the rotor. In other
words, the field winding is short-circuited. In this example, the field
current (idf) and a gain block (R_start) are used to implement the
resistance connected across the field winding.
This model shown in Figure 5.20 and 5.21 illustrates the starting
procedure of a 60-kVA 400-V 50Hz synchronous motor. The motor is
started at no load by closing the circuit breaker at t=0.1s. A 2 pu resistor
is initially connected across the field winding. When the rotor speed
reaches 0.99 pu, the “R_start” resistor is disconnected from the field
terminals and it is replaced by the “Vf source” (1 pu). At the same time,
the mechanical power is ramped from zero to 50% of the nominal
mechanical power (Pm = -0.5 pu) in one second. The motor locks into
step at synchronous speed (1 pu) at approximately t = 1.3 s.

Figure 5.20. Simulink model of starting of a synchronous motor.

162 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 5.21. Output waveform (A) output voltage stator current (B) rotor speed (C)
torque (D) field current (E) field voltage (F) applied voltage.
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 163

5.12. SIMULINK MODELS OF REAL TIME APPLICATIONS

Figure 5.22 refers a three-phase, four-wire alternator rated 2000

kVA, 1600 kW, 0.8 power factor, 600 V, 1800 rpm is connected to a
1600 kW, 400 kvar inductive load. The stator neutral point is grounded.
The internal impedance of the generator (Zg = 0.0036 + j*0.16 pu)
represents the armature winding resistance Ra and direct axis transient
reactance X'd. The total inertia constant of the generator and prime mover
is H = 0.6 s, corresponding to J = 67.5 kg.m2. Speed regulation is
modeled with Simulink® blocks implementing a PI regulator. The
machine is excited with a constant voltage. A three-phase breaker is used
to switch out 800 kW resistive load. The breaker is initially closed and it
is opened at t = 0.2s, resulting in a 50% load shedding.

Figure 5.22. Simulink model of load shedding using synchronous machine.

5.12.1. Initializing the Machine to Start in Steady State

Open the powergui and select ‘Machine Initialization.’ A new

window appears. Note that the machine ‘Bus type’ is set to ‘Swing Bus’;
164 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

this is because the circuit contains no voltage source imposing the

reference angle. The initialization is then performed with the machine
controlling the voltage and the angle at its terminals. The desired terminal
voltage is initialized to 600 V (machine nominal voltage) and the phase
angle of UAN angle to 0 degree.
Press the ‘Compute and apply’ button. Once the initialization is
solved the three line-to-line machine voltages as well as the three
machine output currents are updated. The machine active and reactive
powers as well as the required mechanical power Pmec and field voltage
E are also displayed. You should read the following values: P = 1600kW,
Q = 400 kvar, Pmec = 1604.7kW (0.8024 pu), field voltage E = 1.0247 pu.
The Machine initialization tool also prompts you with a warning to set
initial condition for mechanical power to 0.8024 pu. This is because the
Pm input of the machine is not connected to a constant block or to a
library block (HTG or STG). Note that the mechanical torque (Tmec
block) is set at 0.8024 pu. Disregard this message. Note also that the
constant block Ei connected at the E input of the machine is
automatically updated (E = 1.04268 pu).

5.12.2. Simulation at Constant Torque - No Speed Regulator

Make sure that the speed regulator is not in service (manual switch is
in the upper position). Start the simulation and observe signals on
Scope2. The three Iabc currents should start with steady-state sinusoidal
waveforms. Observe that when the circuit breaker opens at t = 0.2 s, the
electrical power (trace 4) drops from 0.8 pu to 0.4 pu and that the
machine starts to accelerate. The rate of speed increase is dN/dt = 1/2H =
0.833 pu speed/ pu torque / s. As the net electromechanical torque is now
Tmec-Telec = 0.8 - 0.4 = 0.4 pu, the speed increases at a rate of
0.833*0.4 = 0.33 pu/s. At t = 1.2s, the expected speed increase is
therefore 0.33 pu. In fact, the speed measured at t = 1.2 s is slightly
higher than the theoretical value (1.38 pu as compared to 1.33 pu). This is
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 165

because the electrical torque (trace 5) decreases as speed is increasing,

resulting in a net acceleration torque higher than 0.4 pu.

5.12.3. Simulation with Speed Regulator

Figure 5.23. Output waveform (A) stator current (B) rotor speed (C) mechanical
torque (D) electrical power (E) electrical torque (F) phase voltage.
166 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Now double click on the Manual Switch block in order to put the
speed regulator in service. Restart the simulation and observe the
dynamic response of the speed regulator on Scope 2. Notice that in order
to maintain speed at its reference value (1 pu), the speed regulator has
reduced the mechanical torque to 0.4 pu. (See Figures 5.22 and 5.23).

5.13. APPLICATION AREAS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The application areas of synchronous motor include:

• The basic use of a synchronous motor is “power factor

correction” which means to increase the power factor of a system
• Synchronous motors are used in voltage regulation
• Synchronous motors are generally used for low speed, high
power loads
• Synchronous motors are generally used in air and gas
compressors and vacuum pumps
• Synchronous motors also finds their application in crushers, mills
and grinders
• They are also used in exhausters, fans, and blowers

The advantages of Synchronous motor include:

• The advantage of using synchronous motor is the ability to

control the power factor. An over excitedsynchronous-motor has
leading power factor and is operated in parallel to induction
motors thereby improving the system power factor
• Speed remains constant irrespective of the loads in synchronous
motors. This quality helps in industrial machines where constant
speed is required irrespective of the load
• Synchronous motors are built with wider air gaps than induction
motors which make them mechanically more stable
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 167

• Electro-magnetic power varies linearly with the voltage in

synchronous motors
• Synchronous motors usually operate with higher efficiencies
(more than 90%) especially in low speed compared to induction
motors
• The disadvantages of Synchronous motor include:
• Synchronous motors requires dc excitation which is supplied
from external sources
• These motors are not self-starting motors and need some external
arrangement for its starting and synchronizing
• The cost per kW output is commonly higher than that of
induction motors
• Unless the incoming supply frequency is adjusted, there is no
possible way to adjust the speed
• They cannot be started on load because its starting torque is zero
• Collector rings and brushes are required which results in high
maintenance cost
• Synchronous motors cannot be useful for applications requiring
frequent starting of machines

Problems:
1. Determine the maximum power that the salient-pole synchronous
generator if the field circuit were open circuit.

Solution:

Set E f = 0 , δ= 45° , and multiply by ω s to give,

3Pd max =
(
3Van2 X d − X q )
2Xd Xq
 168 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

2
 13,800 
3  (1.9 − 1.1)
 3 
=3Pd max = 36.45 MW
2 (1.9 )(1.1)

2. If the synchronous motor supplies rated power to coupled

mechanical load with rated voltage and frequency applied to the stator
and I f = 80 A , calculate (a) line current and (b) efficiency. Assume that
Rs can be neglected in torque angle determination. Also, assume that
core losses have changed negligibly.
(a) The excitation voltage for I f = 80 A is determined to be
E f = 1998.92 V .

 ( P + PFW ) X s   
−1 (1200 × 746 + 17,793.05 )( 5.6 ) 
=δ sin −1  s =  sin  = 39.97°
 3Van E f  
 ( )
3 2300 / 3 (1998.02 ) 


2300
∠0° − 1998.02 ∠ − 39.97°
Van − E f 3
I a= = = 229.46 ∠11.75° A
Rs + jX s 0.2 + j 5.6

or

I a = 229.46 A

(b) From the values of V f and I f ,

V f 276
R=
f = = 5.19 Ω
I f 53.2

Losses =PFW + 3I a2 Rs + I 2f R f
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 169

2
17,793.05 + 3 ( 229.46 )
Losses = ( 0.2 ) + ( 80 )2 ( 5.19 ) =82,600.18 W

100 Ps 100 (1200 × 746 )

=η = = 91.55%
Ps + losses 1200 × 746 + 82,600.18

3. If the synchronous motor operates the 600 HP load with terminal

voltage and frequency unchanged, but the field current is increased to 80
A, predict (a) the input power factor and (b) the leading VARs supplied
to the three-phase grid. Assume that core losses (lumped with friction and
windage losses) are valid.
(a) For the new field current, the excitation voltage is,

80
=Ef = (1329.28) 1998.92 V
53.2

Assuming Rs negligible,

 ( P + PFW ) X s   
−1 ( 600 × 746 + 17,793.05 )( 5.6 ) 
=δ sin −1  s =  sin  = 19.10°
 3Van E f   ( )
 3 2300 / 3 (1998.92 ) 


2300
∠0° − 1998.92 ∠ − 19.10°
Van − E f 3
Ia= = = 153.45 ∠42.86° A
Rs + jX s 0.2 + j 5.6

PF
=in cos ( ∠Van − ∠ I=
a ) cos ( −42.86=
° ) 0.733 leading

(b)

QT
= a sin θ
3 VL I= 3 ( 2300 )(153.45 ) sin ( −42.86° )

QT = 415.80 kVARs
170 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

4. A three-phase, 1200 HP, 2300 V, 60 Hz, RR synchronous machine

has R
= s 0.2 Ω and X= s 5.6 Ω . When operated with the mechanical
load disconnected with rated voltage and frequency, the field current is
adjusted until line current has a minimum value. At this point,
I a = 22.1 A , the measured input power is PT = 17.5 kW , and the
measured field circuit values are V f = 276 V and I f = 53.2 A . (a)
Determine the rotational losses (core losses plus friction and windage) for
this machine. (b) If the field current, frequency, and impressed terminal
voltage are unchanged, but a mechanical load requiring 600 HP is
attached, predict the power factor, line current, and efficiency.

(a) Using the no-load data,

2
17,500 − 3 ( 22.1)
PT 3I a2 Rs =
PFW =− ( 0.2 ) =
17,793.05 W

(b) Since the no-load current was a minimum value, the machine was
operating at unity power factor. The excitation voltage corresponding to
I f = 53.2 A can be determined.

2300
E=
f Van − I a ( Rs + jX s=
) − 22.1( 0.2 + j 5.6=
) 1329.28∠ − 5.34° V
3

Since Rs  X s , little error is introduced if Rs is neglected in

calculation of the torque δ for the loaded condition. From energy
balance,

3Van E f
Ps + PFW = sin δ
Xs

or
 Synchronous Machines and Drives Using MATLAB 171

 ( P + PFW ) X s   
−1 ( 600 × 746 + 17,793.05 )( 5.6 ) 
=δ sin −1  s =  sin  = 31.84°
 3Van E f   ( )
 3 2300 / 3 (1329.28 ) 


2300
∠0° − 1329.28∠ − 31.84°
Van − E f 3
=Ia = = 130.07 ∠ − 13.77° A
Rs + jX s 0.2 + j 5.6

Hence,

I a = 130.07 A

PF
=in cos ( ∠Van − ∠ I=
a ) cos (11.35=
° ) 0.97 lagging

The losses are

Losses =PFW + 3I a2 Ra + V f I f

2
17,793.05 + 3 (130.07 )
Losses = ( 0.2 ) + ( 276 )( 53.2 ) =42,627.17 W

100 Ps 100 ( 600 × 746 )

=η = = 91.30%
Ps + losses 600 × 746 + 42,627.17

Exercise:

1. Simulate a MATLAB model for a three-phase, 1200 HP, 2300 V,

60 Hz, RR synchronous machine has R =s 0.2 Ω and
X=
s 5.6 Ω . When operated with the mechanical load
disconnected with rated voltage and frequency, the field current
is adjusted until line current has a minimum value. At this point,
I a = 22.1 A , the measured input power is PT = 17.5 kW , and the
172 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

measured field circuit values are V f = 276 V and I f = 53.2 A .

(a) Determine the rotational losses (core losses plus friction and
windage) for this machine.
2. Simulate a MATLAB model and determine the maximum power
that the salient-pole synchronous generator if the field circuit
were open circuit.
3. Simulate a MATLAB model if the synchronous motor operates
the 200 HP load with terminal voltage and frequency unchanged,
but the field current is increased to 110 A, predict (a) the input
power factor and (b) the leading VARs supplied to the three-
phase grid. Assume that core losses (lumped with friction and
windage losses) are valid.

CONCLUSION

The readers will be able to understand the schematic, types and

operation of various types of synchronous machines. The MATLAB
simulation models shall be analysed by the users for any real time
applications.

REFERENCES

[1] Demir, Y., Aydin, M., (2016). A Novel Dual Three-Phase

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor With Asymmetric Stator
Winding. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 52(7), 1-5, Art no.
8105005, doi: 10.1109/TMAG.2016.2524027.
[2] Boduroglu, A., Demir, Y., Cumhur, B., Aydin, M., (2021). A Novel
Track Structure of Double-Sided Linear PM Synchronous Motor
for Low Cost and High Force Density Applications. IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, 57(2), 1-5, doi: 10.1109/TMAG.
2020.3017448.
Chapter 6

SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

USING MATLAB

ABSTRACT

This chapter provides a brief introduction to electrical machines

which have special applications. It includes machines whose stator coils
are energized by electronically switched currents. The examples are:
various types of stepper motors, brushless DC motor and switched
reluctance motor etc. There is also a brief description of DC/AC
servomotors, synchro motors and resolvers. These motors are designed
and built primarily for use in feedback control systems.

Keywords: stepper motor, servo motor, step angle

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Due to research and development the specialized electrical machines

have been developed for specialized applications termed as special
electrical machines. They play an important role in industries such as
production, processing, fabrications and renewable energy applications,
etc. Some special electrical machines have higher efficiency, small size
and useful for specific applications. The most significant development in
174 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

recent years in the allied area of motor control also plays an important
role. In Special electrical machines, stator coils are energized by
electronically switched currents. The examples are: various types of
stepper motors, brushless DC motor and switched reluctance motor etc.
Few electrical machines require power electronic converters for their
basic operation are also referred to as special electrical machines. Their
role in various applications like electrical vehicles, renewable energy,
aircraft, etc. is promising in the present time.

6.2. STEPPER MOTORS

These motors are also called stepping motors or step motors. The
name stepper is used because this motor rotates through a fixed angular
step in response to each input current pulse received by its controller. In
recent years, there has been wide- spread demand of stepping motors
because of the explosive growth of the computer industry. Their
popularity is due to the fact that they can be controlled directly by
computers, microprocessors and programmable controllers.
As we know, industrial motors are used to convert electric energy
into mechanical energy but they cannot be used for precision positioning
of an object or precision control of speed without using closed-loop
feedback. Stepping motors are ideally suited for situations where either
precise positioning or precise speed control or both are required in
automation systems. Apart from stepping motors, other devices used for
the above purposes are synchros and resolvers as well as dc/ac
servomotors [1-4].
The unique feature of a stepper motor is that its output shaft rotates in
a series of discrete angular intervals or steps, one step being taken each
time a command pulse is received. When a definite number of pulses are
supplied, the shaft turns through a definite known angle. This fact makes
the motor well-suited for open-loop position control because no feedback
need be taken from the output shaft. Such motors develop torques ranging
from 1N-m (in a tiny wrist watch motor of 3mm diameter) upto 40N-m in
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 175

a motor of 15cm diameter suitable for machine tool applications. Their

power output ranges from about 1W to a maximum of 2500W. The only
moving part in a stepping motor is its rotor which has no windings,
commutator or brushes. This feature makes them to quite robust and
reliable.

6.2.1. Step Angle

The angle through which the motor shaft rotates for each command
pulse is called the step angle. Smaller the step angle, greater the number
of steps per revolution and higher the resolution or accuracy of
positioning obtained. The step angles can be as small as 0.72º or as large
as 90º. But the most common step sizes are 1.8º, 2.5º, 7.5º and 15º. The
value of step angle can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator
poles (teeth) Nr and Ns respectively or in terms of the number of stator
phases (m) and the number of rotor teeth.

6.3. TYPES OF STEPPER MOTOR

As construction is concerned stepper motors may be divided into two

major groups.

• Variable reluctance stepper motor

• Permanent magnet stepper motor
• Hybrid Stepper Motors

There is a large variety of stepper motors which can be divided into

the following three basic categories:
176 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

6.3.1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

It has wound stator poles but the rotor poles are made of a ferro
magnetic material as shown in Figure 6.1. It can be of the single stack
type or multi-stack type which gives smaller step angles. Direction of
motor rotation is independent of the polarity of the stator current. It is
called variable reluctance motor because the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies with the angular
position of the rotor.

Figure 6.1.Variable reluctance stepper motor.

6.3.2. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Figure 6.2. Permanent magnet stepper motor.

 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 177

It also has wound stator poles but its rotor poles are permanently
magnetized as shown in Figure 6.2. Its direction of rotation depends on
the polarity of the stator current.

6.3.3. Hybrid Stepper Motor

Most widely used hybrid motor is the two phase type as shown in
Figure 6.3. This model has four poles and operates on one phase on
excitation. The coil in pole A and that in pole A’ are connected in series
consisting of phase A, and pole B and B’ are for phase B. shows the
process of rotor journey as the winding currents are switched in one
phase ON excitation. The poles of phase A are excited the teeth of pole A
attract some of the rotors north poles, while the teeth of pole C align with
rotor‘s south poles. Current is then switched to phase B, The rotor will
travel a quarter tooth pitch so that tooth alignment takes place in B and
B’. Next current is switched back to phase A but in opposite polarity to
before, the rotor will make another quarter tooth journey. The tooth
alignment occurs in opposite magnetic polarity to state A when current is
switched to phase B in opposite polarity. It occurs as a result of quarter
tooth pitch journey. The structures of two phase motor considered will
not produce force in a symmetrical manner with respect to the axis.
The motor having 8 poles in the stator is considered as the structure
in which torque is generated at a symmetrical position on the surface. It
has wound stator poles and permanently-magnetized rotor poles. It is best
suited when small step angles of 1.8º, 2.5º etc. are required. As a variable
speed machine, VR motor is sometime designed as a switched-reluctance
motor. Similarly, PM stepper motor is also called variable speed
brushless dc motor. The hybrid motor combines the features of VR
stepper motor and PM stepper motor. Its stator construction is similar to
the single-stack VR motor but the rotor is cylindrical and is composed of
radially magnetized permanent magnets. A recent type uses a disc rotor
which is magnetized axially to give a small stepping angle and low
inertia.
178 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 6.3. Hybrid motor.

6.4. APPLICATIONS OF STEPPER MOTORS

Such motors are used for operation control in computer peripherals,

textile industry, IC fabrications and robotics etc. Applications requiring
incremental motion are typewriters, line printers, tape drives, floppy disk
drives, numerically-controlled machine tools, process control systems
and X -Y plotters. Usually, position information can be obtained simply
by keeping count of the pulses sent to the motor thereby eliminating the
need for expensive position sensors and feedback controls. Stepper
motors also perform countless tasks outside the computer industry.
It includes commercial, military and medical applications where
these motors perform such functions as mixing, cutting, striking,
metering, blending and purging. They also take part in the manufacture of
packed food stuffs, commercial end- products and even the production of
science fiction movies.
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 179

6.5. SIMULINK MODEL OF VARIABLE

RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR

The principle of variable reluctance stepper motor is based on the

property of the flux lines which capture the low reluctance path. The
stator and the rotor of the motor are aligned in such a way that the
magnetic reluctance is minimum. There are two types of the variable
reluctance stepper motor. They are as follows:

• Single stack variable reluctance motor

• Multi stack variable reluctance motor

A four phase or (4/2 pole), single stack variable reluctance stepper

motor is shown below. Here, (4/2 pole) means that the stator has four
poles and the rotor has two poles. The four phases A, B, C and D are
connected to the DC source with the help of a semiconductor, switches
SA, SB, SC and SD respectively as shown in the above figure. The phase
windings of the stator are energized in the sequence A, B, C, D, A. The
rotor aligns itself with the axis of phase A as the winding A is energized.
The rotor is stable in this position and cannot move until phase A is de-
energized. Now, the phase B is excited and phase A is disconnected. The
rotor moves 90 degrees in the clockwise direction to align with the
resultant air gap field which lies along the axis of phase B. Similarly the
phase C is energized, and the phase B is disconnected, and the rotor
moves again in 90 degrees to align itself with the axis of the phase. The
step angle can be reduced from 90 degrees to 45 degrees in a clockwise
direction by exciting the phase in the sequence A, A+B, B, B+C, C, C+
D, D, D+A, A. Similarly, if the sequence is reversed as A, A+D, D, D+C,
C, C+B, B, B+A, A, the rotor rotates at step angle of 45 degrees in the
anticlockwise direction.
Here, (A+B) means that the phase windings A and B both are
energized together. The resultant field is the midway of the two poles;i.e.,
it makes an angle of 45 degrees with the axis of the pole in the clockwise
180 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

direction. This method of shifting excitation from one phase to another is

known as Micro stepping. By using stepper motor, lower values of the
step angle can be obtained with numbers of poles on the stator. Consider
a 4 phase, (8/6 pole) single stack variable reluctance motor shown in the
Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4. Variable reluctance motor.

The opposite poles are connected in series forming 4 phases. The

rotor has 6 poles. Here it is considered only phase A to make the
connection simple. When the coil AA’ is excited the rotor teeth 1 and 4
are aligned along the axis of the winding of the phase A. Thus, the rotor
occupies the position as shown in the above Figure 6.4. Now, the phase A
is de-energized, and the phase winding B is energized. The rotor teeth 3
and 6 get aligned along the axis of phase B. The rotor moves a step of
phase angle of 15 degrees in the clockwise direction. Further, the phase B
is de-energized, and the winding C is excited. The rotor moves again 150
phase angle.
The voltage of 100V as shown in Figure 6.5 is given to the converter
and there are three converters which will convert the dc voltage into ac
voltage and pulse to converter is given by PWM generator. PWM
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 181

generator will provide pulses for the converter as sinusoidal wave. The
PWM generator consists of three generators for each of the single phase
and is phase shifted with 120 degree difference. Each converter in the
power circuit will act as the single phase converter and will provide three
phase to the variable reluctance stepper motor. The three phases are taken
as input to converter. The variable reluctance stepper motor consists of
the load torque and it is taken as constant. The output scope will show the
waveform of the voltage, current, torque and angular speed as shown in
Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.5. Phase voltage.

Figure 6.6 (a). Phase current.

The sequence A, B, C, D, A is followed, and the four steps of

rotation are completed, and the rotor moves 60 degrees in clockwise
direction. For one complete revolution of the rotor 24 steps are required.
182 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Thus, any desired step angle can be obtained by choosing different

combinations of the number of rotor teeth and stator exciting coils.

Figure 6.6 (b). Torque and angular speed.

6.6. SIMULINK MODEL OF PERMANENT

MAGNET STEPPING MOTOR

The Permanent magnet stepper motor has a stator construction

similar to that of the single stack variable reluctance motor. The rotor
consists of permanent magnet poles of high retentively steel and is
cylindrical in shape. The concentrating windings on diametrically
opposite poles are connected in series to form a two phase winding on the
stator. The rotor poles align with the stator teeth depending on the
excitation of the winding. The two coils AA’ connected in series to form
a winding of phase A. Similarly the two coil BB’ is connected in series
forming a phase B windings.
Figure 6.7 is a system-level model suitable for studying the dynamics
of the stepper and whether step angle will slip when driving a given load.
It can also be used to tune the stepper controller to improve stepping
performance. Often the controller is either partly or fully implemented on
an off-the-shelf stepper controller module. This model reverse engineers
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 183

such a module at a system-level. The alternative of implementing the

algorithm on a microprocessor (such as a PIC or xPC) gives greater
flexibility, and the microprocessor may also be used to control other parts
of the overall system. In this case parts of the stepper motor driver block
may also be implemented in on the microprocessor, leaving only the
power amplifier stage in analog electronics shown in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.7. Simulink model of permanent magnet stepping motor.

Figure 6.8. Step input.

6.7. SIMULINK MODEL OF HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

Figure 6.9 depicts the stepper motor drive using hybrid two-phase
model selected among the options on the dialog window. The motors
parameters are those of a small stepper motor. The motor phases are fed
184 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

by two H-bridge MOSFET PWM converters. The DC bus is represented

by a 28-V DC voltage source. The motor currents are independently
regulated by two hysteresis-based controllers that generate the MOSFETs
drive signals by comparing the measured currents with their references.
The ripple in the current waveforms is controlled by the hysteresis band
of the comparators. The switching frequency is variable and dependent
on the motor parameters. In this model, single-phase-on excitation
scheme is used because of its simplicity. Square-wave current references
are generated using the current amplitude and the step frequency
parameters specified in the dialog window. The movement of the stepper
drive is controlled by the STEP and DIR signals received from signal
builder block.

Figure 6.9. Simulink model of hybrid stepper motor.

The current amplitude and the stepping rate are selected in the dialog
mask to be 2A and 500 steps/ second. The STEP signal from the signal
builder block controls the movement of the stepper drive. A positive
value (1.0) will make the motor rotating and a zero value will stop the
rotation. The DIR signal controls the rotation direction. A positive value
(1.0) will impose the positive direction while a zero value will impose the
reverse direction. The stepper motor drive operation is illustrated by the
main waveforms (voltages, currents, torque, speed and position)
displayed on the Scope block. The simulation is done using a fixed-step
solver with a sampling time of 1 µs, providing acceptable accuracy for
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 185

the PWM. If a high PWM accuracy is required, a smaller time step can be
used but the simulation will be slower. Figure 6.10 depicts the voltage
and current waveforms.

Figure 6.10. Voltage and current.

6.8. SIMULINK MODEL OF PMDC MOTOR

PMDC motor in Figures 6.11 to 6.13 works on the principle similar

to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the Lorentz force law which
states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field it experiences a force. As a consequence of reaction force, the
magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In case PMDC
motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent
magnet moves.
When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it
becomes electromagnet and starts producing the uniform field in the air
gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching makes to generate an
AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of
interaction between electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the
rotor continues to rotate.
186 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 6.11. Simulink model of PMDC motor.

Figure 6.12. Phase current.

Figure 6.13. Rotor speed.

 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 187

6.9. PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A permanent magnet synchronous motor is also called as brushless

permanent magnet sine wave motor. A sine wave motor has a sinusoidal
or quasi-sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux in the air gap results in
sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal current wave forms. Quasi-sinusoidal
distribution of stator conductors will be through short-pitched and
distributed or concentric stator windings. The quasi sinusoidal
distribution of magnetic flux around the air gap is achieved by tapering
the magnet thickness at the pole edges and by using a shorter magnet pole
arc typically 120º. The quasi sinusoidal current wave forms are achieved
through the use of PWM inverters and this may be current regulated to
produce the best possible approximation to a pure sine wave. The use of
short pitched distributed or concentric winding is exactly the same as in
AC motors.
Permanent magnet synchronous machines generally have same
operating and performance characteristics as synchronous machines. A
permanent magnet machine can have a configuration almost identical to
that of the conventional synchronous shown in Figure 6.14 with absence
of slip rings and a field winding. In shows a cross section of simple
permanent magnet synchronous machines. It consists of the stationary
member of the machine called stator. Stator laminations for axial air gap
machines are often formed by winding continuous strips of soft steel.
Various parts of the laminations are the teeth slots which contain the
armature windings. Yoke completes the magnetic path. Lamination
thickness depends upon the frequency of the armature source voltage and
cost. Armature windings are generally double layer (two coil side per
slot) and lap wound. Individual coils are connected together to form
phasor groups. Phasor groups are connected together in series/parallel
combinations to form star, delta, two phase (or) single windings.
AC windings are generally short pitched to reduce harmonic voltage
generated in the windings. Coils, phase groups and phases must be
insulated from each other in the end-turn regions and the required
dielectric strength of the insulation will depend upon the voltage ratings
188 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

of the machines. In a permanent magnet machines the air gap serves a

role in that its length largely determines the operating point of the
permanent magnet in the no-load operating condition of the machines.
Also longer air gaps reduce machines wind age losses. The permanent
magnets form the poles equivalent to the wound field pole of
conventional synchronous machines. Permanent magnet poles are
inherently salient and there is no equivalent to the cylindrical rotor pole
configurations used in many convectional synchronous machines. Many
permanent magnet synchronous machines may be cylindrical or smooth
rotor physically but electrically the magnet is still equivalent to a salient
pole structure.

Figure 6.14. Permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Rotor yoke is the magnetic portion of the rotor to provide a return

path for the permanent magnets and also provide structural support. The
yoke is often a part of the pole structure. Damper winding is the typical
cage arrangement of conducting bars, similar to induction motor rotor
bars and to damper bars used on many other types of synchronous
machines. It is not essential for all permanent magnet synchronous
machines applications, but is found in most machines used in power
applications. The main purpose is to dampen the oscillations about
synchronous speed, but the bars are also used to start synchronous motors
in many applications. The design and assembly of damper bars in
permanent magnet machines are similar to the other types of synchronous
machines. Synchronous machines are classified according to their rotor
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 189

configuration. There are four general types of rotors in permanent magnet

synchronous machines. They are:

• Peripheral rotor
• Interior rotor
• Claw pole or lundell rotor
• Transverse rotor.

The permanent magnets are located on the rotor periphery and

permanent magnet flux is radial. The permanent magnets are located on
the interior of the rotor and flux is generally radial. The permanent
magnets are generally disc shaped and magnetized axially. Long soft iron
extensions emanate axially from periphery of the discs like claws or Lund
ell poles. There is set of equally spaced claws on each disc which
alternate with each other forming alternate north and south poles. In this
type the permanent magnets are generally between soft iron poles and the
permanent magnet flux is circumferential.
Magnetically this configuration is similar to a reluctance machine
rotor, since the permeability of the permanent magnet is very low, almost
the same as that of a non-magnetic material. Therefore, reluctance torque
as well as torque resulting from the permanent magnet flux is developed.
Thus BLPM sine waves (SNW) motor is construction wise the same as
that of BLPM square wave (SQW) motor. The armature winding and the
shape of the permanent magnet are so designed that flux density
distribution of the air gap is sinusoidal(i.e.).The magnetic field setup by
the permanent magnet in the air gap is sinusoidal.

6.10. SIMULINK MODEL OF PERMANENT

MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A three-phase motor rated 1.1 kW, 220 V, 3000 rpm is fed by a

PWM inverter, refer Figures 6.15 to 6.17. The PWM inverter is built
190 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

entirely with standard Simulink blocks. Its output goes through

Controlled Voltage Source blocks before being applied to the PMSM
block’s stator windings. The load torque applied to the machine’s shaft is
originally set to its nominal value (3 Nm) and steps down to 1 Nm at t=
0.04s.
Two control loops are used. The inner loop regulates the motor’s
stator currents. The outer loop controls the motor’s speed. Observe that
the stator currents are quite “noisy,” which is to be expected when using
PWM inverters. Also, the amplitude of these currents decreases at t= 0.04
s, when the load is decreased. The noise introduced by the PWM inverter
is also observed in the electromagnetic torque waveform. However, the
motor’s inertia prevents this noise from appearing in the motor’s speed
waveform. The operation of a synchronous motor is due to the interaction
of the magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor. Its stator winding, which
consists of a 3 phase winding, is provided with a 3 phase supply, and the
rotor is provided with a DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying
3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux (and therefore a
rotating magnetic field). The rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic
field and rotates along with it. Once the rotor locks in with the rotating
magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization. A single-phase
(or two-phase derived from single phase) stator winding is possible, but
in this case the direction of rotation is not defined and the machine may
start in either direction unless prevented from doing so by the starting
arrangements.
Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent
only on the supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond
the breakdown load, the motor falls out of synchronization and the field
winding no longer follows the rotating magnetic field. Since the motor
cannot produce (synchronous) torque if it falls out of synchronization,
practical synchronous motors have a partial or complete squirrel-cage
damper winding to stabilize operation and facilitate starting. Because this
winding is smaller than that of an equivalent induction motor and can
overheat on long operation, and because large slip-frequency voltages are
induced in the rotor excitation winding, synchronous motor protection
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 191

devices sense this condition and interrupt the power supply (out of step
protection).

Figure 6.15. Simulink model of permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Figure 6.16. Electromagnetic torque.

Figure 6.17. Current waveform.

192 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

6.11. SERVOMOTORS (AC AND DC)

A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast

precision position control for closed-loop position control applications.
Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for continuous
energy conversion. Servo motors have a high speed response due to low
inertia and are designed with small diameter and long rotor length.
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback
to control the speed and final position of the motor. Internally, a servo
motor combines a motor, feedback circuit, controller and other electronic
circuit.
It uses encoder or speed sensor to provide speed feedback and
position. This feedback signal is compared with input command position
(desired position of the motor corresponding to a load), and produces the
error signal (if there exist a difference between them).The error signal
available at the output of error detector is not enough to drive the motor.
So the error detector followed by a servo amplifier raises the voltage and
power level of the error signal and then turns the shaft of the motor to
desired position.

6.11.1. Types of Servo Motors

Basically, servo motors are classified into AC and DC servo motors

depending upon the nature of supply used for its operation. Brushed
permanent magnet DC servo motors are used for simple applications
owing to their cost, efficiency and simplicity. These are best suited for
smaller applications. With the advancement of microprocessor and power
transistor, AC servo motors are used more often due to their high
accuracy control.
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 193

6.11.2. DC Servo Motors

A DC servo motor shown in Figure 8.18 consists of a small DC

motor, feedback potentiometer, gearbox, motor drive electronic circuit
and electronic feedback control loop. It is more or less similar to the
normal DC motor. The stator of the motor consists of a cylindrical frame
and the magnet is attached to the inside of the frame. The rotor consists
of brush and shaft. A commutator and a rotor metal supporting frame are
attached to the outside of the shaft and the armature winding is coiled in
the rotor metal supporting frame.

Figure 6.18. DC servo motor.

A brush is built with an armature coil that supplies the current to the
commutator. At the back of the shaft, a detector is built into the rotor in
order to detect the rotation speed. With this construction, it is simple to
design a controller using simple circuitry because the torque is
proportional to the amount of current flow through the armature. The
instantaneous polarity of the control voltage decides the direction of
torque developed by the motor. Types of DC servo motors include series
motors, shunt control motor, split series motor, and permanent magnet
shunt motor.
194 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

6.11.3. Working Principle of DC Servo Motor

A DC servo motor is an assembly of four major components, namely

a DC motor, a position sensing device, a gear assembly, and a control
circuit. The below figure shows the parts that consisting in RC servo
motors in which small DC motor is employed for driving the loads at
precise speed and position. A DC reference voltage is set to the value
corresponding to the desired output. This voltage can be applied by using
another potentiometer, control pulse width to voltage converter, or
through timers depending on the control circuitry.The dial on the
potentiometer produces a corresponding voltage which is then applied as
one of the inputs to error amplifier.
In some circuits, a control pulse is used to produce DC reference
voltage corresponding to desired position or speed of the motor and it is
applied to a pulse width to voltage converter. In this converter, the
capacitor starts charging at a constant rate when the pulse high. Then the
charge on the capacitor is fed to the buffer amplifier when the pulse is
low and this charge is further applied to the error amplifier. So the length
of the pulse decides the voltage applied at the error amplifier as a desired
voltage to produce the desired speed or position. In digital control,
microprocessor or microcontroller are used for generating the PWM
pluses in terms of duty cycles to produce more accurate control signals.
The feedback signal corresponding to the present position of the load is
obtained by using a position sensor. This sensor is normally a
potentiometer that produces the voltage corresponding to the absolute
angle of the motor shaft through gear mechanism. Then the feedback
voltage value is applied at the input of error amplifier (comparator).
The error amplifier is a negative feedback amplifier and it reduces
the difference between its inputs. It compares the voltage related to
current position of the motor (obtained by potentiometer) with desired
voltage related to desired position of the motor (obtained by pulse width
to voltage converter), and produces the error either a positive or negative
voltage. This error voltage is applied to the armature of the motor. If the
error is more, the more output is applied to the motor armature. As long
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 195

as error exists, the amplifier amplifies the error voltage and

correspondingly powers the armature. The motor rotates till the error
becomes zero. If the error is negative, the armature voltage reverses and
hence the armature rotates in the opposite direction.

6.11.4. AC Servo Motors

AC servo motors shown in Figure 6.19 are basically two-phase

squirrel cage induction motors and are used for low power applications.
Nowadays, three phase squirrel cage induction motors have been
modified such that they can be used in high power servo systems. The
main difference between a standard split-phase induction motor and AC
motor is that the squirrel cage rotor of a servo motor has made with
thinner conducting bars, so that the motor resistance is higher. Based on
the construction there are two distinct types of AC servo motors, they are
synchronous type AC servo motor and induction type AC servo motor.
Synchronous-type AC servo motor consist of stator and rotor. The
stator consists of a cylindrical frame and stator core. The armature coil
wound around the stator core and the coil end is connected to with a lead
wire through which current is provided to the motor. The rotor consists of
a permanent magnet and hence they do not rely on AC induction type
rotor that has current induced into it. And hence these are also called as
brushless servo motors because of structural characteristics.
When the stator field is excited, the rotor follows the rotating
magnetic field of the stator at the synchronous speed. If the stator field
stops, the rotor also stops. With this permanent magnet rotor, no rotor
current is needed and hence less heat is produced. Also, these motors
have high efficiency due to the absence of rotor current. In order to know
the position of rotor with respect to stator, an encoder is placed on the
rotor and it acts as a feedback to the motor controller. The induction-type
AC servo motor structure is identical with that of general motor. In this
motor, stator consists of stator core, armature winding and lead wire,
while rotor consists of shaft and the rotor core that built with a conductor
196 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

as similar to squirrel cage rotor. The working principle of this servo

motor is similar to the normal induction motor. Again the controller must
know the exact position of the rotor using encoder for precise speed and
position control.

Figure 6.19. AC servo motor.

6.11.5. Working Principle of AC Servo Motor

The reference input at which the motor shaft has to maintain at a

certain position is given to the rotor of synchro generator as mechanical
input theta. This rotor is connected to the electrical input at rated voltage
at a fixed frequency. The three stator terminals of a synchro generator are
connected correspondingly to the terminals of control transformer. The
angular position of the two-phase motor is transmitted to the rotor of
control transformer through gear train arrangement and it represents the
control condition alpha.
Initially, there exist a difference between the synchro generator shaft
position and control transformer shaft position. This error is reflected as
the voltage across the control transformer. This error voltage is applied to
the servo amplifier and then to the control phase of the motor. With the
control voltage, the rotor of the motor rotates in required direction till the
error becomes zero. This is how the desired shaft position is ensured in
AC servo motors. Alternatively, modern AC servo drives are embedded
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 197

controllers like PLCs, microprocessors and microcontrollers to achieve

variable frequency and variable voltage in order to drive the motor.
Mostly, pulse width modulation and Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) techniques are used to control the desired frequency and voltage.
The Simulink block diagram of servo motor system using programmable
logic controllers, position and servo controllers is given in Figures 6.20
and 6.21.

Figure 6.20. Simulink model of DC servomotor.

6.11.6. Simulink Model of DC Servo Motor

DC servo motor, with its electrical and mechanical components,

provides a great example to illustrate multi-domain modelling using first
principles. The DC servo motor is part of a larger system that contains
the control electronics (H-Bridge) and a disk attached to the motor shaft.
The overall model, servomotor, is shown below, where the input signal
(V) is the voltage signal applied to the H-bridge circuit, and the output
signal (deg) is the angular position of the motor shaft.
The DC motor model in Figure 6.20 shows a relationship from
current to torque (the green line on the left). The torque causes the shaft
of the motor to spin and we have a relationship between this spinning to
198 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

the back EMF (electromotive force). The rest of the parameters include a
shaft inertia, viscous friction (damping), armature resistance, and
armature inductance.

Figure 6.21. Angular position sensor.

While manufacturers may provide values for some of these

quantities, they are only approximate. It is required to estimate these
parameters as precisely as possible for the model to ascertain whether it
is an accurate representation of the actual DC servo motor system. When
we apply a series of voltage pulses to the motor input, the motor shaft
turns in response. However, if the model parameters do not match those
of the physical system, the model response will not match that of the
actual system, either. This is where simulink design optimization plays a
pivotal role in estimating parameter values. A parameter estimation
process consists of a number of well-defined steps:

• Collect test data from your system (experiment).

• Specify the parameters to estimate (including initial guesses,
parameter bounds, etc.).
• Configure your estimation and run a suitable estimation
algorithm.
• Validate the results against other test data sets and repeat above
steps if necessary.
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 199

Simulink design optimization provides a parameter estimation tool

which is a user interface to perform parameter estimation, organize
estimation project and save it for future work. Double-click the orange
block in the lower right corner of the servomotor model to launch the
parameter estimation tool, pre-loaded with data for this topology. This is
configured with measured experiment data estimation data. For other
uses we can import experimental data sets from various sources including
MATLAB variables, MAT files, excel files, or comma-separated-value
files. The parameter estimation tool is also pre-loaded with parameters
for the servomotor subsystem selected for estimation: B, J, Km, La, and
Ra. It is also configured with validation data which will be used later,
after estimation. The measured data in estimation data is shown in the
experiment plot. There is only one data set used for estimation in this
example.
With the parameters for estimation specified, we select experiments
to use for estimation. Click select experiments in the parameter
estimation tab and select estimation data for estimation. We are now
almost ready to start our estimation but first create another plot to
monitor the estimation progress. Click add plot and select parameter
trajectory. This creates a plot that shows how the parameter values
change during estimation. Click the view tab to lay out the plots so that
the experiment plot and trajectory iteration plot are both visible. Click the
estimate button in the parameter estimation tab to start the estimation.
The estimation will keep iterating the parameter values until the
estimation converges and terminates. Parameter estimation provides
various state-of-the-art estimation methods. The most common selections
include the nonlinear least-squares and Nelder-Mead optimization
methods. More information on these methods is available in the
optimization toolbox™ documentation.
We can also use the pattern search method in the global optimization
toolbox for parameter estimation. The simulated data comes from the
model with the estimated parameters. Comparing the response of the
system before and after the estimation process clearly shows that the
200 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

estimation successfully identified the model parameters and the simulated

response accurately matches the experimental data.

6.12. BLDC MOTOR

The BLDC motor is electrically commutated by power switches

instead of brushes. Compared with a brushed DC motor or an induction
motor, the BLDC motor has many advantages [5]:

• Higher efficiency and reliability

• Lower acoustic noise
• Smaller and lighter
• Greater dynamic response
• Better speed versus torque characteristics
• Higher speed range
• Longer life

The BLDC motor is widely used in applications including appliances,

automotive, aerospace, consumer, medical, automated industrial
equipment and instrumentation.

Figure 6.22. BLDC motor.

 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 201

A BLDC motor accomplishes commutation electronically using rotor

position feedback to determine when to switch the current. The structure
of BLDC is shown in Figure 6.22. Feedback usually entails an attached
Hall sensor or a rotary encoder. The stator windings work in conjunction
with permanent magnets on the rotor to generate a nearly uniform flux
density in the air gap. This permits the stator coils to be driven by a
constant DC voltage (hence the name brushless DC), which simply
switches from one stator coil to the next to generate an AC voltage
waveform with a trapezoidal shape.

Figure 6.23. Single phase BLDC motor.

Figure 6.24. Three phase BLDC motor.

202 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

There are three classifications of the BLDC motor: single-phase, two-

phase and three-phase. This discussion assumes that the stator for each
type has the same number of windings. The single-phase and three-phase
motors are the most widely used. Figure 6.23 and 6.24 shows the
simplified cross section of a single-phase and three-phase BLDC motors.
The rotor has permanent magnets to form 2 magnetic pole pairs, and
surrounds the stator, which has the windings.
A single-phase motor has one stator winding—wound either
clockwise or counter-clockwise along each arm of the stator to produce
four magnetic poles as shown in Figure 6.23. By comparison, a three
phase motor has three windings as shown in Figure 6.24. Each phase
turns on sequentially to make the rotor revolve. There are two types of
stator windings: trapezoidal and sinusoidal, which refers to the shape of
the Back Electro Motive Force (BEMF) signal. The shape of the BEMF
is determined by different coil interconnections and the distance of the air
gap. In addition to the BEMF, the phase current also follows a
trapezoidal and sinusoidal shape. A sinusoidal motor produces smoother
electromagnetic torque than a trapezoidal motor, though at a higher cost
due to their use of extra copper windings. A BLDC motor uses a
simplified structure with trapezoidal stator windings.
A rotor consists of a shaft and a hub with permanent magnets
arranged to form between two to eight pole pairs that alternate between
north and south poles. Figure 6.25 shows cross sections of three kinds of
magnets arrangements in a rotor. There are multiple magnet materials,
such as ferrous mixtures and rare-earth alloys. Ferrite magnets are
traditional and relatively inexpensive, though rare-earth alloy magnets are
becoming increasingly popular because of their high magnetic density.
The higher density helps to shrink rotors while maintaining high relative
torque when compared to similar ferrite magnets.
Motor operation in Figure 6.26 is based on the attraction or repulsion
between magnetic poles. Using the three-phase motor shown in Figure
6.26, the process starts when current flows through one of the three stator
windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the closest
permanent magnet of the opposite pole. The rotor will move if the current
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 203

shifts to an adjacent winding. Sequentially charging each winding will

cause the rotor to follow in a rotating field. The torque in this example
depends on the current amplitude and the number of turns on the stator
windings, the strength and the size of the permanent magnets, the air gap
between the rotor and the windings, and the length of the rotating arm.

Figure 6.25. Magnetic arrangements in a rotor.

Figure 6.26. 3-phase cross sectional view.

6.12.1. Brushless DC Motor Control

Switch configuration and PWM brushless DC motors use electric

switches to realize current commutation, and thus continuously rotate the
motor. These electric switches are usually connected in an H-bridge
structure for a single-phase BLDC motor, and a three-phase bridge
structure for a three-phase BLDC motor shown in Figure 6.27 and 6.28.
Usually the high-side switches are controlled using pulse-width
204 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

modulation (PWM), which converts a DC voltage into a modulated

voltage, which easily and efficiently limits the startup current, control
speed and torque. Generally, raising the switching frequency increases
PWM losses, though lowering the switching frequency limits the
system’s bandwidth and can raise the ripple current pulses to the points
where they become destructive or shut down the BLDC motor driver.

6.12.2. Single-Phase BLDC Motor

BLDC commutation relies on feedback on the rotor position to

decide when to energize the corresponding switches to generate the
biggest torque. The easiest way to accurately detect position is to use a
position sensor. The most popular position sensor device is Hall sensor.
Most BLDC motors have Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the
non-driving end of the motor. The permanent magnets form the rotor and
are located inside the stator.
A Hall position sensor (“a”) is mounted to the outside stator, which
induces an output voltage proportional to the magnetic intensity (assume
the sensor goes HIGH when the rotor’s north pole passes by, and goes
LOW when the rotor’s south pole passes by). SW1 and SW4 turn on
when Hall sensor output is HIGH, as shown in Figure 6.27. At this stage,
armature current flows through the stator windings from OUT1 to OUT2
and induces the alternate stator electromagnetic poles accordingly. The
magnetic force generated by rotor magnetic field and stator
electromagnetic field causes the rotor to rotate. After the rotor signal
reaches 180°, the Hall output voltage reverses due to its proximity to a
south pole. SW2 and SW3 then turn on with current reversing from
OUT2 to OUT1, as shown in Figure 6.27. The opposite stator magnetic
poles induce the rotor to continue rotating in the same direction. The
armature current exhibits a saw tooth waveform due to PWM control.
The applied voltage, switching frequency, and the PWM duty cycle are
three key parameters to determine the speed and the torque of the motor.
The switching sequence is given in Figure 6.28.
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 205

Figure 6.27. Single-phase BLDC motor commutation sequence.

Figure 6.28. Switching sequence of single-phase BLDC motor.

206 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

6.12.3. Three-Phase BLDC Motor

A three-phase BLDC motor requires three Hall sensors to detect the

rotor’s position. Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there
are two types of output: a 60° phase shift and a 120° phase shift.
Combining these three Hall sensor signals can determine the exact
commutation sequence. Figure 8.28 shows the commutation sequence of
a three-phase BLDC motor driver circuit for counterclockwise rotation.
Three Hall sensors—“a,” “b,” and “c”—are mounted on the stator at 120°
intervals, while the three phase windings are in a star formation.
For every 60° rotation, one of the Hall sensors changes its state; it
takes six steps to complete a whole electrical cycle. In synchronous
mode, the phase current switching updates every 60°. For each step, there
is one motor terminal driven high, another motor terminal driven low,
with the third one left floating. Individual drive controls for the high and
low drivers permit high drive, low drive, and floating drive at each motor
terminal. However, one signal cycle may not correspond to a complete
mechanical revolution. The number of signal cycles to complete a
mechanical rotation is determined by the number of rotor pole pairs.
Every rotor pole pair requires one signal cycle in one mechanical
rotation. So, the number of signal cycles is equal to the rotor pole pairs.
Figure 6.29 and 6.30 shows the commutation sequence and timing
diagrams where the phase windings U, V, and W are either energized or
floated based on the Hall sensor signals a, b, and c. This is an example of
Hall sensor signal having a 120° phase shift with respect to each other,
where the motor rotates counter-clockwise. Producing a Hall signal with
a 60° phase shift or rotating the motor clockwise requires a different
timing sequence. To vary the rotation speed, use pulse width modulation
signals on the switches at a much higher frequency than the motor
rotation frequency. Generally, the PWM frequency should be at least 10
times higher than the maximum motor rotation frequency. Another
advantage of PWM is that if the DC bus voltage is much higher than the
motor-rated voltage, so limiting the duty cycle of PWM to meet the
motor rated voltage controls the motor.
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 207

Figure 6.29. Three-phase BLDC motor commutation sequence.

Figure 6.30. Timing diagram of three-phase BLDC motor commutation sequence.

208 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

6.12.4. Sensor-Less BLDC Motor Control

However, sensors cannot be used in applications where the rotor is in

a closed housing and requires minimal electrical entries, such as a
compressor or applications where the motor is immersed in a liquid.
Therefore, the BLDC sensor less driver monitors the BEMF signals
instead of the position detected by Hall sensors to commutate the signal.
The relationship between the sensors’ output and the BEMF is shown in
Figure 6.31. The sensor signal changes state when the voltage polarity of
the BEMF crosses from positive to negative or from negative to positive.
The BEMF zero-crossings provide precise position data for commutation.
However, as BEMF is proportional to the speed of rotation, this implies
that the motor requires a minimum speed for precise feedback. So under
very low speed conditions—such as start-up— additional detectors—
such as open loop or BEMF amplifiers—are required to control the
motor.

Figure 6.31. Switching sequence of sensor-less BLDC motor control.

 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 209

The sensor-less commutation can simplify the motor structure and

lower the motor cost. Applications in dusty or oily environments that
require only occasional cleaning, or where the motor is generally
inaccessible, benefit from sensorless commutation.
This application note introduces the motor fundamentals, with special
attention to BLDC motor. A BLDC motor has many advantages over a
brushed DC motor and an AC induction motor: It is easily controlled
with position feedback sensors and generally performs well, especially in
speed/torque. With these advantages, BLDC motor will spread to more
applications. Moreover, with the development of sensor-less technology,
BLDC motor will become convenient or indispensable in applications
with environmental limitations.

6.12.5. Simulation of BLDC Motor Drive

A three-phase motor in Figure 6.32 to 6.37 is a rated 1 kW, 500 Vdc,

3000 rpm is fed by a six step voltage inverter. The inverter is a MOSFET
bridge of the sim power systems library. A speed regulator is used to
control the DC bus voltage. The inverter gates signals are produced by
decoding the Hall effect signals of the motor. The three-phase output of
the inverter is applied to the PMSM block’s stator windings. The load
torque applied to the machine's shaft is first set to 0 and steps to its
nominal value (3 Nm) at t = 0.1 s. Two control loops are used. The inner
loop synchronizes the inverter gates signals with the electromotive
forces. The outer loop controls the motor’s speed by varying the DC bus
voltage.
Observe the saw-tooth shape of the motor currents. That's caused by
the DC bus which applies a constant voltage during 120 electrical degrees
to the motor inductances. The initial current is high and decreases during
the acceleration to the nominal speed. When the nominal torque is
applied, the stator current increases to maintain the nominal speed. The
saw-tooth waveform is also observed in the electromagnetic torque signal
Te. However, the motor’s inertia prevents this noise from appearing in
210 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

the motor's speed waveform. Change the “back EMF flat area” of the
motor from 120 to 0 and observe the waveform of the electromotive
force.

Figure 6.32. Simulink model of BLDC motor.

Figure 6.33. Gate drive circuit for inverter.

 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 211

Figure 6.34. Decoder.

Figure 6.35. Rotor speed.

212 L. Ashok Kumar, S. Albert Alexander and Y. Uma Maheswari

Figure 6.36. Electromagnetic torque.

Figure 6.37. Stator current and back EMF.

CONCLUSION

The readers will be able to simulate the various special machines and
will be able to determine their torque speed and voltage current
relationships.

REFERENCES
[1] Kim, W., Yang, C., Chung, C.C., (2011). Design and
Implementation of Simple Field-Oriented Control for Permanent
 Special Electrical Machines Using MATLAB 213

Magnet Stepper Motors Without DQ Transformation. IEEE

Transactions on Magnetics, 47(10),4231-4234, doi: 10.1109/
TMAG.2011.2157956.
[2] Crnosija, P., Kuzmanovic, B., Ajdukovic, S., (2000).
Microcomputer implementation of optimal algorithms for closed-
loop control of hybrid stepper motor drives. IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, 47(6), 1319-1325, doi: 10.1109/41.887960.
[3] Wang, X., Lu, S., Zhang, S., (2020). Rotating Angle Estimation for
Hybrid Stepper Motors With Application to Bearing Fault
Diagnosis. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement, 69(8), 5556-5568, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2019.2963582.
[4] Kim, W., Lee, Y., Shin, D., Chung, C.C., (2021). Nonlinear Gain
Position Control Using Only Position Feedback for Permanent
Magnet Stepper Motors. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
36(7), 8506-8516, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2020.3046849.
[5] Park, J.S., Lee, K., Lee, S.G., Kim, W., (2019). Unbalanced ZCP
Compensation Method for Position Sensorless BLDC Motor. IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, 34(4), 3020-3024, doi:
10.1109/TPEL.2018.2868828.
 APPENDIX

SIMULATION OF FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION

OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The four-quadrant operation with plugging is obtained by the circuit

shown in Figure A-1. Thyristor pairs A, B and C provide operation in
quadrants I and IV. The speed-torque curve at a fixed stator voltage and
for operation in quadrants I and IV is shown by a solid line in Figure A-2.
Use of Thyristor pairs A’BC’ changes the phase sequence and thus gives
operation in quadrants II and III. The speed torque curve for the same
stator voltage operation in quadrants II and III is shown by a dotted line
in Figure A-2.
While changing from one set of thyristor pairs to another, that is from
ABC to A’BC’ and vice-versa, care should be taken to ensure that the
incoming pair is activated only after the outgoing pair is fully turned-off.
Failure to satisfy this condition will cause short-circuiting of the supply
by the conducting thyristors of the two pairs.
However, this method of speed control has a few limitations

a. Output Voltage from an AC voltage controller is dependent not

only on the delay angle of the gate firing pulses but also on the
periods of current flow which are dictated by the load power
216 Appendix

factor. An induction motor will draw a varying power factor and

this will influence the voltage being applied to it.
b. Significant amounts of stator and rotor harmonic currents will
flow and eddy currents will be induced in the iron core. These
will cause additional motor heating and alter the motor’s
performance compared with sinusoidal operation.

Figure A-1. Circuit diagram.

Torque

Reverse Braking Forward Motoring

Speed

Reverse Motoring Forward Braking

Figure A-2. Speed-Torque curves for fixed stator voltage and +ve and -ve phase
sequence.
 Appendix 217

Figure A-3 and A-4 shows the circuit diagram and results in
MATLAB. In the simulation det the necessary value for ac input to the
converter and induction motor respectively. Use pulse generator to set the
firing angle value of the thyristor pairs - ABC. Observe the operation of
the induction motor in quadrants I and IV. Remove the firing pulses for
the thyristor pairs – ABC. Use pulse generator to set the firing angle
value of the thyristors pairs – A’BC.’ Observe the operation of the
induction motor in quadrants II and III.

Figure A-3. Simulation diagram.

Forward Forward Reverse Reverse

Braking Motoring Motoring Braking

Figure 4: Simulation results

Figure A-4. Simulation results.

218 Appendix

SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED

CONVERTER FOR RLE LOAD

A single phase full converter bridge using four SCRs is shown in

Figure A-5. The load is of RLE type, where E is the load circuit e.m.f.
Voltage E may be due to a battery in the load circuit or may be back
e.m.f of a D.C motor. Input and output voltage waveforms are shown in
Figure A-6. It is assumed that between ωt = 0 and ωt = α, thyristors T3
and T4 were conducting. As T1 and T2 are fired at ωt = α, they turn-on,
commutating T3 and T4 immediately. When T1 and T2 are gated at ωt =
α, these SCRs will get turned on only if Vmsinα> E. Thyristors T1 and
T2 conduct from ωt = α to π+α. At ωt = π+α, forward biased SCRs T3
and T4 are triggered. The supply voltage turns off T1 and T2 by natural
commutation and the load current is transferred from T1, T2 to T3, T4.
Average output voltage is given by,

π +α
1 2Vm
Vo =
π ∫V
α
m sin ωt.d (ωt ) =
π
cos α

From the above equation it is observed that if α > 90 deg, Vo is

negative. Under this condition, if the load circuit e.m.f is reversed and if
|E| > |V|, the back e.m.f E will feed power back to the a.c supply. This
operation of fully controlled converter is known as inverter operation.
Thus at firing angle greater than 90 deg, the fully controlled converter is
known as line commutated inverter. Such an operation is used in
regenerative braking mode of a dc motor.
Figure A-7 shows the simulation diagram and Figures A-8-9 depicts
the output waveforms. Using pulse generator set the firing angle (α < 900)
for the thyristors to observe the rectification mode of operation. Set the
firing angle (α > 900) for the thyristors to observe the inversion mode of
operation.
 Appendix 219

Figure A-5. Circuit diagram.

Figure A-6. Waveforms of single phase fully controlled converter with RLE load.

Figure A-7. Simulation diagram of single phase fully controlled converter with
RLE load.
220 Appendix

Figure A-8. Simulation result of single phase fully controlled converter with RLE
load – rectification mode.

Figure A-9. Simulation result of single phase fully controlled converter with RLE
load – inversion Mode.

SIMULATION OF SINGLE-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER

The circuit diagram of a single phase dual converter feeding motor

load is shown in Figure A-10. A Single phase full converters allow only a
 Appendix 221

two quadrant operation. Hence with dual converter, where two single
phase full converters (P and N converter) are connected back to back, we
can achieve the four quadrant operation. There are two modes of
operation of dual converter.

a. Non-circulating mode
b. Circulating mode

In non-circulating mode, only one converter (P or N) is operated at a

time and it alone carries the entire load current. Only this converter
receives the firing pulses from the trigger control. The other converter is
blocked from conduction which is achieved by removing the firing pulses
from this converter. It is essential that changing over from one converter
to other should be done ensuring that the load current has become zero
and the outgoing converter devices are fully off. This is achieved by
providing a small time delay (≤10 msec) before firing the other converter
and after the firing pulses for the outgoing converter is removed.
In circulating mode, both P and N converters are operated at a time
and the delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as a
rectifier and the other converter operates as an inverter. Both the
converters produce the same average output voltage but the instantaneous
output voltages are out of phase which result in circulating current
between the two converters. A reactor is inserted between the 2
converters which limits the magnitude of circulating current.

Figure A-10. Circuit diagram for single-phase dual converter.

222 Appendix

The gating sequence for the circulating mode are as follows:

• Using pulse generator

• Gate the P converter with a delay angle of α1 = α ( < 90 )
• Gate the negative converter with a delay angle of α2 = π-α

The forward motoring and forward regeneration operation of DC

motor can be observed in quadrant I and quadrant IV.

a. Gate the P converter with a delay angle of α1 = π-α

b. Gate the negative converter with a delay angle of α2 = α (< 90)

The reverse motoring and reverse regeneration operation of DC

motor can be observed in quadrant II and quadrant III.
Figure A-11 shows the simulation diagram. Figures A-12-13 depicts
the gating signals and output waveforms respectively.

Figure A-11. Simulation diagram.

 Appendix 223

Figure A-12. Gating signals.

Figure A-13. Simulation Results for α1 = 30° and α2 = 150°.

SIMULATION OF THREE-PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED

CONVERTER WITH RLE LOAD

A three phase full converter bridge using six SCRs is shown in

Figure A-14. The load is of RLE type, where E is the load circuit emf.
224 Appendix

Voltage E may be due to a battery in the load circuit or may be back emf
of a D.C motor.
For any current to flow in the load at least one device from the top
group (T1, T3, T5) and one from the bottom group (T2, T4, T6) must
conduct. The thyristors are fired in the sequence T1 → T2 → T3 → T4
→ T5 → T6 → T1 with 60° interval between each firing and so thyristors
on the same phase leg are fired at an interval of 180° and hence cannot
conduct simultaneously. The six possible conduction modes for the
converter are T1T2, T2T3, T3T4, T4T5, T5T6, T6T1. Each conduction
mode is of 60° duration and appears in the sequence mentioned. The line
voltages can be associated with the firing of a thyristors. For example the
thyristor T1 is fired at the end of T5T6 conduction interval. During this
period the voltage across T1 was vac. Therefore T1 is fired α angle after
the positive going zero crossing of Vac. Similar observation can be made
about other thyristors. The output voltage and current waveforms are
periodic over one sixth of the input cycle. Therefore this converter is also
called the “six pulse” converter.
The average output voltage is given by,

3√3
VO = Vm cosα (volts)
π

From the above equation it is seen that when α < 90 degrees, the
output dc voltage will be positive and power will be flowing from the
three phase ac side to the dc side. This is the rectifier mode of operation
of the converter. When α > 90 degrees, the output dc voltage will be
negative and power will be flowing from the dc side to the three phase ac
side. This is the inverter mode of operation of the converter.
Using pulse generator set the firing angle (α < 90) for the thyristors
as shown in Figure 15. Gating signals are given in Figure A-16. Simulate
the circuit and observe the rectification mode of operation as given in
Figure 17. Set the firing angle (α > 90)for the thyristors and simulate the
circuit and observe the inversion mode of operation as given in Figure A-
18.
 Appendix 225

Figure A-14. Circuit Diagram for three-phase fully controlled converter with RLE
load.

Figure A-15. Simulation diagram.

Figure A-16. Gating signals.

226 Appendix

Figure A-17. Simulation result for α= 30 degrees.

Figure A-18. Simulation result for α= 90 degrees.

SIMULATION OF THREE-PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter

switches each connected to one of the three load terminals as shown in
Figure A-19. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the
three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60
degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-
line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a
 Appendix 227

zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the

square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are
eliminated as described above. To construct inverters with higher power
ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for
a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either
case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step
waveform.
It may be seen that with the chosen numbering the switches turn on
in the sequence:- S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S1, S2, ….and so on. Identifying
the switching cycle time as 360 degrees (2π radians), it can be seen that
each switch conducts for 1800 and the turning on of the adjacent switch
is staggered by 60 degrees. The upper and lower switches of each pole
(leg) of the inverter conduct in a complementary manner. To reverse the
output phase sequence, the switching sequence may simply be reversed.
Considering the symmetry in the switch conduction pattern, it may be
found that at any time three switches conduct. It could be two from the
upper group of switches, which are connected to positive dc bus, and one
from lower group or vice-versa (i.e., one from upper group and two from
lower group). According to the conduction pattern indicated in the figure
there are six combinations of conducting switches during an output
cycle:- (S5, S6, S1), (S6, S1, S2), (S1, S2, S3), (S2, S3, S4), (S3, S4, S5),
(S4, S5, S6).

Figure A-19. Circuit diagram for three-phase full bridge inverter.

228 Appendix

Figure A-20. Simulation diagram for 120 degree mode.

Figure A-21. Gating signals for 120 degree mode.

Each of these combinations of switches conducts for 600 in the

sequence mentioned above to produce output phase sequence of A, B, C.
As will be shown later the fundamental component of the three output
line-voltages will be balanced. The load side phase voltage waveforms
 Appendix 229

turn out to be somewhat different from the pole voltage waveforms.

Simulation of three phase inverter in 120 degree mode is given in Figures
A-20-22 and simulation of three phase inverter in 180 degree mode is
given in Figures A-23-25.

Figure A-22. Simulation result for 120 degree mode.

Figure A-23. Simulation diagram for 180 degree mode.

230 Appendix

Figure A-24. Gating signals for 180 degree mode.

Figure A-25. Simulation result for 180 degree mode.

 Appendix 231

SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER

The fundamental magnitude of the output voltage from an inverter

can be controlled to be constant by exercising control within the inverter
itself that is no external control circuitry is required. The most efficient
method of doing this is by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control used
within the inverter. In this scheme the inverter is fed by a fixed input
voltage and a controlled ac voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and
the off periods of the inverter components. The advantages of the PWM
control scheme are

a. The output voltage control can be obtained without addition of

any external components.
b. PWM minimizes the lower order harmonics, while the higher
order harmonics can be eliminated using a filter.

The disadvantage possessed by this scheme is that the switching

devices used in the inverter are expensive as they must possess low turn
on and turn off times, nevertheless PWM operated are very popular in all
industrial equipments. PWM techniques are characterized by constant
amplitude pulses with different duty cycles for each period. The width of
these pulses are modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and
to reduce its harmonic content.
There are different PWM techniques which essentially differ in the
harmonic content of their respective output voltages, thus the choice of a
particular PWM technique depends on the permissible harmonic content
in the inverter output voltage. They are

• Single pulse width modulation (Figures A-27, 28)

• Multiple pulse width modulation (Figures A-29, 30)
• Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (Figures A-31, 32)

Figure 26 shows the circuit dragram of single phase full bridge

inverter.
232 Appendix

Figure A-26. Single phase full bridge inverter.

Figure A-27. Simulation diagram for single pulse width modulation.

Figure A-28. Simulation results for single pulse width modulation.

 Appendix 233

Figure A-29. Simulation diagram for multiple pulse width modulation.

Figure A-30. Simulation results for multiple pulse width modulation.

Figure A-31. Simulation diagram for sinusoidal pulse width modulation.

234 Appendix

Figure A-32. Simulation results for sinusoidal pulse width modulation.

SIMULATION OF MULTILEVEL INVERTER

Inverter is a device that converts DC power to AC power at desired

output voltage and frequency. Demerits of inverter are less efficiency,
high cost, and high switching losses. To overcome these demerits, we are
going to multilevel inverter. In recent years multi level inverters are used
high power and high voltage applications. Multilevel inverter output
voltage produce a staircase output waveform, this waveform look like a
sinusoidal waveform. The multilevel inverter output voltage having less
number of harmonics compare to the conventional bipolar inverter output
voltage. The multi level inverters are mainly classified as Diode clamped,
Flying capacitor inverter and cascaded multilevel inverter. The cascaded
multilevel control method is very easy when compare to other multilevel
inverter because it doesn’t require any clamping diode and flying
capacitor. Two level can generate five different voltage outputs +2Vdc,
+vdc, 0 , – 2Vdc and –Vdc by connecting the dc sources.The output
voltage of an M-level inverter is the sum of all the individual inverter
outputs. Each of the H-Bridge’s active devices switches only at the
fundamental frequency, and each H-bridge unit generates a quasi- square
waveform by phase-shifting its positive and negative phase legs
switching timings. Further, each switching device always conducts for
 Appendix 235

180˚(or half cycle)regardless of the pulse width of the quasi-square wave

so that this switching method results in equalizing the current stress in
each active device. This topology of inverter is suitable for high voltage
and high power inversion because of its ability of synthesize waveforms
with better harmonic spectrum and low switching frequency.
A multilevel inverter has four main advantages over the conventional
bipolar inverter.

1. The voltage stress on each switch is decreased due to series

connection of the switches. Therefore, the rated voltage and
consequently the total power of the inverter could be safely
increased.
2. The rate of change of voltage (dv/dt) is decreased due to the
lower voltage swing of each switching cycle.
3. Harmonic distortion is reduced due to more output levels.
4. Lower acoustic noise and electromagnetic interference (EMI) is
obtained.

Figure A-33 shows the power circuit of five level inverter and its
output waveform is shown in A-Figure 34. Figure A-35-36 gives the
simulation diagram and its output waveforms respectively.

Figure A-33. Circuit diagram of 5-level multilevel inverter.

236 Appendix

Figure A-34. Output waveform of 5-level multilevel inverter.

Figure A-35. Simulation diagram for 5-level multilevel inverter.

Figure A-36. Simulation result for 5-level multilevel inverter.

 Appendix 237

SIMULATION OF THREE PHASE

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

A three phase AC voltage controller is shown in Figure 37. Two

thyristors connected back to back are used per phase, thus needing a total
of six thyristors. The numbering scheme is same as that used in a three
phase full-wave bridge converter or inverter. The thyristors are fired in
the sequence starting from 1 in ascending order with the angle between
the triggering of thyristor 1 & 2 being 60° (one-sixth of the time period
(T) of a complete cycle. The thyristors are fired after a delay of α from
the natural commutation point. The natural commutation point is the
starting of a cycle, (with period 60° = T/6) of output voltage waveform if
six thyristors are replaced by diodes. The current flow is bi-directional,
with the current in one direction in the positive half and then, in other
(opposite) direction in the negative half. So, two thyristors connected
back to back are needed in each phase.
The range of delay angle is 0° ≤ α ≤ 150°. The expression for rms
value of the output voltage per phase for balanced star-connected
resistive load, are as follows.

For 0° ≤ α ≤ 60°

1
 1  π α Sin 2α  2
Vorms = 6Es   − + 
π  6 4 8 

For 60° ≤ α ≤ 90°

Vorms
1  π
= 6 E s   +
(
3Sin 2α + 30 0 )  2


 π  12 8 

For 90° ≤ α ≤ 150°

238 Appendix

1
 1  5π α Sin(2α + 60 )  2
Vorms = 6Es   − + 
 π  24 4 8 

Simulation diagram is given in Figure 38. Gating signal and output

waveforms are shown in Figures A-39 and A-40 respectively.

A-Figure 37. Circuit diagram for three-phase ac voltage controller.

A-Figure 38. Simulation diagram.

 Appendix 239

Figure A-39. Gating signals.

Figure A-40. Simulation result for α = 60 degrees.

240 Appendix

SIMULATION OF THREE PHASE CYCLOCONVERTER

A three phase to single phase cycloconverter is shown in Figure A-

41. Two three –phase full wave (six-pulse) bridge converters (rectifier)
connected back to back, with six thyristors for each bridge, are used. The
ripple frequency here is 300 Hz, six times the input frequency of 50Hz.
So low value of load inductance is sufficient to make the current
continuous, as compared that in single phase cycloconverters. Also, the
non-circulating current mode of operation is used, where only one
converter – bridge 1 (positive) or bridge 2 (negative), conducts at a time,
but both converters do not conduct at the same time.
The initial value of firing angle delay is kept at α1= 90°, such that the
average value (dc) of output voltage in this interval of near 60° (π/6), is
zero. It may be noted that the next thyristor in sequence is triggered
at α2 < 90°, as the firing angle is decreased for each segment to obtain
higher voltage Vav α cos α2, to form the sine wave at the output. When
the firing angle is 0°, the average value of the segment is Vav α cos α =
cos 0° = 1. The two quarter cycles form the positive half cycle of the
output voltage waveform. To obtain the negative half-cycle of the output
voltage waveform (180° - 360°), the other bridge converter2 is used in
the same manner, i.e., its firing angle is first decreased starting from 90°
to the final value of 0° and then again increased to the final value of 90°.
The two half-cycles (positive and negative) together gives one complete
cycle (0° - 360°) of the output voltage waveform as shown in Figure 42.
The positive converter conducts when current is in the positive half
of the cycle, whereas negative one conducts with the current flowing in
the negative half. But in circulating mode both converters would conduct
at a time with an inter-group reactor (IGR) between the positive and
negative groups. It may be noted that though the output voltages of two
converters in the same phase have the same average value, but their
output voltage waveforms as a function of time are however different and
as a result there is a net potential difference across two converters. Due to
this voltage, the reactor is inserted to limit the circulating current.
 Appendix 241

Simulation circuit and its associated waveform is given in Figures A-43

and A-44 respectively.

Figure A-41. Circuit diagram for three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter.

Figure A-42. Output voltage of three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter.

242 Appendix

Figure A-43. Simulation diagram.

Figure A-44. Simulation result.

SIMULATION OF CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

A current source inverter may be realized by using an inductance of

suitable value, which must be high, in series with the current limited dc
voltage source. Three phase current source inverter fed induction motor
 Appendix 243

circuit is shown in Figure A-45. In current source inverter, current is

nearly constant. The voltage changes here, as the load is changed. In an
Induction motor, the developed torque changes with the change in the
load torque, the speed being constant, with no acceleration or
deceleration. The input current in the motor also changes, with the input
voltage being constant. So, the CSI, where current, but not the voltage, is
the main point of interest is used to drive such motors, with the load
torque changing. In this circuit, six IGBTs, two in each of three arms, are
used, as in a three-phase VSI. Also, six diodes, each one in series with
the respective IGBT, are needed here, as used for single-phase CSI. The
IGBTs are fired in the sequence starting from 1 in ascending order with
the angle between the triggering of IGBT 1 & 2 being 60° (one-sixth of
the time period (T) of a complete cycle. The IGBTs are fired after a delay
of α from the natural commutation point.
The simulation circuit and its associated waveform is given in
Figures A-46 and A-47 respectively.

Figure A-45. Circuit diagram of current source inverter fed induction motor.

Advantages of Current Source Inverter:

• An output short-circuit or simultaneous conduction in an inverter

arm is controlled by the current limited voltage source in series
with a large inductance.
244 Appendix

• The converter-inverter combined configuration has inherent four

quadrant operation capability without any extra power
component.

Disadvantages of Current Source Inverter:

• Commutation capability is dependent upon load current and so a

minimum load at the output is required.

Figure A-46. Simulation circuit diagram of three phase current source inverter fed
induction motor.

Figure A-47. Simulation wave forms of current source inverter.

 Appendix 245

SIMULATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION

OF THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

With change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of the

alternator. The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change
in magnitude of the terminal voltage when full load at specified power
factor supplied at rated voltage is thrown off (field excitation and speed
remaining the same). It is given by

Eo − V
% Regulation = *100
V

where,
Eo - Open Circuit or No-load voltage
V - Rated Terminal Voltage

Terminal voltage of alternator can be maintained constant using AC

voltage controller. A three phase AC voltage controller is shown in
Figure 1. Two thyristors connected back to back are used per phase, thus
needing a total of six thyristors. The numbering scheme is same as that
used in a three phase full-wave bridge converter or inverter. The
thyristors are fired in the sequence starting from 1 in ascending order
with the angle between the triggering of thyristor 1 & 2 being 60° (one-
sixth of the time period (T) of a complete cycle. The thyristors are fired
after a delay of α from the natural commutation point. The natural
commutation point is the starting of a cycle, (with period 60° = T/6) of
output voltage waveform if six thyristors are replaced by diodes. The
current flow is bi-directional, with the current in one direction in the
positive half and then, in other (opposite) direction in the negative half.
So, two thyristors connected back to back are needed in each phase. The
range of delay angle is 0° ≤ α ≤ 150°. Circuit diagram is given in Figure
48. Simulation circuit and its associated waveforms are given in Figures
49-51.
246 Appendix

Figure A-48. Circuit diagram for three-phase AC voltage regulator.

Figure A-49. Simulation diagram.

 Appendix 247

Figure A-50. Gating signals.

Figure A-51. Simulation result.

AUTHORS’ CONTACT INFORMATION

L. Ashtok Kumar
Professor and Associate HoD,
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Psg College of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
[email protected]

S. Albert Alexander
Associate Professor, Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, India

Y. Uma Maheswari
Technology Manager,
Pramura Software (p) Ltd.,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
 INDEX

closed loop, 60
A
command window, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12
control circuit, 127, 130, 194, 231
alternating current, 67, 116, 117
control methods, vii, 123
alternator, 55, 56, 163, 245
cycloconverter, ix, 128, 240, 241
analysis, xi, 1, 2, 39, 44, 45, 51, 138
arithmetic operations, 6, 8, 12
array, 14, 24, 25, 26, 27 D

DC bus voltage, 102, 103, 206, 209

B
DC link, 128, 130
DC-DC converter, 76
boost converter, 102
debugging, 2, 12, 35, 36, 42
browser, 41
delta, 53, 64, 65, 120, 152, 157, 159, 187
brushed DC motor, 200, 209
direct current, 77, 78, 82, 117, 144, 146
brushless DC motor, 113, 146, 173, 174,
203
buck converter, 98, 100 E

efficiency, 74, 115, 126, 148, 168, 170,

C
173, 192, 195, 200, 234
electrical field, 53
calculations, 1, 2, 8, 11, 12, 47
electromotive force, 78, 116, 198, 209, 210
calculator, v, 5, 7, 8, 51
energy sources, 77
capacitor, 66, 115, 120, 194, 234
charging, 194, 203
chopper, vi, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100,
102, 103, 112
252 Index

224, 226, 227, 229, 231, 232, 234, 235,

F
236, 237, 242, 243, 244, 245
isolated, 15, 70
filter, 231
firing angle, 90, 92, 105, 106, 109, 111,
128, 131, 217, 218, 224, 240 J
frequency, vii, 62, 67, 76, 124, 127, 128,
130, 131, 132, 140, 142, 148, 151, 157, Java, 2
160, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 184,
187, 190, 196, 197, 204, 206, 234, 240
L

G library browser, 39, 40, 41

generator, vi, vii, ix, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 63,
M
69, 71, 72, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 112, 115,
116, 117, 119, 136, 138, 143, 146, 149, magnetic field, 59, 60, 61, 62, 78, 82, 85,
150, 151, 152, 157, 160, 163, 167, 172, 116, 120, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 158,
180, 196, 217, 245 185, 189, 190, 195, 204
grid, vii, 49, 116, 136, 138, 150, 151, 169, mathematical operations, 1
172 MATLAB, v, vi, vii, viii, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 24, 26, 27,
H 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40,
41, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 76, 77, 79,
harmonics, 227, 231, 234 80, 83, 84, 115, 139, 157, 171, 172, 173,
hyperbolic, 13 199, 217
hysteresis, 66, 94, 98, 100, 101, 112, 126, matrix, 2, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
138, 144, 184 27, 48, 49
measurement, 41, 90, 94, 106, 109, 124,
125, 213
I
model, vii, viii, 1, 2, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
46, 76, 79, 84, 87, 88, 90, 93, 94, 117,
IGBT, 87, 88, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105,
120, 125, 126, 133, 138, 149, 150, 151,
243
152, 153, 154, 155, 161, 163, 171, 172,
induction machine, vii, 115, 116, 120, 136,
177, 179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 189,
160
191, 197, 198, 199, 210
induction motor, vii, ix, 76, 115, 116, 119,
modeling, 77, 111, 112, 137, 138
120, 123, 127, 128, 131, 132, 134, 138,
modulation, 126, 204
140, 148, 158, 159, 160, 166, 167, 188,
MOSFET, 127, 184, 209
190, 195, 196, 200, 209, 215, 216, 217,
motor, vi, vii, viii, 42, 45, 53, 72, 73, 74,
242, 243, 244
77, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94,
inverter, ix, 106, 111, 124, 127, 128, 133,
95, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106,
134, 138, 189, 190, 209, 210, 218, 221,
 Index 253

108, 111, 112, 117, 119, 120, 124, 126,

R
128, 130, 132, 134, 140, 142, 143, 145,
146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 157, 158, 159,
rectifier, vi, 75, 89, 90, 92, 103, 105, 106,
160, 161, 166, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
108, 109, 111, 112, 221, 224, 240
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186,
renewable energy, 173
187, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196,
resistive, 151, 163, 237
197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205,
ripple, 126, 184, 204, 240
206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216, 217,
218, 220, 222, 224, 243
S
O salient, 139, 142, 143, 147, 167, 172, 188
salient pole, 139, 142, 143, 188
operation modes, 112
SCILAB, 44, 46
optimal control, 112
semiconductor, 179
optimization, 2, 39, 198, 199
servo motor, 173, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196,
197, 198
P simulation, i, iii, ix, xi, 1, 2, 37, 38, 42, 45,
46, 51, 52, 76, 77, 80, 84, 86, 88, 111,
PI controller, 133 112, 115, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 151,
plotting, 1, 27, 28, 29, 36, 47, 51, 52 157, 164, 165, 166, 172, 184, 209, 215,
power conversion, 75 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 225, 226,
power electronics, 39, 45, 52, 76, 112, 138, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235,
213 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243,
power factor, 65, 75, 115, 131, 139, 148, 244, 245, 246, 247
163, 166, 169, 170, 172, 216, 245 simulink, vii, viii, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
power system, 37, 51, 56, 57, 58, 64, 209 43, 51, 88, 90, 93, 109, 117, 119, 120,
programming, 1, 2, 30, 33, 45, 46, 48 121, 129, 131, 132, 133, 149, 150, 151,
PSIM, 44, 45 152, 153, 155, 157, 161, 163, 179, 182,
pulse generator, 42, 43, 88, 217, 218, 222, 183, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, 197,
224 198, 199, 210
pulse width modulation, 100, 102, 105, single line, 57, 58
197, 206, 231, 232, 233, 234 slip, 116, 117, 120, 128, 139, 158, 159,
160, 182, 187, 190
speed, vi, vii, 47, 55, 60, 70, 72, 73, 77, 80,
Q
82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 98,
100, 102, 103, 105, 109, 113, 116, 117,
quadrant, vi, ix, 89, 90, 92, 98, 99, 100,
120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129,
102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 112, 131,
131, 133, 134, 136, 138, 142, 144, 145,
215, 221, 222, 244
146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164,
165, 166, 167, 174, 177, 181, 182, 184,
254 Index

186, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 200, transformer, 53, 57, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 74,
204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212, 215, 216, 75, 76, 89, 105, 120, 130, 157, 196
243, 245
star, vi, vii, viii, 17, 53, 54, 57, 58, 64, 65,
U
69, 77, 85, 86, 115, 120, 144, 148, 157,
159, 161, 167, 187, 190, 206, 237, 240,
unidirectional, 78, 131
243, 245
starting, vi, vii, viii, 17, 54, 69, 77, 85, 86,
115, 120, 144, 148, 157, 159, 161, 167, V
190, 237, 240, 243, 245
statistical, 14 variables, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 24, 29, 32, 33,
step angle, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 37, 39, 124, 126, 149, 152, 199
182 vector, vii, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23,
stepper motor, viii, 173, 174, 175, 176, 24, 27, 47, 49, 75, 124, 125, 126, 132,
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 133, 138
213 voltage, ix, 29, 40, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55, 56,
string, 14 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 74,
switched reluctance motor, 173, 174 77, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 98,
switching frequency, 101, 184, 204, 235 100, 102, 103, 105, 108, 111, 117, 119,
synchronous machine, vii, 139, 141, 149, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131, 132,
150, 152, 154, 157, 161, 163, 170, 171, 150, 151, 153, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162,
172, 187, 188 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170,
synchronous motor, vii, viii, 140, 141, 142, 171, 172, 180, 181, 184, 185, 187, 190,
144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 153, 157, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 201, 204,
158, 159, 160, 161, 166, 167, 168, 169, 206, 208, 209, 212, 215, 216, 218, 221,
172, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191 224, 227, 228, 231, 234, 235, 237, 238,
240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246

T
W
torque, 77, 81, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94,
95, 98, 101, 102, 104, 105, 109, 115, waveforms, 79, 83, 86, 89, 91, 95, 98, 103,
116, 117, 120, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 104, 107, 110, 111, 118, 119, 122, 123,
132, 134, 145, 148, 159, 162, 164, 165, 129, 131, 132, 135, 136, 137, 164, 184,
166, 167, 168, 170, 177, 181, 182, 184, 218, 219, 222, 224, 227, 228, 235, 238,
189, 190, 191, 193, 197, 200, 202, 203, 240, 245
204, 209, 212, 215, 216, 243 wind energy, 76, 138