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Department of Civil Engineering

College of Engineering
University of Sulaimani

Subject: Building Construction

Course Book – Year 2
Lecturer's name Zana Abdulla Aziz
Academic Year: 2019/2020
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Course Book
1.Course title Building construction
2.lecturer in charge M. Zana Abdulla Aziz
3.Department/ College Civil engineering Engineering
4.Contact Email: [email protected]
Tel:
5. Time (in hours) per week Theory: 3
6. Office hours Availability of the lecturer during the week
7. Course code
8. Teacher's academic profile
9. Keywords
10.Course overview:
Materials are essential elements which are used to construct a building. But
materials could not be turned into structures without a method of construction (safe
and economic).The main purpose of this course is to provide the students with the
essential or the principal information which they need in the construction of building
and as firm foundation to easy understanding other subjects in relation.
This course presents the basic concepts of techniques of building construction,
mainly by means of drawings illustrating typical construction details, processes and
concepts. I have chosen this method because it reflects the primary means of
communication on site between building designer and building contractor the
construction drawing or detail.
All buildings have the same components such as foundation, walls, floors and
roof. In addition, we have to decorate them with plaster, paint, etc. to make them
aesthetically beautiful. These items of building works are called civil works.
The important parts of an ordinary building are as follows: Foundation, Plinth,
Walls and columns, Floors, Lintels and Sills, Roof, Doors and windows, Stairs and lifts,
Finishing work (plastering and painting) , Building services , Fencing and external
works.
11. Course Objectives:
The objective of this course continues to be to guide construction engineers in a
manner that will attain the best possible results. It is believed that the material
presented is comprehensive enough to serve as the basic text for a variety of
construction courses.
As building activities take place all around us all the time, the subject of Building
Construction should ideally be taught not as a long list of information, but to act as a
stimulant to the students for the observation of actual buildings already built as well
as the buildings that are built around them. The students should learn more from
observation and practice.
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12. Student's obligation

 Students must be present in the classroom at the time of lecture.
 Students must be participating in a lecture in the classroom.
 Students must be participating in quizzes and preparation a course work.
 Students must be participate in each semester exams, and he or she participate
in the final exams, and must be succeed in the average, not less than 50%.
 Students must be obligate to all rules and orders in the classroom, which are
prepared by department.

13. Forms of teaching

For the purpose of teaching, I use the Data show, power point and white board.

14. Assessment scheme

Final grade (100%) will be composed of:
• 17% first Exam.
• 17% second Exam.
• 6% quizzes+ class work+ Home work
• 60% final Exam.

15. Student learning outcome:

This course on Building Construction is intended as a useful course for the junior
students in civil engineering.
The student must be learn from this course the following:
1- Stages of building construction starting from the purpose, land,
budgets……………up to construction.
2- The types of buildings, load bearing, non-load bearing, and cast in place,
precast, pre-stress……..
3- How to implement earth works manually and mechanically.
4- How to manage the presence of water in foundation.
5- Types of foundations.
6- How to construct masonry walls (block, stone and brick).
7- What is meant by beam, column and lintel, how to be constructed and their
types?
8- Types of floors and walls and types of their finishing and their execution
methods.
9- What are arches? Their types and materials (stones, bricks and concrete).
10- What is dampness? Way of prevention, materials to be used.
11- The meaning, types and locations of joints in building.
12- The ways of moving between floors of building or between different levels.
13- Types of doors and windows.
14- A general idea about pre-cast buildings.
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16. Course Reading List and References :

 Building Construction by W.B Makay
 Building construction illustrated by Francis D.K. Ching.
 The construction of building by R.BARRY
 Building construction by Dr. B.C.Punmia
 Building construction by S.KSHARMA
 Construction teqnology by S.S. Ataev
 ‫المباني انشاء‬ ‫ زھیر ساكو‬- ‫لیفون ارتین‬
 ‫المباني انشاء‬ ‫عاطف السھیري‬

17. The Topics: Lecturer's name

 Chapter One 2 weeks
1.1 Type of Building
1.2 Earthwork
•Subject overview: This chapter contain types of buildings, such as
load bearing walls, frame buildings, steel structures. Also
excavation of footing and how it could be implemented either
manually or using machine and finally to control and removal of
ground water.
•Subject objectives: The object of this chapter to have a clear idea
about the stages of building construction, the different types of
buildings, possible and location of reinforcement, types of
machines used in excavation and how to select the most appropriate
and selecting the most suitable method for dewatering.

 Chapter Two 3 weeks

2.1 Footing and Foundation
2.2 Pile and Piling
• Subject overview: This chapter contains almost all types of
foundations with their reinforcement such as wall footing, spread,
combined, continues, strip, raft and piles.
• Subject objectives: Giving the student the ability to select the
possible type of footing based on the load and type of building.
Comply with the given contract information to carry out the work
efficiently to the required specification.
3 weeks
 Chapter Three
3.1 Masonry work
3.2 Brick and Block works
3.3 Arches
3.4 Lintel and Sills
3.5 Damp proofing
• Subject overviews: This chapter contains types of masonry walls,
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classification of them according to many factors, how to construct

them safely and economically, types of bonds, slenderness ratio,
and factors to be taken in wall design. Erecting of masonry
structure. Main components of arches, stone, brick. As well as
construction of arch. What are lintels, their types?
What is dampness? Sources and solutions with the suitable
material.
• Subject objectives: The object of this chapter to learn about
difference between stone, block and brick work. The location of
cavity wall. What type of bond you chose in brick wall.
To have sufficient information about arches and their places, type
of stresses on it. How to erect masonry wall over an opening by
using lintel (cast in place concrete, precast or steel) and how to
cover the lintel.
To be familiar with types of damp proof materials and to design the
required solution for any damping problem before and after
construction.

 Chapter Four
4.1 Floors and roofs 2 weeks
4.2 beams
4.3 Columns
4.4 Truss and Steel works
• Subject overviews:
This chapter contains floors and their types.
What are beams and columns? Their reinforcement and the way of
placing reinforcement. Tension and compression reinforcement for
beams whether they are placed using bend bars or cut-off bars.
Also the types of truss
• Subject objectives To give the student a clear idea about floors
and roof.
Function of beams, locations, load carried by them, reinforcement.
As a flexure member carrying tension and compression. Type of
columns, load carried by columns, reinforcement as they are
compression members, slender or non-slender column. And useful
information about truss and steel work

 Chapter Five
5.1 Finishing wall and ceiling
5.2 Means of moving between levels 3weeks
5.3 Stairs
5.4 Joint in Buildings
5.5 Doors and Window
• Subject overviews: Explaining the several materials used for wall
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and floor finishing such as gypsum plastering, tiles, wood, cement

plastering, brick ,plastic……..(and their specification)
How to move between two different levels in building? Using
stairs, ramps, lifts and electrical stairs. Different types of stairs.
Types of joints in building, roads and their locations as well as
specification of joint and material used to fill in.
Explaining types of materials used for doors and windows,
specification of each type.
• Subject objectives: Selection of suitable type of finishing
according to type and function of building.
To select the suitable type of moving between two floors or
different levels.
To select the correct type of joint which a building needs to prevent
cracking due to temperature and also the right location of joint
when casting of concrete stop suddenly.
Selection of suitable type of door and window according to
material.

 Chapter Six
6.1 Forms and Scaffoldings 2 weeks
6.2 Pre-cast Units and construction
• Subject overviews:
What is meant by forms, form types (timber, steel…),
specifications, slab form, beam form, column form, stair form and
wall form.
What is scaffolding? Their types and erection.
What is pre-cast unit and construction
• Subject objectives:
To be able to select or refuse any form which is not according to
specification.

18. Practical Topics (If there is any)

19. Examinations:

20. Extra notes:

21. Peer review
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
MR. ZANA A. AZIZ
BSC. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
MSC. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
 Course work
• Materials are essential elements which are
used to construct a building. But materials
could not be turned into structures without a
method of construction (safe and
economic).The main purpose of this course is
to provide the students with the essential or
the principal information which they need in
the construction of building and as firm
foundation to easy understanding other
subjects in relation.
2
• Theo. hr: 3
• Units: 6
• Term: Abet(Courses)

Grading: Final grade (100%) will be composed of

• 34% Mid Term. 1.5hours
• 6% quizzes+ class work
• 60% final Exam. 3 hours

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The student must be learn from this course the following:
1. Stages of building construction starting from the purpose, land,
budgets……………up to construction.
2. The types of buildings, load bearing, non load bearing, and cast in place, precast,
pre-stress……..
3. How to implement earth works manually and mechanically.
4. How to manage the presence of water in foundation.
5. Types of foundations.
6. How to construct masonry walls (block, stone and brick).
7. What is meant by beam, column and lintel, how to be constructed and their
types.
8. Types of floors and walls and types of their finishing and their execution
methods.
9. What are arches? Their types and materials (stones, bricks and concrete).
10. What is dampness? Way of prevention, materials to be used.
11. The meaning, types and locations of joints in building.
12. The ways of moving between floors of building or between different levels.
13. Types of doors and windows.
14. A general idea about pre-cast buildings.

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 Main references
1 Building Construction by W.B Makay

2 Building construction illustrated by Francis D.K. Ching.

3 The construction of building by R.BARRY

4 Building construction by Dr. B.C.Punmia

5 Building construction by S.KSHARMA

6 Construction teqnology by S.S. Ataev

7 -
8

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• Subjects:
• Type of Building
• Earthwork
• Footing and Foundation
• Piles and piling
• Brick and Block works
• Masonry Works
• Trusses and steel Works
• Forms and Scaffoldings
• Floors and Roofs
• Beams
• Columns
• Arches
• Lintels and sills
• Damp proofing
• Finishing of walls and Ceilings
• Doors and Window
• Means of moving between levels
• Stairs
• Joint in Buildings
• Pre-cast Units and construction

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 Building Construction
• It is the subject which describes the method of
using building materials in the construction of
structures satisfying strength safely and
economy.

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 Development of building construction
• -Good design
• - Election of appropriate materials and work
to develop them and seek to find alternatives
better than traditional materials used.
• -Good implementation, programming and
follow the means of control and quality
control

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 Stage of building construction
1-Project purpose and function
2-Detail the requirements of the project
3-Engineering design & tendering document
4-Implementation:-
4-1- contract-----Lump sum (turnkey)
Unit price
Cost plus fee
4-2- Direct
5-Maintenance

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 Types of building
a-According to the method of implementation
(or according to construction technique):-
1-Construction at site
2-Pre-cast construction ( pre-fabricated)
b-According to structure design ( or according to
structures type):-
1- Frame structure
2- Load bearing
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Types of building

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Structures:-
• Building
• Bridge (truss, Arch, frame, Box girder, steel girder,
suspension)
• Water retaining
• Dams
• Shell roof
• Earth retaining
• Hydraulic structure
• Tunnel
• Tension structures
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 Types of structural elements:-
1-columns ( Compression member).

2-Beams (Bending).

3-In-plane e.g.: walls (contained vertical load).

4-shells ( axial + bending + shear ).

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SITE PREPARATION AND SETTING OUT OF
WORK
• The first work to be taken before the actual construction of a
building is checking the dimensions of its boundaries as soon as
the site is made available for construction.

•Any difference that may be found regarding front, rear or side

dimensions should be reconciled before the work is started.

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2.2 Site Layout
The site layout for construction consists of the layouts
of access roads, sheds, etc.
They should be made as follows:
Access roads:
•An examination of the site drawing will determine the
best layout for access roads.
•Wherever possible, access to the site for Lorries and
carts should be the shortest and capable of carrying
materials either to a central place or various places of
work, as may be desired.
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Sheds:
•A study of the site drawing will indicate where
weather-proof sheds must be erected for storage of
materials such as cement, lime and other perishable
materials
•If the cement stores have to be large, they should be
provided with two separate doors, one at each end,
one for accepting delivery and the other for issue of
materials.

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 2.3 Site Clearing

1.Surface cleaning of grass, trees, hillocks, etc.

2.Cleaning of obstructions which may be above or

below the ground level such as old foundations, old
drainage works, old septic tanks

3.Cleaning of obstructions belonging to other

organizations such as drainage or water supply lines,
underground electric or telephone cables

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2.4 Enclosing the Site

The building site is enclosed firstly for safety of the

public. If any person falls into an excavation made for
the building without an enclosure, the supervisor will
be put to blame, whereas if a person falls into an
excavation in an enclosed area, that person is a
trespasser. Secondly, by enclosing the site, it becomes
more secure from any theft. We should also ensure that
the methods of storing of materials are safe.

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2.5 Water Supply for Construction
• Water is an important building material.
• Cost of water comes to about one to two percent of
the cost of civil works
• If groundwater is available, it should be tested
suitably for various uses.
• If no groundwater is available and water connection
can be obtained from the municipal authorities, the
pipes should be so laid that they will become part of
the permanent water supply system after completion
of the building.

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• If suitable water has to be brought by Lorries,
temporary or permanent water storage tanks
should be built for storing sufficient quantity
of water for each day.

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 2.6 Electrical Supply

Electricity supply is necessary for building works. The points

to be observed are as follows:
1. Cables should be of good quality and suitably supported.
2. The switch board, etc. must be properly enclosed and
capable of being locked.
3. The switch board should be about 1.5 m above the ground
level.

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 2.7 Protection of Existing Service Lines
•Provision should be made to protect water, electricity,
telephone and other public distribution lines which may be
running through the property and be affected by foundation
works.
•We should mark all the existing service lines so that workers
can identify them and can be careful not to disturb them
during the construction.
•Sometimes, pipe ducts or concrete coverings are provided to
protect these services if they cannot be removed from the site
to other alternative places.

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 2.8 Initial Checks on Drawings
It is very important that before commencing actual setting
out of the building on the ground, the following checks
should be made on the drawing from which the layout is to
be carried out:
1.The sum of the intermediate dimensions should match with
those of the overall dimensions.
2.The levels of various constructions (such as ground level
with respect to road level, floor level, etc.) are clearly shown
in the drawing.
3.Check whether the proposed building will actually fit into
the plot with the mandatory distances specified by the
municipal authority.
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 2.9 Setting Out Of Buildings
Setting out of buildings consists of the following two
operations:
1.The first operation is the setting out of center lines. This
means establishing the centers of the walls in case of a
building with load-bearing walls, or the center of columns in
case of a framed building.
2.The second operation is the setting out of trenches or
establishing the excavation lines for proceeding with the
excavation.

We will separately describe the procedures used for the

buildings with walls and that for the framed buildings.
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 2.9.1 Setting out Centre Lines for Bearing Walls
Step 1
•Establish a benchmark from which all levels for the
various parts of the building can be established and
which will not be disturbed during the building
operations.
•This can be done by driving down a 50 mm x 50 mm
angle 2 m long or a steel rod of suitable diameter and 2
m length in a previously dug hole so as to project about
10 cm from the ground level and then concreting the
base to a suitable depth below the ground level to form
a pedestal around it.

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Step 2
•The second step is to mark a baseline from
which all dimensions can be measured.
•The center line of the longest outer wall of the
building is usually taken as the baseline. This is
marked with respect to the boundary.

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Step 3
•The third step is to start from the baseline and mark the
corner points of the center line of walls of a building by
means of 50 mm x 50 mm wooden posts driven firmly to the
ground projecting 25 to 50 mm above the ground. A nail or
saw cut is placed on the peg to indicate the exact center
point. Setting dimensions are measured with steel tapes.
•It is important that the 90 degree angles at corners are
measured by using a builder's square or by using the 3:4:5
principles or a theodolite. Check whether all the dimensions
of the diagonals tally.

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Step 4
•Using the corner points, transfer the center line to the
ground with dry lime by stretching lines between the
pegs.

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 2.9.2 Setting Out of Trenches for
Excavation of Bearing Walls
•Having set up the center line of corners and checked
the dimensions of the building on the ground, we
proceed to set out the lines for trenches using the
center line already established.
•The aim of setting out trenches is to mark the
direction and width of excavations to be carried out
and also to mark the width of the wall to be built.

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This is carried out by using pegs or by profile boards. These
are fixed to the ground some distance away from the exaction
on which the excavation and wall boundaries can be marked
as shown in Fig. 2.2. These are set up at least 2 m clear of the
excavation as shown in Fig. 2.2. The profile boards may be
masonry or timber. The center line, wall width and trench
width are marked on the profile board. The trench width is
marked on the ground by lime powder after stretching strings
between the profile boards.

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 2.9.3 Setting out a Framed Building
For setting out the foundation of a framed building
also, we first establish the benchmark and set out the
center line of columns. This is usually carried out by a
theodolite as the column center lines are usually
marked on a grid as shown in Fig. 2.3—one axis is
marked as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. and the other as A, B, C, D,
etc.

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In this case, we first fix all the peripheral points as shown in
Fig. 2.3. We first fix point 4 with respect to the boundaries of
the plot. Then we station a theodolite at point 4 and fix F4, E4
to B4. Turn 90° and fix A3 to A1. Secondly, fix theodolite at A1
and fix B1 to F1. Thirdly, station theodolite at F and fix F2 to
F4 (check F4). The internal points can then be fixed easily by
theodolite or with stretched lines. Once the grid has been set
out, profile boards can be fixed clear of excavation work to
carry the excavation of the footings.

28 1:46 AM
2.10 METHODS TO DETERMINE DEPTH OF EXCAVATION
•For construction of foundations and sewer drains, the depth
of the base of the excavation is usually set out by means of
sight rails and boning rod (also called traveller) as shown in
Fig. 2.4. In foundation, construction of the base is to be
leveled and for drain construction, it is to be laid to the
required gradient. This operation is fully dealt with in
surveying.
•Another method that can be used for leveling of foundation
is the use of a water level. A plastic tube is filled with water
and is used as a water level. First the required depth of
excavation is excavated in one place. In all the other sites, the
level is determined by means of the water level with
reference to this point.
• One
29 more method is the use of the traditional leveling 1:46staff.
AM
30 1:46 AM
 Determination of depth of excavation by
boning rod or traveller and profile boards:
1. Strip foundation, 2. Column footing.

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 Earth work

1-excavation
2- Earth filling
Both are done by:-
1-Hand (man power)
2- Mechanically (machines)
Excavation for footing

1
 Excavation Support

On a spacious site, an excavation can be benched. When excavating close

to property lines or nearby buildings, some form of slope support, such as
sheeting, is used to retain the soil around the excavation.

2
Such construction can take many forms depending on.
1- The qualities of the soil.
2- Depth of excavation.
3- Equipment and preferences of the contractor.
4- Proximity of surrounding buildings.
5- Level of the water table.

3
 Shoring of excavation for trench

Strut and poling board

4
 Strut, waling and poling board

5
 Strut, poling board and sheets

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 Shoring

The most common types of slope support, or shoring,

are:
• soldier beams and lagging,
• sheet piling.

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• With soldier beams and lagging, steel columns
called H-piles or soldier beams are driven
vertically into the earth at small intervals around
an excavation site before digging begins. As
earth is removed, the lagging, usually consisting
of heavy wood planks, is placed against the
flanges of the columns to retain the soil outside
the excavation

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Soldier beams and lagging. Lagging planks are added at
the bottom as excavation proceeds. The drill rig is
boring a hole for a tieback to brace a soldier beam
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• Sheet piling or sheeting consists of vertical
planks of wood, steel, or precast concrete that
are placed tightly against one another and driven
into the earth to form a solid wall before
excavation begins

15
 Steel sheet pile

Drilling tieback holes for a wall of steel sheet

piling. Notice the completed tieback connections
to the horizontal waler in the foreground. The
hole in the top of each piece of sheet piling
16 allows it to be lifted by a crane.
Where slope support turns the corner in this excavation and the soil can be sloped at
a lesser angle, less expensive shotcrete takes the place of soldier beams and lagging

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 Bracing

Both rakers and crosslot

bracing, especially the latter,
are a hindrance to the
excavation process. A
clamshell bucket on a crane
must be used to remove the
earth between the braces,
which is much less efficient
and more costly than
removing soil with a shovel
dozer or backhoe in an open
excavation.

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 Where subsoil conditions permit,
tiebacks can be used instead of
braces to support the sheeting
while maintaining an open
excavation. At each level of
walers, holes are drilled at
intervals through the sheeting
and the surrounding soil into
rock or a stratum of stable soil.
Steel cables or tendons are then
inserted into the holes, grouted
to anchor them to the rock or
soil, and stretched tight with
hydraulic jacks (posttensioned)
before they are fastened to the
walers

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 Ground water control:
• 1-Pumping from simple sump

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2-Well point out side excavation

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An excavation is kept dry despite the close proximity of a large body of water.
Two dewatering pumps are visible in the foreground. A pair of header pipes
and numerous well points can be seen surrounding the excavation.

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 Well point dewatering.
Closely spaced vertical well points
connect to the larger-diameter
header pipe.

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3- Coffer dam

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Machines used for excavation:
1-power shovel
It use to excavation and loaded soil with large amount
It is used when:
- The depth of excavation is large relatively
- The soil is cemented gravel cannot excavated easily

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 Hydraulic shovel.

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2-back hoe
It use to excavation and loaded
It is used for narrow excavation such as; long continuous
wall foundation, channel have perpendicular sides and
especially sewage.

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 Hydraulic excavator.

Mini-excavator

Telescoping-boom hydraulic excavator

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3- Dragline
It use to excavation and loaded
It is used when the soil is cohesive less or submerged in
ground water.

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4-clamshell
It uses to elevate the excavated soil vertically.

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5-Tractor shovel
It use to loaded soil

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6-Motor grader
It use for beddings the soil or crushed stone, also for
leveling the surface

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7-Bulldozer
The main functions of a bulldozer are:-
1. Shallow excavations up to 300mm deep either on level ground
or side hill cutting.
2. Clearance of shrubs and small trees.
3. Clearance of trees by using raised mould blade as a pusher
arm.
4. Acting as a towing tractor.
5. Acting as a pusher to scraper machines

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8- Scraper
Scrapers are capable of excavating, hauling, and
dumping material over medium- to long haul distance

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Earth fill
Excavation machines are used for earth fill also.
Earth fill requires compaction which done by:
1-hand rammers
2- Mechanical rammers (compactors)
3-Rollers------Steel wheel rollers
Sheep's foot rollers
Rubber tire rollers
These may be with vibrators

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 vibratory plate compactor.
Steel wheel rollers

Rubber tire rollers Sheep's foot rollers

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CHAPTER FOUR 
Footing and Foundation 
It is convenient to think of a building as consisting of three major parts:  
The superstructure, which is the aboveground portion of the building; the substructure, 
which is the habitable below‐ground portion; and the foundations, which are the 
components of the building that transfer its loads into the soil.(Fig 3.1) 
 

Figure 3.1 
Superstructure, substructure, and foundation. The 
substructure in this example contains two levels of 
basements, and the foundation consists of bell caissons. 
(In some buildings, the substructure and foundation may 
be partly or wholly the same.) 

 
 
 
There are two basic types of foundations: shallow and deep. 
 Shallow foundations are those that transfer the load to the earth at the base of the 
column or wall of the substructure.  
Deep foundations, either piles or caissons, penetrate through upper layers of 
incompetent soil in order to transfer the load to competent bearing soil or rock deeper 
within the earth. Shallow foundations are generally less expensive than deep ones and 
can be used where suitable soil is found at the level of the bottom of the substructure, 
whether this be several feet or several stories below the ground surface. 
 
Shallow Foundations 
Most shallow foundations are simple concrete footings. A column footing is a square 
block of concrete, with or without steel reinforcing, that accepts the concentrated load 
placed on it from above by a building column and spreads this load across an area of soil 
large enough that the allowable bearing stress of the soil is not exceeded. 
 
Depth of footing depends on: 
1‐ Type of soil and its strength (Bearing capacity). 
2‐ Depth of frost action. 
3‐ Level of ground water. 
4‐ Present of basement and services. 
5‐ Present of adjacent building. 
6‐ Problem of clay soil swelling and shrinkage. 
Footings are made from: 
1‐ Plain concrete. 
2‐ Reinforced concrete. 
3‐ Steel grillage. 
 
Types of footing 
The primary factors that affect the choice of a foundation type for a building are: 
• Subsurface soil and groundwater conditions 
• Structural requirements, including foundation loads, building configurations, and depth 
Secondary factors that may be important include: 
• Construction methods, including access and working space 
• Environmental factors, including noise, traffic, and disposal of earth and water 
• Building codes and regulations 
• Proximity of adjacent property and potential impacts on that property 
• Time available for construction 
• Construction risks 
 
1‐ Wall footing 
 
 

Fig.3.2 

A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous 
strip of concrete that serves the same 
function for a loadbearing wall 

If the width of footing greater than 
(t1+2*t) for carry the load safely, we 
can solve this as follow: 
1‐Use the steps in load bearing wall or 
in concrete footing. 
2‐Increase the thickness of footing. 
3‐Use the steel bars without increase 
in thickness of footing. 

 
 
  
 
  
Fig 3.3 
  Wall footing adjacent to another building 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 3.4 
Wall footing  

 
 

 
 Stepped footing 

Use this type of footing when the site of project sloped, and it cause the large depth of 
excavation and filling. When building on slopes, it is often necessary to step the footings 
to maintain the required depth of footing at all points around the building (Fig.3.5‐3.7). 

Fig. 3.5 
Longitudinal section for stepped footing 

Fig. 3.6 
Detail of the stepped in stepped footing 

Use more than one step, for very sloped site, such as Fig.3.7

Fig. 3.7 
Stepped footing in very sloped site 

 
 

2‐Strip footing (Trench footing) 
Use the strip footing as an alternative for wall footing in those sites which has high shear 
strength, and loaded the weight by surface friction between the footing sides and 
cohesive soil by which and soil bearing capacity  in bottom of footing. Usually use plain 
concrete (i.e.: without reinforcement) for strip footing. 

Advantage of strip footing: 
1‐Fast construction 
2‐Prevent of moving ground water from sides of footing and it work as damp proofing. 
3‐Use as deep beam to reduce the differential settlement and resistance the bending 
moment which exist in large void and concentrated load, for this purpose add the small 
amount of steel bar. 
 Fig. 3.8 
Section of strip footing 

 
 
3‐Isolated footing (Single footing) 
Use this type of footing to transfer concentrated load from column or pier to the earth 
(Fig. 3.9), it's make from plain concrete or reinforced concrete or steel section (grillage 
foundation) (Fig. 3.13), usually in square or rectangular form . Pedestal use with isolated 
footing when has large area, to distribute the load on footing by stages and reduce 
thickness of footing (3.12). 
Tie beams are in the same elevation with the footing or on it, better than other elevation 
(Fig. 3.11) 
 
 
 
 
 

Fig. 3.9 
Isolated footing 

 
 
 Fig. 3.10 
Plan and section of isolated footing and 
reinforced concrete tie 

 
 
 

Fig. 3.11 
Form of tie with isolated footing 

Fig. 3.12 
Isolated footing with pedestal 

 
 
 
Fig. 3.13 
Isolated grillage footing, constructed 
from steel section covered by concrete 

             
   
4‐Combined footing 
Footings cannot legally extend beyond a property line, even for a building built tightly 
against it. If the outer toe of the footing were simply cut off at the property line, the 
footing would not be symmetrically loaded by the column or wall and would tend to 
rotate and fail. Combined footings and cantilever footings solve this problem by tying the 
footings for the outside row of columns to those of the next row in such a way that any 
rotational tendency is neutralized (Fig. 3.14).  
 
Fig.3.14 
a‐Footing under two columns loaded 
by two equal loads. 
b,  c,  d‐Footing  under  two  columns 
loaded by two unequal loads. 
e,  f‐  Footing  under  two  columns 
loaded by two loads and adjacent to 
property line

Illustrated combined footing and 
cantilever footing  

 
 

5‐Cantilever footing 
Cantilever footing constructed from two "single footings" tied by reinforced concrete 
cantilever beam.  The loads transfer from external column which has asymmetrical 
"single footing" by cantilever beam to the base of internal column which has symmetrical 
single footing (fig. 3.15). 
Used cantilever beam which connected by two single footings to transfer the load from 
external column to this two single footings (fig.3.16). 
 
 Fig. 3.15 
Plan and section of cantilever footing 

 
 

Fig. 3.16 
Plan and section of cantilever 
footing 

 
 
6‐Contineous footing 
Where there is a wide spread of pad foundations to a framed building due to the low 
bearing capacity of the subsoil or the close spacing of columns, such that the edge of 
adjacent separate foundations would be close together, it may be economical and 
convenient to form one continuous column foundation, as illustrated in (Fig. 3.17 and Fig 
3.18). This in effect is a reinforced concrete strip foundation supporting concentrated 
loads. 
 
 
Fig. 3.17 
Plan and section of Continuous 
footing and tie beam 

 
 

Fig. 3.18 
Plan and section of continuous 
footing without tie beams 

 
 

7‐Mat (raft) foundation 
In situations where the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is low in relation to the 
weight of the building, column footings may become large enough that it is more 
economical to merge them into a single mat or raft foundation that supports the entire 
building.  
A raft foundation is continuous in two directions, usually covering an area equal to or 
greater than the base of a building or structure. Raft foundations are used for lightly 
loaded structures on soils with poor bearing capacity or where variations in soil 
conditions necessitate a considerable spread of the load, for heavier loads in place of 
isolated foundations, where differential settlements are significant and where mining 
subsidence is likely. 
The three types of reinforced concrete raft foundations are: 
1‐Solid slab raft 
2‐Beam and slab raft 
3‐Cellular raft 
Fig. 3.19 
 Beam and slab raft foundation 
 Solid slab raft foundation
8‐Buoyancy foundation 
Where the bearing capacity of the soil is low and settlement must be carefully controlled, 
a floating foundation is sometimes used. A floating foundation is similar to a mat 
foundation, but is placed beneath a building at a depth such that the weight of the soil 
removed from the excavation is equal to the weight of the building above. One story of 
excavated soil weighs about the same as five to eight stories of superstructure, 
depending on the density of the soil and the construction of the building (fig. 3.20). 
 
 
  Fig.3.20 
A cross section through a building with a floating foundation. The 
building weighs approximately the same as the soil excavated for the 
substructure, so the stress in the soil beneath the building is the same 
after construction as it was before. 

 
 

Deep foundation 
They are used when: 
1‐ The soil is weak, cannot bearing the loads by using the other types of 
footing. 
    2‐ Clay soil which has seasonal swell and shrinkage. 
    3‐ The structure at water level. 
4‐ Deep excavation cannot be achieved for other types of footing because 
of adjacent building.  
5‐ Required for balance tensile and lateral force. 
6‐ Used for earthquake if stiff foundation required. 
7‐ Ground water level is too high. Other type of foundation cannot be 
excavated. 
8‐ Resistance for lateral force caused by pushing of soil or water, usually 
used steel sheet pile. 
 
9‐piers 
A caisson, or drilled pier (Fig.3.21), is similar to a column footing in that it spreads the 
load from a column over a large enough area of soil that the allowable stress in the soil is 
d d d ff f l f h d h h f
unsatisfactory soil beneath the substructure of a building until it reaches a more suitable 
stratum. 
 A caisson is constructed by drilling or hand‐digging a hole, belling (flaring) the hole out at 
the bottom as necessary to achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole with 
concrete. Large auger drills (Fig.2.22) are used for drilling caissons; hand excavation is 
used only if the soil is too full of boulders for the drill. A temporary cylindrical steel casing 
is usually lowered around the drill as it progresses to support the soil around the hole. 
When a firm bearing stratum is reached, the bell, if required, is created at the bottom of 
the shaft either by hand excavation or by a special belling bucket on the drill. The bearing 
surface of the soil at the bottom of the hole is then inspected to be sure it is of the 
anticipated quality, and the hole is filled with concrete, withdrawing the casing as the 
concrete rises (Fig.3.21). Reinforcing is seldom used in the concrete except near the top 
of the caisson, where it joins the columns of the superstructure. 
Caissons are large, heavy‐duty foundation components. Their shaft diameters range from 
(460 mm) up to (2.4 m) or more. Belled caissons are practical only where the bell can be 
excavated in a cohesive soil (such as clay) that can retain its shape until concrete is 
poured. Where groundwater is present, the temporary steel casing can prevent flooding 
of the caisson hole during its construction. But where the bearing stratum is permeable, 
water may be able to fill the hole from below and caisson construction may not be 
practical. 
A socketed caisson (Fig3.23) is drilled into rock at the bottom rather than belled. Its 
bearing capacity comes not only from its end bearing, but from the frictional forces 
between the sides of the caisson and the rock as well.  
 

Fig.3.21 
Construction steps for "end bearing 
caisson" which has large diameter 

 
 
Fig.3.22
  
Fig.3.23 
Deep foundations, Caissons are concrete cylinders 
poured into drilled holes. They reach through weaker 
soil (light shading) to bear on competent soil beneath.  
The end bearing caisson at the left is belled as shown 
when additional bearing capacity is required.  
The socketed caisson is drilled into a hard stratum and 
transfers its load primarily by friction between the soil 
or rock and the sides of the caisson.  
Piles are driven into the earth. 
 End bearing piles act in the same way as caissons. 
The friction pile derives its load‐carrying capacity from 
friction between the soil and the sides of the pile. 

 
 
10‐Piles 
A pile (Fig.3.23) is distinguished from a caisson by being forcibly driven into the earth 
rather than drilled and poured. It may be used where non‐cohesive soils, subsurface 
water conditions, or excessive depth of bearing strata make caissons impractical. 
 
Types of pile according to load transfer: 
1‐ End bearing pile: It is a pile driven until its tip encounters firm resistance from a 
suitable bearing stratum such as rock, dense sands, or gravels.  
End bearing piles work essentially the same as caissons and are used on sites 
where a firm bearing stratum can be reached by the piles, sometimes at depths of 
150 feet (45 m) or more. Each pile is driven “to refusal,” the point at which little 
additional penetration is made with continuing blows of the hammer, indicating 
that the pile is firmly embedded in the bearing layer. 
2‐ Friction pile: It is a pile driven only into softer material, without encountering a firm 
bearing layer, it may still develop a considerable load‐carrying capacity through 
frictional resistance between the sides of the pile and the soil through which it is 
driven. 
Friction piles work best in silty, clayey, and sandy soils. They are driven either to a 
predetermined depth or until a certain level of resistance to hammer blows is 
encountered, rather than to refusal as with end bearing piles. 
3‐ Combined pile: it is a pile which rely on a combination of end bearing and friction 
for their strength 
  
 Fig.3.24 
(a) Friction pile 
(b) Bearing pile 
(c) Combined pile 

 
 
Piles are usually driven closely together in clusters that contain 2 to 25 piles each. The 
piles in each cluster are later joined at the top by a reinforced concrete pile cap, which 
distributes the load of the column or wall above among the piles (Fig.3.24). 
 
 

Fig.3.25 
Clusters of two, three, four, and nine piles with their concrete caps, viewed from above.  
The caps are reinforced to transmit column loads equally into all the piles in the cluster, 
but the reinforcing steel has been omitted here for the sake of clarity. 
And an elevation view of a pile cap, column, and floor slab. 

 
 
Types of pile according to Material: 
Piles may be made of: timber, steel, concrete, and various combinations of these 
materials 
 

 
1‐Steel pile 
Two forms of steel piles are used, H‐piles and pipe piles.  
H‐piles are special hot‐rolled, wide‐flange sections, 8 to 14 inches (200 to 355 mm) deep, 
which are approximately square in cross section. They are used mostly in end bearing 
applications. 
Steel pipe piles have diameters of 8 to 16 inches (200 to 400 mm). They may be driven 
with the lower end either open or closed with a heavy steel plate. An open pile is easier 
to drive than a closed one, but its interior must be cleaned of soil and inspected before 
being filled with concrete, where as a closed pile can be inspected and concreted 
immediately after driving. 
2‐Concrete pile 
Precast concrete piles are square, octagonal, or round in section, and in large sizes often 
have open cores to allow inspection (Fig). Most are pre stressed, but some for smaller 
buildings are merely reinforced. Typical cross‐sectional dimensions range from 10 to 16 
inches (250 to 400 mm). 
 Advantages of precast piles include 
 high load capacity,  
 an absence of corrosion or decay problems,  
 In most situations, a relative economy of cost. 
Precast piles must be handled carefully to avoid bending and cracking before installation. 
Splices between lengths of precast piling can be made effectively with mechanical 
fastening devices that are cast into the ends of the sections. 

Fig.3.27 
Precast concrete piles have square and 
round cross section 
Site cast concrete pile is made by driving a hollow steel shell into the ground and filling it 
with concrete. The primary reason to use site cast concrete piles is their economy. 
 
Fig.3.28 
Steps in the construction 
"Site‐cast concrete pile", 
method of driven from the 
bottom of the tube is using by 
concrete plug. 
 (a) A charge of a very low‐
moisture concrete mix is 
inserted into the bottom of 
the steel drive tube at the 
surface of the ground and 
compacted into a sealing plug 
with repeated blows of a drop 
hammer.  
(b) As the drop hammer drives 
the sealing plug into the 
ground, the drive tube is 
pulled along by the friction 
between the plug and the 
tube. 
   (c) When the desired depth is 
reached, the tube is held and 
a bulb of concrete is formed 
by adding small charges of 
concrete and driving the 
concrete out into the soil with 
the drop hammer. The bulb 
provides an increased bearing 
area for the pile and 
strengthens the bearing 
stratum by compaction.  
(d, e) provided the steel  
reinforcement then The shaft 
is formed of additional 
compacted concrete as the 
tube is withdrawn 
 (f) Sometime during pouring 
of concrete   the gap is formed 
these gaps decrease the 
strength of the shaft
CHAPTER FIVE 
Content: 
4.1 Brick and Block works 
4.2 Masonry work 
4.3 Arches 
4.4 Lintel and Sills 
 
Brick work  
The systematic arrangement of laying bricks and bonding together with mortar to form a 
unified mass which can transmit the superimposed load without failure is termed as brick 
masonry. 
Since bricks are: Light in weight, uniform in size and easier in handling; they are very 
convenient construction material for the structure. 
 
Bricks: these are walling units within a length of 375 mm, a width of 225 mm and a height 
of 112.5 mm. The usual size of bricks in common use is length 230 mm, width 115 mm 
and height 80 mm. like blocks they must be laid in a definite pattern or bond if they are 
to form a structural wall. Bricks are usually made from clay or from sand and lime and are 
available in a wide variety of strengths, types, textures, colors and special shaped bricks. 
 

 
 
Types of brick according to material: 
1‐ clay brick 
1.1‐ adobe  
1.2‐ Stabilizer soil bricks 
1.3‐ usual sun‐baked bricks 
Brick Manufacturing: 
a‐ soft mud process Clay mixed with (20‐30 percent water) 
b‐ stiff mud process Clay mixed with (12 to 15 percent water) 
c‐ dry‐press process Clay mixed with (up to 10 percent water)  

After molding by any of these three processes, the bricks are dried for 1 or 2 days in a 
low‐temperature dryer kiln. They are then ready for transformation into their final form 
by a process known as fi ring or burning. 
Engineering properties, and specification: 
a‐ shape, dimensions and type of product  
Common dimension (230x115x80) accuracy for each dimension %3 

Fig.1  
Type of brick according to shape 

 
 
b‐ porosity: by increasing porosity (density is decreasing , compressive 
strength is decreasing, absorption is increasing and thermal insulation is 
increasing) 

c‐ compressive strength 
Minimum compressive strength (MPa) 
Brick class  Degree Average of compressive strength for ten brick
1 20
A 
2  16 
1 13
B 
2  11 
1 9
C 
2  7 
A: it uses for load bearing wall, and foundation, and exposure for 
corrosion by environmental factors 
B: it uses for load bearing wall, and non‐exposure for corrosion by 
environmental factors 
C: it uses for non‐load bearing wall (partitions), and non‐exposure for 
corrosion by environmental factors 
d‐ water absorption: by increasing water absorption(compressive strength is 
d i ffl i i i i ff h
 damage the finishing layers, and paint, and by freezing reduce the 
durability  of brick work). 
Maximum water absorption equal to %17 for class A , %22 for class B and 
%25 for class C 
e‐ efflorescence  
f‐ thermal insulation 
g‐ fire resistance 
1.4‐ refractory brick 
1.5‐ glazed brick 
2‐ Sand‐lime brick 
3‐ Concrete brick 
4‐ Glass brick 
 
To join the individual bricks together to produce a compact mass, a binding material is 
required. Mortars are used as binding materials in brick‐works. Following are the 
commonly used mortars:  
(1) Mud Mortar,  
(2) Lime Mortar,  
(3) Cement Mortar,  
(4) Lime‐Cement Mortar, 
(5) Cement‐Lime Mortar, 
 
The selection of mortar depends upon the: 
1‐ Type of finish desired, 
2‐ The superimposed load, 
3‐ The weathering agencies , 
4‐ The importance of the structure.  
 
For the construction of temporary buildings or structures, mud mortar is used and for 
important structures of permanent nature, the cement mortar is preferred.  
 
Definitions  
(1) Course: A complete layer of bricks laid on the same bed is known as course and its 
thickness is equal to the thickness of a brick Plus the thickness of one mortar joint.  
(2) Frogs: These are depressions provided in the face of the bricks; there are two reasons 
for the provision of frogs:  
(a) To form a key with mortar to prevent sliding of bricks on their beds.  
(b) To reduce the weight of the brick and hence economy in the cost of transport. 
 
 (3) Bed: The bottom surface of the brick when it is laid flat is known as bed (115 x240 
mm.).  
 
(4) Stretcher: The side surface of a brick visible in elevation when the brick is laid flat is 
known as stretcher (80x 240 mm).  
 

36 
 
(5) Header: The end surface of the brick when it is laid flat is known as header (80 x 115 
mm) 
 

Fig.2 
Brick laying 

 
(6) Arrises: The edges formed by the intersection of plane surfaces of a brick are known 
as arrises and in good quality bricks they are straight and sharp.  
 

Fig.3

 
 
(7) Perpends: These are vertical joints between bricks either in longitudinal or cross 
directions. They are also known as cross joints. 
 

Fig.4 

 
 
(8) Bed joints: The horizontal mortar joints between two successive courses are known as 
bed Joints.  
 
(9) Bat and closers: Standard bricks may be arranged in various ways to form walls, but in 
certain cases these bricks require to be reduced in size and altered in shape; this is 
achieved with the use of cutting tools. When a brick is cut to a reduced size it is known 
either as a “bat” or a “closer” according to its shape (Figs. 4.3 to 4.6) show the various 
“bats” and “closers”. 
 It may be observed that in the case of a bat the cut extends across the width of the 
standard brick while a closer generally has the cut extending from one header face to the 
other except in the “King closer” when it runs from a header face to a stretcher face
 

Fig.5 

 
 
(10) Quoin. The external corner or angle or a wall surface is known as quoin.  
 
(11) Facing, Backing and Hearting: The exposed surface of a wall or structure is known as 
facing; the internal surface of the wall or structure is known as backing and the portion in 
between the backing and facing is called as hearting or filling.  
 
(12) Lap: The horizontal distance between two perpends in two successive courses is 
known as lap. 
 
Types of wall 
1‐ Solid wall  
1.1‐ Load bearing wall 
1.2‐ Non‐load bearing wall (partition) 
 
2‐ cavity wall: these consist of an outer brick or block leaf or skin separated from an 
inner brick or block leaf or skin by an air space called a cavity. 
 These walls have better thermal insulation and weather resistance properties than 
a comparable solid brick or block wall and therefore are in general use for the 
enclosing walls of domestic buildings. 
 The two leaves of a cavity wall are tied together with wall ties at not less than the 
spacings given as (below). 
 The width of the cavity should be between 50 and 75mm unless vertical twist type 
ties are used at not more than the centers given as below when the cavity width 
can be between 75 and 300mm
 

 
 
 
Wall must be: 
1‐ Good appearance 
2‐ durable 
3‐ Properly built (good alignment horizontally and vertically, all joint filled,…etc.) 
 
The strength of brick work depends upon the: 
1‐ Type of brick: its strength, material, size, shape, etc…. 
2‐ Type of mortar: its strength, material, thickness, etc… 
3‐ Type of bond 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Brick bonding: 
Purposes of Brick Bonding:‐ 
1‐ Obtain maximum strength whilst distributing the loads to be carried throughout the 
wall, column or pier. 
2‐ Ensure lateral stability and resistance to side thrusts. 
3‐ Create an acceptable appearance. 
 
Type of bond: 
1‐ Heading bond 
In this type of bond, all the brick are laid as headers towards the face of wall. 
This is suitable for one‐brick thick walls and also used for construction of curved 
wall. It may be used for footing in foundations for better transverse load 
distribution. 

Fig.6 
Plan and elevation of  
Heading bond 

 
2‐ Stretching bond 
In such type of bond, all the bricks are laid with their lengths in the longitudinal direction 
of the wall. As only stretchers are visible in elevation, this is known as stretcher bond. 
This bond is only useful for half brick thick partition walls, some cavity wall, parapet, and 
fence. 

Fig.7 
Plan and elevation of 
Stretching bond 

 
3‐English bond 
In this type of bond, alternate course of stretchers and headers are laid. A queen closer is 
successive courses. This type of bond is very commonly used in all types of construction 
and it is very strong. 

Fig.8 
Plan, elevation and perspective of  
English bond (wall thickness= 1Brick) 

   
 
 
 
Fig.9 
Plan of English bond  
(Wall thickness=11/2 Brick)   

 
 
4‐Flemish bond 
When alternately stretchers and header are laid in each course, the arrangement is 
known as Flemish bond (i.e: all courses the same appearance).Appearance of this bond is 
better than the English bond.  
4.1‐Double Flemish bond 
 This type of bond presents the Flemish bond appearance both in the facing and backing. 

Fig.10 
Plan, elevation and perspective of  
Double Flemish bond (wall thickness= 1Brick) 

 
 

Fig.11 
Plan of Double Flemish bond (wall thickness= 1 1/2Brick 

Relative Merits and Demerits of English Bond and Double Flemish Bond: 
(1) English bond is more compact and stronger than Double Flemish bond for the walls 
having thickness greater than 11/2 bricks. 
(2) Double Flemish bond presents pleasing and better appearance in the facing.  
(3) In the construction of Double Flemish bond good workmanship and careful 
supervision is required. 
(4) Double Flemish bond is economical than English bond as a number of bats are 
4.2‐Single Flemish bond 
 This bond has the advantages of both the types of the bond, i.e., English bond as 
well as Double Flemish bond.  
 In this type of bond, the facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond and the filling 
as well as backing consist of English bond in each course.  
 The minimum thickness of the wall for this bond is 11/2 bricks. 
 
  
 

Fig.12 
Plan of Single Flemish bond (wall thickness= 1 1/2Brick 

 
The following are the advantages of Single Flemish bond:  
(a) The strength of English bond and appearance of Double Flemish bond are partly 
achieved.  
(b) Good quality bricks can be used for facing in Double Flemish bond and cheaper bricks 
can be used as filling and backing in English bond.  
 
The following are the disadvantages of this bond:  
(a) This bond cannot be employed for walls having thickness less than 1 1/2 bricks. (b) A 
long continuous vertical joint is formed which renders the wall weaker.  
 
5‐Hollow bond 
This type of bond used in cavity wall.  
Isolator  
Light weight 

Fig.13 
Plan of three type of hollow bond 
And tie detail 

 
 
  

     
 

6‐Garden wall bond 
This type of bond is useful for construction of garden walls, compound walls, boundary 
walls, etc. It is possible to construct one brick thick wall with uniform faces with 
economy, when this bond is employed. 
 There are two types of garden wall bond: 
 
6.1 English garden wall bond 
This arrangement consists of one course of header to three or five courses of stretchers. 
A queen closer is laid next to the quoin header of the heading course and the middle 
course of stretchers is started with a header, to give the necessary staggering of vertical 
joints. Fig.13 shows the elevation of English garden wall bond. 
 

Fig.14 
Elevation of English garden wall bond 

 
 
6.2 Flemish garden wall bond 
In Flemish garden wall bond, each course consist one header to three or five stretchers. A 
3/4 bat is placed next to the quoin header in every alternate course to develop ‐ the 
necessary lap. A header is laid centrally over each middle stretcher in the lower course. 
Fig. 15 illustrates this type of bond. 
 
 Fig.15 
Elevation of Flemish garden wall bond 

 
 
7‐Pattern bond 

 
 

Bond at Junction  
Junction is formed when two walls meet or intersect each other the wall must be bonded 
together.  
 
Piers attached to wall  
Piers attached to wall for: 
1‐ Increasing the stability of walls. 
2‐  Improving architectural beauty of plain walls. 
3‐  Provide a large bearing area for giving support to roof.  
  
They may be constructed in English bond or double Flemish bond. 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Completing and connecting the wall 
1‐Toothing 
2‐Racking 
 
Fig.16 
Elevation show the method of completing by racking 
and toothing

 
 
3‐Thickening 
Increase the thickness of wall in away excavate the hole on the surface of wall by 
dimension (2x2x1/2 Brick)  for each square meter.  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Reinforced Brick Masonry 
Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) is analogous to reinforced concrete construction. 
The same deformed steel reinforcing bars used in concrete are placed in thickened 
collar joints to strengthen a brick wall or lintel. 
 
Reinforced is provided for: 
1‐ RBM walls are much stronger against vertical loads. 
2‐ To carry loads from wind or earth pressure, and shear loads. 
3‐ To provide continuity of the structure. 
 
RBM is also used for brick piers, which are analogous to concrete columns, and, less 
commonly, for structural lintels, beams, slabs, and retaining walls. 
Reinforced brickwork may also be created at a smaller scale by inserting reinforcing 
bars and grout into the cores of hollow bricks. This technique is especially useful for 
single family residential construction. 
 

 
 
Determine the thickness of wall according to the structural and nonstructural 
requirements such as: 
1‐carry load safely 
2‐Resistance to damp penetration 
3‐Thermal insulator 
4‐Sound insulator 
5‐Fir resistance 
 
 
   
Principles of Calculated Brickwork 
Calculated Brickwork: for small and residential buildings up to three stores high the sizing 
of load bearing brick walls can be taken from data given in Part C of Approved Document 
A. The alternative methods for these and other load bearing brick walls are given in BS 
5628 … Code of practice for use of masonry. 
 
The main factors governing the loadbearing capacity of brick walls and columns are:‐ 
1. Thickness of wall. 
2. Strength of bricks used. 
3. Type of mortar used. 
4. Slenderness ratio of wall or column. 
5. Eccentricity of applied load. 
 
Thickness of wall: this must always be sufficient throughout its entire body to carry the 
design loads and induced stresses. Other design requirements such as thermal and sound 
insulation properties must also be taken into account when determining the actual wall 
thickness to be used. 
 
Effective Thickness: this is the assumed thickness of the wall or column used for the 
purpose of calculating its slenderness ratio … 

 
 
Strength of Bricks ~ due to the wide variation of the raw materials and methods of 
manufacture bricks can vary greatly in their compressive strength. The compressive 
strength of a particular type of brick or batch of bricks is taken as the arithmetic mean of 
a sample of ten bricks tested in accordance with the appropriate British Standard. A 
typical range for clay bricks would be from 20 to 170MN/m2 the majority of which would 
be in the 20 to 90MN/m2 band. Generally calcium silicate bricks have a lower 
i h h l bi k ih i l h f 10 6 / 2
Strength of Mortars ~ mortars consist of an aggregate (sand) and a binder which is 
usually cement; cement plus additives to improve workability; or cement and lime. The 
factors controlling the strength of any particular mix are the ratio of binder to aggregate 
plus the water: cement ratio. The strength of any particular mix can be ascertained by 
taking the arithmetic mean of a series of test cubes or prisms (BS EN 196). 
 
Wall Design Strength ~ the basic stress of any brickwork depends on the crushing 
strength of the bricks and the type of mortar used to form the wall unit. This relationship 
can be plotted on a graph using data given in BS 5628 as shown below:‐ 

 
 
Slenderness Ratio ~ this is the relationship of the effective height to the effective 
thickness thus:‐ 

 
Effective Height ~ this is the dimension taken to calculate the slenderness ratio as 
opposed to the actual height. 

 
 
Effective Thickness ~ this is the dimension taken to calculate the slenderness ratio as 
  
Stress Reduction ~ the permissible stress for a wall is based on the basic stress multiplied 
by a reduction factor related to the slenderness factor and the eccentricity of the load:‐ 

 
 
 
Concrete block masonry 
 
Types of Block according to material: 
1‐ Clay block 

        
Structural clay tiles                                     facing clay tiles 
 
 
 
 
 
  
2‐ Concrete block 
Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are manufactured in three basic forms: 
1‐ Hollow units, load bearing that are commonly referred to as concrete blocks, 
2‐ Solid units, Less commonly use, 
3‐ Hollow units Non‐load bearing units. 

Manufacture of Concrete Masonry Units 
Concrete masonry units are manufactured by vibrating a stiff concrete mixture into 
metal molds, then immediately turning out the wet blocks or bricks onto a rack so 
that the mold can be reused at the rate of 1000 or more units per hour. The racks 
of concrete masonry units are cured at an accelerated rate by subjecting them to 
steam, either at atmospheric pressure or, for faster curing, at higher pressure. 
After steam curing, the units are bundled on wooden pallets for shipping to the 
construction site. 
 
 
Minimum compressive strength (MPa)
Degree of exposure 
on average gross area 
Type of blocks  to environmental 
Average of  One unit no  specification
effect 
3 units  less than 
A‐exposure to  6.9 5.5 
1‐Hollow units,  environmental effect      ASTM C90‐
load bearing  B‐ non‐exposure to  4.8  4.1  75 
environmental effect 
2‐Non‐load  4.14 3.45 
non‐exposure to  ASTM C129‐
bearing units 
environmental effect  75 
(hollow or solid) 
A‐exposure to  12.42 10.35 
3‐Solid units,  environmental effect      ASTM C145‐
load bearing  B‐ non‐exposure to  8.28  6.90  75 
environmental effect 
 
  
3‐ Glass block 
4‐ Gypsum block 
5‐ Cellular block 
 
                                    

52 
 
Concrete masonry units are made in 
a  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes.  They 
Fig.18 
are  also  made  with  different  American standard concrete blocks and 
densities of concrete, some of which  half‐blocks. 
 Each full block is nominally 8 inches (200 
use  cinders,  pumice,  blast  furnace 
mm) high and 16 inches (400 mm) long. 
slag,  or  expanded  lightweight 
aggregates  rather  than  crushed 
stone  or  gravel.  Many  colors  and 
surface  textures  are  available. 
Special  shapes  are  relatively  easy  to 
produce  if  a  sufficient  number  of 
units  will  be  produced  to  amortize 
the expense of the mold. 

                                                              
  
 

 Fig.19 

 Other concrete masonry shapes.  

   

 
Laying Concrete Blocks 
The mortar is identical to that used in brick walls, but in most walls only the face shells of 
the block are mortared, with the webs left unsupported 

 
Concrete masonry is often reinforced with steel to increase its loadbearing capacity, 
resistance to cracking, or resistance to seismic forcers. 
 Horizontal reinforcing is usually inserted in the form of joint reinforcing, welded grids of 
small‐diameter steel rods that are laid into the mortar bed joints at the desired vertical 
intervals  

 
 
 
If stronger horizontal reinforcing is required, bond beam blocks or special blocks with 
channeled webs allow heavier reinforcing bars to be placed in the horizontal direction. 
The horizontal bars may be embedded in grout before the next course is laid, with the 
grout contained in the cores of the reinforced course by a strip of metal mesh that was 
previously laid into the bed joint beneath the course to bridge across the core openings. 
Alternatively, the horizontal bars may be grouted simultaneously with the vertical bars. 
Vertical block cores are easily reinforced by inserting bars and grouting, using either the 
low‐lift or high‐lift technique, as described In most cases only those cores that 
contain reinforcing bars are grouted, but sometimes all the vertical cores are lled, 
whether or not they contain bars, for added strength  
  
 

 
Stone masonry work 
Stone preparation: 
1‐self‐faced or quarry faced 
2‐scabbled 
3‐half sawn 
4‐chised draught margin 
5‐plain work 
a‐ combed 
b‐ tooled 
c‐ smoothed axed 

 
 
Classification of stone wall 
1‐Ashlar work: made of dressed stone having narrow joints. 
a‐ Random 

snecked

Stretche

Riser 

 
 
 
 
 
 
b‐ Coursed ashlar 
 

 
 
2‐Rubble work: made of stones undressed or roughly dressed having wide joint. 
a‐ Random rubble 
a‐1‐ Uncoursed 

                
         a‐2‐ Brought to courses 

       
     a‐3‐Coursed 

     
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 
Brick Joint                                    Masonry joint 

 
 
 

 
 
Supports over Openings: the primary function of any support over an opening is to carry 
the loads above the opening and transmit them safely to the abutments, jambs or piers 
on both sides. A support over an opening is usually required since the opening infilling 
such as a door or window frame will not have sufficient strength to carry the load 
through its own members. 
 
Type of support 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Arches 
Terms 

 
Types of brick and stone arch: 

 
  

 
Lintels and Sills 
Lintel: A beam that carries the load of a wall across a window or door opening. 
Sill: The horizontal bottom portion of a window or door; the exterior surface, usually 
sloped to shed water, below the bottom of a window or door. 
 

Fig.19 
Because of corbelling and arching action in the bricks, a lintel is 
considered to carry only the triangular area of brickwork 
indicated by the shaded portion of this drawing. The broken 
line indicates a concealed steel angle lintel. 

Types of material which are uses in Lintel: 
1‐ Reinforced concrete(cast in place or pre cast) 
2‐ Steel section 
3‐ wood 

 
 
Lintel in Brick wall 

Fig.20 
Three types of lintels for spanning openings in brick walls.  
The double angle steel lintel (top) is scarcely visible in the finished wall.  
The reinforced brick lintel (center) works in the same manner as a 
reinforced concrete beam and gives no visible clues as to what supports 
the bricks over the opening.  
The reinforced concrete lintel (bottom) is clearly visible.  

 
 (Cross section of reinforced (Cross section of reinforced
concrete lintel) concrete lintel with sunshade)

0.24 0.24

Main Steel bar

Brick wall Brick wall
2Dia12mm at top
Thickness= 1brick Thickness= 1brick
2Dia12mm at bottom Main Steel bar
2Dia12mm at top Stirrups
Stirrups 2Dia12mm at bottom Dia10mm@20cm C/C
Dia10mm@20cm C/C
0.24

0.24
0.4 steel bar
Reinforced
concrete lintel Sunshade
Reinforced
Window concrete lintel Window
or door or door

 
(Cross section of double angle
steel lintel)
0.24 0.24

Brick wall Brick wall

Thickness= 1brick Thickness= 1brick

Double angle steel Double angle steel

lintel (2L2x2x21) lintel (2L2x2x21)
Window Window
or door or door

 
 
Lintel in Concrete Block wall 

Lintels for openings in concrete masonry walls. 
 At the top, a steel lintel for a broad opening is made up of a wide‐flange section 
welded to a plate.  
Steel angle lintels are used for narrower openings.  
In the middle, a reinforced block lintel is composed of bond beam units. 
 At the bottom, a precast reinforced concrete lintel is seen. 

 
 (Cross section of reinforced (Cross section of reinforced
concrete lintel) concrete lintel with sunshade)

0.2 0.2

Concrete block wall Brick wall

Main Steel bar Main Steel bar
2Dia12mm at top 2Dia12mm at top
2Dia12mm at bottom Stirrups 2Dia12mm at bottom Stirrups
Dia10mm@20cm C/C Dia10mm@20cm C/C

0.24
0.2 0.4 steel bar
Reinforced
concrete lintel
Sunshade
Reinforced
Window concrete lintel Window
or door or door

(Cross section of double angle

0.2 steel lintel)

Concrete block wall

Double angle steel

lintel (2L3x3x21)
Window
or door

   
 
Sills 
(Cross section show Sill (Cross section show Sill
for concrete block wall) for brick wall)

Window Window

Outside Inside Outside Inside

Cement plastering Cement plastering

Gypsum plastering Gypsum plastering

Concrete block wall

Brick wall wall

0.24
0.2  

66 
 
 (Cross section show Tile sill (Cross section show Tile sill
for concrete block wall) for brick wall)

Window Window

Marble
Outside Inside Glazed Outside Inside
Marble Mosaic
Glazed
Cement plastering
Mosaic Gypsum plastering Gypsum plastering

Cement plastering
Concrete block wall
Brick wall wall

0.2 0.24    

Brick sill)

Window Window
Outside

Inside Outside Inside

Gypsum plastering Gypsum plastering

Brick wall Brick wall

0.24 0.24
 

(Cross section show

Reinforced concrete sill)

Window Window
Outside

Inside Outside Inside

Gypsum plastering Gypsum plastering

reinforced concrete sill

Brick wall Brick wall

0.24 0.24
 

67 
 
 Cross section show door sill

Door

Sill
Tile
Cement sand mortar
(thickness= 7.5cm)
concrete
thickness=10cm
Asphalt felt
Cement screed
Compact Soil

0.25
wall footing
0.8
 

68 
 
CHAPTER SIX

61
Content
5.1-Sitecast concrete fram construction(Columns , Beams , Floors)
5.2-Steel fram construction (Columns, Beams , Floor)
5.3-Roofs

5.1-Sitecast concrete fram construction

5.1.1General Reinforced concrete information
• Concrete cover for reinforcement
Minimum concrete cover—The minimum concrete cover to
reinforcement that should be provided is shown in Table 5.1.

Special fire protection of the structure—When the designated fire rating,

in hours, for the building is greater than 1 hour, the concrete cover of

62
 Table 5.1 should be increased by 1/4 in. (6 mm) per each additional hour
of fire rating.

Additional corrosion protection—In very aggressive environments, such

as direct contact with seawater, chemical facilities, or sewage water
facilities, additional corrosion protection of the reinforcement should be
specified, such as reduced water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm),
epoxy-coated bars, air-entrained concrete, and other means.

• Standard hook dimensions The term "standard hook" means one of the
following in Table 5.2.

• Minimum reinforcement bend diameter

Bend diameter, measured on the inside of the bar, should not be less
than the values shown in Table 5.3.

63
 • Maximum aggregate size
Maximum nominal coarse aggregate size should not be larger than (1),(2),or (3)
(Fig. 5.1).
(1) 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms;
(2) 1/3 the depth of slabs; and
(3) 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between parallel reinforcing bars.

A maximum nominal size of 3/4 in. (19 mm) is recommended for columns,
girders, beams, and joists. Except for structural slabs, a larger size can be used
if it meets the limits given in (1) through (3).

• Development length, lap splicing, and anchorage of reinforcement

Development length
Reinforcing bars—The minimum length of embedment, ld, on each side of a
critical section for a reinforcing bar to develop its full strength should be 50db.
Development length on one side of the critical section may be replaced by a
standard hook complying with the minimum standard hook anchorage
distance of (Fig. 5.2).

64
 • Lap splice dimensions
Reinforcing bars-Minimum lap length for splicing reinforcing bars should be
50db.this lap length calculation is a satisfactory simplification of the ACI 318-
11 detailed calculation for splice length (Fig. 5.3).

Minimum standard hook anchorage distance—The bent portion of the hook

should be located as close to the outer face of concrete as cover permits.
Minimum distance between the outer face of concrete and the critical section
where the hooked bar develops its full strength is 25db (Fig. 5.4).

65
5.1.2-Columns
The vertical load bearing elements of structural frame are usually called with their
common name, columns. And it is called strut when it’s incline or horizontal.

Classification of column according to slenderness ratio:

1- Long columns: slenderness ratio from 160 to 200, it is fails by buckling.
P

Slenderness ratio=L/r
r= I/A
L=Length of column
r= radius of gyration
Buckling I= moment of inertia
L

L
For long column L/r >160

b D b
h P

2- Intermediate columns: slenderness ratio from 30 to 160, it is fails by crushing

and/or buckling.
3- Short columns: slenderness ratio less than 30. Fails by crushing.

Slenderness ratio=L/r
r= I/A
L=Length of column
r= radius of gyration
L

I= moment of inertia

For short column L/r <30

Notes:
• Long columns and intermediate columns that are most use.
• Until the load is near the center of cross section of column the resistance strength
of column is increasing.
• By increasing the slenderness ratio of column, the resistance strength of column is
decreasing.

66
 Strength

Relation between strength

and slenderness ratio of column

Short Intermediate Long L/r

End condition of columns

The effective length of column is indicating according to the end condition of the column.
For calculation of the resistance strength of column, use the effective length of column
KL.
Table-Effective Length Factors, K

Classification of column according to Materials:

1- Reinforced concrete columns
2- Metal columns
3- Timber columns
4- Pillars

Reinforced concrete column

However due to their varied behavior, their different design rules, they separated into
three major categories: columns, Shear walls and composite elements.

Columns are the rectangular elements in which the larger dimensions lesser than 3times
the smaller dimension.

67
The Concept of Reinforcing
• The basic theory of reinforced concrete is extremely simple: Put the reinforcing
steel where there are tensile forces in a structural member, and let the concrete
resist the compression.
• Steel reinforcing bars (rebar) for concrete construction are hot-rolled in much the
same way as structural shapes. They are round in cross section and deformed with
surface ribs for better bonding to concrete.
• Most reinforcing bars are manufactured according to ASTM standard A615 and are
available in grades 40, 60, and 75, corresponding to steel with yield strengths of
40,000, 60,000, and 75,000 psi (280, 420, and 520 MPa), respectively.
• Grade 60 is generally the most economical and readily available of the three,
although grade 75 is finding increasing use in column reinforcing.

ASTM specification for bars

Dimensional limits
• Minimum cross-sectional dimension for rectangular columns— Cross-sectional
dimensions for rectangular columns should comply with (a) and (b):
(a) The least cross-sectional dimension should not be less than 10 in. (250 mm).
68
(b) Ratio of the long cross-sectional dimension to the short dimension should not
exceed 3, except in slab-column systems, where it should not exceed 2.

Fig.
Minimum cross-sectional dimension for rectangular columns .

• Minimum cross-sectional dimension for circular columns—Columns with a circular

cross section should have a diameter of at least 12 in. (300 mm).

Fig.
Minimum cross-sectional dimension for circular columns.

• Distance between lateral supports—It should be assumed that the floor system
provides column lateral restraint in both horizontal directions at all supported
levels.
1- Interior columns—For interior columns, the column cross section dimension
parallel to the direction of the support should not be less than 1/10 of the clear
vertical distance between lateral supports, hn.
2- Edge columns—For edge columns, column cross section dimension perpendicular
to the edge should not be less than one-ninth of the clear vertical distance
between lateral supports, hn .
3- Corner columns—For corner columns, minimum column cross section dimension
should be one-eighth of the clear vertical distance between lateral supports, hn.

4- Column built monolithically with wall—Effective cross section of a tied or spirally

reinforced column that is monolithic with a concrete wall should be taken not
greater than 1-1/2 in. (40 mm) outside the tie or spiral reinforcement or the lateral
wall faces
69
 F.g
Effective cross section of columns built monolithically with a wall

• Trial cross-sectional dimensions— Trial cross-sectional dimensions should be

established as follows:
(a) Trial gross cross-sectional area Ag should be determined from Eq.

Where: Ag = gross column section area.

Pu= ultimate axial load on column
fc’ = column concrete specified strength.

(b) For rectangular cross sections, the least dimension be should comply with:

(c) For rectangular cross sections, the larger dimension should comply with:

(d) For circular columns, the diameter h should comply with:

Reinforcement details
Longitudinal reinforcement:
• Description and location—Longitudinal reinforcement should be provided at the
periphery of the column section. Longitudinal reinforcement should be located as
close to the column lateral surfaces as practicable following transverse
70
 reinforcement and concrete cover .The area of longitudinal reinforcement should
be adequate to resist the simultaneous action of a factored axial load and factored
moments acting about the two main column axes.

• Minimum and maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement—Total area of column

longitudinal reinforcement, As, should not be less than 0.01 or more than 0.08
times the gross area Ag of section:

• Minimum diameter of longitudinal bars—Minimum diameter of longitudinal bars in

columns should be 5/8 in. (16 mm).

• Minimum number of longitudinal bars—In square and rectangular columns with

ties, there should be a minimum of four bars (at least one longitudinal bar in each
corner), and in round columns with spirals, a minimum of six longitudinal bars.

• Distribution of longitudinal bars—Column longitudinal bar spacing along all column

faces should be approximately equal.

• Minimum clear spacing between longitudinal bars—Clear spacing between

longitudinal bars should not be less than l.5db nor 1-1/2 in. (40 mm) (Fig.).

Fig.: Clear spacing between longitudinal

bars in columns.

• Clear spacing between parallel lap splices—Clear spacing limitation between bars
should also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent
splices or bars.

• Reinforcing bar splicing—Up to one-half the longitudinal bars at any given section
may be lap spliced, as long as only alternate bars along the cross section perimeter
are lap-spliced. Minimum lap length for splicing reinforcing bars should be 50db,
this lap length calculation is a satisfactory simplification of the ACI 318-11.
• End anchorage of reinforcement— Longitudinal reinforcement at the upper end of
columns and at the foundation should extend as close to the edge as practicable
considering concrete cover and end with a standard hook (see table 5.2).

• Longitudinal bar offset—Offset bent longitudinal bars should conform to (a)

through (g):
(a) Slope of inclined portion of an offset bar should not exceed 1 in 6 (Fig.).

71
(b) Portions of bar above and below an offset should be parallel to column axis;
(c) Lateral ties or spirals should be provided at offset bends;
(d) Lateral ties or spirals should be placed not more than 6 in.(150 mm) from bend
points;
(e) Offset bars should be bent before placement in the forms; and
(f) Where a column face is offset from the column below it by more than one-sixth of
the depth of the girder or slab, or 3 in. (75 mm), longitudinal bars should not be
offset bent. Separate dowels, lap-spliced with the longitudinal bars adjacent to the
offset column faces, should be provided.

72
73
 • Trial longitudinal reinforcement— Trial area of longitudinal reinforcement, Ast
should be established as follows:
(a) For rectangular cross sections, the trial area of longitudinal reinforcement. Ast
should comply with:

(b) For circular cross sections, the trial area of longitudinal reinforcement, Ast should
comply with:

Where: Ab = Area of steel longitudinal bar.

Transverse reinforcement
Use ties and spiral for:
1- Confine concrete
2- Prevent Buckling of longitudinal bars
3- Tie the bars

• Ties in non-seismic zones—

• Column ties should comply with (a) through (e):
(a) All longitudinal column bars should be enclosed by lateral ties. Minimum tie bar
diameter should be 3/8 in. (10 mm);
(b) Ties should be arranged so that every comer and alternate longitudinal bar should
have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie or a crosstie.
(c) Along a tie, no longitudinal bar should be farther than 6 in. (150 mm) clear from a
laterally supported longitudinal bar.

Fig.
Horizontal tie arrangement

74
(d) Vertical spacing of ties should not exceed the least of 16 longitudinal bar
diameters, 48 tie bar diameters, and the least dimension of the column section(F.g)

Fig.
Vertical spacing of tie

(e) The first tie should be located one-half spacing above the top of the slab, beam, or
footing, and the uppermost one should be located no more than one-half tie
spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement of shallowest member
supported above.

• Columns spirals should comply with (a) through (e):

(a) All longitudinal column bars should be enclosed by a spiral consisting of an evenly
spaced continuous bar. Minimum spiral bar diameter should be 3/8 in. (10 mm);
(b) Clear vertical spacing between spirals should not exceed 3 in. (75 mm), nor be less
than 1 in. (25 mm), and should comply with maximum size of aggregate;
(c) Spirals should have 1.5 extra turns at each end of a spiral unit.
(d) Spirals should extend from the top of footing or slab to the level of lowest
horizontal reinforcement of shallowest member supported above. In columns with
capitals, spiral should extend to a level at which the diameter or width of capital is
two times that of the column; and
(e) Spiral reinforcement ratio ps defined as ratio of the volume of reinforcement
contained in one spiral loop to the volume of concrete in the column confined by
the same spiral loop, should be not less than the value given by Eq.

Where: Ab = area of the spiral bar or wire.

db = spiral bar or wire diameter.
dcs = outside diameter of the spiral.
s = vertical spacing of the spiral.
Acs = area of the confined column core measured from the outside diameter
of the spiral = πdcs²/4.
Ag = gross column section area.
75
 fc’ = column concrete specified strength.
fyt = steel yield strength of the spiral.

Fig.
Spiral reinforcement of column

• Column-girder joints—At column-girder joints of frames, a minimum of three

column ties should be provided within the joint with a maximum vertical spacing
between ties of 6 in. (150 mm).

Fig.
Column ties in column-girder joint

• Tie hooks—All column ties should have 135-degree hooks. Crossties with a 135-
degree hook in one end and a 90-degree in the other end may be used.
Consecutive cross-ties engaging the same longitudinal bar should have their 90-
degree hooks at opposite sides of the column.

• Tie leg splicing—Column ties should not be lap-spliced.

76
 Type A
Joint ties longitudinal bars

Type B
longitudinal bars
2
S/

S
Type A Type B
Long. bars Long. Bars

Column cross section

Lap Splice
2

Joint ties
S/

Dia10mm@150mm c/c

10Dia16mm
Joint tie
Lap Splice N.G.L >50 db

Grade Beam
Grade Beam 19Dia16mm@150mm c/c
in both direction
S
Foundation element

Bearing soil

Lean concrete

Type B
Type A Long. Bars Bearing soil
Long. bars

77
 Reinforcing for concrete columns.
To the left is a column with a rectangular
arrangement of vertical bars and column ties.
To the right is a circular arrangement of vertical
bars with a column spiral. Either arrangement
may be used in either a round or a square
column.

• Typical shapes of cross section for reinforced concrete column

78
79
5.1.3 Beams
A horizontal, or nearly horizontal, structural member supported at one point( such as
cantilever) or more points, but not throught its length, transversely supporting a load,
and subjected primarily to flexure.
Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they are short and
carry large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large and this force may
govern their design. The stresses in section resulting from bending moment, are called
normal stresses or bending stresses, and these stresses are perpendicular on the section
of the beam. And the stresses which resulting from shear force are called vertical
shearing stress and horizontal shearing stress.

Defining the Beam in another names, according to its position and the purpose of its
use, as the following:
1- Girder: a large beam, usually horizontal, that serves as a main structural member
often supporting reactions from other beams or girders.
2- Joist: a comparatively narrow beam used in closely spaced parallel arrangements
to support floor or roof slabs.
3- Rafter: an inclined beam, usually use with inclined roofs, and putting parallel with
the inclined roofs in small intervals.
4- Purlins: a beam which load the cover of inclined roof, and supporting on trusses.

Types of beam according to supports and span

Classification of Beam according to Materials:

1- Reinforced concrete beams
2- Steel beams
3- Composite beams
4- wooden beams

80
Reinforced concrete beams
Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy to construct
this form directly in the field. Because concrete is rather weak in resisting tension, steel
“reinforcing rods” are cast into the beam within regions of the cross section subjected to
tension. Precast concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the same
manner and then transported to the job site.

Dimensional limits
Girder depth and width—
• The girder should be prismatic without haunches, brackets, or corbels. The height h
should comply with the minimum depth of Table 1 or Table 2.
• Clear span of the member should not be less than four times its height h.
• The width-to-height ratio bw/h should not be less than 0.3.
• The width bw should not be less than 8 in. (200 mm), nor exceed the corresponding
width of the supporting column plus 3/4h on each side of the supporting column.

81
Reinforcement types
General—Reinforcement of girders, beams, and joists should be divided into longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement.

Longitudinal reinforcement
• Minimum spacing
Longitudinal bars in a layer—In girders, beams, and joists, the minimum clear spacing
between parallel longitudinal bars in a layer should be the nominal bar diameter db of the
largest bar but not less than 1 in. (25 mm). Clear distance limitation between bars should
apply also to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars.
Parallel layers—In girders, beams, and joists where parallel longitudinal bars are placed in
two or more layers, bars in the upper layer should be placed directly above bars in the
lower layer with clear distance between layers of at least 1 in. (25 mm).

• Minimum area of flexural tension reinforcement

Where tension flexural reinforcement is needed, Asmin should be computed by (a) or (b),
where ρmin is the value given in Table

82
 • Maximum flexural reinforcement ratio
The ratio of tension flexural reinforcement, ρ, should be computed by (a) and (b), and
should not exceed the values of ρmax as given in Table:

(a) In girders, beams, and joists having only tension flexural reinforcement:

(b) In girders, beams, and joists having tension and compression flexural
reinforcement:

• Skin reinforcement
Where the height h of a girder, beam, or joist exceeds 36 in. (900 mm), longitudinal
skin reinforcement should be provided along both side faces of the member for a
vertical distance equal to h/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement.
Vertical spacing Ssk between bars should not exceed the least value of Eqs bellow,
d/6, and 12 in. (300 mm).

83
• Positive moment reinforcement
• Description—Positive moment reinforcement should be provided in the girder,
beam, or joist section,
• Location—Positive moment reinforcement should be placed longitudinally in the
girder, beam, or joist. Positive moment reinforcement should be located as close to
the bottom surface of the girder, beams, or joist as practicable following the
concrete cover.
• Where girders, beams, or joists support other girders, beams, or joists, the positive
moment reinforcement of the supported member should be placed above the
positive moment reinforcement of the supporting member.
• Cutoff amount—No more than one-half the positive moment reinforcement at mid
span may be cut off at the locations indicated by ACI318
• Reinforcement splicing—the remaining positive moment reinforcement may be
lap spliced between the cutoff point and the opposite face of the support.
• Embedment at interior supports—Positive moment reinforcement terminated at an
interior support should be continued to the opposite face of the support plus the
lap splice distance.
• End anchorage of reinforcement—at the end of the girder, beam, or joist, the
positive moment reinforcement should extend to the edge and end in a standard
hook.

• Negative moment reinforcement

• Description—Negative moment reinforcement should be provided in the girder,
beam, or joist section at edges and supports as indicated.
• Location—Negative moment reinforcement should be provided at all supports and
located as close to the upper surface of the girder, beam, or joist as practicable
following concrete cover.
• At supports where girders or beams intersect, the negative moment reinforcement
of the member with the longer span should be located on top.
• Cutoff amount—Negative moment reinforcement at the locations indicated in by
ACI318 may be cut off, except cantilever negative moment reinforcement is not
allowed to be cut off. Where adjacent spans are unequal, negative moment
reinforcement cutoff points should be based on the longer span.
84
 • Reinforcement splicing—Negative moment reinforcement between cutoff point
and the support should not be lap spliced.
• End anchorage—Negative moment reinforcement at the end of a girder, beam, or
joist should end in a standard hook at the far edge of the supporting girder, beam,
column, or reinforced concrete wall, complying with anchorage distance. At the
external edge of cantilevers, negative moment reinforcement should end in a
standard hook.

Stirrup support
In areas where no negative reinforcement is needed, top bars should be provided for
attachment and anchorage of stirrups. The diameter of these top bars should be equal to
or greater than the stirrup bar diameter. Minimum lap length of these top bars should be
6 in. (150 mm).

Transverse reinforcement
Description—Transverse reinforcement for girders, beams, and joists should consist of
stirrups that enclose the longitudinal reinforcement and are placed perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the member at varying intervals.

The main functions for transverse reinforcement in girders, beams, and joists are:
(a) Contribute to member shear strength;
(b) Provide lateral support for longitudinal reinforcement subjected to compression
stresses;
(c) Act as hanger reinforcement in girders, supporting beams, and joists;
(d) Contribute to member torsion strength;
(e) Provide confinement to the concrete in seismic zones at selected locations within the
member.

85
Stirrup shape—
A stirrup should consist of single or multiple vertical legs. Each vertical leg should engage
a longitudinal bar either by bending around it when the stirrup continues or by using a
standard stirrup hook to surround the longitudinal bar at the stirrup end (Fig.)

Permitted stirrup shape for girders and beams

All stirrups in girders and beams should be closed stirrups with 135-degree hooks, as
shown in Fig. (a, b). The other stirrup shapes are in common use. In seismic areas, the
stirrup shape is further limited.

Minimum clear spacing between stirrups legs

In girders, beams, and joists, the minimum clear space between stirrups or parallel legs in
a stirrup should be 1 in. (25 mm).

Stirrup leg splicing—Stirrup bars should not be lap spliced.

Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement

86
Joists and beams supported by girders

87
5.1.4 Floor system

Selection of floor system

The licensed design professional should select a floor system . The final selection should
consider:
(a) Magnitude of dead and live loads, including self-weight;
(b) Geometry of the structural plan layout, including span lengths in both plan directions
and the ratio between them;
(c) Presence of cantilevers and their maximum span and direction;
(d) Occupancy type;
(e) Available concrete and reinforcing steel material strengths;
(f) Expected behavior of the slab system and the ability to comply with the serviceability
and deflection criteria;
(g) Amount of materials for concrete, steel, and formwork that are required to build the
floor system, which contains most of the materials needed to construct the building;
(h) Local preferences to simplify construction coordination;
(i ) Worker training and proficiency, as some systems require more training and
proficiency than what local workers can comply with;
(j) Relative cost of alternatives, with economic advantages evaluated only alter providing
adequate expected behavior and safety of the system.

Types of floor systems

The selection of an appropriate floor system should be made after studying several
alternatives.

1-Slab-on-girder system
Description—This system consists of a grid of girders in both plan directions with a solid
slab spanning between girders. These girders are located on the column lines or axis,
spanning the distance between columns. The solid slab is shallower than the girders, and
is supported by them (Fig.). The slab can cantilever out over the edge girder. This system
should comply with the structural integrity .

88
 Fig. Plan of Slab on girder floor system

B
Cantilever beam Cantilever beam

1.5m
Column
Column

B
Girder

Slab
5m

A A

Section B-B

5m 5m
1 2 3

B
Section A-A Girder Slab
Column

Use of intermediate beams

One of the main system variations is the use of intermediate beams supported on the
girders. One or several beams may be used per girder span. The intermediate beams may
be of the same depth of the girders or shallower. These intermediate beams may be used
in one direction, as shown in Fig., or in two directions, as shown in Fig. The use of many
intermediate beams will make the system gravitate to the joist system.

89
 Fig. Plan of Slab on girder floor system

B
with intermediate beams Cantilever beam Cantilever beam

1.5m
Column
Column

B
Girder
intermediate
intermediate beam
beam
Slab
5m

A A

Section B-B

A
5m 5m
1 1.1 2 2.1 3

B
intermediate Girder Slab
beam Column
intermediate
Section A-A beam

Fig. Plan of Slab on girder floor system B

with intermediate beams in Cantilever beam Cantilever beam
1.5m

Column
Column

B
Girder
intermediate
intermediate beam
beam
Slab
5m

A.1
A A

Section B-B

A
5m 5m
1 1.1 2 2.1 3
B

intermediate Slab
beam Column
Girder intermediate

90
Advantages of slab-on-girder system—
1- For the slab-on-girder system, each component has the appropriate minimum
depth and width to comply with design strength or serviceability; therefore, having
a relatively low self-weight.
2- The system can accommodate spans of any size, can easily be adapted to any plan
shape, and large perforations, ducts, and shafts can be located without major
problems.

Disadvantages of slab-on-girder system—

1- For the slab-on-girder system, the depth of the girders, beams, and the slab can be
large if the minimum number of members is used; however, trying to reduce it
causes more members to be used and the formwork becomes more elaborate.
2- A suspended ceiling may be needed for apartment and office occupancies.

2- Joist systems
The joist system consists of a series of parallel ribs or joists supported by girders.
The girders are located on the column lines, and span between columns. Joists are
usually the same depth as the girders but can be shallower. A solid slab spans
between joists (Fig.). This system should comply with the structural integrity. The
top slab should not cantilever out over the edge joist. The clear separation
between parallel joists, measured at the underside of the slab, should not exceed
30 in. (750 mm). Joist web width should not be less than 5 in. (125 mm), measured
at the underside of the slab, nor 4 in. (100 mm) measured at its thinnest section.
Clear depth of the joist should not exceed 3.5 times its minimum width (Fig.).

Type of formwork—When joists have the same depth as the girders, a flat formwork
decking supported on shores can be used. Joists shallower than the girders may result in
more complex formwork. To create voids, permanent and removable pans or domes of
different shape and material are used. Among those commonly used are permanent and
removable wood pans; removable metal, fiberglass, plastic, light polystyrene plastic pans;
or permanent cement, cinder, or clay filler blocks.

91
Distribution ribs—To improve load distribution and avoid creating a concentrated load on
a solitary joist in one-way joist systems, transverse rib spacing should not exceed the
smaller of 10 times the total joist depth h and 12 ft (4 m) (Fig).

Two-way joist systems

For spans approximately equal in both directions, it may be advantageous to use two-
way joists. For the system to be classified as a joist system, joists should be supported on
girders. This is called a waffle-slab-on-beams system (Fig.). When the beams are omitted,
the system is called the waffle-slab system.

Advantages of joist systems

1- The joist system can accommodate medium to large spans with relatively low self-
weight. It is easy to locate small perforations, ducts, and shafts.
2- For heavy live loads or large permanent loads, the serviceability deflection limits
can be readily met because of the relatively large depth of the system.
3- Clear spacing between joists is a tradeoff between a thinner top slab and a larger
number of joists, thus allowing the designer great freedom in choosing appropriate
dimensions

Disadvantages of joist systems

1- The joist system demands more workmanship than other systems.
2- For skew plan layouts, both design and construction procedures are more complex
than for other systems.
3- For apartment and office occupancies, the system may need a false ceiling or an
underneath concrete soffit, which in turn requires permanent pans or domes.

92
 4- Large perforations, ducts, or shafts interrupt several joists, whose tributary load
should be transferred to other joists, thus making design and construction more
intricate.
5- If the joist depth is different than the girder depth, the advantage of a flat
formwork decking is lost.
3- Slab-column systems
In the slab-column system, the slab is supported directly by the columns, without beams
or girders. A problem associated with this type of system, known since early
development of reinforced concrete, is the punching shear failure of the slab.

Types of slab-column syastem

1- Flat plate—
A slab of uniform thickness supported by columns is called a flat plate

2- Flat slabs—
To increase resistance to punching shear (Fig.) and to increase the overall fiexural
strength, the slab can be thickened around the columns. This system is called a
flat-slab system. The thicker, rectangular slab around the column is called a drop
panel, as shown in Fig.a. When a drop panel is used, the punching shear strength at
the column and at the edge of the drop panel needs to be checked. Another option
is to increase the contact area between the column and the slab by forming a
column capital, as shown in Fig.b. In some instances, both a capital and a drop
panel are combined, as shown in Fig.c. Here, two potential zones of punching shear
failure exist and both should be checked in design. Drop panels should project
below the slab at least one-fourth of the slab depth beyond the drop and should
extend in each direction from the column centerline a distance not less than one-
sixth the span length measured from center-to-center of supports in that direction
(Fig. d).

93
3- Waffle-slabs—

94
 For longer spans, voids are formed in the bottom of a flat-plate, away from the
columns. This system is called a waffle-slab, as shown in Fig. The rib dimensions
(joists) in waffle-slabs should comply with the minimum dimensions for joists given
in waffle-slabs-beams system. This system is very similar to two-way joists. The
main difference is that for two-way joists, beams are located in the column lines,
whereas for waffle slabs, all members are joists and the voids surrounding the
column are filled, thus forming a column capital. The solid capital should engage at
least three joists in each direction for interior columns, and at least two joists
parallel to the edge in edge and corner columns. Domes or pans for waffle-slabs
can be permanent, made of concrete block, or removable when made of wood,
fiberglass, or plastic, as described for the joist system in .

Advantages of slab-column systems

1- Slab-column systems generally provide a shallower depth.
2- The system provides flexibility in column location, because some deviation from
the horizontal axis or line of columns is allowed.
3- In general, these systems do not need a false ceiling.
4- Having a flat formwork decking simplifies construction.
5- Reinforcement placement is easier because it does not require stirrups (except in
waffle-slabs), thus allowing more efficient construction.
6- Perforations, ducts, and shafts can be located in the central part of the slab panel.

Disadvantages of slab-column systems

1- The main disadvantage of these systems is vulnerability to punching shear failure.
To account for this failure mode, slab depth may have to be increased, thus making
the slab heavier.
2- Using drop panels and column capitals help increase punching-shear resistance but
complicate design and construction.
3- Spans are shorter than for other systems, due to greater self-weight and less
depth. As the span is increased, significant long-term deflections caused by the
large permanent load are possible. These deflections can adversely affect walls and
partitions, especially if they are masonry walls.

95
 4- Perforations, ducts, and shafts should not be located near columns because these
openings reduce slab punching shear strength.
5- The seismic performance of slab-column systems, when not laterally stiffened by
reinforced concrete walls have, at times, not performed as well as other structural
systems during seismic events.

One-way and two-way load paths

Load path of the floor system should be classified either as one-way or two-way. The
actual load path, from the application point to the supports, depends on plan dimensions
and stiffness of the supporting members.

One-way
A slab should be considered one-way when it has:
(a) Two opposing free edges without vertical support, and has vertical support, such as
beams or walls, in the other two opposing edges;
(b) A rectangular plan shape, has vertical support at all edges, and the longer slab span is
greater than twice the shorter slab span;
(c) Joists, except the distribution ribs, in only one direction.

Two-way
A slab should be considered two-way when:
(a) The slab panel has a rectangular plan shape and has vertical support, such as beams
or walls, at all edges and the longer slab span is less than or equal to twice the shorter
slab span;
(b) In slab-column systems, the panel has a rectangular plan shape and the long slab span
is less than or equal to twice the short slab span.

96
Ducts, shafts, openings, and embedded piping
Ducts, shafts, and openings in slab systems
1- Slab-on-girder system—In slab-on-girder systems, minor openings should not interrupt
girders or beams. The total area of reinforcement for the slab without an opening should
be maintained. Openings with plan dimensions greater than Ln/4 need beams on all
edges.

2-Joist construction—In joist construction, minor openings should be located between

joists. When an opening interrupts one or two joists, it should be surrounded by joists
and distribution ribs. The joists at the edge of an opening should be continuous and
proportioned to resist double the design vertical load. Distribution ribs at the edge of the
opening should extend to a beam or girder on both sides of the opening. When more
than two joists are interrupted, the opening should have beams on all sides.

3-Openings in slab-column systems—slab openings are permitted in some areas.

Embedded conduits and pipes

General—Conduits and pipes of aluminum should not be embedded in structural
members. Conduits and pipes of any material should not be embedded within a column.

Conduits and pipes passing through girders, beams, and joists

• A conduit or pipe passing through a girder, beam, or joist should not be larger in
outside diameter than h/3 when passing horizontally, nor greater than bw/3 when
passing vertically.
• Conduits or pipes should be located in plan no closer to the support face than Ls/4,
or farther away than Ls/3.
• Conduits and pipes passing horizontally through the member should be located in
the middle third of the member height.
• Conduits and pipes passing vertically through the member should be located in the
middle third of the member width.
• Pipes and conduits should be spaced horizontally at least three diameters center-
to-center (Fig.).
• Reinforcing bars should not be allowed to be cut or damaged due to pipe
penetrations at any location unless approved by the licensed design professional.

Conduits and pipes located longitudinally within girders, beams, and joists
• Conduits and pipes embedded longitudinally within girders, beams, or joists should
not be larger in outside diameter than bw/3
• should be located vertically within the middle third of the member depth.
• Conduits or pipes should not be spaced closer than three diameters center-to-
center.
97
Conduits and pipes embedded in slabs
• Conduits and pipes embedded within solid slabs should be placed between top and
bottom reinforcement.
• Their outside diameter should not be greater than 2 in. (50 mm) or 25 percent of
the slab thickness and should be spaced no less than three diameters center-to-
center.

pipes embedded in the top slab in joists

• Where conduits or pipes are embedded within the top slab in joists, depth of the
top slab should be at least 1 in. (25 mm) greater than the total overall height of the
conduits or pipes,
• and the concrete cover at any point should not be less than 1/2 in. (13 mm).

98
 6- steel columns

Production of Structural Shapes

In the structural mill or breakdown mill, the beam blank is reheated as necessary and
then passed through a succession of rollers that squeeze the metal into progressively
more refined approximations of the desired shape and size . The finished shape exits
from the last set of rollers as a continuous length that is cut into shorter segments by a
hot saw .These segments are cooled on a cooling bed. Then a roller straightener corrects
any residual crookedness.
Finally, each piece is cut to length and labeled with its shape designation and the number
of the batch of steel from which it was rolled. Later, when the piece is shipped to a
fabricator, it will be accompanied by a certificate that gives the chemical analysis of that
particular batch, as evidence that the steel meets standard structural specifications.
• The following Fig. show examples of the standard shapes of structural steel. Where
two shapes are superimposed, they illustrate different weights of the same
section, produced by varying the spacing of the rollers in the structural mill.
• Structural steel shapes and their general requirements are defined in ASTM A6.
• Bars are round, rectangular, and hexagonal solid shapes generally not greater than
8 inches (203 mm) in any cross-sectional dimension.
• Wider solid shapes are called plate or sheet, depending on their thickness in
relation to their width. Plate is thicker than sheet.

99
Because of the large financial outlay required in producing structural steel sections,
design and construction professionals must select them from the standard shapes and
sizes. Custom- rolled sections are not available. As previously stated, they are available in
cross-sectional shapes of I, C, L, and T, pipes, tubes, round and rectangular bars, and
plates

I-SECTIONS
Structural steel I-sections may be classified into four shapes:
• W-shapes
• S-shapes
• HP-shapes
• M-shapes
In a W-shape, the interior surfaces of the flanges are parallel. In an S-shape, the interior
surfaces of the flanges are inclined at a slope of 2:12

C-SHAPES
T-SHAPES
L-SHAPES, PIPES, TUBES, BARS, AND PLATES

100
Steel column
Rolled section such as Wide flange or tubular section (circular, square, rectangular)

Flange

Web t
t

b
D t

a
a a

Wide Flange Circular Square Rectangular

built-up section
Simple built-up section

For increasing moment of inertia, use the following built-up section

Angle

Brace
or Lattice

Cross section

Two channels Wide Flange

Four angles Two Plates
Four Plates Two Plates
Brace

Elevation view

101
Some methods for fi reproofi ng steel columns.
(a) Encasement in reinforced concrete.
(b) Enclosure in metal lath and plaster.
(c) Enclosure in multiple layers of gypsum board.
(d) Spray-on fireproofing. Two types of materials are used for spray-on protection:
• Mineral fiber and binder, usually fiberglass and portland cement
• Cementitious mixture consisting of portland cement mixed with a lightweight
aggregate such as expanded perlite or vermiculite
(e) Loose insulating fi ll inside a sheet metal enclosure.
(f) Water-filled box column made of a wide-fl ange shape with added steel plates.

102
Steel Beam

Four angles Two channels

Four palates Two cannels
Two plates
t

103
61
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER SEVEN
Forms and Scaffoldings

7.1 General Requirements for Formwork

The principal requirements for concrete formwork are that
1- It be safe,
2- Produce the desired shape and surface texture,
3- It be economical.
• Procedures for designing formwork that will be safe under the loads imposed by
plastic concrete, workers and other live loads, and external forces (such as wind
loads).
• Requirements for the shape (including deflection limitations) and surface texture
of the finished concrete are normally contained in the construction plans and
specifications. Since the cost of concrete formwork often exceeds the cost of the
concrete itself, the necessity for economy in formwork is readily apparent.

7.2 materials using for form work:

1. Wood
2. Steel
3. Plastic
4. Combination

7.3 Factors considered when choosing form type:

1. Strength and stiffness
2. Repetition
3. Durability
4. Ease erection and removal
5. Cost
6. Surface finish

7.4 Typical Formwork

7.4.1 Typical wall formwork

• A typical wall form with its components is illustrated in Figure 7.1.
• Sheathing may be either plywood or lumber.
• Double wales are often used as illustrated so that form ties may be inserted
between the two wales. With a single wale it would be necessary to drill the wales
for tie insertion.
• While the pressure of the plastic concrete is resisted by form ties, bracing must be
used to prevent form movement and to provide support against wind loads or
other lateral loads.
• Typical form ties are illustrated in Figure 7.2. Form ties may incorporate a spreader
device to maintain proper spacing between form walls until the concrete is placed.
Otherwise, a removable spreader bar must be used for this purpose.

110
 • Ties are of two principal types,
1- continuous single-member and
Continuous single-member ties may be pulled out after the concrete has
hardened or they may be broken off at a weakened point just below the surface
after the forms are removed
2- Internally disconnecting.
Common types of internally disconnecting ties include the coil tie and stud rod
tie. With internally disconnecting ties, the ends are unscrewed to permit form
removal with the internal section left embedded in the concrete. The holes
remaining in the concrete surface after the ends of the ties are removed are
later plugged or grouted.

Fig.7.1-Typical wall form

111
Figure 7.2 Typical form ties.

7.4.2 Typical Column formwork

• Column forms are similar to wall forms except that studs and wales are replaced by
column clamps or yokes that resist the internal concrete pressure. Atypical column
form is shown in Figure 7.3.
• Yokes may be fabricated of wood, wood and bolts (as shown), or of metal.
• Commercial column clamps (usually of metal) are available in wide range of sizes.
• Round columns are formed with ready-made fiber tubes or steel reinforced
fiberglass forms.
• Openings or “windows” may be provided at several elevations in high, narrow
forms to facilitate placement of concrete.
• Special fittings may also be inserted near the bottom of vertical forms to permit
pumping concrete into the form from the bottom.

112
Figure 7.3 Typical column form.

7.4.3 Typical floor formwork

• Figure 7.4 illustrates a typical elevated floor or desk slab form with its components
identified.
• Forming for a slab with an integral beam is illustrated in Figure 7.5.
• Figure 7.6 illustrates the use of long pans for a one-way joist slab.
• Figure 7.7 shows a waffle slab formed with dome pans. Such pan forms may be
made of metal or plastic.
• Wooden stairway forms suitable for constructing stairways up to 3ft wide are
illustrated in Figure 7.8.

113
Figure 7.4 Form for elevated slab.

Figure 7.5 Beam and slab form.

114
Figure 7.6 One-way Joist slab form.

Figure 7.7 Two way joist slab form (waffle)

115
Figure 7.8 Wood form for stairway.

7.5 Minimizing Cost of Formwork

• Since formwork may account for 40 to 60% of the cost of concrete construction, it
is essential that the formwork plan be carefully developed and thoroughly
evaluated. A cost comparison should be made of all feasible forming systems and
methods of operation. Such an analysis must include:
1- The cost of equipment and labor required to install reinforcing steel and to place
and finish the concrete,
2- The cost of formwork, its erection, and removal.

• The formwork plan that provides the required safety and construction quality at
the minimum overall cost should be selected for implementation.
• In general, lower formwork cost will result from repetitive use of forms. Multiple
use forms may be either standard commercial types or custom-made by the
contractor.
• Contractor-fabricated forms should be constructed using assembly-line techniques
whenever possible. Flying forms, large sections of formwork moved by crane from
one position to another, are often economical in repetitive types of concrete
construction. Where appropriate, the use of slip forms and the tilt-up construction
techniques described earlier can greatly reduce forming costs.

7.6 Construction Practices

Forms must be constructed with
1- Tight joints to prevent the loss of cement paste, which may result in
honeycombing.
2- Before concrete is placed, forms must be aligned both horizontally and vertically
and braced to remain in alignment.

116
 3- Form alignment should be continuously monitored during concrete placement, and
adjustments made if necessary.
4- When a vertical form is wider at the bottom than at the top, an uplift force will be
created as the form is filled. Such forms must be anchored against uplift.
5- Inspect the interior of all forms and remove any debris before placing concrete.
6- Use drop chutes or rubber elephant trunks to avoid segregation of aggregate and
paste when placing concrete into high vertical forms.
7- Free-fall distance should be limited to 5 ft or less.
8- When vibrating concrete in vertical forms, allow the vibrator head to penetrate
through the freshly placed concrete about 1 in. (2.5 cm) [but not more than 8 in.
(20 cm)] into the previously placed layer of concrete. It is possible to bulge or
rupture any wall or column form by inserting a large vibrator deep into previously
placed, partially set concrete. However, re-vibration of previously compacted
concrete is not harmful to the concrete as long as it becomes plastic when
vibrated.
9- When pumping forms from the bottom, it is important to fill the forms rapidly so
that the concrete does not start to set up before filling is completed. If the pump
rate is so low that setting begins, excessive pressure will be produced inside the
form, resulting in bulging or rupturing of the form.
10- Concrete forms are removed after the concrete has developed the required
strength. When removing (or stripping) concrete forms, care must be taken to
minimize damage to the surface of the concrete during the removal process.

7.7 Formwork Safety

The frequency and serious consequences of formwork failure require that special
attention be paid to this aspect of construction safety. The following are some safety
precautions that should be observed in constructing formwork.
1- Provide adequate foundations for all formwork. Place mudsills under all shoring
that rests on the ground. Typical mudsills are illustrated in Figure 7.9. Check
surrounding excavations to ensure that formwork does not fail due to
embankment failure.
2- Provide adequate bracing of forms, being particularly careful of shores and other
vertical supports. Ensure that all connections are properly secured, especially
nailed connections. Vibration from power buggies or concrete vibrators may cause
connections to loosen or supports to move.
3- Control the rate and location of concrete placement so that design loads are not
exceeded.
4- Ensure that forms and supports are not removed before the concrete has
developed the required strength. The process of placing temporary shores under
slabs or structural members after forms have been stripped is called re-shoring.
Re-shoring is a critical operation that must be carried out exactly as specified by
the designer. Only a limited area should be stripped and re-shored at one time. No
construction loads should be allowed on the partially hardened concrete while re-
shoring is under way. Adequate bracing must be provided for re-shoring.

117
 5- When placing prefabricated form sections in windy weather, care must be taken to
avoid injury caused by swinging of the form caused by wind forces.
6- Protruding nails are a major source of injury on concrete construction sites. As
forms are stripped, form lumber must be promptly removed to a safe location and
nails pulled.

Figure 7.9 Mudsills.

7.8 Concrete Form Design

7.8.1 Design Principle
The design of concrete formwork that has adequate strength to resist failure and will not
deflect excessively when the forms are filled is a problem in structural design. Unless
commercial forms are used, this will usually involve the design of wall, column, or slab
forms constructed of wood or plywood. In such cases, after the design loads have been
established, each of the primary form components may be analyzed as a beam to
determine the maximum bending and shear stresses and the maximum deflection that
will occur. Vertical supports and lateral bracing are then analyzed for compression and
tension loads.

7.8.2 DESIGN LOADS

7.8.2.1 Wall and Column Forms
• For vertical forms (wall and column) forms, design load consists of the lateral
pressure of the concrete against the forms.

118
• The maximum lateral pressure that the concrete exerts against a form has been
found to be a function of the unit weight of the concrete, cement type or blend,
temperature of the concrete, vertical rate of placing, and the height of the form.
• For ordinary internally vibrated concrete, the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
recommends the use of the following formulas to determine the design lateral
concrete pressure.
• For all columns and for walls with a vertical rate of placement less than (2.1 m/h)
and a placement height of (4.3m) or less:

Where:
Cw = unit weight coefficient (Table 7-1)
Cc = chemistry coefficient (Table 7-2)
p = lateral pressure (kPa)
R = rate of vertical placement (m/h)
T = concrete temperature (°C)
h = height of form (m)
w = unit weight of concrete (kg/m3)

Minimum pressure= 28.7 Cw (kPa)

Maximum pressure = wh

• For walls with a vertical rate of placement of (2.1 to 4.6 m/h) and walls with a rate
of placement less than (2.1 m/h) whose placement height exceeds (4.3 m):

• For walls with a vertical rate of placement greater than (4.6 m/h) or when the
forms will be filled before the concrete stiffens:

• When forms are vibrated externally, it is recommended that a design load twice
that given by Equations 7-1 and 7-2 be used.
• When concrete is pumped into vertical forms from the bottom (both column and
wall forms), Equation 7-3 should be used and a minimum additional pressure of
25% should be added to allow for pump surge pressure.

Table 7-1 Concrete unit weight coefficient

119
 Table 7-2 Concrete chemistry coefficient

7.8.2.2 Floor and Roof Slab Forms

• The design load to be used for elevated slabs consists of the weight of concrete
and reinforcing steel, the weight of the forms themselves, and any live loads
(equipment, workers, material, etc.).
• For normal reinforced concrete, the design load for concrete and steel is based on
a unit weight of (2403 kg/m³).
• The American Concrete Institute (ACI) recommends that a minimum live load of
(2.4 kPa) be used for the weight of equipment, materials, and workers. When
motorized concrete buggies are utilized, the live load should be increased to at
least (3.6 kPa). Any unusual loads would be in addition to these values.
• ACI also recommends that a minimum design load (dead load plus live load) of (4.8
kPa) be used. This should be increased to (6 kPa) when motorized buggies are
used.

7.8.2.3 Lateral Loads

• Formwork must be designed to resist lateral loads such as those imposed by wind,
the movement of equipment on the forms, and the placing of concrete into the
forms. Such forces are usually resisted by lateral bracing.
• The minimum lateral design loads recommended for tied wall forms are given in
Table 7-3.
• When form ties are not used, bracing must be designed to resist the internal
concrete pressure as well as external loads.
• For slab forms, the minimum lateral design load is expressed as follows:

Where:
H = lateral force applied along the edge of the slab = (kN/m);
minimum value = (1.46 kN/m)
dl = design dead load = (kPa)
ws = width of slab perpendicular to form edge = (m)
120
 • In using Equation 7-4, design dead load includes the weight of concrete plus
formwork. In determining the value of ws, consider only that part of the slab being
placed at one time.

Table 7-3 Recommended minimum lateral design load for wall forms

7.8.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

• After appropriate design loads have been selected, the sheathing, joists or studs,
and stringers or wales are analyzed in turn, considering each member to be a
uniformly loaded beam supported in one of three conditions (single-span, two-
span, or three-span or larger) and analyzed for bending, shear, and deflection.
• Vertical supports and lateral bracing must be checked for compression and tension
stresses. Except for sheathing, bearing stresses must be checked at supports to
ensure against crushing.

7.8.4 SLAB FORM DESIGN

• The procedure for applying the equations of Tables 7-4 to the design of a deck or
slab form is first to consider a strip of sheathing of the specified thickness and (1
m) wide (see Figure 7-10a). Determine in turn the maximum allowable span based
on the allowable values of bending stress, shear stress, and deflection. The lower
of these values will, of course, determine the maximum spacing of the supports
(joists). For simplicity and economy of design, this maximum span value is usually
rounded down to the next lower integer or modular value when selecting joist
spacing.
• Based on the selected joist spacing, the joist itself is analyzed to determine its
maximum allowable span. The load conditions for the joist are illustrated in Figure
7-10b. The joist span selected will be the spacing of the stringers. Again, an integer
or modular value is selected for stringer spacing.
• Based on the selected stringer spacing, the process is repeated to determine the
maximum stringer span (distance between vertical supports or shores). Notice in
the design of stringers that the joist loads are actually applied to the stringer as a
series of concentrated loads at the points where the joists rest on the stringer.
However, it is simpler and sufficiently accurate to treat the load on the stringer as a

121
 uniform load. The width of the uniform design load applied to the stringer is equal
to the stringer spacing as shown in Figure 7-10c. The calculated stringer span must
next be checked against the capacity of the shores used to support the stringers.
• The load on each shore is equal to the shore spacing multiplied by the load per unit
length of stringer. Thus the maximum shore spacing (or stringer span) is limited to
the lower of these two maximum values.
•

Figure 7-10 Design analysis of form members.

122
Table 7-4 concrete form design equations

123
Table 7-5 Section
properties of plywood.

124
Table 7-6 Section properties of U.S. standard lumber and timber (b = width, d = depth)

125
Table 7-6 (Continued)

126
Table 7-7 Typical values of allowable stress for lumber

• Although the effect of intermediate form members was ignored in determining

allowable stringer span, it is necessary to check for crushing at the point where
each joist rests on the stringer. This is done by dividing the load at this point by the
bearing area and comparing the resulting stress to the allowable unit stress in
compression perpendicular to the grain. A similar procedure is applied at the point
where each stringer rests on a vertical support.
• To preclude buckling, the maximum allowable load on a rectangular wood column
is a function of its unsupported length and least dimension (or l/d ratio). The l/d
ratio must not exceed 50 for a simple solid wood column. For l/d ratios less than
50, the following equation applies:

Where:
Fc = allowable unit stress in compression parallel to the grain (kPa)
F’c = allowable unit stress in compression parallel to the grain, adjusted for l/d
ratio (kPa)
E = modulus of elasticity (kPa)
l/d = ratio of member length to least dimension
• In using equation 7-5, note that the maximum value used for F’c may not exceed
the value of Fc.

127
EXAMPLE 7–1
Design the formwork (Figure 7-11) for an elevated concrete floor slab (152 mm) thick.
Sheathing will be nominal 1-in. (25-mm) lumber while 2x 8 in. (50 x 200 mm) lumber will
be used for joists. Stringers will be 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) lumber.
Assume that all members are continuous over three or more spans. Commercial (17.8-
kN) shores will be used. It is estimated that the weight of the formwork will be (0.24 kPa).
The adjusted allowable stresses for the lumber being used are as follows:

Maximum deflection of form members will be limited to L/360 . Use the minimum value
of live load permitted by ACI.
Determine joist spacing, stringer spacing, and shore spacing.

Figure 7-11 Slab form, Example 7-11.

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Solution
Design Load
Concrete = 1 x 1 x 0.152 x 2403 x 0.0098 = 3.58 kPa
Formwork = 0.24 kPa
Live load = 2.40 kPa
Design load = 6.22 kPa

Deck Design
Consider a uniformly loaded strip of decking (sheathing) 1m wide placed perpendicular to
the joists and analyze it as a beam.
Assume that the strip is continuous over three or more spans and use the appropriate
equations of Tables 7-4
w = (1 m²/m) x (6.22 kN/m²) = 6.22 kN/m

(a) Bending:

(b) Shear:

(c) Deflection:

Deflection governs in this case and the maximum allowable span is 27.7 in. (703 mm).
We will select a 24-in. (610-mm) joist spacing as a modular value for the design.

Joist Design
Consider the joist as a uniformly loaded beam supporting a strip of design load 24 in.
(610 mm) wide. Joists are 2x 8 in .(50 x 200 mm) lumber.
Assume that the joists are continuous over three spans.
w = (0.610 m)x (6.22 kPa) = 3.79 kN/m

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 (a) Bending:

(b) Shear:

(c) Deflection:

Thus bending governs and the maximum joist span is 87 in. (2213 mm).
We will select a stringer spacing (joist span) of 84 in. (2134 mm).

Stringer Design
To analyze stringer design, consider a strip of design load 7 ft (2.13 m) wide (equal to
stringer spacing) as resting directly on the stringer.
Assume the stringer to be continuous over three spans. Stringers are 4 x 8 (100 x 200
mm) lumber.
w =(2.13) x (6.22) = 13.25 kN/m

(a) Bending:

(b) Shear:

(c) Deflection:

Bending governs and the maximum span is 71.1 in. (1808 mm).

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Now we must check shore strength before selecting the stringer span (shore spacing).
The maximum stringer span based on shore strength is equal to the shore strength
divided by the load per unit length of stringer.

Thus the maximum stringer span is limited by shore strength to 52.7 in. (1.343 m).
We select a shore spacing of 4 ft (1.22 m) as a modular value.

Before completing the design, we should check for crushing at the point where each joist
rests on a stringer.
The load at this point is the load per unit length of joist multiplied by the joist span.
P = (3.79) x (2.134) = 8.09 kN
Bearing area (A) = (38) x (89) = 3382 mm²

Final Design
Decking: nominal 1-in. (25-mm) lumber
Joists: 2 x 8’s (50 x 200-mm) at 24-in. (610-mm) spacing
Stringers: 4 x 8’s (100 x 200-mm) at 84-in. (2.13-m) spacing
Shore: (17.8-kN) commercial shores at 48-in. (1.22-m) intervals

7.8.5 WALL AND COLUMN FORM DESIGN

Design Procedures
• The design procedure for wall and column forms is similar to that used for slab
forms substituting studs for joists, wales for stringers, and ties for shores.
• First, the maximum lateral pressure against the sheathing is determined from the
appropriate equation (Equation 7-1, 7-2, or 7-3).
• If the sheathing thickness has been specified, the maximum allowable span for the
sheathing based on bending, shear, and deflection is the maximum stud spacing. If
the stud spacing is fixed, calculate the required thickness of sheathing.
• Next, calculate the maximum allowable stud span (wale spacing) based on stud size
and design load, again considering bending, shear, and deflection. If the stud span
has already been determined, calculate the required size of the stud.
• After stud size and wale spacing have been determined, determine the maximum
allowable spacing of wale supports (tie spacing) based on wale size and load. If tie
spacing has been preselected, determine the minimum wale size. Double wales are
commonly used to avoid the necessity of drilling wales for tie insertion.
• Next, check the tie’s ability to carry the load imposed by wale and tie spacing. The
load [kN] on each tie is calculated as the design load [kPa] multiplied by the
product of tie spacing [m] and wale spacing [m]. If the load exceeds tie strength, a
stronger tie must be used or the tie spacing must be reduced.
• The next step is to check bearing stresses (or compression perpendicular to the
grain) where the studs rest on wales and where tie ends bear on wales. Maximum

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 bearing stress must not exceed the allowable compression stress perpendicular to
the grain or crushing will result.
• Finally, design lateral bracing to resist any expected lateral loads, such as wind
loads.

EXAMPLE 7-2
Forms are being designed for an (2.44-m) -high concrete wall to be poured at a rate of
(1.219 m/h), internally vibrated, at a temperature of (32° C).
The concrete mixture will use Type I cement without retarders and is estimated to weigh
(2403 kg/m3).
Sheathing will be 4 x 8–ft (1.2 x 2.4–m) sheets of 3⁄4 in. (19 mm) thick Class I Plyform
with face grain perpendicular to studs (see Figure 7-12).
Studs and double wales will be 2 x 4-in. (50 x 100-mm) lumber.
Snap ties are (13.34-kN) capacity with 11⁄2 (38-mm) -wide wedges bearing on wales.
Deflection must not exceed L/360.
Determine stud, wale, and tie spacing. Use Plyform section properties and allowable
stress from Table 13–6 and lumber section properties from Table 13–7. Allowable
stresses for the lumber being used for studs and wales are:

Figure 7-12 Wall form, Example 7-2.

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Solution
Design Load
From table 7-1 Cw = 1.0
From table 7-2 Cc = 1.0

Because of: h=2.44m < 4.3m and Vertical rate of placement =1.219 m/h < 2.1m/h

Therefore use:

Use minimum pressure= 28.7 Cw =28.7x 1=28.7 kN/m² > 26.3kN/m²

Select Stud Spacing (Three or More Spans)

From (Table 7-5)
Face grain perpendicular to studs
Material: 3⁄4-in. (19-mm) Class I Plyform
FbKS= 326 x 10³ Nmm/m
FsIb/Q= 7.55 x 10³ N/m
EI= 2810 x 10⁹ kPamm⁴/m

Consider a strip 1m wide:

w = 1 x 1 x 28.7 = 28.7 kN/m

Use the appropriate equations of Tables 7-4

(a) Bending:

(b) Shear

(c) Deflection

Bending governs. Maximum span = 13.2 in. (337 mm).

Use 12-in. (304-mm) stud spacing.
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Select Wale Spacing (Three or More Spans)
Since the stud spacing is 12 in. (304 mm), consider a uniform design load (304 mm) wide
resting on each stud.
w =304/1000 x 1 x 28.7 = 8.7 kN/m

Studs and double wales will be 2 x 4-in. (50 x 100-mm) lumber.

(a) Bending:

(b) Shear

(c) Deflection

Shear governs, so maximum span (wale spacing) is 22.23 in. (566 mm).
Use 16-in. (406-mm) wale spacing for modular units.

Select Tie Spacing (Three or More Spans, Double Wales)

Based on a wale spacing of 16 in. (406 mm)
w =406/1000 x 28.7 = 11.6 kN/m

(a) Bending:

(b) Shear:

(c) Deflection:

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Shear governs. Maximum span is 27.9 in. (714 mm).
Select a 24-in. (610-mm) tie spacing for a modular value.

(d) Check tie load:

Ties are (13.34-kN) capacity

P = Wale spacing x Tie spacing x p

Check Bearing
(a) Stud on wales:
Bearing area (A) (double wales) = (2) (38) (38) = 2888 mm²

Load at each panel point (P) = Load/ (m) of stud x Wale spacing (m)

(b) Tie wedges on wales:

Bearing area (A) = (38) (38) (2) = 2888 mm²
Tie load (P) = 7.11 kN

Final Design
Sheathing: 4 x 8 ft (1.2 x 2.4 m) sheets of 3⁄4 (19-mm) Class I Plyform placed with
the long axis horizontal.
Studs: 2 x 4’s (50 x 100 mm) at 12 in. (304 mm) on center.
Wales: Double 2 x 4’s (50 x 100 mm) at 16 in. (406 mm) on center.
Ties: (13.34-kN) snap ties at 24 in. (610 mm) on center.

7.8.6 DESIGN OF LATERAL BRACING

7.8.6.1 Lateral Braces for Wall and Column Forms

• For wall and column forms, lateral bracing is usually provided by inclined rigid
braces or guy-wire bracing.
• Since wind loads, and lateral loads in general, may be applied in either direction
perpendicular to the face of the form, guy-wire bracing must be placed on both
sides of the forms.
• When rigid braces are used they may be placed on only one side of the form if
designed to resist both tension and compression forces.

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 • When forms are placed on only one side of a wall with the excavation serving as
the second form, lateral bracing must be designed to resist the lateral pressure of
the concrete as well as other lateral forces.
• Inclined bracing will usually resist any wind uplift forces on vertical forms.
However, uplift forces on inclined forms may require additional consideration and
the use of special anchors or tie downs. The strut load per foot of form developed
by the design lateral load can be calculated by the use of Equation 7-6. The total
load per strut is then P’ multiplied by strut spacing.

If struts are used on only one side of the form, the allowable unit stress for strut
design will be the lowest of the three possible allowable stress values (Fc, F′c, or Ft).

EXAMPLE 7-3
Determine the maximum spacing of nominal 2 x 4-in. (50 x 100-mm) lateral braces for the
wall form of Example 7-2 placed as shown in Figure 7-13. Assume that local code wind
requirements are less stringent than Table 7-3. Allowable stress values for the braces are
as follows.

Figure 7-13 Wall form bracing, Example 7-3.

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Solution
Determine the design lateral force per unit length of form.
H = 1.46 kN/m (Table 7-3)

Determine the length of the strut using Equation 7-7.

The axial concentrated load on the strut produced by a unit length of form may now be
determined from Equation 7-6.

Next, we determine the allowable compressive stress for each strut using Equation 7-5.
To do this, we must determine the l/d ratio of the strut.

Since the l/d ratio exceeds 50, each strut must be provided lateral bracing to reduce its
unsupported length. Try a single lateral support located at the midpoint of each strut,
reducing L to 1.19 m.

As Fc’ < Ft < Fc , the value of Fc′ governs.

The maximum allowable compressive force per strut is:

Thus maximum strut spacing is:

Keep in mind that this design is based on providing lateral support to each strut at the
midpoint of its length.

7.8.6.2 Lateral Braces for Slab Forms

For elevated floor or roof slab forms, lateral bracing may consist of cross braces between
shores or inclined bracing along the outside edge of the form similar to that used for wall
forms. The following example illustrates the method of determining the design lateral
load for slab forms.

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EXAMPLE 7-4
Determine the design lateral force for the slab form 6 in. (152 mm) thick,(6.1 m) wide,
(30.5 m) long shown in Figure 7-14. The slab is to be poured in one pour.
Assume concrete density is (2403 kg/m3) and that the formwork weighs (0.72 kPa).

Figure 7-14 Slab form bracing design, Example 7-4.

Solution

H=0.02 x dl x ws

For the (6.1-m) face, the width of the slab is (30.5 m).

For the (30.5-m) face, the width of the slab is (6.1 m).

Therefore use H2=1.46 kN/m

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