SPA4210 (2018) Page 1

SECTION A Answer ALL questions in Section A

Note: a table of useful data is provided at the end of the paper.

Question A1

An electron is a distance of 1m away from a proton. What is the magnitude of the electric force
on the electron? Which direction does it point in?
Unseen problem. The force has magnitude

e2 1.6 × 10−19 C
|F~ | = = −1 = 2.3 × 10
−28
N.
4π0 r2 −12
4π × 8.85 × 10 Fm
[4 marks]. It points towards the proton [1 mark].

[5 marks]

Question A2

A positive point charge of 2C situated at a point P experiences the forces

     
1 0 1
F~1 =  2  , F~2 =  1  , F~3 =  1 
3 0 0

due to point charges located elsewhere, where all numbers are in Newtons. Find the total electric
~ at P .
field E
Unseen problem. One may use the principle of superposition to combine the forces, yielding
 
X3 2
F~tot. = F~i =  4  .
i=1 3

The electric field is then given by

 
1
~ = 1 F~ =  2  NC−1 ,
E
q
3/2

where q = 2C has been used.

[5 marks]

Question A3

Figure 1 shows a Faraday cage, namely an empty space that is completely enclosed by a perfect
conductor. By considering the line integral of the electric field around the loop composed of the
segments C1 and C2 , show that the electric field in the centre must be zero.
Page 2 SPA4210 (2018)

C2

b C1

Figure 1: The Faraday cage, in which an empty space is completely surrounded by a perfect
conductor, where the latter is shown in grey.

Bookwork, but can also be worked out from first principles. The total line integral around the
closed curve composed of the segments C1 and C2 is given by
I Z Z
~ ~
dl · E = ~ ~
dl · E + d~l · E
~ = 0,
C1 ∪C2 C1 C2

where the second equality follows from the fact that the electric force is conservative. The first
term is zero, given that the electric field inside a conductor is zero. Thus, we have
Z
d~l · E
~ = 0.
C2

However, this must be true for any segment C2 that joins the points a and b. The only way that
this can be true is if the electric field is zero everywhere in the central region.

[5 marks]

Question A4

Show that two capacitors in parallel (with capacitances C1 and C2 ) have a total effective capaci-
tance
C = C1 + C2 .

Bookwork. Consider the parallel system of capacitors shown in figure 2. Given that the potential
difference around any closed loop is zero (Kirchoff), there must be a common potential difference
∆V across each capacitor. The total charge on the left-hand plates is then given by

Q = Q1 + Q2 = (C1 + C2 )∆V,

where we have used the fact that Qi = Ci ∆V for each capacitor (i.e. the definition of capaci-
tance). Thus, the whole system looks like a single capacitor obeying Q = C∆V , where

C = C1 + C2 .

[5 marks]
SPA4210 (2018) Page 3

Q1

Q2

Figure 2: Two capacitors in parallel.

Question A5

A particle of charge 0.2C moves with velocity 5ms−1 in the +x direction. If a magnetic field of 2T
points in the +y direction, what is the magnetic force on the particle? You must state the direction
in your answer.
Unseen problem. The magnetic force is given by
~ = 0.2C × 5ms−1 × 2T × ~i × ~j = 2N × ~k,
F~ = q~v × B

where ~i, ~j and ~k are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions respectively. Thus, the magnetic
force has magnitude 2N and points in the +z direction.
[5 marks]
Question A6

State Ampere’s Law, and use it to show that the magnetic field a perpendicular distance R from
an infinitely long wire has magnitude
µ0 I
B= ,
2πR
where I is the current in the wire, and µ0 the permeability of free space. Which direction does
the field point in?
Bookwork. Ampere’s Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop
is equal to the permeability of free space multiplied by the total current enclosed by the loop. In
symbols: I
d~l · B
~ = µ0 I.
C
For a wire, we can draw a circular loop of radius R perpendicular to the wire, such that the centre
of the circle coincides with the wire itself. By symmetry, the magnetic field can only depend
on the perpendicular distance from the wire, and is thus constant in magnitude on the loop.
Furthermore, the direction of the magnetic field (from e.g. the Biot-Savart law) is azimuthal with
~ ∝ d~l. Then the line integral gives
respect to the direction of the current in the wire, and thus B
I
d~l · B
~ = 2πR|B|
~ = µ0 I,
Page 4 SPA4210 (2018)

which in turn implies

~ = µ0 I
|B| .
2πR

[5 marks]

Question A7

A circular coil of conducting wire, with radius a, sits in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude

B = B0 e−λt ,

whose direction is parallel to the axis of the coil. If the wire has resistance R, derive an expression
for the current induced.
Unseen problem. Faraday’s law states that the induced electromotive force E is

dΦB
E =− ,
dt
where ΦB is the magnetic flux through the loop. In this case this is given by

~ = πa2 B0 e−λt
ΦB = πa2 |B|

(i.e. the field is uniform and perpendicular to the loop, and thus we can get the flux by simply mul-
tiplying the area of the loop and the magnetic field). The induced current will have a magnitude
given by
E 1 d  2  a2 B0 λe−λt
I= =− πa B0 e−λt = .
R R dt R

[5 marks]

Question A8

State Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws, and explain the physical principles underlying them.
Bookwork. Kirchoff’s Voltage Law states that the total potential difference around any closed
loop of a circuit is zero. It follows from the conservative nature of the electric field (i.e. the work
done around any closed loop must be zero).

Kirchoff’s Current Law states that the sum of all currents entering a junction must be equal to the
sum of all currents leaving the junction. It follows from the conservation of electric charge.

[5 marks]

Question A9

In simple conducting materials, the electric field E is related to the current density J by

E = ρJ,
SPA4210 (2018) Page 5

where ρ is the resistivity. Use this to show that the potential difference across a length L of such
material, with cross-sectional area A and carrying current I, satisfies

∆V = IR,

where
ρL
R= .
A

Bookwork. The potential difference ∆V across a length L of conductor is given by

∆V = EL = ρJL.

Furthermore, the current density is given by

I
J= ,
A
where I is the current and A is the cross-sectional area of the wire. Thus we have
ρL
∆V = I,
A
which is the desired result.

[5 marks]

Question A10

A vector field is given by  

x y
f~ = , − 2, 0 .
y2 x
What is its divergence, as a function of position? Could this represent a magnetic field?
Unseen problem. The divergence is given by

∂fx ∂fy ∂fz

∇ · f~ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ x ∂  y
= + − 2
∂x y 2 ∂y x
1 1
= 2 − 2.
y x

This is non-zero, and thus the field f~(~x) cannot represent a magnetic field: the divergence of any
magnetic field must be zero, corresponding to the fact that there are no magnetic monopoles in
nature.

[5 marks]
Page 6 SPA4210 (2018)

SECTION B Answer TWO questions from Section B

Question B1

a) One of Maxwell’s equations in differential form is given by

~
~ = µ0 J~ + µ0 0 ∂ E ,
∇×B
∂t
where B~ is the magnetic field, 0 and µ0 the permittivity and permeability of free space, and
~
J the current density. Briefly explain the origin of the second term.
Bookwork. The second term corresponds to the displacement current, that was introduced
by Maxwell in order to patch up Ampere’s law i.e. to ensure a current that is conserved
everywhere.

[3 marks]

b) The remaining Maxwell equations are given by

ρ ~
∂B
~ =
∇·E , ~ =−
∇×E , ~ = 0,
∇·B
0 ∂t

where ρ is the charge density and E ~ the electric field. What do all the Maxwell equations
(including that of part (a)) reduce to in a vacuum?
Bookwork, but also straightforward. In a vacuum, there are no charges and currents, and
thus ρ = 0 and J~ = ~0. The complete set of Maxwell equations is then
~ = 0;
∇·E
~
∇×E ~ = − ∂B ;
∂t
~
∇ · B = 0;
~
∇×B ~ = µ0 0 ∂ E .
∂t

[2 marks]

c) By using the identity

∇ × (∇ × V~ ) = ∇(∇ · V~ ) − ∇2 V~
(valid for any vector V~ ), show that the vacuum Maxwell equations imply that
~ = −∇2 E.
∇ × (∇ × E) ~

Similar to material presented in lectures. One has

~ = ∇(∇ · E)
∇ × (∇ × E) ~ − ∇2 E.
~
SPA4210 (2018) Page 7

~ = 0, and thus one finds

The first term vanishes due to the vacuum Maxwell equation ∇ · E
~ = −∇2 E.
∇ × (∇ × E) ~

[4 marks]

d) ~ show also that

By considering the Maxwell equation for ∇ × E,

~
∂ 2E
~ = −µ0 0
∇ × (∇ × E) .
∂t2
[4 marks]

Similar to material presented in lectures. One has

!
~
∂B
~ =∇×
∇ × (∇ × E) −
∂t
∂ ~
=− ∇×B
∂t
~
∂ 2E
= −µ0 0 2 ,
∂t
where we have used the fact that partial derivatives with respect to space and time variables
commute.

e) Hence show that

~
1 ∂ 2E
~ =
∇2 E ,
c2 ∂t2
where you should state the value of c.

[3 marks]

Similar to material presented in lectures. Upon equating the two expressions found for
∇ × (∇ × E)~ in the previous two parts, we find

~
∂ 2E
~ = −µ0 0
−∇2 E ,
∂t2
and thus
~
1 ∂ 2E 1
~ =
∇2 E , c= √ .
c2 ∂t2 µ0 0

f) Similarly, show that

~
1 ∂ 2B
~ =
∇2 B .
c2 ∂t2
[7 marks]
Page 8 SPA4210 (2018)

Similar to material presented in lectures. One has

~ = ∇(∇ · B)
∇ × (∇ × B) ~ − ∇2 B
~ = −∇2 B,
~

~ = 0. We also have
where the second equality follows from the Maxwell equation ∇ · B
!
∂ ~
E
~ = ∇ × µ0 0
∇ × (∇ × B)
∂t
∂ ~
= µ0 0 ∇×E
∂t
~
∂ 2B
= −µ0 0 2 .
∂t
Equating the two expressions gives
~
∂ 2B
~ = −µ0 0
−∇2 B
∂t2
which leads immediately to the desired result.
g) What do solutions of the equations obtained in parts (e) and (f) represent?
[2 marks]
Similar to material presented in lectures. The equations we have obtained are the wave
equations for the electric and magnetic fields. Solutions thus represent electromagnetic
waves.
Question B2

a) The flux through an inductor with inductance L carrying current I is given by

ΦB = LI.
Using Faraday’s law, show that the potential difference across the inductor is given by
dI
∆VL = L .
dt
[5 marks]
Bookwork. Faraday’s law implies that an EMF is induced in the inductor, given by
dΦB dI
E =− = −L ,
dt dt
where in the second equality we have used the definition of the inductance. The minus sign
in this equation (from Lenz’s law) implies that the induced EMF acts against the applied
current, thus tries to stop it from flowing. To overcome this (i.e. so that current can indeed
flow), there must be an opposite potential difference across the inductor i.e.
dI
∆V = L .
dt
SPA4210 (2018) Page 9

Figure 3: A circuit containing an inductor and capacitor in series, where L and C are the induc-
tance and capacitance respectively.

b) Consider the circuit shown in figure 3, containing an inductor and capacitor in series. Ex-
plain why
∆VL + ∆VC = 0,
where ∆VL and ∆VC are the potential differences across the inductor and capacitor respec-
tively.

[2 marks]

Unseen. This follows from Kirchoff’s voltage law, which states that the total potential dif-
ference around any closed loop of a circuit is zero (this itself follows from the conservative
nature of the electric field).

c) If Q(t) is the charge on the left-hand capacitor plate at time t, show that the condition in
part (b) implies the differential equation

d2 Q(t) 1
= −ω 2 Q(t), ω2 = .
dt2 LC
[6 marks]

Bookwork, but can also be straightforwardly derived if unseen. The potential difference
across the capacitor is given by
Q
∆VC = ,
C
using the definition of capacitance. Then the condition of part (b) becomes

dI Q
L + = 0.
dt C
Now we may use the conservation of charge, which says that in time dt the charge built up
on the left-hand capacitor plate must be

dQ = Idt,
Page 10 SPA4210 (2018)

where I is the current. Thus, we have

dQ
I= ,
dt
such that the above equation for I becomes

d2 Q Q
L + = 0.
dt2 C
Rearranging gives the desired differential equation.

d) Show that
Q(t) = Q0 cos(ωt)
is a solution of the equation obtained in part (c), satisfying

Q(t = 0) = Q0 , I(t = 0) = I0 ,

where I(t) is the current, and you should give the value of I0 .

[5 marks]

Unseen. One has

d2 Q d
2
= [−ω sin(ωt)] = −ω 2 cos(ωt) = −ω 2 Q
dt dt
as required. Furthermore, Q(0) = Q0 , and one has

I(t) = −ω sin(ωt) ⇒ I(0) = 0,

and thus I0 = 0.

e) Sketch the behaviour of the charge and the current as a function of time.

[4 marks]

Unseen. The charge curve will be a pure cosine with period T = 2π/ω, and amplitude Q0 .
The current curve will be a pure negative sine function, with amplitude ωQ0 , and the same
period as before.

f) For an inductance of 1H and a capacitance of 1F, what is the earliest time after t = 0 at
which the charge is again given by Q0 ?

[3 marks]

Unseen. The earliest time will be t = T , where

2π √
T = = 2π LC.
ω
is the period. Plugging in the numbers gives t ' 6.28s.

Question B3
SPA4210 (2018) Page 11

a) A segment of wire of (vector) length d~l is placed in a magnetic field B. ~ By considering a

~
charge dQ with drift velocity ~vd that traverses dl in time dt, show that the segment feels a
magnetic force
dF~B = Id~l × B,
~
where I is the current.
[4 marks]
Bookwork. The Lorentz force on the charge dQ is given by

dF~B = dQ~vd × B.
~

One has dQ = Idt, and thus

dQ~vd = Idt~vd = Id~l.
This in turn implies
dF~B = Id~l × B.
~

b) Consider two infinite straight wires separated by a perpendicular distance d, and carrying
currents I1 and I2 . Using the result of part (a), show that the force per unit length experi-
enced by either wire has magnitude
dFB µ0 I1 I2
= .
dl 2πd
Is this force attractive or repulsive?
[8 marks]
Similar to material presented in lectures. The magnetic field a distance d from a current
carrying wire is given by (n.b. students may derive this using Ampere’s law)
µ0 I
B= .
2πd
Thus, the magnetic field experienced by a segment of wire 1 due to wire 2 is
µ0 I2
B2 = .
2πd
This field is perpendicular to the wire segment, and thus gives rise to a force on the segment
of magnitude
µ0 I1 I2 dl dFB µ0 I1 I2
dFB = I1 B2 = , ⇒ = .
2πd dl 2πd
A similar derivation can be used for the force per unit length of the other wire. Careful
application of the right-hand rule indicates that the force is attractive for like currents, and
repulsive for opposite currents.
c) A current of 1A is defined such that if this current is carried by each of two parallel wires
separated by a distance of 1m, a force of 2 × 10−7 N per unit length is experienced by each
wire. What value does this imply for the permeability of free space in SI units?
Page 12 SPA4210 (2018)

[3 marks]
Unseen. Plugging the numbers into the result of part (b), one finds the condition
µ0
= 2 × 10−7
2π
in SI units, and thus µ0 is exactly 4π × 10−7 .
d) Consider now the case of an infinite uniformly charged wire, which carries no current. Use
Gauss’ Law to show that the electric field a perpendicular distance d from the wire is given
by
λ
E= ,
2π0 d
where λ is the charge per unit length. Which direction does the field point in?
[5 marks]
Unseen. One may draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius d and length L coaxial
with the wire. By symmetry, the electric field points radially outwards from the wire and only
depends on the perpendicular distance. Thus, the only non-zero flux is through the curved
part of the cylinder, and is straightforwardly given by the magnitude E of the electric field,
times the area of the surface:
ΦE = (2πdL)E.
The total charge enclosed by this surface is given by Q = λL, and thus Gauss’ Law
Q
ΦE =
0
implies
λL
2πdLE = .
0
Rearranging gives the desired result.
e) Hence show that a similar charged wire placed a distance d from the first experiences an
electric force per unit length
dFE λ2
= .
dl 2π0 d
What value of λ corresponds to this electric force being equal to the magnetic force expe-
rienced by two wires each carrying 1A of current?
[5 marks]
A segment dQ = λdl of the first wire experiences an electric field
λ
E=
2π0 d
due to the second wire. This gives rise to a force of magnitude
dFE λ2
dFE = EdQ = Eλdl ⇒ = .
dl 2π0 d
SPA4210 (2018) Page 13

For this to be equal to the magnetic force above implies the condition

µ0 I 2 λ2
= ⇒ λ2 = µ0 0 I 2 .
2πd 2π0 d

Plugging in the numbers gives λ = 3.33 × 10−9 Cm−1 .

Question B4

The energy density carried by the electromagnetic field is given by

1 ~ 2 1 ~ 2
u = 0 |E| + |B| ,
2 2µ0

~ and B
where E ~ are the electric and magnetic fields respectively.

a) Show that, for a point charge Q, the total field energy outside a sphere of radius r0 sur-
rounding the charge is
Q2
U= .
8π0 r0
[7 marks]

Unseen. The electric field of a point charge has magnitude

Q
E=
4π0 r2

a distance r from the charge, and points radially outwards. Then the total field energy in
the region described is given by
Z
1
U = d3~x 0 E 2
2
Z ∞
1
= 0 4π r2 E 2 ,
2 r0

where we have used the spherical symmetry of the electric field, and used the fact that the
magnetic field is zero. Plugging in the form of E gives
Z ∞  2
2 Q
U = 2π0 r
r0 4π0 r2
Z ∞
Q2 1
=
8π0 r0 r2
 ∞
Q2 1
= −
8π0 r r0
Q2
= .
8π0 r0
Page 14 SPA4210 (2018)

b) Show that, for an infinite current-carrying wire, the total field energy per unit length in the
annular prism defined by a < R < b (where R is the perpendicular distance from the wire)
is given by
µ0 I 2
 
b
U= ln .
4π a
[7 marks]

Unseen. Now the electric field is zero, and thus one can obtain the field energy by integrat-
ing the magnetic term only. One has
Z
1
U= d3~xB 2 .
2µ0

The magnetic field is constant on a cylindrical shell coaxial with the wire, of length L,
thickness dR and radius R. The volume of such a shell is

dV = 2πRLdR,

and thus we may write the volume integral in the desired region as
Z b
1
U= 2πL dRRB 2 .
2µ0 a

The magnitude of the magnetic field is given by

µ0 I
B= ,
2πR
which gives a total field energy per unit length of wire
Z b  2
U 1 µ0 I
= dRR
L 2µ0 a 2πR
2 Z b
µ0 I dR
=
4π a R
µ0 I 2
 
b
= ln
4π a

as required.

c) An electromagnetic plane wave travelling in the +x direction has nonzero electric and mag-
netic field components given by

E0
Ey = E0 cos(ωt − kx), Bz = cos(ωt − kx),
c
√
where ω and k are constants, and c = 1/ µ0 0 is the speed of light. Show that the energy
densities carried by the electric and magnetic fields are the same.

[5 marks]
SPA4210 (2018) Page 15

Similar to example given in lectures. The energy density in the electric field is
1 ~ 2 0 E02
0 |E| = cos2 (ωt − kx).
2 2
The energy density in the magnetic field is given by
1 ~ 2 1 E02 2 0 E02
|B| = cos (ωt − kx) = cos2 (ωt − kx),
2µ0 2µ0 c2 2
√
where we have used c = 1/ µ0 0 . This is the same as the energy density of the electric
field.
d) For the wave of part (c), we may define the Poynting vector
~= 1E
S ~ × B.
~
µ0
Show that this vector points in the direction of travel of the wave, and that its magnitude
represents the intensity (i.e. the energy transmitted per unit time, per unit cross-section
area).
[6 marks]
Similar to example given in lectures. One has
~ ∝ ~j × ~k = ~i,
~ ×B
E
and thus the Poynting vector points in the +x direction, namely the direction that the wave
is travelling in. The magnitude of the Poynting vector is given by

~ = 1 ~ ~ E2
|S| |E||B| = 0 cos2 (ωt − kx)
µ0 µ0 c
in this case. That this is the intensity can be seen as follows. In time dt a wavefront with
cross-sectional area A sweeps out a volume
dV = Acdt,
where c is the speed of light. This has an associated energy
dU = Acudt,
and thus the intensity is given by
1 dU
I= = cu = c0 E02 cos2 (ωt − kx).
A dt
This is equal to the above result upon using the definition of c.

You may wish to use the following information:

Charge of an electron −e = −1.6 × 10−19 C

Vacuum permittivity 0 = 8.8510−12 C/(V·m)
1
4π0
' 9 109 (V·m)/C