Electronics Lab Assignment #4

Instructor: Hazem Daher

Course: Electronics I Lab – ELE 402
Tuesday – Section 31

98/100

Vanessa Hanna 202101114

Valerie Naufal 202100831
Hassan Tfaily 202105815
Date of Submission: 14/03/2023
Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
Experiment 1: Diode Circuit with DC Power Supply ......................................................... 6
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
Material used ................................................................................................................... 6
Procedure ......................................................................................................................... 6
Circuit assembly: ......................................................................................................... 6
Tabulating The Results: ............................................................................................... 7
Analysis of the results: ................................................................................................ 7
Plotting I versus 𝑉𝐷 ..................................................................................................... 8
After switching the direction of the diode: .................................................................. 9
Modeling the diode: ..................................................................................................... 9
Experiment 2: Diode Circuit with AC & DC Power supplies ........................................... 10
Connecting only DC voltage ..................................................................................... 10
Connecting AC voltage ............................................................................................. 10
After changing R1 from 1kΩ to 330Ω. ...................................................................... 12
Adding a potentiometer ............................................................................................. 13
Research............................................................................................................................. 14
Properties ....................................................................................................................... 14
Applications ................................................................................................................... 15
Pros and Cons ................................................................................................................ 16
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 17
References ......................................................................................................................... 18
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Schematic of circuit 1 .......................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: The variation of the current with respect to Vd ................................................... 8
Figure 3: Modeling a diode using a resistor and a voltage source. ..................................... 9
Figure 4: Diodes with AC & DC Power Supplies ............................................................. 10
Figure 5: Visualizing Vin and Vout when R=1kΩ ............................................................ 11
Figure 6: Visualizing Vin and Vout when R=330Ω .......................................................... 12
Figure 7: The variation of Vout with respect to Iout ......................................................... 13
Figure 8: Structure of a diode [2] ...................................................................................... 14
Figure 9: Atomic composition of silicon and germanium ................................................. 14
Table of Tables
Table 1: Measured values of the voltages in circuit 1 ......................................................... 7
Table 2: The variation of Vout and Iout as R decreases ................................................... 13
Introduction
This experiment introduces diodes, along with their characteristics, and different
configurations. Diodes are electronic devices that act as switches. The most prominent
property is that it allows the current to flow from only one direction and blocks the
current flowing from the other direction.

The lab covers the configuration of a voltage regulator using diodes, as we start by
connecting a DC supply to the diode and record the results, and then connect an AC
supply and record the results. In addition, analyzing the results and comparing them to
theoretical results.

Finally, research was conducted to discover the differences of a silicon diode, and
a germanium diode, along with the structure and uses of each one.
Experiment 1: Diode Circuit with DC Power Supply 35/35

Introduction
The main purpose of this experiment is to find the maximum DC voltage that the
diode can withstand by increasing the voltage source. The source voltage value was
constantly shifted by a value that will increase the value of the diode by 50 mV. The
maximum is reached when VD remains constant, as the source voltage continues to
increase.

Material used
a. Diodes
b. DC power supply Include the equipment in the intro instead
c. Resistor 𝑅𝐿 = 1kΩ
d. Measuring probes
e. DMM

Procedure
Circuit assembly:

Figure 1: Schematic of circuit 1

Measured 𝑅𝐿 = 0.989 kΩ
Tabulating The Results:
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝑜
𝐼= =
𝑅𝐿 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑅
Table 1: Measured values of the voltages in circuit 1

𝑉𝑠 (𝑉) 𝑉𝐷 (mV) 𝑉𝑜 (mV) Calculated I (A)

0 0 0 0
0.05 50 0.04 4.04 x 10-8
0.1 99.5 0.015 1.51 x 10-8
0.150 150.36 0.05 5.06 x 10-8
0.200 200.21 0.18 1.82 x 10-7
0.25 249.7 0.62 6.87 x 10-7
0.3 297 2.18 2.20 x 10-6
0.359 350.7 8.6 8.69 x 10-6
0.433 400.66 31.8 3.2 x 10-5
0.559 449.7 109.5 1.11 x 10-4
0.849 500.7 347 3.5 x 10-4
1.538 550.86 957 9.67 x 10-4
3.336 600.02 2736 2.76 x 10-3
8.4 650.77 7750 7.84 x 10-3
22.1 699.99 21400 21.63 x 10-3

Analysis of the results:

The table above can be split into two regions: When the diode is conducting
(forward bias) and when the diode is not conducting (reverse bias).

Approximately, from VS = 0V to VS=0.359V, the voltage at the diode is equal to

Vs (acting as an open circuit) and the current in the circuit is close to 0. A very small
breakdown current passes through the diode to the resistor.

When VS increases above 0.559V, the current in the circuit starts increasing
rapidly. And after VS = 3.336V, the increase of voltage around the diode is minimal with
respect to the increase of the source voltage. Simultaneously, the current keeps increasing
while the voltage around the diode remains around 0.6, 0.65, and 0.7 V. (forward bias
region).
 After reaching this maximum value of 0.699 V, the diode can be modeled as a
voltage source with the positive terminal at the anode, and the negative terminal at the
cathode of the diode.

Plotting I versus 𝑉𝐷

Figure 2: The variation of the current with respect to Vd

The plot shows the exponential relation between VD and I.

𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1)
This formula explains the behavior of the current in terms of VD. As VD is still below the
voltage drop of the diode, and ID = IS approximately. (IS is very small)
After reaching a certain threshold in the diode, the current will be approximated to:
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
from which we can explain the exponential characteristic of the plot.
After switching the direction of the diode:
𝑉𝐷 = −8.43𝑉 𝑉𝑆 = 8.5𝑉 𝑉𝑅𝐿 = 0.0001𝑚𝑉
The voltage drop at the diode is equal to the source voltage. The diode in this case is
acting as an open circuit. (Reverse bias region) Since 𝑉𝑅𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝐷 where 𝑉𝐷 = −𝑉𝑠
(using KVL), 𝑉𝑅𝐿 = 0 theoretically and proven practically to be very close to 0.

Modeling the diode:

If the diode was operating in the range of [600;650mV] then the nominal value of
V=625mV.
8.4 + 3.33
𝑉𝑆𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = = 5.865𝑉
2
Using KVL:
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐷 5.24
𝐼𝐷 = = = 5.29𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 0.989𝑘
The equivalent resistance of the diode is:
𝑉𝑇 25𝑚
𝑟𝐷 = = = 4.72Ω
𝐼𝐷 5.29

Figure 3: Modeling a diode using a resistor and a voltage source.

Experiment 2: Diode Circuit with AC & DC Power supplies 43/45

Figure 4: Diodes with AC & DC Power Supplies

Measured R1 = 0.989 kΩ

Connecting only DC voltage

After connecting V1= 5V DC to the circuit, we obtain:

Vout =1.26V and Id =3.76 mA

After connecting a load of R=750Ω, I(load)=1.616 mA and V=1.22 V

Load Regulation:
∆Vo 1.22 − 1.26
= ( ) = 18.66Ω
∆I 1.616 − 3.76
Connecting AC voltage
Additional AC power supply V2 (1Vpp and 100Hz frequency) is connected in series with
the DC power supply and the load was disconnected.

Vout is connected to channel 2 and Vin is connected to channel 1, we observe the

following waveforms:
 Figure 5: Visualizing Vin and Vout when R=1kΩ

Vout (DC) = 1.269V.

Line Regulation:

∆Vo 0.257
=( ) = 0.24𝑣/𝑣
∆Vin 1.09
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 5 − 1.269
𝐼= = = 3.77 𝑚𝐴
𝑅1 0.989𝑘
𝑉𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 25
𝑅𝑑 = = = 6.63Ω
𝐼𝑑𝑐 3.77
Vthermal =25 mV at room temperature.
After changing R1 from 1kΩ to 330Ω.

Figure 6: Visualizing Vin and Vout when R=330Ω

Line Regulation
∆Vo 265
= ( ) = 0.27𝑣/𝑣
∆Vin 980

After changing R1, line regulation is approximately equal in both cases, yet Rd decreases
𝑉1− 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
as Id increases (Id = ). Therefore, R1 does not affect the line regulation.
330
Adding a potentiometer
The AC power supply is disconnected and R1 is changed back to 1kΩ, an additional 1k
potentiometer is connected in series with a 100Ω resistor at V out

Table 2: The variation of Vout and Iout as R decreases

700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100
Rout

1.22 1.21 1.20 1.21 1.18 1.17 1.14 1.12 1.06 0.97 0.83 0.66 0.46
Vout(V)

1.74 1.85 2.02 2.19 2.37 2.59 2.87 3.17 3.52 3.92 4.18 4.38 4.59
Iout(mA)

The variation of voltage with respect to current

1.4

1.2

0.8
Vout(V)

0.6 Y-Values

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Iout(mA)

Figure 7: The variation of Vout with respect to Iout

From the above graph, as Rout decreases, V decreases indicating that the diode is
turning off. However, when Vout is constant, this indicates that the diodes are on, so
approximately VD0 is half Vout (when Vout is constant) thus VD0≈1.2/2≈ 0.6V

VD0 is where we observed the exponential drop, around 1V in your case (-2)
Research
Diodes are electronic devices used in circuits to allow the flow of current in only
one direction. They are mainly made up of one of two semiconductors: silicon or
germanium. They function in similar ways; however, the composition and the purpose
differ. [5]

Figure 8: Structure of a diode [2]

Properties
The basic structure of silicon and germanium diodes is very similar. Both are
composed of p-type and n-type material that are joined together to form a p-n junction.
This junction is what gives diodes the basic property of blocking current flow in the
reverse direction. The atomic composition (number of electrons) of each silicon and
germanium is what gives them their properties.

Figure 9: Atomic composition of silicon and germanium

 The functions and properties of the germanium and silicon diodes is what
differentiates them. Silicon diodes usually have a higher forward voltage drop than that of
germanium diodes. Meaning, silicon diodes require a higher voltage to turn the chip on
and start functioning. A silicon diode usually has a forward voltage of 0.6-0.7V, while a
germanium diode requires 0.2-0.3V to function. The higher the forward voltage of a
diode, the less current leakage there will be. Moreover, as the forward voltage increases,
the width of the depletion region decreases. [2]

Silicon diodes have a lower reverse leakage current than germanium diodes.
Meaning germanium diodes may allow more current to flow in the opposite direction
than silicon diodes (while functioning under the same conditions). When it comes to high
temperatures, germanium diodes tend to have less stability, and more sensitivity. As
temperature increases, the electrical properties of germanium diodes are more likely to
change than those of silicon diodes. [2]

Silicon diodes tend to have a high Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) than germanium
diodes. A PIV of a diode is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand before
breakdown in the reverse direction. Lastly, germanium diodes are better suited for low-
frequency applications, while silicon diodes are better suited for higher frequency
applications. [2]

Applications
Silicon diodes are commonly used as rectifiers, to convert AC to DC voltage. This
may be used to convert AC voltage from outlets for appliances that require DC voltage.
In addition, they are used as voltage regulators, to maintain a steady output voltage.
Silicon diodes may be used for protecting devices from high voltages. As observed in the
previous conducted experiment, the diode used was a 1N4001, which is categorized as a
silicon diode, and it was used a s a voltage regulator, and a converter. Nevertheless, the
germanium diode is used for measuring temperatures, due to its high sensitivity to
temperature change. Moreover, they may be used as radio receivers that can detect AM
radio signals. [6]
Pros and Cons
On one hand, the silicon diode has more thermal stability, lower current leakage,
and higher breakdown voltage which allows it to withstand higher voltages before
breakdown. In addition, it is said to have high reliability, which means it has a longer
lifespan thana germanium diode. However, it tends to consume more power than
germanium diodes due to the higher forward voltage, and it has a slow switch speed. [4]

On the other hand, germanium diodes have lower forward voltage, which makes
them good for low-power applications. Also, they have a fast switch speed, and a high
sensitivity, which allows them to detect weak signals better than silicon diodes. However,
germanium diodes have a shorter lifespan, higher current leakage, and high thermal
sensitivity, as well as a low breakdown voltage which creates more error. [4]

Overall, the silicon diode has more applications in electronic devices, and it is
known to be cheaper. Though, each diode is used for a specific application, depending on
the needs of said application.
Conclusion
Overall, this experiment covered the implementation of diodes in different
configurations. First, it was exposed to a DC voltage input, and the variation of voltage
was recorded, as the voltage across the diode was varied. Second, the diode was exposed
to an AC voltage in addition to the DC voltage, and the variations were recorded when
the load resistance was being varied. It can be concluded that diodes work in a forward
bias, allowing current to flow in one direction, and acts as a voltage regulator, that
converts AC voltage to DC voltage. Lastly, a short research was conducted concerning
the difference between silicon and germanium diodes.
References

[1] S. (2022, April 8). Why Silicon is Preferred over Germanium? Electrical Volt.
https://www.electricalvolt.com/2022/04/why-silicon-is-preferred-over-germanium/

[2] What is a Diode? (2016, October 31). What Is a Diode? | Fluke.

https://www.fluke.com/en/learn/blog/electrical/what-is-a-diode

[3] Easy Tech Junkie. (2023, February 22). Easy Tech Junkie.
http://www.easytechjunkie.com/what-is-a-germanium-diode.htm

[4] M. (2022, September 22). What is the Difference Between Silicon Diode and
Germanium Diode | Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. Compare the
Difference Between Similar Terms. https://www.differencebetween.com/what-is-
the-difference-between-silicon-diode-and-germanium-diode/

[5] What is Diode - Definition, Diode Symbol, Types of Diode, Characteristics,

Applications and FAQs. (2020, September 25). BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/physics/diodes/

[6] Uses of diode With Its Applications in Practical World | BYJU’S. (n.d.). BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/physics/uses-of-diode/