A BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
1st Edition

Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.
Keep in mind that an investment in knowledge pays the best interest. Never
stop learning.

Paul Ntsinyi
[email protected]
Voltage Dividers

Voltage Dividers
Voltage Divider circuits are used to produce different voltage levels from a common voltage
source, but the current is the same for all components in a series circuit
Voltage Dividers are useful in providing different voltage levels from a common supply
voltage. This common supply can be a single supply either positive or negative, for example,
+5V, +12V, -5V or -12V, etc. with respect to a common point or ground, usually 0V, or it could
be across a dual supply, for example ±5V, or ±12V, etc.
Voltage dividers are also known as potential dividers, because the unit of voltage, the “Volt”
represents the amount of potential difference between two points. A voltage or potential
divider is a simple passive circuit that takes advantage of the effect of voltages being dropped
across components which are connected in series.
The potentiometer, which is a variable resistor with a sliding contact, is the most basic
example of a voltage divider as we can apply a voltage across its terminals and produce an
output voltage in proportion to the mechanical position of its sliding contact. But we can also
make voltage dividers using individual resistors, capacitors and inductors as they are two-
terminal components which can be connected in series.

Resistive Voltage Dividers

The simplest, easiest to understand, and most basic form of a passive voltage divider network
is that of two resistors connected in series. This basic combination allows us to use the Voltage
Divider Rule to calculate the voltage drops across each series resistor.

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

Resistive Voltage Dividers

Here the circuit consists of two resistors connected in series: R1, and R2. Since the two
resistors are connected in series, it must therefore follow that the same value of electric
current must flow through each resistive element of the circuit as it has nowhere else to go.
Thus, providing an I*R voltage drop across each resistive element.
With a supply or source voltage, VS applied across this series combination, we can apply
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, (KVL) and using Ohm’s Law to find the voltage dropped across each
resistor derived in terms of the common current flowing through them. So, solving for the
current (I) flowing through the series network gives us:

The current flowing through the series network is simply I = V/R following Ohm’s Law. Since
the current is common to both resistors, (IR1 = IR2) we can calculate the voltage dropped across
resistor, R2 in the above series circuit as being:

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Likewise for resistor R1 as being:

Voltage Dividers Example No1

How much current will flow through a 20Ω resistor connected in series with a 40Ω resistor
when the supply voltage across the series combination is 12 volts dc. Also calculate the
voltage drop produced across each resistor.

Each resistance provides an I*R voltage drop which is proportionally equal to its resistive value
across the supply voltage. Using the voltage divider ratio rule, we can see that the largest
resistor produces the largest I*R voltage drop. Thus, R1 = 4V and R2 = 8V. Applying Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law shows that the sum of the voltage drops around the resistive circuit is exactly
equal to the supply voltage, as 4V + 8V = 12V.
Note that if we use two resistors of equal value, that is R1 = R2, then the voltage dropped
across each resistor would be exactly half the supply voltage for two resistances in series as
the voltage divider ratio would equal 50%.
Another use of a voltage divider network is that to produce a variable voltage output. If we
replace resistor R2 with a variable resistor (potentiometer), then the voltage dropped across

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R2 and therefore VOUT can be controlled by an amount dependant on the position of the
potentiometer’s wiper and therefore the ratio of the two resistive values as we have one fixed
and one variable resistor. Potentiometers, trimmers, rheostats and variacs are all examples
of variable voltage division devices.
We could also take this idea of variable voltage division one step further by replacing the fixed
resistor R2 with a sensor such as a light dependent resistor, or LDR. Thus as the resistive value
of the sensor changes with changes in light levels, the output voltage VOUT also changes by a
proportional amount. Thermistors and strain gauges are other examples of resistive sensors.
Since the two voltage division expressions above relate to the same common current,
mathematically they must therefore be related to each other. So for any number of individual
resistors forming a series network, the voltage dropped across any given resistor is given as:

Voltage Dividers Equation

Where: VR(x) is the voltage drop across the resistor, RX is the value of the resistor, and RT is the
total resistance of the series network. This voltage divider equation can be used for any
number of series resistances connected because of the proportional relationship between
each resistance, R and its corresponding voltage drop, V. Note however, that this equation is
given for an unloaded voltage divider network without any additional resistive load connected
or parallel branch currents.

Voltage Dividers Example No2

Three resistive elements of 6kΩ, 12kΩ and 18kΩ are connected together in series across a 36
volt supply. Calculate, the total resistance, the value of the current flowing around the circuit,
and the voltage drops across each resistor.
Data given: VS = 36 volts, R1 = 6kΩ, R2 = 12kΩ and R3 = 18kΩ

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Voltage Dividers Circuit

The voltage drops across all three resistors should add up to the supply voltage as defined by
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). So the sum of the voltage drops is: VT = 6 V + 12 V + 18 V = 36.0
V the same value of the supply voltage, VS and so is correct. Again, notice that the largest
resistor produces the largest voltage drop.

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

Voltage Tapping Points in a Divider Network

Consider a long series of resistors connected to a voltage source, VS. Along the series network
there are different voltage tapping points, A, B, C, D, and E.
The total series resistance can be found by simply adding together the individual series
resistance values giving a total resistance, RT value of 15kΩ. This resistive value will limit the
flow of current through the circuit produced by the supply voltage, VS.
The individual voltage drops across the resistors are found using the equations above, so VR1
= VAB, VR2 = VBC, VR3 = VCD, and VR4 = VDE.
The voltage levels at each tapping point is measured with respect to ground (0V). Thus, the
voltage level at point D will be equal to VDE, and the voltage level at point C will be equal to
VCD + VDE. In other words, the voltage at point C is the sum of the two voltage drops across R3
and R4.
So hopefully we can see that by choosing a suitable set of resistive values, we can produce a
sequence of voltage drops which will have a proportional voltage value obtained from a single
supply voltage. Note also that in this example each output voltage point will be positive in
value because the negative terminal of the voltage supply, VS is grounded.
Voltage Dividers Example No3
1. Calculate the no load voltage output for each tapping point of the voltage divider circuit
above if the series-connected resistive network is connected to a 15 volt DC supply.

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2. Calculate the noload voltage output from between points B and E.

A Negative and Positive Voltage Divider

In the simple voltage divider circuit above all the output voltages are referenced from a
common zero-voltage ground point, but sometimes it is necessary to produce both positive
and negative voltages from a single source voltage supply. For example, the different voltage
levels from a computer PSU, -12V, +3.3V, +5V and +12V, with respect to a common reference
ground terminal.
Voltage Divider Example No4
Using Ohm’s Law, find the values of resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 required to produce the voltage
levels of -12V, +3.3V, +5V and +12V if the total power supplied to the unloaded voltage divider
circuit is 24 volts DC, 60 watts.

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

In this example, the zero-voltage ground reference point has been moved to produce the
required positive and negative voltages, while maintaining the voltage divider network across
the supply. Thus, the four voltages are all measured with respect to this common reference
point resulting in point D being at the required negative potential of -12V with respect to
ground.
We have seen so far that series resistive circuits can be used to create a voltage divider, or
potential divider network which can be widely used in electronic circuits. By selecting
appropriate values for the series resistances, any value of output voltage can be obtained
which is lower than the input or supply voltage. But as well as using resistances and a DC
supply voltage to create a resistive voltage divider network, we can also use capacitors (C) and
inductors (L), but with a sinusoidal AC supply as capacitors and inductors are reactive
components, meaning that their resistance “reacts” against the flow of electric current.

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

Exercises

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi
Transistor as a switch
NPN Transistor

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

PNP Transistor

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

 1

Inputs Transistors Output

A B 1 2 3 4 Q
0 0 On Off On Off 1
0 1 On On Off Off 0
1 0 Off Off On On 0
1 1 Off On Off On 1

Thus: XNOR GATE

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 5

Inputs Transistors Output

A B 1 2 3 4 5 Q
0 0 On Off On Off On 0
0 1 On On Off Off Off 1
1 0 Off Off On On Off 1
1 1 Off On Off On On 0

Thus: XOR GATE

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 3

Input Transistors Output

A B 1 2 3 Q
0 0 Off Off On 0
0 1 Off On Off 1
1 0 On Off Off 1
1 1 On On Off 1

Thus: OR GATE

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

 3

Input Transistors Output

A B 1 2 3 Q
0 0 Off Off On 0
0 1 Off On On 0
1 0 On Off On 0
1 1 On On Off 1

Thus: AND GATE

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi

 2

Inputs Transistors Output

A 1 2 Q
0 Off On 0
1 On Off 1

Thus: Buffer

A beginner's guide to electronic circuits Paul Ntsinyi