PART 11

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

I. WELDING SYSTEMS

WELDING
 The process of joining metals usually by heat or sometimes with pressure and
sometimes with an intermediate or filler material with high melting point

1. BASIC INTERVALS

a. Squeeze Interval
 Welding electrode comes forward and engage the metal pressing against the
surface
 Typical squeeze time is 1 sec

b. Weld Interval
 Welding transformer is energized, current flows and creates a weld
 On heat subinterval is a condition when the current is on
 On cool subinterval is when the current is off
 Typical duration (2 – 10 sec)

c. Hold Interval
 Weld interval is finished
 Electrode pressure is maintained

d. Release
 Welding electrode is retracted

e. Standby Interval
 The time after release interval to the next start sequence

2. POPULAR WELDING PROCESSES

a. Arc Welding
 It is simply the use of electric arc to provide heat
 Process of utilizing the concentrated heat of an electric arc to join metal by
fusion of the parent metal and the addition of metal to joint usually provided by
a consumable electrode.
 Either direct or alternating current may be used for the arc, depending upon the
material to be welded and the electrode used.

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 Various forms of arc welding includes electroslag welding, plasma arc welding,
gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding etc
TIG Welding
 Gas tungsten arc welding
 An arc is formed between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the metal
being welded.
 Some of its benefits includes superior quality welds, precise control of heat,
free of splatter and low distortion

MIG Welding
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Commonly used high deposition rate welding process.
 Referred to as a semiautomatic welding process.
 Benefits include all position capability, long weld can be made without start and
stops and minimal post weld cleaning is required

b. Solid State Welding

 Group of welding processes which produces coalescence at temperatures
essentially below the melting point of the base materials being joined, without
the addition of brazing filler metal.
 Pressure may or may not be used
 Sometimes called solid state bonding processes
 Includes cold welding, diffusion welding, explosion welding, forge welding,
friction welding, hot pressure welding, roll welding, and ultrasonic welding.

c. Resistance Welding
 uses the application of electric current and mechanical pressure to create a
weld between two pieces of metal
 Weld electrodes conduct the electric current to the two pieces of metal as they
are forged together.
 Some of its benefits include high speed, easily automated, suitable for high rate
production and it is economical
Spot Welding
 Resistance welding in which the weld is produced by the heat obtained at the
interface between the work pieces
Seam Welding
 Spots are very closed to each other that they overlap and make a continuous
seam weld
Upset Welding
 Resistance welding process applicable to small welding areas

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II. INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. ELECTRON TUBES

a. Thyratron
 A gas filled triode used as an electronic switch

b. Ignitron
 Electron tube containing mercury and function as a rectifier

2. THYRISTOR
 Solid state devices used as a switch in applications that handles larger voltage
and currents
 Have at least four semiconductor layers
 Regenerative switching devices and cannot operate in linear manner

a. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

 Most commonly used thyristor
 Three-terminal device used to control large currents to a load
 Four layer semiconductor device usually used in relay controls, time delay
circuits, regulated power supply and phase controls

Anode

Anode Cathode N
P
Gate
N
Gate

Cathode
Anode

Gate

Cathode

SCR Basic Construction and

Equivalent Circuit

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11-4 Industrial Electronics

IA VBR – break-over voltage

 Voltage through which SCR
starts to conduct when gate
current is zero

IH – holding current
 Anode current between the
conducting state and non-
conducting state
IH

VA
VBR

SCR CHARACTERISTICS CURVE

SCR Gate Characteristics

 SCR is fired by a short burst of current into the gate typically 0.1 – 50 mA

SCR’s Conduction Angle (CA)

 The anular degrees of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned on

SCR’s Firing Delay Angle (FDA)

 Angular degrees of an AC cycle that elapses before SCR is turned on

CA
FDA

Turning ON an SCR
 Apply enough gate triggering current
 Apply anode voltage equal to break-over voltage

Turning OFF an SCR

 Anode current interruption
 Forced commutation

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b. Triac
 Triode AC
 A three-terminal device used to control the average current flow to a load
 Can conduct current in either direction when it is turned on so it is called a
bidirectional triode thyristor
 Acts like two SCR’s connected in inverse parallel so that each SCR conducts
alternately for every half cycle of an AC signal
 Gated DIAC

Anode 2

Gate

Gate
Anode 1 Anode2

Anode1

TRIAC Schematic and Construction Diagram

Electrical Characteristics of Triac

1. Maximum Allowable Main Terminal RMS Current

 1A, 3A, 6A, 10A, 15A and 25A
2. Breakdown Voltage
 Highest main terminal peak voltage the triac can block in either direction
typically 100V, 200V, 400V and 600V
3. On Stage Voltage Across the Terminals
 Ideal value is 0V
 Typical value is 1 – 2V

Advantages of Triac over Mechanical Switches

 No contact bounce
 No arcing across partially opened contacts
 Operates much faster
 More precise control element

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3. BREAK-OVER DEVICES
 Small thyristors which do not switch the main load current
 Useful as triggering devices

a. Shockley Diode
 A 4-layer diode constructed like an SCR but without gate terminal
 Unilateral triggering device for SCR

Anode Cathode

Advantages of Shockley Diode over SCR

 Relatively independent of temperature
 Break-over voltage can be held consistent from one unit to another

b. Silicon Unilateral Switch

 Solid-state device that provides a positive pulse
 Also a 4-layer diode with a typical break-over voltage of 8 volts
 In terms of firing, it has faster rate than Shockley diode

Anode Cathode

Gate

c. DIAC
 Diode AC
 Constructed like a TRIAC but without a gate terminal
 Used as a trigger for TRIAC circuits
 Bilateral trigger diode
 Symmetrical trigger diode because its break-over voltage is close  32 Volts

DIAC’s Symbol

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-31.2

32 V

Characteristics Curve

d. Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

 A bilateral or bidirectional break-over device
 Two SUS connected back to back in parallel
 Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits
 Has lower break-over voltages than diacs

Anode 1

Anode 2

Gate

Advantages of SBSs over DIACs

 More vigorous switching characteristics
 More temperature stable

e. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

Anode

Anode Gate
(determine on and off)
Cathode Gate

Cathode

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 SCS turn off time is 1 – 10 μsec

 The higher the anode gate current, the lower the required anode to cathode
voltage to turn on device on
 To turn on the device, a negative pulse must be applied to the anode gate
terminal while a positive pulse is required to turn off the device

Advantages of SCS over SCR

 Reduced turn off time
 Increased control and triggering sensitivity for a more predictable firing situation

f. Gate Turn off Switch

Advantages
 Can be turned on or off by applying the proper pulse to the cathode gate,
required gate current for triggering is 20 mA
 Improve switching characteristics with a turn on time of 1 μsec and turn off time
of 1μsec

g. Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

 Break-over type switching device
 Double-based diode
 Semiconductor device consisting of thin silicon bar on which a pn junction
acting as emitter is formed near one end
 Operates in the negative resistance region

Applications
 Timers
 Oscillators
 Gate control circuits for SCRs and triacs
VE
Negative
peak resistance
base2 Vp
region

emitter

Vvalley valley
base1
IE
Ip Ivalley

Symbol Characteristics Curve

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Base2

RB2
Vdiode

E RB2 + RB1= RBB

= 5 – 10 Kohms

RB1

Base1

Equivalent Circuit
Intrinsic Stand-off ratio (η)
R B1
η=
R B1  R B2

Firing Potential (Vp)

 Necessary to fire the UJT
 Equal or greater than voltage across emitter and base1
Vp = ηVBB + Vdiode

h. Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)

 Similar operating characteristics as UJT
 Programmable because the internal resistances of UJT are external for PUT
and can be selected to a certain desired response

Anode

Anode
P
Gate N Gate
P
N
Cathode

Cathode

Symbol and PUT Basic Construction

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11-10 Industrial Electronics

III. SYNCHROS

1. SYNCHRO and its SYSTEM

 Synchro resembles a small electric motor in size as well as in appearance and
it operates like a variable motor
 Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and accurate transmission of data as
well as control device in servo systems

TERMINAL BOARD
BALL BEARING

STATOR
SHAFT
Salient Pole
EXTENSION
ROTOR
SYNCHRO
SYNCHRO
 Synchros are designed for use on either a 115 volt or a 26-volt power source.
 Operating frequencies includes either 60 or 400 Hz
 Electromagnetic theory forms the basis for all synchro operations

SYNCHRO SYSTEMS
 Consist of two or more synchros electrically connected

a. Torque Synchro System

 Uses torque synchros that are very functional in moving light loads
 Torque is simply a measure of how much load a machine can turn
 Consist of a torque transmitter electrically connected to a torque receiver

Correspondence
 The term given to the positions of the rotors of a synchro transmitter and a
synchro receiver when both rotors are on 0˚ by the same angle
Signal
 Defined as the angle through which a transmitter rotor is mechanically turned
and simply the transmitter’s mechanical input

b. Control Synchro Systems

 Uses control synchros to control servo systems

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 The servo system with the control synchro system is used to move heavy loads
and control large amount of power with high degree of accuracy
 Control Synchros are of different types including Control Transmitter, Control
Differential Transmitter and Control Transformer.

Control Transformer
 A synchro device that compares two signals, the electrical signal applied to its
stator and the mechanical signal applied to its rotor. Hence the output is an
electrical voltage taken from the rotor winding
 ERROR SIGNAL is the name given to the electrical output of the control
transformer
Synchro Capacitor
 A unit containing three delta connected capacitors
 Used in synchro systems containing either differential transmitters or control
transformers reduces the stator current and increases the accuracy of the
system

Delta-Connected
Synchro Capacitor

2. SYNCHRO STANDARDS

a. Military Standard
 Synchros that conform to the specifications that are uniform throughout the
Armed Services
 Typical example of military standard designation code is 18TR6A
18 – synchro diameter 1.71 to 1.8 inches
T – Torque
R – Receiver
6 – 60 Hz frequency
A – Original design

b. Prestandard Navy Synchros

 Synchros designed to meet Navy
 Typical designation code is 5DG
5 – Synchro diameter of 3 3/8 to 3 5/8 inches length
DG – differential transmitter

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3. SYNCHRO CONSTRUCTION
 Synchros are constructed just like motors
 Each contains a rotor similar in appearance to the armature in a motor and a
stator which corresponds to the field in a motor

a. Synchro Rotor
 Composed of either a single coil of wire wound on a laminated core or group of
coils wound in slots in a laminated core
 Salient-Pole rotor has a single coil of wire wound on a laminated core shaped
like a dumbbell or the letter H and used frequently in transmitters and receivers
 Drum or Wound Rotor may be wound continuously with a single length of wire
or may have a group of coils connected in series and typically used in synchro
control transformers and differential units

WINDINGS
SLIP RINGS

LAMINATIONS

SYNCHRO ROTOR

b. Synchro Stator
 Cylindrical structure of slotted lamination on which three Y-connected coils are
wound on their axes 120˚ apart

WINDINGS
WINDINGS

SLOTS in
SLOTSin
LAMINATIONS
Laminations SYNCHRO STATOR
SYNCHROSTATOR

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IV. SERVO

1. CONTROL SYSTEM

a. Open Loop Control System

 Controlled directly by an input signal
 It has no feedback and therefore less accurate
 Usually requires an operator to control the speed and direction of movement of
the output

b. Closed Loop Control System

 Can respond and move loads quickly
 With greater accuracy
 Has an automatic feedback system that informs the input the desired
movement has taken place

2. SERVO SYSTEM
 Classified as closed-loop system

Basic Servo System

 Normally made up of electromechanical parts and consists of a synchro control
system, servo amplifier and feedback

INPUT CONTROL AMP MOTOR LOAD

FEEDBACK

BASIC SERVO SET-UP

a. Position Servo
 Control the position of the load
 In AC position servo, the amplitude and phase of the AC error signal determine
the amount and direction the load will be driven
 In the DC position servo system, the amplitude and polarity of the DC error
signal are used to determine the amount and direction of the load will be driven

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 Potentiometer is one of the simplest position sensor device and is generally

used because of its small size, high accuracy and output which can either be
AC or DC
 Balanced Potentiometer in a closed loop servo system is a voltage divider that
functions as a position sensor and produces the error voltage that is fed to the
servo amplifier

b. Velocity Servo
 Same principle of error signal generation as position servo except that the
velocity is being sensed rather than the position

c. Acceleration Servo
 Similar to velocity and position servos except that the acceleration of the load is
being sensed rather than position or velocity
 The tachometer of the velocity loop is replaced with an accelerometer

3. DAMPING

Time Lag
 Servo characteristics defined as the time between the input of the signal and
the actual movement of the load
 Undesirable and is reduce with the use of high gain amplifiers
 Damping systems are added to smoothen the operation

Damping
 Used to stabilized a system to minimize or eliminate the problem of overshot

a. Damping Conditions

Underdamped

time

Overdamped

Overdamped
 Takes as excessive amount of time to reach synchronization
Underdamped
 Provides instant response to an error signal but results in the load oscillating
about the point of synchronism

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b. Methods of Damping

Friction Clutch Damping

 Simplest type of damping
Magnetic Clutch Damping
 Magnetic coupling uses a magnetic field o draw friction plates together to
produce damping
Error-Rate Damping
 Method of damping that anticipates the amount of overshot
 Corrects the overshot by introducing a voltage in the error detector that is
proportional to the rate of change of the error signal

4. SERVO DEVICES

a. AC Servo Motors
 Used in servo systems that move light loads

b. DC Servo Motors
 Control heavy loads and are widely used in servo systems

c. E –Transformer
 Magnetic error detector that can be used in systems limited by large angular
movements

d. Modulators
 Used to change a DC error signal into an AC input error signal for servo
amplifiers

e. Demodulators
 Convert AC error signal to DC error signal
 Drive a DC servo amplifier

f. Magnetic Amplifiers
 Used when power from a conventional servo amplifier is too small to drive a
large servo motors

g. Rate Generator
 tachometer
 Used in the velocity servo loop

h. Servo Amplifier
 Used in AC or DC servo system
 Must have a flat gain, minimum phase shift and low noise level

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V. GYROS

GYROSCOPE
 Applied to any rapidly spinning object
 A functional gyroscope is constructed and mounted
 Rate Gyros are specially mounted so they are free to precess in only one
direction and are used to measure angular rates

GYRO

PROPERTIES
1. Rigidity
 Tendency of a spinning wheel to remain in fixed position in space

Factors that Affect the Rigidity

a. weight
b. shape
c. speed of rotation of the rotor

2. Precession
 Property of a gyro that causes it to tilt in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of any outside force
 The direction of precession in a gyro is always 90 degrees from the direction of
the applied force

Components of a Universally Mounted Gyro

1. Rotor
2. Inner Gimbal
3. Outer Gimbal
4. Base

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TEST YOURSELF 11
Review Questions

1. An electronic switch that has the highest single device current capacity and can withstand
overloads better
a. thyratrons
b. ignitrons
c. SCR
d. triac

Answer c. SCR

2. It is the fusion or growing of the materials being together.

a. coalition
b. coincidence
c. coalescense
d. mixing

Answer c. coalescense

3. Identify which of the following is a three layer device.

a. SCS
b. Diac
c. Triac
d. PUT

Answer b. diac

4. What device can be modeled by a diode and two resistors?

a. BJT
b. DIAC
c. SCR
d. UJT

Answer d. UJT

5. A junction that is formed by adding controlled amounts of an impurity to the melt during crystal
growth is termed as
a. fused junction
b. unijunction
c. alloy junction
d. doped junction

Answer d. doped junction

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6. A Triac is a _________.
a. 2 terminal switch
b. 2 terminal bilateral switch
c. 3 terminal unilateral switch
d. 3 terminal bidirectional switch

Answer d. 3 terminal bidirectional switch

7. Arc welding requires a voltage around_________.

a. 60-100 V
b. 150-200 V
c. 400-440 V
d. 1000 – 5000 V

Answer a. 60 – 100V

8. During Arc Welding, the current is in the range of ________-.

a.1 – 5 A
b. 5 – 50 A
c. 50 – 400 A
d. 500 – 4000 A

Answer c. 50 – 400A

9. The body structure of the car is welded by:

a. gas welding
b. spot welding
c. induction welding
d. arc welding

Answer b. spot welding

10. A thyristor equivalent of a thyratron tube is ________.

a. diac
b. triac
c. SCR
d. PUT

Answer c. SCR

11. Which of the following describes a triac?

a. conducts when not triggered
b. conducts when not triggered in both directions
c. conducts when triggered in one direction
d. conducts when triggered in both direction

Answer d. conducts when triggered in both directions

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12. A thyristor is basically ________.

a. PNPN device
b. a combination of diac and triac
c. a set of SCRs
d. a set of SCR, diac and triac

Answer a. PNPN device

13. What is the PNPN device with two gates?

a. diac
b. triac
c. SUS
d. SCS

Answer d. SCS

14. Which device incorporates a terminal for synchronizing purposes?

a. diac
b. triac
c. SUS
d. SCR

Answer c. SUS

15. An SCR is a ________.

a. unijunction device
b. device with three junctions
c. device with four junctions
d. device with two junctions

Answer b. device with three junctions

16. A thyristor can be turned off

a. by reducing the anode current below the holding current value
b. by reversing the anode voltage
c. either a or b
d. both a and b

Answer. d. both a and b

17. Minimum duration of pulse triggering system for thyristors is _______.

a. at least 10 microseconds
b. at least 30 milliseconds
c. at least 10 milliseconds
d. at least 1 second

Answer a. 10 microseconds

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18. A device that cannot be triggered by voltage of either polarity is _____.

a. diac
b. triac
c. SCS
d. all of the above

Answer c. SCS

19. Technically, what is dicing means?

a. process of joining two diacs
b. circuit of reducing noise
c. device for reducing magnetic and radio interference
d. process of breaking the silicon slice into chips

Answer d. process of breaking the silicon slice into chips

20. The term used to describe the process whereby two transistors with positive feedback are used
to simulate the action of the thyristor.
a. Arcing
b. Latching
c. Damping
d. Switching

Answer b. Latching

21. It is the minimum anode current to hold a thyristor at conduction

a. trigger
b. maintaining current
c. holding current
d. threshold voltage

Answer c. holding current

22. Electron tube containing mercury functioning as a rectifier

a. Thyratron
b. Ignitron
c. Thyrector
d. SCR

Answer b. Ignitron

23. How do you stop the conduction during which the SCR is also conducting?
a. remove voltage gate
b. increase cathode voltage
c. interrupt anode current
d. reduce gate current

Answer c. interrupt anode current

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24. A series RC connected in parallel with an SCR to eliminate false triggering is the_______.
a. crowbar
b. snubber
c. varistor
d. eliminator

Answer b. snubber

25. Which are the three terminals of a TRIAC?

a. gate, anode1 and anode2
b. gate, source and sink
c. base, emitter and collector
d. emitter, base1 and base2

Answer a. gate, anode1 and anode2

26. For inspection of welding defects in thick metals, which of the following ray is used to
photograph thick metals objects?
a. gamma rays
b. cosmic rays
c. infrared rays
d. ultraviolet rays

Answer a. gamma rays

27. The minimum emitter to base voltage to trigger the UJT is the ________.
a. forward breakover voltage
b. Trigger
c. Breakdown voltage
d. Peak voltage

Answer d. Peak voltage

28. The ratio of the emitter to base1 resistance to the interbase resistance of a UJT is
called_______.
a. aspect ratio
b. Current Gain
c. Voltage Gain
d. Intrinsic Standoff ratio

Answer d. Intrinsic Standoff Ratio

29. For a UJT, it is the region between the peak and valley points as seen in its characteristics
curve.
a. Active region
b. Negative resistance region
c. Trigger region
d. Saturation region

Answer b. Negative resistance region

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30. This device is two zener diodes connected back to back in series and is used to support voltage
surges and transients.
a. thyristor
b. varactor
c. thyrector
d. phanatron

Answer c. thyrector

31. Refers to the number of degrees o an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON.
a. conduction angle
b. firing delay angle
c. induction angle
d. ON angle

Answer a. conduction angle

32. It is the name given to the variety of rotary, electromechanical, position sensing devices?
a. synchro
b. gyro
c. servo
d. motor

Answer a. synchro

33. It is a system in which a precise movement of a large load is controlled by a relatively weak
control signal.
a. synchro
b. servo
c. gyro
d. motor

Answer b. servo

34. What is the primary purpose of a synchro system?

a. precise and rapid transmission of data between stations
b. accurate measurement of distances
c. to introduced stability to the system
d. gives additional mobility

Answer a. precise and rapid transmission of data between stations

35. This is a very important method used in synchro receivers to prevent the rotor from spinning or
oscillating,
a. jumping
b. precession
c. corresponding
d. damping

Answer d. damping

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36. When will a synchro generate more heat than it is design to handle?
a. when underload
b. when overshoot
c. when overload
d. when exposed to fire

Answer c. when overload

37. When can a maximum voltage is induced in the stator coil of a synchro?
a. when the stator coil rotates
b. when the rotor coil is aligned with the stator coil
c. when both coils rotates
d. when the rotor coil is magnetized by the stator coil

Answer b. when the rotor coil is aligned with the stator coil

38. It is the name given to the electrical output of the control transformer
a. error signal
b. correct signal
c. differential signal
d. error free signal

Answer a. error signal

39. In a servo system, there are series of overshoots which are known as :
a. eating
b. climbing
c. hunting
d. resting

Answer c. hunting

40. This principle stabilizes a system to minimize the problem of overshoot.

a. clamping
b. fanning
c. damping
d. lagging

Answer c. damping

41. It is the property of gyro causing it to tilt in a direction perpendicular to the direction of any
outside force.
a. Recession
b. Tecession
c. Precession
d. Post session

Answer c. Precession

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11-24 Industrial Electronics

42. It is the tendency of a spinning wheel to remain in fixed position in space.

a. mobility
b. rigidity
c. accuracy
d. alternativity

Answer b. rigidity

43. A universally mounted gyro has how many gimbals?

a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four

Answer b. two

44. In what direction will a gyro precess in response to an outside force?

a. perpendicular to the force
b. perpendicular to the spin axis
c. parallel to the force
d. parallel to the spin axis

Answer a. perpendicular to the force

45. How many degrees of freedom does a rate gyro usually have?
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four

Answer a. one

46. What gyro characteristics provide the basis for the operation of rate gyro?
a. decision
b. precession
c. weight
d. spin

Answer b. precession

47. Of the following term, which accurately describes a synchro?

a. position sensing
b. electromechanical
c. rotary
d. all of the above

Answer d. all of the above

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48. Control systems are used in what particular application.

a. light load
b. heavy load
c. medium load
d. all of the above

Answer b. heavy load

49. What is defined as a device that gives an indication usually in the form of a voltage that is
proportional to the acceleration to which it is subjected? (April, 2004)
a. inertia meter
b. accelerometer
c. Speedometer
d. voltmeter

Answer b. accelerometer

50. Who discovered the principle of gyros?

a. Leon Focult
b. Tiger Focult
c. Leonard Focult
d. John Davis Focult

Answer a. Leon Focult

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