1

Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and

Modelling
Course Content Page
Problem Solving and Mathematics Education
 Problem Solving: Definition and Process 3
 Problem Solving and Mathematics Education 4
 Problem Solving and the Conceptual Framework of the K to 12 5
Mathematics Curriculum
 Factors Affecting Problem Solving 9
 Lessons from Research Studies on Implementing Problem 9
Solving

Mathematical Investigation and Modelling

 closed versus open ended problems 14
 problem posing 16
 mathematical investigation: process versus activity 16
 mathematical modelling and the real-world 25

Problem Solving Heuristics

 Search for a Pattern and formulate conjectures 28
 Make a Diagram 35
 Organize Data and Use Logic 36
 Modify the Problem 38
 Divide into Cases 40
 Consider Extreme Cases 42
 Look for Symmetry 43
 Choose Effective Notation 44
 Work Backward 46
 Pursue Parity 47
 Color and Prove 47

Some Important Principles

 Pigeonhole Principle 52
 Invariant principle 53
 Principle of Mathematical Induction 54
 Argue by Contradiction 56

Reporting Results of a Mathematical Investigation

2
 LESSON 1 Problem Solving and
Mathematics Education

INTRODUCTION

Problem solving involves the application of mathematical skills

and reasoning to problems encountered in everyday life. Real
world problems are not presented in a neat and orderly manner like
a page of ‘sums’ so it is important for students to understand the
mathematical operations and procedures so that in a problem-
solving situation they know which operations and procedures to use to solve the problem.
It is essential that they develop their mathematical reasoning so they will have confidence
in their ability to use different approaches to solve unfamiliar problems in everyday
situations. Problem solving activities provide the bridge between the mathematics
classroom and the real world, allowing students to develop an understanding of the value
and importance of mathematics in their lives. The ability to solve problems is crucial for
the development of productive citizenship.

When children start school they love problems and puzzles and this can be nurtured
through developing a problem solving approach to the teaching of mathematics. Problem
solving provides an opportunity for presenting challenging, creative and enjoyable
mathematical experiences.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 articulate a definition of problem solving;

 differentiate between routine and non-routine problems;

3
  outline the steps in problem solving from personal practice vis a vis those outlined
by Polya and others;
 explain the significance of problem solving in mathematics education;
 describe factors that affect the problem solving process culled from personal
experience and journal articles;
 explain important pedagogical elements in the implementation problem solving in
the classroom;
 reflect on their experiences of problem solving and articulate personal problem
solving frameworks.

ACTIVITY

Activity: Solve the word-problem below.

Fortune Problem: A man died and left the following instructions for his fortune,
half to his wife; 1/7 of what was left went to his son; 2/3 of what was left went to his butler;
the man’s pet pig got the remaining $2000. How much money did the man leave
behind altogether?

Analysis

 What strategy did you use?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 How did you solve the problem? What are the steps?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 How will you teach your learners to analyze and solve the given problem?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4
 Abstraction

1.1 Problem Solving: Definition and Process

Problem solving is the application of mathematical skills and reasoning to problems
encountered in everyday life. Such problems range from the simple to the complex, for
example:

 working out how much medicine to give a child and measuring it correctly;
 using or interpreting statistics at work to predict demand for goods so that an
order can be placed with a wholesaler.
Such real-life problems never appear as a neatly ordered and graded page of
straightforward 'sums'. To solve real-life problems we need to be able to draw upon our
mathematical skills and use them to reach a solution which is reasonable and appropriate for
the particular situation.

We can categorize problem solving into two basic types: routine and non-routine. The
purposes and the strategies used for solving problems are different for each type.

Routine problem solving involves using at least one of the four arithmetic operations
and/or ratio to solve problems that are practical in nature. Routine problem solving concerns
to a large degree the kind of problem solving that serves a socially useful function that has
immediate and future payoff. Children typically do routine problem solving as early as age 5
or 6. They combine and separate things such as toys during their normal activities. Adults are
regularly called upon to do simple and complex routine problem solving.

Non-routine problem solving serves a different purpose than routine problem

solving. While routine problem solving concerns solving problems that are useful for daily
living (in the present or in the future), non-routine problem solving concerns that only
indirectly. Non-routine problem solving is mostly concerned with developing students’
mathematical reasoning power and fostering the understanding that mathematics is a creative
endeavor. From the point of view of students, non-routine problem solving can be
challenging and interesting. From the point of view of planning classroom instruction,

5
teachers can use non-routine problem solving to introduce ideas; to deepen and extend
understandings of algorithms, skills, and concepts; and to motivate and challenge students.

1.2. Problem Solving and Mathematics Education

Problem solving in mathematics education has been a prominent research field
that aims at understanding and relating the processes involved in solving problems
to students’ development of mathematical knowledge and problem solving
competencies. The accumulated knowledge and field developments include
conceptual frameworks to characterize learners’ success in problem solving
activities, cognitive, metacognitive, social and affective analysis, curriculum
proposals, and ways to foster problem solving approaches. 
The process of problem solving can be divided into three phases: ·
Understanding the problem, Solving the problem, and Checking the answer.
Understanding the problem
Students need to start by reading (or listening to) the problem very carefully to
make sure they understand what they are being asked to do. This may involve:
 several readings (or repetitions by a speaker)
 thinking about the problem for themselves for a few minutes
 discussing it with others in a small group and reaching agreement on
what it is before they start
 writing the problem down using their own words, symbols or diagrams
 restating the problem verbally using their own words.
Once students have a clear idea of what they know and what they need to find
out they are ready to begin solving the problem.

Solving the problem

Solving a problem involves exploring different approaches and finding one

which successfully solves the problem.

Checking the answer

Checking the answer is an integral part of problem solving; a problem is not

really solved unless the solution has been checked or verified. For examples if
we are trying to fix a bike or make a cake, the final test is whether the bike
works and the cake is moist or rises properly. Students who can check their
own work are also becoming independent and autonomous learners.

6
1.3. Problem Solving and the Conceptual Framework of the K to 12 Mathematics

K-12 Curriculum Guide Mathematics

Description: Elementary Math covers basic concepts and ideas, skills and processes on
number sense – geometry, measurement, patterns and algebra, probability and statistics as
enlist, using appropriate technology in critical thinking, problem solving, Reasoning,
communicating, making connections, representations and decisions in real life.
Conceptual Framework:

MATHEMATICS is a subject that pervades life at any age, in any circumstance. Thus its
value goes beyond the classroom and the school. Mathematics as a school subject, must be
learned comprehensively and with much depth.

The twin goals of Mathematics in the basic education levels, K to 10 are Critical Thinking
and Problem Solving. We adopt the definition of critical thinking by Scriven and Paul (1987)

Critical Thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered
from, or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a
guide to belief and action.

On the other hand, we define Problem Solving in Mathematics using Polya’s (1945 & 1962)
definition: MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING is finding a way around a difficulty,
around an obstacle, and finding a solution to a problem that is unknown. These two goals are
to be achieved with an organized and rigorous curriculum content, a well-defined set of high-
level skills and processes, desirable values and attitudes, and appropriate tools, recognizing as
well the different contexts of Filipino learners.

There are five content areas in the curriculum, as adopted from the framework prepared by
MATHED &SEI (2010):

 Numbers and Number Sense

 Measurement
 Geometry
 Patterns and Algebra

7
  Probability and Statistics
The specific skills and processes to be developed are:

 Knowing and Understanding

 Estimating
 Computing and Solving
 Visualizing and Modelling
 Representing and Communicating
 Conjecturing
 Reasoning
 Proving and Decision-Making
 Applying and Connecting
The following values and attitudes are to be honed as well:

 Accuracy
 Creativity
 Objectivity
 Perseverance
 Productivity
We recognize that the use of appropriate tools is needed in teaching Mathematics.

These include:

• Manipulative objects

• Measuring devices

• Calculators and computers

• Smartphones and tablet Pcs

• And the Internet

We define context as a locale, situation or set of conditions of Filipino learners that may
influence their study and the use of Mathematics to develop critical thinking and problem
solving skills. Contexts refer to beliefs, environment, language and culture that include
traditions and practices, and learner’s prior knowledge and experiences.

The framework is supported by the following learning principles and theories:

8
  Experiential and Situated Learning
Experiential learning as advocated by David Kolb is learning that occurs by making
sense of direct everyday experiences. Experiential learning theory defines learning as
“the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience”
(Kolb, 1984, p. 41). Situated learning, theorized by Lave and Wenger, is learning in
the same context on which concepts and theories are applied.
 Reflective Learning
Reflective Learning refers to learning that is facilitated by reflective thinking. It is not
enough that learners encounter real-life situations. Deeper learning occurs when
learners are able to think about their experiences and process these allowing them the
opportunity to make sense and meaning of their experiences.
 Constructivism
Constructivism is the theory that argues that knowledge is constructed when learner is
able to draw ideas from his own experiences and connects them to new ideas that are
connect
 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning puts premium on active learning achieved by working with
fellow learners as they all engage in a shared task.
 Discovery and Inquiry-based Learning
The Mathematics curriculum allows the students to learn by asking relevant questions
and discovering new ideas. Discovery and Inquiry-based learning (Bruner, 1961)
support the idea that students learn when they make use of personal experiences to
discover facts.
Brief Course Description

Mathematics from K to 10 is a skills subject. By itself, it is all about quantities, shapes and
figures, functions, logic and reasoning. Mathematics is also a tool of Science and a language
complete with its own notations and symbols and “grammar” rules, with which concepts and
ideas are effectively expressed.

The content of Mathematics include:

 Number and Number Sense

o Concepts of numbers

9
 o Properties
o Operations
o Estimation
o And their applications
 Measurement
o The use of numbers and measures to describe
o Understand and compare mathematical and concrete objects
o Applications involving perimeter, Area, Surface area, Volume, and Angle
measure.
o It focuses on attributes such as length, mass and weight, capacity, time, money
and temperature among others.
 Geometry
o Properties of two and three dimensional figures and their relationships
o Spatial visualization, Reasoning, and geometric modeling and proofs.
 Patterns and Algebra
o Patterns
o Relationships and changes among shapes and quantities and includes the use
of algebraic notations and symbols
o Equations and most importantly
o Functions to represent and analyze relationships
 Statistics and Probability
o Developing skills in collecting and organizing data using charts, tables and
graphs
o Understanding, analyzing and interpreting data
o Dealing with uncertainty
o Making predict ions and outcomes
The K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum provides a solid foundation for Mathematics at Grades
11 to 12. More importantly, it provides necessary concepts and life skills needed by Filipino
learners as they proceed to the next stage in their life as learners and as citizens of our
beloved country, the Philippines.

Learning Standard

10
The learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key concepts and principles of
Mathematics as applied, using appropriate technology, in problem solving, communicating,
reasoning, making connections, representations, and decisions in real life.

1. 4. Factors Affecting Problem Solving

An effective solution of a problem is dependent upon a number of factors. These include:

Nature of the problem: A mathematical problem is a procedure, which requires you to

discover which information is given, to rank the given points, to find what the problem asks
you to do and then solve it. The given information should be clear and accurate so that all the
children understand what has to be done. Problem solving is the achievement of a goal, either
set by the problem solver or by others. Teaching via problem solving can be feasible only if
children know the mathematical, procedures.

Otherwise, if students do not know how to solve procedural exercises, they will be very
disappointed and they will not have the motivation to try and solve more difficult problems.
Both finding a problem’s solution and the journey towards the solution are important. The
correct answer matters a lot since in the future, students will be asked to take mathematics
exams, for which they have to achieve a high mark. If the steps they follow are correct but
still the answer is wrong, then they will not attain a good grade.

Degree of difference between the initial and the goal state: In such situations problem
space is more disorganized and the operator is required to take more steps to reach to the
solution.

Functional fixedness: Functional fixedness is the inability to realize that something known

to have a particular use may also be used to perform other functions. When one is faced with
a new problem, functional fixedness blocks one’s ability to use old tools in novel ways.

1.5. Lessons from Research Studies on Implementing Problem Solving

Educational research is conducted within a variety of constraints -- isolation of variables,

availability of subjects, limitations of research procedures, availability of resources, and
balancing of priorities. Various research methodologies are used in mathematics education
research including a clinical approach that is frequently used to study problem solving.
Typically, mathematical tasks or problem situations are devised, and students are studied as
they perform the tasks. Often they are asked to talk aloud while working or they are

11
interviewed and asked to reflect on their experience and especially their thinking processes.
Waters (48) discusses the advantages and disadvantages of four different methods of
measuring strategy use involving a clinical approach. Schoenfeld (32) describes how a
clinical approach may be used with pairs of students in an interview. He indicates that "dialog
between students often serves to make managerial decisions overt, whereas such decisions
are rarely overt in single student protocols."

he basis for most mathematics problem solving research for secondary school students in the
past 31 years can be found in the writings of Polya (26,27,28), the field of cognitive
psychology, and specifically in cognitive science. Cognitive psychologists and cognitive
scientists seek to develop or validate theories of human learning (9) whereas mathematics
educators seek to understand how their students interact with mathematics (33,40). The area
of cognitive science has particularly relied on computer simulations of problem solving
(25,50). If a computer program generates a sequence of behaviors similar to the sequence for
human subjects, then that program is a model or theory of the behavior. Newell and Simon
(25), Larkin (18), and Bobrow (2) have provided simulations of mathematical problem
solving. These simulations may be used to better understand mathematics problem solving.

Constructivist theories have received considerable acceptance in mathematics education in

recent years. In the constructivist perspective, the learner must be actively involved in the
construction of one's own knowledge rather than passively receiving knowledge. The
teacher's responsibility is to arrange situations and contexts within which the learner
constructs appropriate knowledge (45,48). Even though the constructivist view of
mathematics learning is appealing and the theory has formed the basis for many studies at the
elementary level, research at the secondary level is lacking. Our review has not uncovered
problem solving research at the secondary level that has its basis in a constructivist
perspective. However, constructivism is consistent with current cognitive theories of problem
solving and mathematical views of problem solving involving exploration, pattern finding,
and mathematical thinking (36,15,20); thus we urge that teachers and teacher educators
become familiar with constructivist views and evaluate these views for restructuring their
approaches to teaching, learning, and research dealing with problem solving.

A research entitled “Factors Influencing Mathematic Problem-Solving Ability of Sixth Grade

Students” (Pimta, S,et.al 2009) showed that teacher’s behaviors took both direct and indirect

12
effects on the students’ mathematic problem solving. The teachers are supposed to study the
methods to develop this ability deeply and then bring them to manage the activities in class
that encourage students to be enthusiastic to learn and have good attitude toward mathematic
learning or to get students’ concentration.

Another research entitled “Factors affecting creative problem solving in the blended learning
environment: a review of the literature” (Sophonhiranraka,S, et.al 2014) revealed that 1)
understanding the challenges, 2) generating ideas, 3) preparing for action, 4) planning own
approach were main factors in creative problem solving process; and 1) learning activities, 2)
learning resources, 3) feedback, 4) learning interaction, and 5) evaluation were five main
factors in blended learning environment. Nine factors were proposed as a framework to
design blended learning to enhance creative problem solving performance.

Application

If you are to use Problem Solving in teaching mathematics, what particular strategy will you
use? How will you do it? Why?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

13
 LESSON 2 Mathematical
Investigation and Modelling
INTRODUCTION

An investigation is an open-ended problem in which students may

choose to go in different directions. Investigations give the students
the opportunity to make important mathematical discoveries that
they will remember much longer than if they were told them by the
teacher. They encourage students to use high order intellectual
skills which are far more important than the mathematics concepts involved.
An important aspect in carrying out investigations is the need to make guesses and to test
them. What matters is not whether the guess is right or wrong, but the willingness to
deduce information from the data gathered, to predict what will happen in other cases, and
then to learn from the extra information obtained. The fear of being wrong needs to be
overcome as it hampers exploration and understanding.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 articulate a definition of problem solving;

 differentiate between routine and non-routine problems;
 outline the steps in problem solving from personal practice vis a vis those outlined
by Polya and others;
 explain the significance of problem solving in mathematics education;
14
 describe factors that affect the problem solving process culled from personal
experience and journal articles;
 explain important pedagogical elements in the implementation problem solving in
the classroom;
 reflect on their experiences of problem solving and articulate personal problem
solving frameworks.

ACTIVITY 1:

Activity: Solve the word-problem below.

What do you think of the following?

15
Analysis

After completing your work above, answer the questions below as guide for
reflective thinking. Use the space after each question to discuss your answer.

 How will you investigate the pictures?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 What are the steps?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 How will you teach your learners to analyze and solve the given problem?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

16
 Abstraction
2.1. Closed versus Open-ended Problems

Open-ended questions are questions that allow someone to give a free-form answer.

Closed-ended questions can be answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a limited set
of possible answers (such as: A, B, C, or All of the Above).
Don’t (Closed) Do (Open)
Are you satisfied? How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with this
process?
Did it act as you expected? What would (did) you expect to happen when
you ... ?
Did you find it? Before a task:
 Please tell me when you’ve found the
item.
 Explain how you would find that.
After a task:
 Where did you find the answer?
 Where was the item?
 What did you find?
Do you think you would use this? How would this fit into your work?
How might this change the way you do that
today?
Does that work for you? What do you think about that?
Have you done this before? What kinds of questions or difficulties have you
had when doing this in the past?
What happened when you did this before?
Please describe your level of experience with …
Is this easy to use? What’s most confusing or annoying about … ?

17
 What worked well for you?
Did you know … ? How do you know ... ?
Do you normally … ? How do you normally ... ?
Did you see that? What just happened?
What was that?
Do you like this? What would you most want to change about … ?
Which things did you like the best about … ?
Did you expect this kind of information to be in Before a task:
there?  What do you expect to see when you … ?
After a task:
 Which (other) kinds of information would
likely be in there?
 What were you expecting?

18
2.2. Problem Posing

The ability to pose problems is an important skill which teachers need to develop. Teachers
need to be able to pose a range of challenging and interesting problems which will motivate
children to learn and further develop children’s mathematical understandings.

Problem posing is an important activity which goes with problem solving and lies at the heart
of mathematical activity. Three types of problem-posing experiences that provide
opportunities for children to engage in mathematical activity have been identified by Silver
(1995).

Silver believes that problem posing could occur:

 prior to problem solving when problems are being developed from a particular
situation, e.g. we need to build a chicken house to keep the school’s chickens in. What
might be some of the mathematical problems we need to solve to do this?
 during problem solving when the individual intentionally changes the problem’s goals
or conditions, e.g. we only have 24 metres of chicken wire to go around the chicken
house, not 36 metres as first thought. What problems does this pose? Or
 after solving a problem when experiences from the problem solving context are
modified or applied to a new situation e.g. We have to build a fence around the school
garden to keep the pigs out. What materials will be need? How much will we need?
One way to encourage children to pose problems is to ask them to write problems for a friend
to solve. Some researchers (Ellerton, 1986; Mamona-Downs 1993) have found that, for
motivational purposes, it is helpful to have someone in mind when designing problems.
Ellerton (1986) found that encouraging students to write problems for a friend was a useful
way of understanding that person’s mathematical ability. In such problem solving situations
problem posers are forced to consider the individual for whom they are designing the
problem.

2.3. Mathematical Investigation: process versus activity

Problem posing situations allow children to have some control over the curriculum content
and the type of learning activities presented in the classroom. Also, the tasks or activities
children construct may provide insights into the beliefs or attitudes that children have towards

19
mathematics. The way in which problem posers represent problems, for example, may reflect
the type of problem solving experiences they have been use to solving in the classroom.

Suggestions for classroom development

An environment that encourages the children to pose problems for friends to solve increases
the likelihood of the student developing mathematical power (Lowie 1999). In order to create
teaching/learning situations that provide positive problem posing situations, the classroom
teacher should:

1. Encourage students to pose problems for friends whom are at or near their own
‘standard’ until they become more competent in generating problems;
2. Ensure that students work co-operatively in solving the problems so that the person
who posed the problem gains feedback on the appropriateness of the problem they
have designed;
3. Ask individuals to indicate the type of understandings and strategies the problem
solver will need to use in order to solve the problem successfully before a friend
develops a solution;
4. Encourage problem solving teams to discuss with one another the extent to which
they found problems to be difficult, confusing, motivating or challenging;
5. Provide opportunities for less able students to work co-operatively with a peer who
challenges the individual to engage in mathematics at a higher level than they are
usually accustomed; and
6. Challenge students to move beyond traditional ‘word problems’ by designing
problems that are open ended and associated with real life experiences.

Situations to be investigated are generally open-ended but can be more restricted when
introducing the concept, particularly in the primary school classroom, or if the teacher has a
particular concept in mind that s/he wants the students to explore.

Investigations are an excellent way to establish cooperative learning strategies in the

classroom. Most investigation require you to:

1. Explore the investigation

2. Gather and record data

3. Look for patterns

20
4. Make conjectures (guesses)

5. Test the conjecture and then refine it and test it again

6. Explain or prove results

7. Make generalisations

8. Extend the problem

9. Communicate findings

When planning investigation activities for primary school children it is not expected that
young children would complete all these steps. Children could be encouraged to complete the
first five steps outlined above and then shared their findings with others.

An example of how you may approach each of these investigations is set out below.

3 digit number investigation

Exploration

Read the investigation, discuss what the investigation is saying and asking you to do.

Gather and record data

Looking for patterns

Discuss what you have noticed and what patterns you can see.

Making conjectures

Based on the data collected and the patterns seen, make a conjecture.

 The final result is always 1089

 After the subtraction step the middle digit is always 9 and the result is divisible by 9
Gather more data to test conjectures

21
Revise conjecture

If two adjacent integers are the same, the difference will be 99 and the sum 198.

Verify Conjecture

Organise data

Numbers that have resulted in a difference of 99 and a sum of 198 are

766, 211, 554, 887, 574

Look carefully at these numbers and see if there is anything about them which is the same.
Look at the digits. Make a conjecture. The first and third digits differ by 1. Organise the data
by grouping numbers with the same difference between the first and the third digits.

Revise conjectures (generalisations)

22
The difference between the digits appears to be central to the result. Examination of the
results, particularly the results of the subtraction, leads to the following conjectures:

 The final result is 1089 unless the first and last digits differ by 1 in which case it is 99
 After the subtraction, the middle digit is always 9 and the other two digits are given
by multiplying the difference of the first and the third digits, as listed in the table
above, by 9. For example for 471 the difference between 4 and 1 is 3. If we multiple 3
x 9 we get 27. Therefore after the subtraction the result is 297.
Verify

The important conjecture to verify at this stage is the second one and this is done by choosing
numbers that have a digit difference of 4, 6 or 9 as there were none of these in the data
gathered.

Extend the problem

Consider 2 digit numbers

Conjectures ·

 The results of the subtraction is the product of the difference of the digits and 9
 The sum is always 99

23
Pythagorean Triads investigation

Gather and record data

2
c =2

There is no counting number whose square is 2.

So there is no Pythagorean Triad starting with a = 1 and b =2.

Conjecture

You can make Pythagorean triads by taking 3, 4, and 5 and multiplying them by a constant
number, e.g. multiply by 2, gives 6, 8 and 10. However, the 6, 8, 10 triangle is the same shape
at the 3, 4, 5 triangle, just twice the size. To get a different shape, the number ‘a’ should be a
PRIME NUMBER. The next prime number after 3 is 5. Using the ‘guess and check’ strategy
find the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ which give a counting number value for ‘c’.

In this case the value of ‘b’ has to be greater than ‘a’ so start with b = 6 and continue until we
recognise c2 as a square of a counting number e.g. 169. In this case, the Pythagorean Triad is
6, 12, 13. Can we find a Pythagorean Triad starting with 7?

24
25
2.4. Mathematical Modelling and the Real-World

Mathematical modelling is commonly regarded as the art of applying mathematics to a real

world problem with a view to better understand the problem. As such, mathematical
modelling is obviously related to problem solving. However, they may not mean the same
thing. In this chapter, various aspects of mathematical modelling and problem solving will be
discussed. Using concrete examples, some of the basic ideas and processes of mathematical
modelling will be introduced and described as an approach to problem solving. In all the
examples, a computing tool is used in part of the modelling process, demonstrating the
critical role of technology in mathematical modelling. Some possible extensions of the
modelling problems are also presented.

Creating a mathematical model:

 We are given a word problem

26
  Determine what question we are to answer
 Assign variables to quantities in the problem so that you can answer the question
using these variables
 Derive mathematical equations containing these variables
 Use these equations to find the values of these variables
 State the answer to the problem
Today we will do this using straight lines as our equations, and we will solve the problem by
drawing these lines (graphing). This process is called “Linear Programming” and is one of
the most powerful mathematical methods used by businesses and companies to solve
problems and help them make the best decisions. “Operations Research” is the profession that
applies mathematical methods like this to problems arising in industry, healthcare, finance,
etc.

Mathematical Models

Mathematics can be used to "model", or represent, how the real world works.

Example: how much space is inside this

cardboard box?

We know three measurements:

 l (length),

 w (width), and

 h (height),

and the formula for the volume of a cuboid is:

Volume = l × w × h

So we have a (very simple) mathematical model of the space in that box.

Predicting the Future

Mathematical models can also be used to forecast future behavior.

Example: An ice cream company keeps track of how many ice creams get sold on different
days.

27
By comparing this to the weather on each day they can make a mathematical model of sales
versus weather.

They can then predict future sales based on the weather forecast, and decide how many ice
creams they need to make ... ahead of time!

Computer Modeling

Mathematical models can get very complex, and so the mathematical rules are often written
into computer programs, to make a computer model.

Application

1. Work with your peer to pose two problems for each of the situations
listed below. The first problem should be suitable for your peers and
the second problem should be suitable for use with children in the
primary school.
Remember that when writing a good problem:

 the method of solution should not be immediately known

 the student must feel that he/she has a reasonable chance of finding a solution
 the student should want to try to find the solution i.e. the problem should be of
interest.
Pose a problem: ·

a. that gives a particular answer e.g. 24 m2

b. about a particular mathematics topic e.g. probability
c. which involves the use of a specific mathematics concept e.g. equivalent
fractions
d. which involves the use of a specific mathematics method e.g. division
e. based on a specific problem structure e.g. John and Susan have a total of 15
bananas, Susan and Matthew have a total of 19 bananas. Matthew and John
have a total of 22 bananas. How many bananas does each person have?
f. which has more than one solution e.g. draw shapes with a perimeter of 10 cm
2. Create a Mathematical model for the problem below:

28
  You are the supervisor of 8-hour shift workers. They recently
had their break times reduced by 10 minutes but total
production did not improve.

LESSON 3 Problem Solving

Heuristics

INTRODUCTION

A heuristic technique, or a heuristic is any approach to problem

solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is
not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, or rational, but is
nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, short-term goal
or approximation. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible
or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory
solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.

Examples that employ heuristics include using trial and error, a rule of thumb or an educated
guess.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify patterns from a systematic exploration of a problem situation and

formulate conjectures;
 can make a diagram to clarify understanding of non-routine problems;
 collect and record data systematically and use logic in solving a problem;

29
 verify the correctness of a solution;
 produce alternative solutions and make connections among concepts;
 solve advanced (Olympiad level) multi-step problems in various topics from the
secondary curriculum.
 break a problem into cases and consider extreme cases when appropriate;
 modify a problem, look for symmetry, or make it simpler;
 explain the requirements of a problem and its solution;
 check solutions using alternative (or invented) solution methods;
 generate a new problem as an extension of a problem-solving task.
 work backwards by reversing operations (or drawing deductions) after assuming
the conclusion in solving certain problems;
 set and effectively use notations in problems solving or proving;
 justify solutions using the pursue parity technique and coloring proof;
 contrast and compare multiple solutions to a problem;

ACTIVITY:

Post a problem to your sibling or younger relative. Look on how he/she solve it.

Analysis
After completing your work above, answer the questions below as guide for
reflective thinking. Use the space after each question to discuss your answer.

 Is he/she able to solve the problem?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 How did she/he do it?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 If you are to teach him/her to solve the problem, how will you do it? What strategy
will you use?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

30
 Abstraction

Heuristics are the strategies derived from previous experiences with similar problems. These
strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to
control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues.

The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from
matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In
mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional
assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification. Here are a few commonly used
heuristics from George Pólya's 1945 book, How to Solve It.

 If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.

 If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you
can derive from that ("working backward").
 If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
 Try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious
plan may have more chances of success).\
To solve word problems efficiently, students must be familiar with both the problem solving
methods (heuristics) and the problem solving process (Polya’s 4-step).

1. Understand the problem: What to find? What is known and unknown?

2. Devise a plan: Choose the most suitable heuristic
3. Carry out the plan: Solve the problem
4. Look back: Check the answer

3.1 Search for a Pattern and formulate conjectures

Virtually all problem solvers begin their analysis by getting a feel for the problem, by
convincing themselves of the plausibility of the result. This is best done by examining the
most immediate special cases; when this exploration is undertaken in a systematic way,
patterns may emerge that will suggest ideas for proceeding with the problem.

Word Problem (Primary 4):

31
Carmen uses the letters in her name to form the pattern below.
CARMENCARMENCA...
What will be the 405th letter in the pattern?
Solution:
1. Understand:
What to find: The 405th letter in the pattern.
What is known: The pattern is formed by the letters CARMEN. The pattern starts
repeating itself from the 7th letter.
2. Choose: Look for patterns

3. Solve:

CARMEN is the repeating block of letters.

There are 6 letters in each block.
405 ÷ 6 = 67 remainder 3
There are 67 such blocks.
The remainder of 3 means we have to count 3 more letters to get to the 405th letter.
CARMEN
123
The 405th letter in the pattern is the letter R.
4. Check:
How many letters are there in 67 blocks of CARMEN? 67 x 6 = 402
Did I count to the 405th letter? 402 + 3 = 405. Yes

Example: Prove that a set of n (different) elements has exactly 2n (different) subsets.

When the problem is set in this imperative form, a beginner may panic and not know how to
proceed. Suppose, however, that the problem were cast as a query, such as

(i) How many subsets can be formed from a set of n objects?

(ii) Prove or disprove: A set with n elements has 2n subsets.
In either of these forms there is already the implicit suggestion that one should begin by
checking out a few special cases. This is how each problem should be approached: remain
skeptical of the result until convinced.

32
Solution 1:

We begin by examining what happens when the set contains 0, 1,2,3 elements; the results are
shown in the following table:

Our purpose in constructing this table is not only to verify the result, but also to look for
patterns that might suggest how to proceed in the general case. Thus, we aim to be as
systematic as possible. In this case, notice when n = 3, we have listed first the subsets of
{x1,x2} and then, in the second line, each of these subsets augmented by the element x 3. This
is the key idea that allows us to proceed to higher values of n. For example, when n =4, the
subsets of S = {x1,x2,x3 ,x4} are the eight subsets of {x1,x2,x3} (shown in the table) together
with the eight formed by adjoining x4 to each of these. These sixteen subsets constitute the
entire collection of possibilities; thus, a set with 4 elements has 24 (= 16) subsets.

A proof based on this idea is an easy application of mathematical induction.

Solution 2.

Another way to present the idea of the last solution is to argue as follows. For each n,let A n
denote the number of (different) subsets of a set with n (different) elements. Let S be a set
with n + I elements, and designate one of its elements by x. There is a one-to-one
correspondence between those subsets of S which do not contain x and those subsets that do
contain x (namely, a subset T of the former type corresponds to T U {x}). The former types
are all subsets of S - {x}, a set with n elements, and therefore, it must be the case that

33
Solution 3.

Another systematic enumeration of subsets can be carried out by constructing a "tree". For
the case n = 3 and S = (a,b,c}, the tree is as shown below:

Each branch of the tree corresponds to a distinct subset of S (the bar over the name of the
element means that it is not included in the set corresponding to that branch). The tree is
constructed in three stages, corresponding to the three elements of S. Each element of S leads
to two possibilities: either it is in the subset or it is not, and these choices are represented by
two branches. As each element is considered, the number of branches doubles.

Solution 4.

Suppose we enumerate subsets according to their size. For example, when S = {a,b,c,d), the
subsets are

34
Solution 5.

Another systematic beginning is illustrated in Table below which lists the subsets of S= {x 1,x2
,x3). To understand the pattern here, notice the correspondence of subscripts in the leftmost
column and the occurrence

35
It is clear that we can now identify a subset A of S with an n-tuple of 0’s and 1's. Conversely,
each such n-tuple will correspond to a unique subset of S. Thus, the number of subsets of S is
equal to the number of n-tuples of 0's and 1's. This latter set is obviously in one-to-one
correspondence with the set of nonnegative binary numbers less than 2n. Thus, each
nonnegative integer less than 2n corresponds to exactly one subset of S, and conversely.
Therefore, it must be the case that S has 2n subsets.

3.2 Make a Diagram

Whenever possible it is helpful to describe a problem pictorially, by means of a figure, a

diagram, or a graph. A diagrammatic representation usually makes it easier to assimilate the
relevant data and to notice relationships and dependences.

Word Problem (Primary 2):

There were 158 children in a movie theatre. There were 267 more adults than children in the
theatre. 236 of the adults were men. How many women were there in the theatre?

Solution:
1. Understand:
What to find: The number of women in the theatre.
What is known: There were 158 children. There were 267 more adults than children.
There were 236 men.

2. Choose: Draw a diagram/model

3. Solve:

There were 158 children.

36
 There were 267 more adults than children.

158 + 267 = 425

There were 425 adults in the theatre.

425 – 236 = 189

There were 189 women in the theatre.4. Check:
How many adults were there? 236 + 189 = 425
Were there 267 more adults than children? 425 – 158 = 267. Yes

Example:

A chord of constant length slides around in a semicircle. The midpoint of the chord and the
projections of its ends upon the base form the vertices of a triangle. Prove that the triangle is
isosceles and never changes its shape.

Solution.

Let AB denote the base of the semicircle, let XY be the chord, M the midpoint of XY, C and
D the projections of X and Y on AB (Figure 1.1). Let the projection of M onto AB be
denoted by N. Then N is the midpoint of CD and it follows that ∆CMD is isosceles. To show
that the shape of the triangle is independent of the position of the chord, .it suffices to show
that < MCD remains unchanged, or equivalently, that < XCM is constant, for all positions of

37
XY. To see that this is the case, extend XC to cut the completed circle at Z (Figure 1.2). Then
CM is parallel to ZY ( C and Mare the midpoints of XZ and XY, respectively),

and consequently <XCM= <XZY. But <XZY equals one-half the arc XY, and this arc
depends only on the length of the chord XY. This completes the proof.

38
 One might ask: How in the world did anyone ever think to extend XC in this way? This is
precisely the step that makes the argument so pretty, and it is indeed a very difficult step to
motivate. About all that can be said is that the use of auxiliary lines and arcs (often found by
reflection, extension,
or rotation) is a common practice in geometry. Just the awareness of this fact will add to the
possible approaches in a given problem.
Another interesting approach to this problem is to coordinatize the points and to proceed
analytically. To show that the shape of the triangle is independent of the position of the
chord, it suffices to show that the height-to-base ratio, MN/CD, is constant.
Let 0 denote the midpoint of AB, and let θ = <YOB. It is clear that the entire
configuration is completely determined by θ (Figure 1.3).
Let a= <XOY. Using this notation,

3.3 Organize Data and Use Logic

Organize information into a table or chart. Having it laid out clearly in front of you
frees up your mind for thinking. And perhaps you can use the organized data to
generate more information.
Word Problem (Grade 2):
Jimmy uses the number cards given below to form as many 3-digit odd numbers as he can.
List all the numbers that Jimmy can form.

39
Solution:
1. Understand:
What to find: All the 3-digit odd numbers that Jimmy can form from the 4 number
cards.
What is known: Odd numbers end with 5 or 7.

2. Choose: Make a systematic list

3. Solve:

Odd numbers that end with 5:

245
275
425
475
725
745

Odd numbers that end with 7:

247
257
427
457
527
547

Jimmy can form 12 3-digit odd numbers.

40
 4. Check:

Did I form 3-digit numbers? Yes

Did I form odd numbers? Yes
Did I form all possible numbers? Yes

3.1 Modify the Problem

In the course of work on problem A we may be led to consider problem. B.
Characteristically, this change in problems is announced by such phrases as "it suffices to
show that ... " or "we may assume that ... " or "without loss of generality ..." . In the last
section we looked at examples in which A and B were equivalent problems, that is, the
solution of either one of them implied the solution of the other. In this section we look at
oases where the solution of the modified (or auxiliary) problem, problem B, implies the
solution ·or A, but not necessarily vice versa.
Word Problem (Grade 2):
Sally has some beds and sofas. All of them are equal in length. The total length is 14 metres.
Each bed is 2 metres long. Sally has 1 fewer bed than sofas. What is the total length of the
sofas?

Solution:
41
 1. Understand:
What to find: Total length of the sofas.
What is known: Each bed is 2 metres long. Each sofa is 2 metres long. Total length of
beds and sofas is 14 metres. Sally has 1 more sofa than bed.

2. Choose: Restate the problem in another way

3. Solve:

If we add 1 more bed, Sally will have the same number of beds and sofas.
New total length = 14 m + 2 m = 16 m
Sally has the same number of beds and sofas
Total length of sofas = 16 m ÷ 2 = 8 m

The total length of the sofas is 8 metres.

4. Check:
How many sofas are there? 8 m ÷ 2 m = 4
How many beds are there? 4 – 1 = 3
How many beds and sofas altogether? 4 + 3 = 7
What is the total length of beds and sofas? 7 × 2 m = 14m

Example:

Given positive numbers a,b,c,d, prove that

Solution:

Because of the symmetry in the problem, it is sufficient to prove that for all positive numbers
x, y, and z

42
3.2 Divide into Cases
It often happens that a problem can be divided into a small number of subproblems, each of
which can be handled separately in a caseby-case manner. This is especially true when the
problem contains a universal quantifier ("for ail x . . . "). For example, the proof of a
proposition of the
fonn "for all integers . . . " might be carried out by arguing the even and odd cases separately.
Similarly, a theorem about triangles might be proved by dividing it into three cases
depending upon whether the triangle is acute,
Example: Divide into Cases

A A

p p p

(1) (2) (3)

Figure 1.24.

43
right, or obtuse. Occasionally, the subproblems can be arranged hierarchically into
subgoals, so that the first cases, once established, can be used to verify the succeeding
stages. Such a procedure is called hillclimbing.
In the early stages of analysis, it is good to think about how a problem might be
subdivided into a small number of (hopefully) simpler subproblems. The heuristic of this
section is often given in the following form: "If you can't solve the problem, find a
simpler related problem and solve it."

44
3.3 Consider Extreme Cases
In the beginning stages of problem exploration, it is often helpful to consider the
consequences of letting the problem parameters vary from one extreme value to another. In
this section ,we shall see that the existence of extreme positions are often the key to
understanding existence results (problems of the sort "prove there is an x such that P(x)").

Example: Given a finite number of points in the plane, not all collinear, prove there is a
straight line which passes through exactly two of them.

Solution. If P is a point and L a line, let d(P, L) denote the distance from P to L. Let S
denote the set of positive distances d(P, L) as P varies over the given points, and L varies
over those lines which do not pass through P but
1.11. Consider E:\treme Cases

•
P, I
Q
•
P,
•
P,

which do pass through at least two of the given points. The set S is nonempty (because
the given points are not all collinear) and finite (there are only a finite number of points
and a finite number of lines which pass through at least two such points). Therefore S has
a minimal element, say d(P,M). We claim that M passes through exactly two of the given
points. Suppose that M passes through three of the given points, say P1, P2, and P3• Let
Q denote the point on M which is closest toP. At least two of the points P" P2, P3 lie on
the same side of Q (one may equal Q), say P2 and P3 (see Figure 1.29). Suppose the
points are labeled so that P2 is closer to P than P3 • Now let N denote the line through P
and P3, and note that d(P2 , N) < d(P, M), a contradiction to our choice of P and M. It
follows that M can only pass through two of the given points.

45
3.7 Look for Symmetry

46
3.8 Choose Effective Notation

One of the first steps in working a mathematics problem is to translate the problem into
symbolic terms. At the outset, all key concepts should be identified and labeled;
redundancies in notation can be eliminated as relationships are discovered.

Example:
One morning it started snowing at a heavy and constant rate. A snowplow started out at 8:00
A.M. At 9:00 A.M. it had gone 2 miles. By
10:00 A.M. it had gone 3 miles. Assuming that the snowplow removes a constant volume of
snow per hour, determine the time at which it started snowing.

47
Solution.
It is difficult to imagine there is enough information in the problem to answer the question.
However, if there is a way, we must proceed systematically by first identifying those
quantities that are unknown. We introduce the following notation: Let t denote the time that
has elapsed since it started snowing, and let T be the time at which the plow goes out
(measured from t - 0). Let x(t) be the distance the plow has gone

48
3.9 Work Backward

To work backward means to assume the conclusion and then to draw deductions from the
conclusion until we arrive at something known or something which can be easily proved.
After we arrive at the given or the known, we then reverse the steps in the argument and
proceed forward to the conclusion.
This procedure is common in high-school algebra and trigonometry. For example, to find ail
real numbers which satisfy 2x + 3 = 7, we argue as follows. Suppose that x satisfies 2x + 3 =
7. Then, subtract 3 from each side of the equation and divide each side by 2, to get x = 2.
Since each step in this derivation can be reversed, we conclude that 2 does indeed satisfy 2x
+ 3 = 7 and is the only such number.

49
3.10 Pursue Parity

The simple idea of parity-evenness and oddness-is a powerful problem solving concept with a
wide variety of applications.

Example:

Let there be given nine lattice points in three-dimensional Euclidean space. Show that there is
a lattice point on the interior of one of the line segments joining two of these points.

Solution:
There are only eight different parity patterns for the lattice points: (even,even,even),
(even,even,odd}, . . . , (odd, odd, odd). Since there are nine given points, two of them have
the same parity pattern. Their midpoint is a lattice point, and the proof is complete.

3.11 Color and Prove

The four color theorem states that any map--a division of the plane into any number of
regions--can be colored using no more than four colors in such a way that no two adjacent
regions share the same
color. 

50
A map of the world, colored using four colors

The four color theorem is particularly notable for being the first major theorem proved by a
computer.
Interestingly, despite the problem being motivated by mapmaking, the theorem is not
especially important to the field as most maps were historically drawn with more than four
colors (despite only four being necessary). In addition, most maps occurring in practice only
require three colors.

51
 Application

Apply any of the mentioned heuristic to solve the following:

1. Alan, Ben and Carol are in the school’s Art Club. Their teacher, Mr Tan, wants two of
them to join a contest. How many ways can Mr Tan choose two pupils?

2. The smaller of two numbers is 1217. The greater number is 859 more than the smaller
number.

(a) What is the greater number?

(b) What is the sum of the numbers?

3. Draw the shape that comes next.

4. A shop sells apples in bags of 3. It sells lemons in bags of 4. Paul buys some bags of apples
and lemons. He buys the same number of each fruit. He buys more than 20 and fewer than 30
pieces of each fruit. How many apples does Paul buy?

5.

52
 LESSON 4: SOME IMPORTANT
PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION

Mathematical propositions come in two forms: universal

propositions which state that something is true for all values of x in
some specified set, and existential propositions which state that
something is true for some value of x in some specified set. The
former type are expressible in the form "For all x (in a set S),
P(x)"; the latter type are expressible in the form "There exists an x (in the set S) such
thatP(x)," where P(x) is a statement about x. In this chapter we will consider two important
techniques for dealing with these two kinds of statements: (i) the principle of mathematical
induction, for universal propositions, and (ii) the pigeonhole principle, for existential
propositions.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify what serves as pigeons and what serves as pigeonholes and apply the
Pigeonhole Principle in proving existence propositions;
2. recognize invariants in problems involving algorithms or repeated tasks and reason
accordingly toward a conclusion
3. articulate induction arguments to prove universal propositions;
4. formulate universal propositions based on tabulated data from mathematical
exploration;

53
 5. prove propositions by assuming the falsity of the conclusion and in the process derive
a contradiction.

ACTIVITY

Recall the important principles in Mathematics.

Analysis

After completing your work above, answer the questions below as guide for
reflective thinking. Use the space after each question to discuss your answer.

 What are the principles you remember?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 How are they used?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 What are the steps?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Abstraction

Heuristics are the strategies derived from previous experiences with similar problems. These
strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to
control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues.

The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from
matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In
mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional

54
assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification. Here are a few commonly used
heuristics from George Pólya's 1945 book, How to Solve It.

 If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.

 If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you
can derive from that ("working backward").
 If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
 Try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious
plan may have more chances of success).\

To solve word problems efficiently, students must be familiar with both the problem solving
methods (heuristics) and the problem solving process (Polya’s 4-step).
1. Understand the problem: What to find? What is known and unknown?
2. Devise a plan: Choose the most suitable heuristic
3. Carry out the plan: Solve the problem
4. Look back: Check the answer

4.1 Pigeonhole Principle

When a sufficiently large collection of objects is divided into sufficiently small number of
classes, one of the classes will contain a certain minimum number of objects. This made more
precise in the following self-evident proposition:

If kn+1 objects ( k +1 ) are distributed amongn boxes ,

one of theboxes will contain at least k +1 objects

This principle, even when k = I, is a very powerful tool for proving existence theorems. It
takes some experience, however, to recognize when and how to use it.

Example:

1. Among any 13 people, at least two share a birth month.

Label 12 boxes with the names of the months. Put each person in the box labeled with his or
her birth month. Some box will contain at least two people, who share a birth month.

55
2. Suppose 5 pairs of socks are in a drawer. Picking 6 socks guarantees that at least one pair
is chosen.

Label the boxes by "the pairs'' (e.g., the red pair, the blue pair, the argyle pair,…). Put the 6
socks into the boxes according to description.

Some uses of the principle are not nearly so straightforward.

3. If a Martian has an infinite number of red, blue, yellow, and black socks in a drawer, how
many socks must the Martian pull out of the drawer to guarantee he has a pair?

The Martian must pull 5 socks out of the drawer to guarantee he has a pair. In this case the
pigeons are the socks he pulls out and the holes are the colors. Thus, if he pulls out 5 socks,
the Pigeonhole Principle states that some two of them have the same color. Also, note that it
is possible to pull out 4 socks without obtaining a pair.

4. Show that in any group of   people, there are two who have an identical number of friends
within the group.

The maximum number of friends one person in the group can have is n-1, and the minimum
is 0. If all of the members have at least one friend, then each individual can have somewhere
between   to   friends; as there are   individuals, by pigeonhole there must be at least
two with the same number of friends. If one individual has no friends, then the remaining
friends must have from   to   friends for the remaining friends not to also have no
friends. By pigeonhole again, this leaves at least   other person with   friends.

4.2 Invariant principle

Generally speaking, an invariant is a quantity that remains constant during the execution of a
given algorithm. In other words, none of the allowed operations changes the value of the
invariant. The invariant principle is extremely useful in analyzing the end result (or possible
end results) of an algorithm, because we can discard any potential result that has a different
value for the invariant as impossible to reach.

Formal Definition:

56
57
Example:

Alice writes the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 on a blackboard. Bob selects two of these
numbers, erases both of them, and writes down their sum on the blackboard. For example, if
Bob chose the numbers 3 and 4, the blackboard would contain the numbers 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7.
Bob continues until there is only one number left on the board. What are the possible values
of that number?

In this problem, the invariant is the sum of the numbers on the blackboard, n. If Bob chooses
to erase the numbers aa and bb, he will write a+b on the blackboard, making the new sum
n−a−b+(a+b)=n, so n is indeed an invariant. This means that at any time during the process,
the sum of the numbers on the blackboard will be n=1+2+3+4+5+6=21, which means that the
final number must be 21.

In a more formal sense, the states of this problem are possible sets of numbers on the
blackboard, and the starting state is  s1={1,2,3,4,5,6}. The transition in this problem is erasing
two numbers and writing their sum. The invariant function, f(S), is the sum of the numbers
in S, and the invariant rule is verified as above. Therefore, since,f(s1)=21, the end state
Sfinal must also satisfy f(Sfinal)=21, and since Sfinal has only one number, it must be 21.□

Although the invariant was able to determine precisely what would happen in the previous
problem, they are usually only able to determine what cannot happen. 

4.3 Principle of Mathematical Induction

Assume that for each positive integer n we have a statement, S(n), that is either true or false.
Imagine that,

Basic Step: S(1) is true

Inductive Step: We would want to show if S(k) is true, then S(k+1) is also true.

To complete the inductive step of a proof using the principle of mathematical induction, we
assume that S(k) is true for an arbitrary positive integer k and show that under this
assumption, S(k+1) must also be true. The assumption that S(k) is true is called inductive
hypothesis.

58
Principle of Mathematical Induction Steps

Consider a statement P(n), where n is a natural number. Then to determine the validity of
P(n) for every n, use the following principle:

Step 1:  Check whether the given statement is true for n = 1.

Step 2: Assume that given statement S(n) is also true for n = k, where k is any positive
integer.

Step 3:  Prove that the result is true for S(k+1) for any positive integer k.

If the above-mentioned conditions are satisfied, then it can be concluded that S(n) is true for
all n natural numbers.

Consider the example below:

n
n(n+ 1)(2 n+1)
Show by induction that ∑ i =1 +2 +3 +…+ n =
2 2 2 2 2

i=1 6

Step 1: Let n=1

n
n( n+1)(2n+1)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

1
1(1+1)(2(1)+1)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

∑ i2= 66
i=1

∑ i2=1
i=1

Step 2: Let n=k

n
n ( n+1 ) ( 2 n+1 )
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

59
 k
k (k +1)(2 k +1)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

Step 3: let n=k+1

n
n( n+1)(2n+1)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

k +1
(k +1)((k + 1)+1)(2(k +1)+1)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

k +1
(k +1)(k +2)(2 k +3)
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

Proof:

2
k (k+ 1)(2 k +1) k ( k +1 ) ( 2 k +1 ) +6 ( k +1 )
+ ( k +1 )2=
6 6

k ( k+ 1)(2 k +1) 2 ( k +1 ) [k ( 2 k +1 ) +6 ( k +1 ) ]
+ ( k +1 ) =
6 6

2
k (k+ 1)(2 k +1) 2 (k+ 1)(2 k +7 k + 6)
+ ( k +1 ) =
6 6

k ( k+ 1)(2 k +1) 2 ( k+ 1)(k +2)(2k + 3)

+ ( k +1 ) =
6 6

4.4 Argue by Contradiction

A proof by contradiction is a kind of proof assuming the hypothesis that a proposition p is

true and that the conclusion q is false. Consider the following examples:

1. For all real numbers, x and y, if x + y ≥ 2 , then x ≥ 1∧ y ≥1.

a. Suppose the conclusion is false, that x<1 and y<1.
b. So, ( x <1 )+ ( y< 1 )=x + y <1+1=2.
c. So, if x + y ≥ 2∧x + y =2, then we come up with the realization that our claim
is true.
2. If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
a. Assume that the statement is false. Then n=2k.
b. So 3 n+2=3 (2 k )+ 2=6 k +2=2 (3 k +1 )

60
 c. But this is even.
d. This concludes the proof.

Application

Work with your peer to pose two problems for each of the situations listed below. The first
problem should be suitable for your peers and the second problem should be suitable for use
with children in the primary school.

Remember that when writing a good problem:

 the method of solution should not be immediately known

 the student must feel that he/she has a reasonable chance of finding a solution
 the student should want to try to find the solution i.e. the problem should be of
interest.

Pose a problem: ·

g. that gives a particular answer e.g. 24 m2

h. about a particular mathematics topic e.g. probability
i. which involves the use of a specific mathematics concept e.g. equivalent
fractions
j. which involves the use of a specific mathematics method e.g. division
k. based on a specific problem structure e.g. John and Susan have a total of 15
bananas, Susan and Matthew have a total of 19 bananas. Matthew and John
have a total of 22 bananas. How many bananas does each person have?
l. which has more than one solution e.g. draw shapes with a perimeter of 10 cm

61
References:

Books:

Abrams, Joshua (2001). Mathematical modeling. Online at

www.meaningfulmath.org/modeling.

Becker, Jerry & Shimada, Shigeru (1997). The open-ended approach: a new proposal for
teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Breaking Chocolate Bars is available online at http://www.cut-

theknot.com/proofs/chocolad.html.

Education Development Center (2000). Connected geometry. Chicago, Ill: Everyday

Learning Corporation.

Education Development Center (2001). Mathematical methods: topics in discrete and

precaclulus mathematics. Armonk, NY: It’s About Time.

Matveyev, S (2000, November/December). Tackling twisted hoops. Quantum, 8–12.

Sowder, Larry and Guershon Harel (1998, November). Types of students’ justifications.

Mathematics Teacher, 670–675.

Online Links:

https://www.owlgen.in/discuss-the-factors-affecting-problem-solving/

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED506983.pdf

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82806754.pdf

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/emt725/PSsyn/PSsyn.html

http://depedbohol.org/v2/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Math-CG_with-tagged-math-
equipment.pdf

https://www.owlgen.in/discuss-the-factors-affecting-problem-solving/

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED506983.pdf

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82806754.pdf

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/emt725/PSsyn/PSsyn.html

http://depedbohol.org/v2/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Math-CG_with-tagged-math-equipment.pdf

62