Bahir Dar Institute of Technology~ Bahir Dar university

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Final Thesis

Automatic Over Voltage Controller Design for Home Appliances

By

Senait Aregawi [1689/03]

Wondimu Mache [2004/03]

Yenesew Muluneh [2078/03]

Zeleke Mhiret [2632/03]

Advisor:

Mr. Ahunim A.

A Final Year Project Submitted to the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at Bahir Dar Institute of

Technology - Bahir Dar University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

June 2015

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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Declaration of Authorship

We, Senait Aregawie, Wondimu Mache ,Yenesew Muluneh, and Zeleke Mhiret declare that this
project titled,' Automatic Over Voltage Controller Design For Home Appliances and the
work presented in it are our own. We confirm that:

 This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a bachelor degree at this
University.
 Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other
qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated.
Where we have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed.
 Where we have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the
exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely our own work. We have
acknowledged all main sources of help.

Senait Aregawi Signature

Wondimu Mach Signature

Yenesew Muluneh Signature

Zeleke Mihret Signature

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.

Mr.Ahunim A.

Project Advisor Signature

Date: 12/10/2007 Date: 12/10/2007

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Approval by Board of Examiners

Chair Person Signature

Project Advisor Signature

Project Examiner 1 Signature

Project Examiner 2 Signature

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Acknowledgement

We would like to acknowledge our deep gratitude to Mr. Ahunim Abebe, our project advisor, for
his patient guidance, sparing valuable time in giving information and suggestions all through, for
successful completion of the project the stage it is by now.

For our document and progress of the thesis to arrive at it‟s currently stage, many individuals
give us their forwarding contribution since the beginning. We express our deep sense of gratitude
and sincere thanks to Faculty of electrical engineering for giving such an opportunity and for its
contribution in giving project room.

Last but not least, we want to thank our friends Senait. A, Wondimu.M, Yenesew and Zeleke.M
who treasured us for our hard work and encouraged us and finally to God who made all the things
possible for us till now.

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Table of Contents

Declaration of Authorship ............................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... iv

List of figure .................................................................................................................................. vii

List of Table ................................................................................................................................. viii

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... ix

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ x

Chapter One ..................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Statement of Problem........................................................................................................ 3

1.3. Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.3.1. General Objective ...................................................................................................... 3

1.3.2. Specific Objectives .................................................................................................... 3

1.4. Methodology Used in this Project .................................................................................... 4

1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Project ................................................................................. 5

1.6. Organizations of the Project ............................................................................................. 5

Chapter Two .................................................................................................................................... 6

2. Review of Literatures ............................................................................................................... 6

Chapter Three .................................................................................................................................. 9

3. System Description and Overall Operation .............................................................................. 9

3.1. System main components and operation ........................................................................ 10

3.2. Working principle of transistor switch ........................................................................... 15

3.2.1. Transistor Nature When Base Terminal Is Closed .................................................. 16

3.2.2. Transistor Nature When Base Terminal Is Open..................................................... 17

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3.3. Design and analysis of the system .................................................................................. 20

3.3.1. Transformer parameter calculation .......................................................................... 21

3.4. Final Circuit Design ........................................................................................................ 26

Chapter Four .................................................................................................................................. 28

4. Results and Discussions ......................................................................................................... 28

4.1. Software simulation results and discussions ................................................................... 28

4.1.1. Software simulation of power supply circuit ........................................................... 28

4.1.2. Software simulation of overall system circuit ......................................................... 30

4.2 Cost Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 32

Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................. 34

5. Conclusion and Recommendations for future work ............................................................... 34

5.1. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 34

5.2. Recommendations for Future work .................................................................................... 34

References ..................................................................................................................................... 36

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 37

Appendix B .................................................................................................................................... 38

Appendix C .................................................................................................................................... 39

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List of figure

Figure 1. 1: Methodology ................................................................................................................ 4

Figure 3. 1 : General Block Diagram of the System ........................................................................ 9
Figure 3. 2: Bridge Rectifier Circuit............................................................................................... 11
Figure 3. 3 : Power Supply with Simple Capacitor Filter .............................................................. 12
Figure 3. 4: Relay Driver Configuration ........................................................................................ 14
Figure 3. 5: Model of NPN Transistor............................................................................................ 15
Figure 3. 6: Transistor Switch When Base Terminal Is Closed ..................................................... 16
Figure 3. 7: Switch When Base Terminal Is Open Transistor ....................................................... 17
Figure 3. 8: Symbol of Diode ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 3. 9: Power Supply Circuit Design .................................................................................... 23
Figure 3. 10: Final Circuit Diagram ............................................................................................... 26
Figure 4. 1: Circuit Diagram of the Power Supply Circuit ........................................................... 28
Figure 4. 2: Simulation Diagram of the Power Supply Circuit ..................................................... 29
Figure 4. 3: Simulation Result in case of normal condition ......................................................... 30
Figure 4. 4: Simulation Result in case of over voltage................................................................. 31

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List of Table

Table 1: Material cost of automatic over voltage protection for home appliance ................. ..37
Table 2: Specifications for DC Relay .......................................................................................... 38
Table 3: Basic Transistor Region of Operation ........................................................................... 39

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List of Abbreviations

AC Alternating Current
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
DC Direct Current
DVD Drive Video Disk
DPST Duple Pole Single Throw
EMF Electromagnetic Force
ETB Ethiopian Birr
IC Integrated Circuit
LED Light Emitting Diode
OV Overvoltage
POT potentiometer
RMS Root Mean Square
SPST Single Pole Single Throw
TV Television
VCC Common Collector Voltage
VCE Common Emitter Voltage

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Abstract

This project aims to design, and simulate an automatic over voltage protection for home
appliance. Since AC mains is fluctuate in a movement or in uncontrolled manner in this case the
electrical appliance damaged permanently due to the existence of voltage above their upper rated
capacity of the equipment. This is difficult for all electricity users. Therefore our design is used
there to prevent over voltage for home appliance automatically to make the equipment safe. The
key features of the project is fully automatic ,used only homes or single phase applications not
applicable to that of industrial motors that have high power rating and the like. .

The results of simulation obtained indicate that the system presented has the potential to control
over voltage or avoiding equipment damage for every home appliance automatically when the
AC mains above 240 the system automatically break the circuit and bellow that the normal
condition running.

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 Chapter One

Introduction

1.1. Background

In most cases mains supply of electrical power may vary over voltage condition. These over
voltage or surge voltage may cause permanent damage of electrical equipments in every home.
So automatic over voltage protection of home appliance is so important to prevent the electrical
equipment from damage. In this project we are using simple electronic devices. The outputs of
the designed circuit directly connected to the load or the appliance together with relay. When
over voltage comes the relay disconnects the load from over voltage. In this case the load or the
electrical appliance is protected from over voltage.

Electronic and electrical appliances used in most homes in the country are designed to operate at
a nominal 230 V AC, which ought to be acceptable within certain tolerable upper limits.
Excessive fluctuations beyond these limits may cause the appliance to malfunction or get
irreparably damaged. Most protective devices are imported as well as expensive. The circuit
presented is a relatively cheap automatic voltage protector for home appliance that senses
undesirable and harmful fluctuations in mains voltages and disconnects the appliance whenever
the mains voltage supply goes above the pre-settable and safe tolerable limits or „window‟. The
appliance is automatically reconnected when mains power returns to normal within that
„window‟. By utilizing zener diode we can detect excessively high mains voltages to the load and
a switching relay capable of switching high currents, R. B. Standler, Protection of Electric
Circuits from Overvoltage [4].

Voltage fluctuation is a serious issue in every home. Due to some reasons our supply voltage may
rise above 110V or 230V. Flow of this high electricity may lead to the damage of our home
electrical devices [1].When the voltage in a circuit or part of it is raised above its upper design
limit, this is known as overvoltage. The conditions may be hazardous. Depending on its duration,
the overvoltage event can be transient a voltage spike or permanent, leading to a power surge.
Electronic and electrical devices are designed to operate at a certain maximum supply voltage,
and considerable damage can be caused by voltage that is higher than that for which the devices
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are rated. For example an electric light bulb has a wire in it that at the given rated voltage will
carry a current just large enough for the wire to get very hot (giving off light and heat), but not
hot enough for it to melt. The amount of current in a circuit depends on the voltage supplied: if
the voltage is too high, then the wire may melt and the light bulb would have "burned out".

Automatic over voltage protection system for home is designed to insure protection of home
devices like fan, light lamps, television, refrigerator, single phase motor and all other things we
need to protect in case of over voltage in main supply.

Overvoltage (OV) can happen due to many reasons, depending on the electrical system [11].
Some typical are: lightning strike on an overhead line, where by the very high lightning voltage
travels up & down the line, solar storms hitting the upper atmosphere can interact with the earth's
magnetic field to induce rapidly oscillating voltage in electric lines, sometimes causing
devastating over voltage resonance in the network, when a substantial fraction of a running load
is suddenly switched off, the supply system voltage suddenly rises. Eventually, the generator
controllers sense it & restore it to normal, usually in about 1-5 seconds, when a big capacitor
bank is switched on the capacitive switching surge creates OV. It dies down usually by about 100
millisecond. Same thing happens when a very long cable without any connected load is switched
on, due to capacitance of unloaded cables and in exams, especially during the lab work, the most
common reason of OV is due to nervous students connecting wires to the wrong voltage
terminals [9].

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1.2. Statement of Problem

Our Mains AC domestic power may be full of ups and downs or fluctuations, which may be quite
fatal to our sophisticated appliances like TV sets, DVD players, computers, light bulbs etc.
Electrical and sensitive electronic equipment are not immune from noisy and detrimental mains
power supply. Voltage surges, spikes and transients in excess of in very short duration of
microseconds, power outages, and brownouts, mains over voltage conditions can cause
unprotected appliances either in the home or office to malfunction. A huge number of domestic
and industrial appliances have sustained irreparable damage as a result of both excessively high
voltage and noisy fluctuating mains supplies. To peremantely alleviate such electrical equipment
damage designing automatic over voltage protection system would be feasible.

1.3. Objectives

The project has the following general and specific objectives.

1.3.1. General Objective

The general objective of the project is to design automatic over voltage protection system for
home appliances.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the project are:

 To design the over voltage control system.
 To design the power supply circuit.
 To analyze and study all of the system components.
 To simulate and implement the over voltage control system in accordance to the established
design parameters.
 To simulate the system using protuse 8 professional software.

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1.4. Methodology Used in this Project

Our methods of work are organized and accomplished through a sequence of stages. Prior to all,
we have reviewed related literatures. Then we have made the general block diagram for our
system that enables as to easily analyze each components of the system. We have carefully
analyze each part of the block diagram and do for their type identification and specification
explained in chapter 3.Here bellow is the methodology that we have followed.

Figure 1. 1: Methodology

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Major Assumptions Made for the Project

 The operational characteristics of most electronic components are compared against working
temperature range from 0 to 70_c.
 Costs for each device are calculated based on the whole sale of the suppliers, not the price of
single unit in the electronics shop, hence minimum cost is considered.
 The life time of each device are assumed to be as mentioned in the data sheet of that of the
manufacturers, less consideration we have made related to working environment and fault
caused aging.

1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Project

Scope of the Project

Design and simulate automatic over voltage protection circuit using protuse or Meltism
software.

Limitation of the Project

It is significant to know that this design is limited to low amps electrical appliance rating cannot
be used to control industrial motors and the like that have large ratings.

1.6. Organizations of the Project

This project contains five chapters. The first chapter describes the introduction part of the project
with statement of the problem and its objectives. The second chapter describes about literatures
related to automatic over voltage controller. The third chapter explains about system description
and over all operation of automatic over voltage controller. The fourth chapter describes the
result and discussion of project simulation. The fifth chapter deals about conclusion and
recommendation.

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Chapter Two

2. Review of Literatures

Over voltage protection or Control systems provides various potential benefits in case of
preventing permanent equipment damage or adding equipment safety including enhanced user
comfort, operational flexibility and better facilities management [10]. There is a growing
literature that addresses the effect of over voltage for home electrical appliance and the various
voltage stabilizer mechanisms.

This paper “Double relay based sag, swell, over and under voltage protection and detection
scheme”: Claude Lyons protection Proposes a scheme against voltage sag, swell, over voltage
and under voltage to address the difficulties faced due to voltage fluctuations. Voltage sag and
swells in the supply are detected and the relay circuit operates accordingly. This relay circuit
along with a simulated graph has been shown. The passage of current through the circuit to be
protected is allowed to flow only when no faults are observed. Hence the protective relay circuit
prevents the output load from the hazardous effects of overvoltage and under voltage [1].

In the paper “Sensitivity Analysis of Frequency and Voltage Stability in Islanded

Microgrid”: Slater, A.I (1995) describes their study on the voltage and frequency stability of an
islanded micro grid and the sensitivity of these quantities to certain changes in system
configuration. In conventional power systems the system frequency is coupled with the rotor
speed of the directly grid connected large synchronous generators and power unbalance can be
seen as changed system frequency. But in an islanded micro grid it is possible that all generation
units are connected to grid via converters and there is no inertia of rotating masses to affect the
frequency. In that case the frequency has to be created by a power electronic device and the
frequency is more of less fixed and power unbalance cannot be detected in the classical way. The
studied urban low voltage (LV) network based micro grid consists of three converters and one
synchronous generator based distributed generation units [5].

In the paper” Piezoelectric Voltage Regulator for electrical Appliances”: T.A.Jonsen describes
the Piezoelectric Materials, on applying pressure undergoes changes with its dimension and
produces electricity .They experience mechanical deformations when placed in an electric field

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and become electrically polarized under mechanical loads. In voltage regulator,

electromechanical mechanism is applied for regulating voltages. Its design is more reliable, but
complexity with heating element w.r.t to coil voltage regulator and more efficient for home
appliances. They had gone through basic designed model for Piezoelectric Voltage Regulator. Its
nature and characteristics depends on the dimension and piezoelectric material coefficient and
layers. It is the combination of longitudinal piezoelectric transducers and transverse piezoelectric
actuators. Piezoelectric transducer induces an electric charge on the electrode plates for
generating output voltages with tapping of multiple layers for varying the output voltage [7].

The Paper “Voltage Regulator”: A review”, X. Guo, DK Tiller, GP Henze and CE describes a
method by which automatic voltage regulation to 0.15 percent. May be obtained for such
purposes as the operation of photometric standard lamps on an ordinary outside supply varying
by as much as 10 per cent. The lamp is placed a cross an unbalanced Wheatstone bridge of which
two opposite arms are composed of tungsten filament lamps. The increase of resistance of these
lamps, due to the extra current passing through them when the outside voltage rises, causes a shift
in the balance of the bridge such that the voltage across the photometer lamp remains unaltered if
the values of the resistances in the arms be properly proportioned. The power taken is about 40
times that used in the regulated circuit [9].

In the paper “Voltage multi-stability in distribution grids with power flow reversal”:Hung D.
Nguyen, Konstantin Turitsyn (2014), describe in their study that high levels of penetration of
distributed generation and aggressive reactive power compensation with modern power
electronics may result in the reversal of active and reactive power flows in future distribution
grids. The voltage stability of these operating conditions may be very different from the more
traditional power consumption regime. Stability characteristics of distribution networks with
reversed power flow were also studied. After introducing a universal algebraic approach to
characterize all the solutions of the power flow equations, we show that new solutions appear in
the reversed power flow regime even in the simplest three bus systems. Some of these solutions
are shown to be stable and the system may exhibit a phenomenon of multi-stability, where
multiple stable equilibrium co-exist at the given set of parameters, and the system may converge
to an undesirable equilibrium after a disturbance. These predictions are validated with dynamic
simulations of two different systems. Under certain conditions the new states are viable and may

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be characterized by relatively high voltages. Possible approaches towards reactive power/voltage

regulation as well as permissible distributed generation capacity in future power systems are
proposed and discussed in the end of the paper.

Therefore from the above literature review it is clear that scholars and researchers do their own
voltage regulator mechanism in distribution and transmission lines but no one could make high
voltage protective system for home appliance in affordable price. The choice of our system is due
to the fact that the system components are inexpensive and consume very low power.

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Chapter Three

3. System Description and Overall Operation

Having investigated such problem and reviewing related literatures, we finally proposed an
automatic over voltage protection as described in general block diagram shown in figure 3.1
bellow .The components and devices used in our system are explained in the sections below.

Figure 3. 1 : General Block Diagram of the System

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3.1. System main components and operation

Power Supply

A classic 12V regulated DC supply based on 7812 IC is required. This circuit works on 12 V
DC supply, we need a step down transformer of 12 V 300mA.It converts input 230 AC voltage to
12V DC as an output. Then this ac voltage is rectified using a rectification circuit with 4 diodes
connected in a bridge form. The output after the diode is 12V DC which is regulated using
regulator 7812. This regulated output of 12V DC is used in the circuit.

Transformers selection

Electrical power transformer is a static device, which transforms electrical energy from one circuit
to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between to
windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but in
different voltage level. Mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for
transformation action in an electrical transformer. The alternating current through the winding
produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux surrounds the winding. Now if we bring
another coil nearby this first one, there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As
the flux is alternating, there will be a rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time in the
second coil. By Electromagnetic Induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the
circuit of the latter winding is closed, there must be electric current flows through it. In order to
choose the required transformer the power rating, current rating and the voltage level should be
considered.

According to our design we need a step down transformer which changes 230 volt AC in to 12 volt
DC needed. Therefore we select step down transformer having power rating of 250 watt and the
primary current rating of 54.5m amperes and the secondary current rating of 1 ampere.

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Rectifier

Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down
transforme.The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts AC into pulsating
DC. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is
used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

TR1 D1 D2

1N4007 1N4007

R1

D3 D4

TRAN-2P2S 1N4007 1N4007

Figure 3. 2: Bridge Rectifier Circuit

The bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an AC voltage to DC voltage using both half
cycles of the input AC voltage. The bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has
four diodes connected to form a bridge. The AC input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the
bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input AC voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For negative half cycle the input AC
voltage of the AC voltage, diode D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF.

The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional
wave is the converted into unidirectional wave.

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Capacitive Filter

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the DC output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is
maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, DC voltage received at this point
changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage [10].

TR1 D1 D2

1N4007 1N4007
C1

D3 D4

TRAN-2P2S 1N4007 1N4007

Figure 3. 3 : Power Supply with Simple Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator

7812 three terminal voltage regulator is used for supply voltages and reference voltages for the
circuit. Voltage regulator is an electrical or electronic device that maintains the voltage of a
power source within acceptable limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages within
the prescribed range that can be tolerated by the electrical equipment using that voltage. Voltage
regulators are used in electronic equipment in which excessive variations in voltage would be
detrimental.

Electronic voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out variations in
the flow of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances; that is, resistance
decreases when the electrical load is heavy and increases when the load is lighter. As the name

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itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator
designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power supply of 12v
is required. In order to obtain this voltage level, 7812 voltage regulator is to be used. The first
number 78 represents positive supply and the number 12 represents the required output voltage.

Relay

Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not usually
control power consuming devices except for small motors and solenoids that draw low amps.
However, relays can control larger voltages and amperes because a small voltage applied to a
relays coil can result in a large voltage being switched by the contacts [2]. Protective relays can
prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities, including over current,
undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition, relays are also widely used to switch
starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms. Relays involve two circuits: the
energizing circuit and the contact circuit.

The coil is on the energizing side; and the relays contacts are on the contact side. When a relays
coil is energized, current flow through the coil creates a magnetic field. The magnetic coil attracts
a ferrous plate, which is part of the armature. One end of the armature is attached to the metal
frame, which is formed so that the armature can pivot, while the other end opens and closes the
contacts.. For instance, relays might be described as Single-pole, single-throw (SPST), or double-
pole, single-throw (DPST). These terms will give an instant indication of the design and function
of different types of relays.

General purpose relays are electromechanical switches, usually operated by a magnetic coil. They
operate with AC or DC current, at common voltages such as 12V, 24V, 48V, 120V and 230V,
and they can control currents ranging from 2A-30A.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its

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relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. The relay driver circuit is shown in the Figure bellow.

RL1
12V
D1
DIODE

R1 Q1
2N1711

Figure 3. 4: Relay Driver Configuration

The relay coil is connected between the positive rail and the collector of the transistor. When the
input signal passes through the resistor R1 to the base of the transistor Q1, it conducts and
activates the relay RL1. Since a relay coil is not only an electromagnet but also an inductor [2], a
fly back diode D1 in parallel with a resistor is used to eliminate fly back, which is the sudden
voltage spike seen across an inductive load when its supply voltage is suddenly reduced or
removed. The diode also clamps the voltage across the coil to about 0.7V protecting the transistor
and other associated components. The stored energy dissipates quickly in the diode and the
resistor.

Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the
current through another pair of terminals [6]. Our article explains how a transistor work and the
working of transistor as a switch. At present, transistors are applied in most of the electronic
equipments for switching purposes.

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Figure 3. 5: Model of NPN Transistor

In a grounded emitter transistor circuit, shown above, as the base voltage rises, the Emitter and
collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance
from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the Collector and emitter were zero
(or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and
the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter
freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on. Transistor is a semiconductor device used for
switching and amplification of weak signals. This article explains how a transistor work and the
working of transistor as a switch. At present, transistors are applied in most of the electronic
equipments for switching purposes. Digital ICs, Microcontrollers, etc uses thousands of
embedded transistors for switching.

The huge electrical networks are also switched by simple transistor switching circuit
(Most of the Power electronics circuits). Here we are discussing about NPN transistor switching
circuit. To realize the exact working principle, an LED (Light Emitting Diode) is connected to the
collector of NPN transistor. It glows according to the base current.

3.2. Working principle of transistor switch

Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases [8].
 Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the
base- collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the
greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the

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collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times
larger, for small base current variations.
 Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the
forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the
emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize
current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several times smaller (2–3
times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually
being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse
bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.
 Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates
high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of
NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode
corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

 Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are
present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.

3.2.1. Transistor Nature When Base Terminal Is Closed

VCC

RC

VC=VCF=0.2
VC
RB
Q1
BC548
D1
LED-BIRY

Figure 3. 6: Transistor Switch When Base Terminal Is Closed

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Consider the above figure in which base terminal of the NPN transistor is closed then the
transistor is said to be in ON state (similar to a short circuit between Vcc and Ground) so the
collector voltage is very low (0.02V approx.).
 Whole current from Vcc will flows through the transistor, no current flow through the LED
because current chooses low resistance path.
 Therefore LED connected at the Collector is in OFF state since the voltage at the anode of
LED is 0.02V.
 In this case the output voltage very small or zero. But there is large collector current including
base current.

3.2.2. Transistor Nature When Base Terminal Is Open

VCC

RC

VC=VCC
VC
RB
Q1
BC548
D1
LED-BIRY

Figure 3. 7: Switch When Base Terminal Is Open Transistor

Consider the second figure above, when the voltage at the base terminal removed (open circuit),
the transistor become OFF (means an open circuit between Vcc and Ground) then its collector
voltage will be Vcc (Supply voltage).Since the transistor is in OFF state, the whole current will
flows through the LED, Then the LED glows. Here the output voltage very large but no collector
current including base current. But there is large collector current including base current.

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Diode

A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It allows current to flow
only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the opposite direction. The two
terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode. The most common function of a diode is
to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while
blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed
as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and
is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from
radio signals in radio receivers these diodes are forms of rectifiers.

Figure 3. 8: Symbol of Diode

Zener diode

A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage", "Zener voltage",
"avalanche point", or "peak inverse voltage".

The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. Strictly
speaking, a Zener diode is one in which the reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum
tunneling under high electric field strength the Zener effect. However, many diodes described as
"Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types are used with
the Zener effect predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdowns above. Common
applications include providing a reference voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect other
semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses.

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Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction.
What makes them different from other diodes is that Zener diodes will also allow current to flow
in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is
known as the Zener voltage. In a standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the diode is
permanently damaged if a reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it. Zener
diodes are designed in a way where the Zener voltage is a much lower value. There is a
controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode when a reverse current above the Zener
voltage passes through a Zener diode.

The most common values for nominal working voltage are 4.3v, 5.1 V, 5.6 V, 6.2 V, 12 V and 15
V. We also carry Zener diodes with nominal working voltage up to 1 kV. Forward (drive) current
can have a range from 200 uA to 200 A, with the most common forward (drive) current being 10
mA or 200 mA.in our system we have used a zener diode that have a voltage capacity of 4.3v.
Zener diode ZD1 senses the supply, and should the supply rise above its braking capacity, Ql will
turn on.

Light Emitting Diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic pn-
junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When a LEDs anode Lead has a voltage that
is more positive than its cathode lead by approximately 0.6 to 2.2 Volts, current often flows and
light is often emitted. On the other hand, when an LEDs anode lead has a voltage that is less
positive than its cathode lead by approximately 0.6 to 2.2 Volts, current often does not flows and
light is often not emitted.

Small rating LEDs has many advantages over incandescent light sources lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
According to Mason, C. R. Retrieved October 9, 2011 there are three main categories of
miniature single die LEDs: Low-current: Typically rated for 2 mA at around 2V (approximately
4 mW consumption). Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at
around [3].
 1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow
 3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue

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 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white

Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2V or 45V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight

5V and 12V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for
direct connection to a 5V or 12V supply.

Resistor

A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an
electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device
such as a transistor. A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same
time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit
current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements. Resistors are common elements of
electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical
resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are
also implemented within circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its
resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders
of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

3.3. Design and analysis of the system

Power supply circuit design

A good regulated AC to DC power supply circuit is essential for any electronic circuits. Also
a bridge rectifier power supply is also necessary. Firstly we need to know what a bridge rectifier
is. A rectifier circuit employs the conversion of AC voltage to DC voltage. Full wave bridge
rectifiers have the benefit that they transfer both half cycle of ac input into dc output and also
efficiency is two times greater than that of half wave rectifier. Bridge rectifier circuits are put into
practice using diodes such as 1n4001, 1n4007 etc. below is the circuit schematic of rectifier
regulated power supply using 78xx voltage regulator IC. 78xx is a positive voltage regulator and
available at different output voltages as 7805 for5v, 7812 for 12v ,7809 for 9v, 7815 for 15v etc.
hence in our case we have selected 7812 for 12v.

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DC voltage design calculation

The over voltage protection circuit is capable of measuring and monitoring voltages from187 to
230v AC. In this project the voltage can be increased or decreased by using the variable
potentiometer. The secondary voltage of the transformer is 12v AC and connected to the bridge
rectifier, therefore the DC output is approximated as shown in equation 3.1.
√ .............................................. 3.1
√
From equation 3. 1 the VAC is the RMS transformer voltage and the 0.7v is voltage drop across
the rectifier. As there are two diodes conducting for each half cycle, therefore there will be two
rectifier voltage drops.

3.3.1. Transformer parameter calculation

Secondary winding calculation of transformer

The 220v or 230v AC to 12v AC steps down transformer is used for our system. The voltage
transformer will pass through rectification process before fed to a 12v DC. Assume the
transformer has 120 turns of coil in the primary, therefore secondary winding turn‟s calculated
using equation 3.2.
……………………………………………3.2

turns
The above calculation shows that the secondary transformer has7 turns and the turn ratio of
transformer is N1:N2 (120: 7).

Transformer primary current calculation

The step down transformer is a transformer that has low voltage in the secondary than the voltage
in the primary. But in case of current it would step up i.e. the current at the primary is lower than
the current at the secondary side of the transformer.
Assume the secondary current is 1A, and then the calculation will verify using equation 3.2 as
follows:

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The above calculation shows that the step down transformer has step up the primary current from
54.5mA to 1A at the secondary.

Design bridge rectifier with given specifications

Given data:

Assume: Von = 1 V, VR< 0.15 V

√ √ √
According to various sources, the ripple voltage of a full wave bridge rectifier is listed in
equation 3.3
...............................................................................3.3
= ,
Let time taken=
Where:
T =is the time taken
C= is the capacitor
=ripple voltage

Design of Zener diode current with given specification

As an example, supposed a given data is provided as such:

VZ=4.3 V, VIN =12V and R1=10k, R2=10K
=
Here we can also calculate the cut off voltage as such:

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V input =10.3 v DC, obtain when the main supply reaches to 240 AC and above
=5.15v, which is the cut of voltage that makes Q1 ON state
Finally we can design the power supply circuit as such:

U1
7812

1 3
TR1 VI VO

GND
D1
1N4007 D3

2
1N4007
+88.8 +88.8
AC Volts AC Volts C1 +88.8
1000uf Volts

D2 D4
1N4007 1N4007
TRAN-2P2S

Figure 3. 9: Power Supply Circuit Design

3.5.2. Transistor used as a driver

The transistor is used as the driver and the basic function of the driver circuit is to provide the
necessary current to energize the relay coil. It‟s important that the transistor is driven in to
saturation so that the voltage drop across the transistor is minimum thereby dissipating very little
power. The protection diode in the circuit is used to protect the transistor from the reverse current
generated from the coil of the relay during the switch off time.

In electric circuit, mechanical switch are not used. The switching action is performed by the
transistor with an input voltage switching the circuit. When the base voltage is zero, BJT will be
in cut off IC =0, VOUT=VCC (open switch) When base voltage is 5V DC or 12v DC BJT can be in
saturated (closed switch) with VOUT=VCE=Vsat~0.2v.

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Cut off Condition of Transistor

A transistor is said to be in cut-off region when the base emitter BE junction is not forward
biased. When IB is near to zero IC approaches zero in a non-liner manner this is known as a cut off
region of operation and in this case the transistor acts as open or off switch.

Saturation Condition of Transistor

The transistor is said to be in a saturated condition when the BE base emitter junction is in
forward biased, and there is an enough base current to produce high collector current. In this case
the transistor is said to be closed or on. The formula used is shown in equation 3.4

VBE =0.7v, IB>0A

..........................................................3.4

Verification of transistor VCE in saturated region

Voltage divider rules as shown in equation 3.5 states that the voltage across the resistor in series
circuit is equal to the value of the resistor multiply by the total impressed voltage across the series
elements divided by the total resistance of the series elements.
.............................................3.5

VCE=?

Calculating Collector current IC using Kirchhoff‟s voltage low (KVL), in Q3

The collector current IC can be calculated using equation 3.6
………………………………………3.6

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Verification of transistor VCE in cut off region (open)

In cut off region IC=IE 0, therefore using equation 3.7 the collector current can be determined as
such.

………………………………3.7

Relay Driver Design Analysis

DC current gain of the transistor, β is expressed as

……………………………………………3.8
Where IC is the collector current (through the relay coil), and
IB is the base current.
To calculate the value of the base resistor, the following were considered:
VIN = 12V the relay that is used has a coil resistance of 240Ω.
Therefore, the relay coil current = collector saturating current =IC SAT = 12V/240Ω = 50mA.
………………………………………….3.9
Assuming β = 100 (for BC547ed is IN4007. Assuming β = 100 (for BC547),

The actual base current flowing, IB SAT must be higher than the calculated base current IB to
ensure base saturation.

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3.4. Final Circuit Design

After calculating the necessary parameters the next step is drawing or modeling of the system.
Here what we are made is simply showing the drawing or the nature of the system what
resembles.

Figure3. 10: Final Circuit Diagram

Working Principle of overall system

R1 and R2 forms a potential divider network, we can adjust the cut off voltage or over
voltage by varying R2and R1.Neutral line is directly connected to the „Common‟ terminal of
relay, then the „NO‟ terminal and Phase lines are fed to the home appliances. At normal
condition a small amount of current will flow through the zener diode but it is insufficient to
turn ON the transistor Q1.Sudden increase of supply voltage (over voltage) leads to the
increase of zener current. This current will turn ON the transistor Q1.The collector voltage of
Q1 is applied to the base of Q2. Thus Q2 become OFF because transistor acts a digital

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switch .Q3 is our relay driver, turning OFF Q2 produce exact Vcc to the base of Q3 and Q3
conducts in this case the collector current of Q3 is large and applied to the relay to break the
circuit. In this case, there will be no supply of electricity to the device. Hence they are
protected from over voltage.

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Chapter Four

4. Results and Discussions

From our system design we get the following result, for the automatic over voltage protection.
Model for both simple and practical over voltage protection has been simulated in protuse
software. Its parameter such as C and R for Filter design has been calculated accurately,
modeling (designed) and then simulated. These parameters are varied and the resulting over
voltage and normal voltage condition has been studied.

4.1. Software simulation results and discussions

For this simulation system process we use protuse simulation software, there we get the following
results from our design.

4.1.1. Software simulation of power supply circuit

Figure 4. 1: Circuit Diagram of the Power Supply Circuit

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Figure 4. 2: Simulation Diagram of the Power Supply Circuit

Simulation Result and Discussion:

The transformer step downs the high voltage AC to a low voltage AC.The pure 230 v ac is
applied to the primary of the transformer and it steps down to 12 v AC to the secondary. And
the yellow color or the sine wave indicates the applied voltage wave. During the positive half
cycle of secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are
reverse biased, now the current flows through D2–>Load–>D3.During the negative half cycle of
the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased and diodes D2 and D3 are reverse
biased Now the current flows through D4-D1.In both the cycles load current flows in same
direction, hence we get a pulsating DC voltage across the points. That means the blue color
indicates the full wave rectification. The pulsating content is called ripples and a filter capacitor
is used to remove the ripples from pulsating DC. The red color above indicates the required
filtered wave. When the instantaneous values of pulsating DC voltage decreases, the stored
voltage in the capacitor reverse biases the diodes D2 and D4. Hence it will not conduct, now
capacitor discharges through the load. Then voltage across the capacitor decreases.
During the next cycle, when the peak voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage, diode D2 or D4
forward biases accordingly, as a result capacitor again charges to the peak value. This process
continues. At last the green color indicate that the pure dc output.

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4.1.2. Software simulation of overall system circuit

Figure 4. 3: Simulation Result in case of normal condition

Simulation Result and discussion

Under this case no surge voltage means over voltage that come from the AC mains therefore the
load or the electrical appliance get supply from the mains and works or function. According to
our design the circuit trip only above 240 or over 4% of the supply mains .therefore the
simulation diagram above indicate that the normal operation of the system that is below 239 ac
mains the lamp is ON state or supply is there .

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Figure 4. 4: Simulation Result in case of over voltage

Simulation result discussion

Here the diagram above is the simulation diagram of the over voltage condition. According to the
diagram. Ql is on when the voltage capacity of the zener diode is below the output voltage that
delivers it. The voltage capacity of the zener diode that we have used is 4.3 v and the voltage
greater than this creates over voltage. and this voltage happens when the AC mains reach 240 v
or be over 4% of the AC mains .thereafter when Q1 conducts Q2 be grounding makes Q3 be
ON state and large collector current feed to the 12v relay and the relay trip the circuit to break ,
hence the lamp is protected from over voltage .

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4.2 Cost Analysis

One of the main points of this project was to minimize the cost, when compared to commercially
available system. Commercially available over and under voltage protection or voltage stabilizer
products reveal that a 250W voltage stabilizer costs about $80. The goal of this project is to bring
the price of the voltage stabilizer minimizing to a price reduction of about 20-25% compared to
its counterparts and the same thing for automatic over and under voltage protection.

As shown on the Tables 1 located in Appendix A summarize the parts used in each components
specification module, along with their cost. The total parts cost from those table comes out to be
$ 48.15 for automatic over and under voltage protection.

Labor

We take an assumption to estimate the labor cost, the time spent by both engineers other worker
on the project per month. The total number of hours worked on design 6 hour, fabrication 3 hour,
and for testing 4 hour then the totals time required implement an over and under voltage
protector is equal to 13 hours. Let assume with an engineering dream salary in our country
context $ 400 per month when convert in per hour of $ 0.56/hour and other workers $ 0.4, then
total labor cost for implementing an automatic over voltage protection comes out to be

Therefore we can calculate the cost of over voltage protection as follow

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The current cost of a 250W automatic voltage stabilizer in the market is ETB 1500-1700 .As
shown in table 1 in appendix A, the cost involved in constructing the automatic over voltage
protection is cheaper and the materials needed for replacement are also available in the local
market.

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Chapter Five

5. Conclusion and Recommendations for future work

5.1. Conclusion
Going through the planning, flow process, design and software implementation, the system has
been a tough one, the chapter one to four has actually tried as much as possible to explain vividly
almost all (if not all) what is involved in the construction of this project. After the complete
design of the system, the deviation between the expected result and the actual result was very
close. The performance and efficiency was beyond expectation and from every ramification the
design of automatic over voltage controller was successful.

Hence we have a automatic over voltage home appliance controller with the following features:
Low maintenance, fully automat Simple to use, Consume very low energy and, ideal for
continuous operation
This thesis is deals with the designing of automatic over voltage controller. As we tried to show
the overall cost analysis, the cost of our automatic over voltage controller is much less than the
currently available in the market and advantage to reduced foreign currency out flow. The
automatic over voltage designing part includes simulation. The key point that we have
determined is that controlling the lamp circuit or making turn OFF the lamp circuit when over
voltage happen otherwise ON. The controller design including, selection of suitable power
electronics device like, switching devices, capacitors transistors, relays, resistors and others based
on the key features of the system.

5.2. Recommendations for Future work

Designing controlling part of the proposed system, as being the main task of, has been achieved
with great success ,supported by simulation results .This project is a design of cheaper ,efficient
and low cost automatic over voltage controller. It can be easily upgraded, but it has not high
power handling capability it only designs for small power which has 250 watt home appliances.

The future work includes, implementing the hard ware and also studying various types of
controller mechanisms, such as microcontrollers, arduino, and any other moderate controllers

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should be applied and it would be nice .It is simple design additions such as circuit protection and
a closed loop control system could greatly improve the performance of this protection system and
also should improve the handling capacity of high rating machines in every industry. And also
under voltage control, frequency control together over voltage with automatic control will be
developed in the next.

Taking four major course in the final year second semester is very challenged to achieve the
project goals due to overloading and shortage of time ,therefore we recommended that in final
year final semester no need of any additional major course to achieve the project goals.

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References

[1]. Claude Lyons. (2007), “Energy saving and equipment life prolongation by voltage
reduction background”, Accessed on May 23 2007
[2]. Elliot, Rod. "Nature and specification of relay ". Elliott Sound Products. Retrieved 7
June 2012.
[3]. Mason, C. R. “LED and their types",. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
[4]. R. B. Standler, Protection of Electric Circuits from Overvoltage, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc, First edition, New York, pp.3~33, 1989. .
[5]. Slater, A.I.,“Sensitivity Analysis of Frequency and Voltage Stability in Islanded
. Microgrid”, presented at the 23rd Session of the CIE, New Delhi, vol. 1, 1995,
Published by International Commission on Illumination, Vienna
[6]. Tomass S W & James M R (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-
Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-4427-3.
[7]. T.A.Jonsen,”Piezoelectric Voltage Regulator for Home Appliances”, Germany, 4th
edition 2000.
[8]. T. Moore, J Carter and Al Slater,” transistor nature and its operation and
specification”, India, 3rd edition 2011
[9]. X. Guo, DK Tiller, GP Henze and CE,” system of Voltage Regulator: A review”, India,
5th, edition volume 39(3), 2002 .
[10]. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery Electr. & Power Syst. Dept., Univ. Pontificia
Comillas, Madrid, Spain (Impact Factor: 1.66). 08/2010
[11]. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/3598316 On automatic voltage regulator design
for synchronous generators [accessed Mar 21, 2015].

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Appendix A

Table 1: Material cost analysis for automatic over voltage protection for home appliance

No Description Quantity Price per unit $ Total Price in

$
1 Transformer 230VAC, at 250W 1 14 14

2 Pot resistance 2 5 10
3 12v relay 1 2.5 2.5
4 breadboard 1 10 10
5 Capacitors 1 0.4 0.4
6 Resistors, 3 0.25 0.75
7 Transistor (NPN),BC187 2 2 4
8 Connecting cables 2 meter 0.7 1.4
9 Diodes 5 0.5 2.5
10 Zener Diode 1 0.6 0.6
11 Transistor(NPN),BC547 1 2 2
Total cost 48.15

Total Material Cost to Implementing the System=48.15

Total Labor Cost to Implementing the System= 7.28

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Appendix B

Table 2: Specifications for DC Relay [2]

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Appendix C

Table 3: Basic Transistor Region of Operation [8]

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