DESIGN AND AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AN UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE WITH A FIXED-WING PJAEE, 19 (2) (2022)

DESIGN AND AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AN UNMANNED

AERIAL VEHICLE WITH A FIXED-WING

Diego Armando Mejía Bugallo1, Cristhian Ivan Riaño Jaimes2, Albert Miyer Suarez
Castrillon3, Sir-Alexci Suarez Castrillon4
1, 2, 3
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona, Colombia
4
Faculty of Engineering, University Francisco of Paula Santander Ocaña, Colombia

Diego Armando Mejía Bugallo, Cristhian Ivan Riaño Jaimes, Albert Miyer Suarez
Castrillon, Sir-Alexci Suarez Castrillon. Design And Aerodynamic Analysis of An
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle with A Fixed-Wing -- Palarch’s Journal of Archaeology of
Egypt/Egyptology 19(2), 615-634. ISSN 1567-214x

Keywords: Aerodynamics, Aerospace Systems Design, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle,

Aircraft.

ABSTRACT
This article presents the design, analysis, and simulations of a fixed-wing unmanned aerial
vehicle to be used in aerial photographic captures of agricultural plantations located in the north
of Colombia. In the design, the region's variable weather conditions, aerodynamic selection,
lift aspects, flight efficiency, aerodynamic performance, propulsion system, and prototype
structure adjusted for the application are taken into account. The design factors, requirements,
and manufacture of the prototype are detailed. In the analysis and study, computational tools
such as webfoil from the University of Michigan, the 3D modeling program SolidWorks 2020,
the XFLR5 aerodynamic software based on xfoil with code modifications, CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics), SolidWorks Flow Simulation, and ANSYS are used. With
the results obtained, the CAD prototype of the vehicle is designed, which satisfies the
calculated aerodynamic parameters. Taking into account the viability of software, it was
possible to conclude that the XFLR5 ignores viscous effects; in contrast, the SolidWorks Flow
Simulation CFD complement uses more elaborate equations to consider viscosity
characteristics turbulence effects, in addition, the calculation methods are different while one
uses the panel method the other uses Navier-Stokes equations with finite numerical methods.

INTRODUCTION
Pamplona is a Colombian municipality located in the department of Norte de
Santander, located at coordinate’s 72°39' longitude west of Greenwich and 7°23'
north latitude. It is located at 2,200 meters above sea level, and its atmospheric
pressure is 542 mmHg. Pamplona is a municipality that presents a
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climatological variation, attenuating the variability in factors such as wind,

precipitation, and cloudiness that make the flight of a fixed-wing drone notably
tricky (Riaño et al., 2021). Fixed-wing drones need considerable space and
optimal weather conditions for their correct operation, which is why wind
variations are considered a design factor in this research. An aerodynamic
analysis seeks to conceive a model in which the drone can fully adapt to
stationary flights, leveled satisfactorily.

The purpose is to design a fixed-wing drone for which an aerodynamic analysis

of a fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle is performed. Starting from some
design considerations given by the environment where it will operate, the
simulation, computational tests, and analysis will define the changes applied in
the redesign of the drone. An initial model of the fixed-wing drone is analyzed
to observe its aerodynamic and physical characteristics using computational
tools. The most critical component within the design is the geometry and
dimension of its fixed-wing, for which a profile is chosen that, given the
aerodynamic and climatic conditions of Pamplona, responds in the best way to
the considered design requirements.

Various efforts are being made to improve the efficiency of drone flight; below
are the following international and national backgrounds related to this research
and unmanned aerial vehicles. Olivos (2017), in his research "Design of the
aerodynamic profile of a drone" concludes that: The correct design of an
aerodynamic profile directly impacts other systems and subsystems of a drone,
since if the profile has high lift coefficients, it will be able to withstand a more
significant amount of payload, if the profile maintains low drag coefficients, it
will need less propulsion to advance, and if the profile has high coefficients of
aerodynamic efficiency, it will be able to fly for a longer time consuming a less
fuel. Also, a considerable thickness in the airfoil increases the mass of the wing,
but an adequate thickness provides structural security to support the loads
generated by the mass of the aircraft, the power system, and the payload (Olivos,
2017). The research entitled "Design, construction, and control of a drone-type
aircraft" presents an aircraft capable of sustaining itself in flight through the
proposed control law (Fernandez Bobadilla et al., 2016). The controller for
stabilization and regulation was adequately designed and implemented in the
plant, and it was shown that it correctly processes the information about the
states to produce an appropriate control signal (Fernandez, Torres, & Ramirez).
The investigation entitled "Determination of the drag and lift values of the wing
surfaces of a fixed-wing drone," in the investigation shows that "profiles with
thicknesses greater than 18% concerning the chord as the NACA 0024
(thickness concerning the chord of 24%) are not very efficient at low Reynolds
values, this is because their great thickness concerning the others generates too
much drag and compromises their efficiency" (Romero Huertas, 2019). Bernal
and Ortiz (2007), in his master's thesis "Wing design for an unmanned aerial
vehicle," concludes that "Any aerodynamic profile that meets basic
aerodynamic requirements allows it to be used in any type of aircraft and turn
the process the selection process guarantees that for the established mission
requirements, the profile selected under this analysis will be better adapted".
Starting from the generalities, Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) deals with an
unmanned aircraft and the equipment needed to control it remotely. (UA)

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Unmanned Aircraft means any aircraft that operates or is designed to operate

autonomously or piloted remotely without a pilot on board. An unmanned aerial
system (UAS) has three components:

• An autonomous or human-operated control system usually on land, on a

ship, or another aerial platform.
• An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
• A communication, command, and control system.

UAVs can range in size from those that can be hand-launched to vehicles built
or adapted in proportion to conventional fixed-wing or rotary-wing Aircraft.
Drones can be classified as the mobile wing, and fixed-wing, where mobile
wing drones are usually quadcopters with vertical takeoffs and landings as their
main advantage, while fixed-wing drones (DAF) are their excellent
aerodynamic performance can travel from a few minutes to several hours (Yao
et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2020). Other less common UAVs are airships, lighter-
than-air aerial vehicles with a long-range, slow flight speed, and large size, and
flapping-wing UAVs, which have flexible wings inspired by birds or insects
(Gupta et al., 2013; Olivos, 2017; Teli et al., 2014; Valavanis, 2014). Among
the typical applications for fixed-wing drones, the literature mentions:

• Farming.
• Emergency response including SAR.
• Facilitation of communications and broadcasting.
• Transport of trim packages and bulk loads.
• Visual, spectral and thermal examination of structures.
• Exploration of places of difficult access.
• Traffic.
• Border Surveillance.
• Archaeological investigations.
• Hydrology.
• Zoology.
• Environment.
• Photography and mapping survey.

Fixed-wing drones are designed like most drones, a fuselage composed of a

central body that has two planes and a single propulsion propeller; once this
fixed-wing drone is in the air, the two planes generate lift that compensates the
weight allowing the drone to continue in flight, we must bear in mind that each
fixed-wing drone has variants in its design characteristics according to the
application to be carried out (Abbott & VonDoenhoff, 2010; Romero Huertas,
2019).

The forces acting on the fixed-wing of the drone are produced due to the surface
pressure distribution and the shear stress distribution. The pressure distribution
acts normal to the surface, and the shear stress distribution tangentially. The
total effect of the pressures and stresses on the plane's entire surface generates
an aerodynamic force. Aerodynamic force can be expressed in two components
called lift and drag. Uplift acts perpendicular to the relative wind, and drag is

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the force parallel to the relative wind that opposes the movement of the airfoil
in a flow (Olivos, 2017).

The wing profile or aerodynamic profile is the contour of a curved shape, which,
when moving through the air, creates a pressure distribution capable of
maintaining its lift. The determination of the geometric relationships directly
influences the aerodynamic behavior of the airfoil (Bellot & Javier, 2018;
Kisabo et al., 2017).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The applied methodology follows the recommendations made in the book
"General Aviation Aircraft Design" (Gudmundsson, 2014), seeking to meet the
project's needs. A Quality Function Deployment (QFD) product design
methodology is applied in the development of the project. In the construction of
the conceptual design, the needs survey stages are covered, the project
requirements are generated to translate these requirements into engineering
requirements (ReVelle et al., 1998). Within the engineering requirements, it is
necessary to calculate a series of values related to the shape and geometry of the
airfoil.

The use of fixed-wing drones has advantages for taking aerial photographs of
agriculture; however, there are barriers to overcome to develop these tasks. The
process requires trained personnel to operate the drone correctly and safely. In
Pamplona city, the geography is varied and the climate. The operator must
continuously fly with solid winds and cope with sudden rains (the drone must
have the ability to return to the take-off point in case this happens safely)
(Anderson & Eberhardt, 2001). Engineering requirements help define the
geometry of the airfoil that allows the required payload to be loaded and offers
the slightest drag (Demir et al., 2015). The pressure distribution of the plane is
calculated to know the behavior it will have in flight (Doherty et al., 2000). Fig.
1 shows the work scheme followed for the conceptual aerodynamic design of an
unmanned aerial vehicle. An aerodynamic profile that meets the requirements is
selected; this profile is dimensioned and used to design the fuselage (Pérez et al.,
2013; Primicerio et al., 2012; Segovia Ramírez et al., 2022).

The purpose or task for the UAV is to capture aerial photographs at low altitudes
that allow monitoring the rates of vegetation destined for agriculture in the city
of Pamplona, north of Santander (Eisenbeiss, 2009; Sumnall et al., 2022; Yang
et al., 2022). Based on the models applied for this purpose, the following
requirements were defined:

• Manual Launch.
• High altitude operation mode between 60 and 160 meters high.
• Data collection area from 50 to 80 hectares.
• Cruising speed approximately 15 m/s.
• Maximum takeoff weight with equipment 2.5 kg.

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Figure 1. Working scheme for aerodynamic design

The chord is the distance measured straight from the leading edge to the trailing
edge. This parameter also makes it possible to determine the size and behavior
of the aerodynamic profile. It is used to calculate the Reynolds number and can
serve as a reference value to compare with similar purpose drone strings. The
proper dimension is 0.25 m for the chord of the airfoil.

The Reynolds number is essential when preselecting airfoils since the lift
coefficient depends directly on it. The airfoil pre-selection must be specific for
low Reynolds numbers because most airfoils do not generate acceptable lift in
these regimes. A top altitude of 60 to 160 meters and a cruising speed of 15 m/s
were chosen for the calculation. The Table 1, shows the environmental variables
for the city of Pamplona that were used in the modeling and simulation
(Mkhitaryan, 1972).

Table 1. The environment variables for the city

Variable Valor
Temperature 14° [C] = 287.15 [K]
Pressure 542[mmHg] = 72260 [Pa]
The speed of sound 340.3 [m/s]
Gravitational acceleration 9.80 [m/s2]
Density 0.87 [kg/m3]

For calculating the Reynolds number (Re), equation one is used, resulting in a
value of 253.14.
𝑉𝑙
𝑅𝑒 = (1)
𝑣

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Where
𝑉: Cruising speed (15 m/s).
𝑙: The proper dimension (0.25m).
𝑣: Kinematic viscosity of air (0.01481 m2/s)
The Mach number measures the relative speed that delimits the rate at which
aircraft fly in the medium they move, used to describe aircraft speed. The Mach
number is determined by Equation 2, resulting in a value of 0.44.
𝑣
𝑀= (2)
𝑎

Where
𝑣: Cruising speed (15 m/s).
𝑎: The speed of sound (340.3m/s)

By design criterion, a profile thickness must be selected that achieves the support
and structural rigidity necessary to transfer the estimated loads for the aircraft
without compromising its aerodynamic behavior. It is necessary to locate the
electronic elements of surveillance, navigation, and power batteries; for this, a
minimum thickness of 14% is established for the chord profile. A value above
this thickness increases lifts and maintains the drag and moment values.

One of the QFD methodology phases is to analyze previous works to take

relevant characteristics as a reference in the design phase. This study emerged
the following design requirements for the wing profile:

• Use aerodynamic profiles with geometries and dimensions close to those

of fixed-wing aircraft.
• Conceive a symmetric or asymmetric profile with a high lift.
• Stable behavior for speeds between 10 to 165 km/h.

The profiles that meet the above requirements are subjected to analysis within a
simulation environment, generating the necessary knowledge to establish a
selection criterion for the aerodynamic profile of the wing. Table 2 summarizes
the profiles considered in the study, which are evaluated according to their
performance in variables such as polar drag, aerodynamic performance, and lift.

Table 2. Profiles considered in the study phase

Name Classification Name Classification

Naca 0018 Symmetric Naca 4415 Asymmetric
Naca 0024 Symmetric Naca 4418 Asymmetric
Naca 0015 Symmetric Eppler e222 Asymmetric
Avistar Asymmetric Naca 23018 Asymmetric
S8036 Asymmetric Eppler 473 Symmetric
Eppler 479 Symmetric Goe256 Asymmetric
Eppler 169 Symmetric Naca 2415 Asymmetric
Gemini Asymmetric Naca 632015 Asymmetric
Naca 32015 Asymmetric

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Figure 2. Polar drag curve.

The polar drag is a factor that relates the drag coefficients and the lift coefficient,
where the profile that performs best is the one that has the lowest values of Cd
along the graph presented in Fig. 2 and 3; it allows us to infer optimal working
points. In the Cd vs. α graph, the drag coefficient increases as the angle of attack
increases, it is a lower value than the lift, and care should be taken to keep the
drag curve as small as possible.

The aerodynamic performance is a factor that relates the lift given by the airfoil
to the amount of drag generated Cl\Cd vs. α. It is analyzed for all angles, and the
highest values in the attack graph are sought to determine the best efficiency or
aerodynamic performance. The angles of attack taken for the analysis range from
-3° to 15° with a variation is of 0.5. The projected working angles for the UAV
are between 0° to 12°. Aerodynamic efficiency is defined as lift over drag, in
the Cl\Cd graph vs. α shows the efficiency for each angle. The highest value on
this graph symbolizes the cruising angle, that is, the angle at which the aircraft
travels with the least drag and the most lift.

Figure 3. Aerodynamic performance curve.

The lift force is the predominant force that relates the lift coefficient (Cl) to the
angle of attack α. In Fig. 4, it can be seen that as the angle of attack increases, so
does the airfoil lift. The higher the values of this graph, the better lift the profile
will have. It is necessary to select an angle of attack so that the drone has a
maximum L/D ratio, interpreted as the cruising angle where the most significant
lift and the least drag occur. These conditions are necessary for the projected
drone to fly in the established operating conditions.

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Figure 4. Lift-force curve.

The graph Cl vs. α represents the change in lift force concerning the angle of
attack; the increase is expected to be linear until it reaches a certain stall angle.
The maximum lift value is found at this angle; the value obtained for this angle
must not be exceeded, the lift drops off abruptly due to the detachment of the
fluid from the walls of the airfoil. This value is a design criterion between
different airfoils to select the airfoil that provides the most significant lift.

Fig. 5 shows the symmetric Eppler 479 airfoil. Fig. 6 shows the performance
graphs for each design factor for the Eppler 479 airfoil. It can be seen from the
graph that no lift is generated at an angle of attack of 0°. Aerodynamic efficiency
occurs at 12°; this is due to the exponential growth of the drag curve from 12°
onwards; it increases concerning lower angles, which leads to a drastic reduction
in aerodynamic efficiency for higher angles.

Figure 5. Eppler Profile 479.

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Figure 6. Eppler 479 Profile curves.

RESULTS
Error! Reference source not found.Fig. 7 shows the polar drag curve for the
Eppler 473, Eppler 479, Naca 4415, Naca 4418, and Goe 256 profiles with the
best performance within its three aerodynamic factors. It can be seen that the
Naca 4415 profile, as well as the Naca 4418 profile, have the lowest drag values
at all angles of attack. The Goe 256 profile at angles of 0°<Cl<5° presents very
high drag values above the others, and for angles greater than 5° the curve is
inverted.

Figure 7. The polar drag curve for the Eppler 473, Eppler 479, Naca 4415, Naca
4418, and Goe 256 profiles.

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The lift ratio is presented in Fig. 8, 9, and 10, and the difference between
symmetrical and asymmetrical profiles can be evidenced. The relationship in a
symmetric profile airfoil like the Eppler 473 and Eppler 479 have zero lift at 0°
angle, while the Goe 256, Naca 4415, and Naca 4418 have around 0.44 lift.

Figure 8. The lift force curve for the Eppler 473, Eppler 479, Naca 4415, Naca
4418, and Goe 256 profiles.

Table 3, maximum values of lift coefficients for each airfoil and the angle at
which it appears before stalling. Presents the maximum values of lift coefficients
for each airfoil and the angle at which it appears before stalling. Presents the
maximum values of lift coefficients for each profile and the angle at which this
value is reached. Among the airfoils with the best performance, the Naca 4415
airfoil is observed with a good lift range 0<Cl<6, as well as Goe 256, although
it stalls before Naca 4418 but maintains a good Cl vs. α ratio in Cl<13.
Considering the stall angle, the profiles with higher values in the graph have a
better lift. The difference in maximum lift coefficients between the symmetric
and asymmetric airfoils is clear.

Table 3. Maximum values of lift coefficients for each airfoil and the angle at
which it appears before stalling

Profile Id Cl maximum α
Naca 4415 1.4183 15
Naca 4418 1.3744 13
Goe256 1.3558 11
Eppler 479 1.2353 14
Eppler 473 1.2479 15

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Figure 9. The drag polar curve for the Eppler 473, Eppler 479, Naca 4415, Naca
4418, and Goe 256 profiles.

Table 4. Minimum drag coefficients 5 best profiles

Profile Id Cd minimum α
Naca 4415 0.00995 0
Naca 4418 0.01143 0
Goe256 0.01169 2
Eppler 479 0.01192 1
Eppler 473 0.01309 3

Figure 10. The aerodynamic performance curve for the Eppler 473, Eppler 479,
Naca 4415, Naca 4418, and Goe 256 profiles.

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Table 5. Five maximum values of aerodynamic performance for each

airfoil and the angle at which it appears before stalling

Profile Id Aerodynamic performance optimum angle of flight

maximum value
Naca 4415 78.2 7
Goe 256 74.5 5
Naca 4418 72.6 6
Eppler 479 58.2 9
Eppler 473 53.7 12

Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5, summarize the performance of the profiles in each
of the curves understudies and generate a selection criterion for the profile with
better lift and less drag for the UAV. The three best profiles carried out additional
tests with different Reynolds numbers ranging from 253,514 to 500,000 and a
Mach value of 0.04 in the subsonic regime. Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 show the resulting
polar curves for the analyses applied to the previous simulation's three best
profiles. The profile that stands out in this result is subsequently subjected to an
analysis of simulations carried out with CFD taking into account the operating
conditions in the region of the city of Pamplona. The Naca 4415 profile stands
out with a more significant lift at angles greater than 7°; it also has a higher angle
of attack than the other profiles studied before stalling. The aerodynamic
efficiency of the Naca 4415 profile is superior to the other profiles analyzed,
showing excellent lift with less drag, obtaining a better relationship between the
wingspan and the necessary engine power to meet the operating requirements.

Figure 11. The lift force curve for the, Naca 4415, Naca 4418, and Goe 256
profiles.

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Figure 12. The aerodynamic performance curve for the, Naca 4415, Naca 4418,
and Goe 256 profiles.

The profile meets the criteria selected for this project is the Naca 4415 profile.
The angle of attack in the Naca 4415 profile is 7° (see Table 6Error! Reference
source not found.); with this angle, a point with less drag is obtained while
maintaining good lift, that is, a better ratio (Cl/Cd) where the highest value will
be the optimum angle for a flight of the UAV.

Table 6. Drag coefficients, lift, and aerodynamic efficiency of the Naca

4415 airfoil at different angles of attack.

Profile Naca 4415 Profile Naca 4415

α Cl Cd Cl/Cd α Cl Cd Cl/Cd
-3 0.1362 0.01253 10.8699122 7 1.1624 0.01486 78.2234186
-2 0.2427 0.01170 20.7435897 8 1.2233 0.01582 77.3261694
-1 0.3382 0.01088 31.0845588 9 1.2773 0.01719 74.3048284
0 0.4348 0.00995 43.6984925 10 1.3193 0.01937 68.1104801
1 0.6497 0.01058 61.4083176 11 1.3496 0.02281 59.167032
2 0.7647 0.01099 69.5814377 12 1.3729 0.02757 49.7968807
3 0.847 0.01160 73.0172414 13 1.3954 0.03320 42.0301205
4 0.9306 0.01232 75.5357143 14 1.4123 0.04018 35.149328
5 1.0116 0.01314 76.9863014 15 1.4183 0.04901 28.938992
6 1.0887 0.01396 77.987106

Wingspan, defined as the distance between the two wingtips of an aircraft when
fully extended, is determined from the Equation (3).
𝐿
𝐶𝑙 = 1 (3)
2
∙𝜌∙𝑉 2 ∙𝑏∙𝑐

Where
𝐿: Lift force.
𝑉: Speed
𝜌: Fluid density.
𝑐: Rope.
𝑏: Envergadura.
𝑊: Aircraft weight.

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Where L is the lift force, 𝜌 the fluid density, c the rope, and V the velocity, are
initially provided data, instead of a lift force, there is a coefficient to replace in
equation (4). Solving b from the equation 3, is to get:
𝑊
𝑏=1 (4)
∙𝜌∙𝑉 2 ∙𝐶𝑙 ∙𝑐
2

To generate a lift of 2.5 Kgf of weight and with the lift coefficient obtained, a
wingspan of 1.05 m is required; previous works in consulted literature indicate
approximate values for this design value, concluding that it is within the typical
range.

The aerodynamic drag coefficient Equation (6) is used to determine the power
required to dimension the electric motor. The motor must meet an operating
speed of 15 m/s. Equation (6) removes the generated drag and replaces it with
traction; the traction value is multiplied by the operating speed.
𝑇
𝐶𝑑 = 1 (5)
2
∙𝜌∙𝑉 2 ∙𝑏∙𝑐

1
𝑇 = ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉 2 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 (6)
2

Where
𝑇: Traction.
𝑉: Speed
𝜌: Fluid density.
𝑐𝑑 : Drag coefficient.
𝑏: Envergadura.
𝑊: Aircraft weight.

The traction value of the required traction is 0.3707 N. Equation (7) is used to
calculate the power, where the required traction is multiplied by the operating
speed. The value of the power required by the motor is 5.56 W.

𝑃 =𝑇∙𝑉 (7)

The traction value of the required traction is 0.3707 N. Equation 7 is used to

calculate the power, where the required traction is multiplied by the operating
speed. The motor is selected according to the power result obtained. It considers
a safety factor of 1.5, guaranteeing the correct operation in the determined
operating conditions. The selected motor must meet power of 8.34 W.

Fig. 13 presents the map of fluid densities, the area with the highest density is
located on the leading edge; even so, this density, presenting variability,
maintains an approximate value at all points. The analysis is performed at angles
of 0°, 3°, 5°, 7°, and 12°, which correspond to the cruising angle of attack.

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Figure 13. Flux density simulation around a Naca 4415 airfoil.

Fig. 14 shows the pressure map; the red zone indicates the zone with the highest
positive pressure, and the blue zone indicates the zone with the lowest pressure,
vacuum, presented in the profile. Fig. 15 shows the velocity map; it can be seen
in the figure that for a determined flow velocity, an increase in local velocity is
observed in the profile as a result of the geometry.

Figure 14. Pressure simulation around a Naca 4415 airfoil.

Figure 15. Speed simulation around a Naca 4415 airfoil.

Fig. 16 shows the Mach number map. In the Mach number map, it is possible to
see that both the upper and lower surfaces show the maximum Mach numbers
for supersonic regimes. The SolidWorks Flow simulation CFD complement
allows extracting information on the resistance forces lift of the profile, with
which the aerodynamic coefficients Cl and Cd were obtained. The values of Cd
are compared with those obtained in the XFLR5 software, finding excellent
correspondence. The Cl values are sample differences, giving lower values in
SolidWorks Flow simulation, a different product of the applied analysis
methods, and the effects of additional parameters such as viscosity, fluid
rotation, and turbulence. The results of the analysis performed are presented in
Table 7.

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Figure 16. Mach number Naca 4415 airfoil.

Compared to the values obtained through the analytical calculations, the

percentage errors of these coefficients are 31.25% and 12.37%. The calculated
parameters are used for the CFD analysis of the designed wing, the calculated
parameters are used, and it is also required to define simulation parameters that
correspond to the established design criteria. Fig. 17 shows the design of the
drone's wing, which has been tested to determine if it satisfies the flight
conditions, yielding the results presented in Table V7.

Table 7. Drag coefficients lift off the Naca 4415 airfoil at different angles
of attack (Solidworks)

Naca 4415
Angles Cl Cd
0° 0.1301573 0.01118147
3° 0.2995125 0.01181064
5° 0.3922308 0.02766471
7° 0.7990351 0.02424745
12° 1.2867481 0.09324589

The simulations allow inferring results to determine cruise angles and minimum
angles depending on the speed of the designed application. From the simulation
results obtained, a part evidenced in Fig. 17, it can be deduced that the pressure
map presents an elliptical distribution and shows areas such as the front edge of
the wing, where the pressure has an increased in value.

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Figure 17. Modeling of the wing in speed, pressure, temperature and Mach
number.

Fig. 18 illustrate the final prototype. The model was projected, designed, and
developed in 3D CAD in SolidWorks, considering the design specifications,
calculations, and simulation results obtained.

Table 8. Drag coefficients, wing lift at different angles of attack

(Solidworks)

Brim with Naca 4415 profile

Angle Cl Cd
0° 0.027664707 0.009623599
7° 4.989622594 0.246419418

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Figure 18. Isometric view of the virtual prototype developed from the
results.

The measurements and aerodynamic parameters are adjusted to the

specifications, starting from this virtual prototype to create a manufacturing and
assembly engineering route to validate its simulated results in scheduled flight
stages for taking aerial photographs and determining the vegetation index.

CONCLUSION
Although the analysis of an airfoil makes many assumptions that do not occur in
reality, it is beneficial when beginning to design an aircraft. During the analysis
of the profiles, elementary characteristics such as lift, drag, and aerodynamic
efficiency are given, which are very useful in the complete planning of an
aircraft.

Throughout the investigation, we concluded that every existing aerodynamic

profile meets its basic requirements that allow its use in any aircraft, but not
every profile is suitable for any mission; therefore, it is necessary to carry out a
process of selection that guarantees compliance with the established mission
requirements.

The application of aerodynamic theory requires both practical and scientific

skills since a slight variation in any of the parameters involved can trigger
unexpected results, in which traceability is not very viable.

According to the graphs, the CFD observed behavior adequately approximates

the expected theoretical behavior.

Despite the validity of the results presented, the experimental evaluation

employing a wind tunnel of a scale model of the designed wing is recommended.
The collected data will guarantee the results and serve as feedback to the
simulated model.

The adequate CAD modeling representing the physical aspect of the situation to
be analyzed fundamental in the correct simulation of the phenomena that may
occur there so that representative factors on the expected results are not omitted.
CFD analyses require an iterative study and especially malicious of the available
parameters offered by software manufacturers; it is necessary to understand the

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impact that each of these has on the simulation so that an adequate convergence
and true results are obtained with the least possible computational expense.

Although there are no cases of 2D phenomena in the physical world, the results
presented have a considerable influence on the aerodynamic behavior of the 3D
finite wing design.

The time available and the limited resources for the project's development are
among the study's most significant limitations. Aerodynamics and CFD are very
time-consuming topics to understand and properly manage.

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