Computer Hardware & Networking (Course Code 6043) Semester VI ( Revision 2015)

MODULE II
Motherboard organisation

Syllabus: Motherboard - form factors - block diagram of ATX motherboard - comparison of

microprocessors - RAM, DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, DDRAM, RDRAM - memory refreshing -
memory modules - SIMM, DIMM and RIMM - cache memory - types - CMOS chip - CMOS setup -
BIOS - POST - expansion cards - I/O card, graphics card, sound card, network - interface card,
internal modem - ROM - PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, UVEPROM and EAPROM - firmware

Computer Motherboard : The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts
of a computer together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound
card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the
backbone of a computer.

Form Factor : The form factor is the specification of a motherboard - the dimensions, power
supply type, location of mounting holes, number of ports on the back panel, etc. The types of the
form factor of a motherboard are dependent on the evolution of technology.

Various form factors of motherboards :

Form Manufacturer Date Wize Remarks

Factor (Width x
Height) – in
inches
XT IBM 1983 8.5’’× 11’’ The IBM Personal Computer XT was the
(Extended successor to the original IBM PC, its first
Technology) home computer.

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AT IBM 1984 8.5’’× 11–13’’ It was the first motherboard form factor to
(Advanced use the now-standard ISA bus. The AT form
Technology) factor was used in the IBM PC/AT, which
was released in 1984. The PC/AT was the
first personal computer to use an Intel 80286
processor. The AT form factor continued to
be used in some PCs until the late 1990s
when it was replaced by the ATX form factor.
Baby-AT IBM 1985 8.5’’× 10–13’’ The Baby-AT form factor is essentially the same
form factor as the original IBM XT motherboard.
Baby-AT motherboards is slightly smaller than AT
motherboard.
ATX INTEL 1995 12’’× 9.6’’ Standard desktop, mini-tower, and full-tower
systems; most common form factor today;
most flexible design for power users, low-end
servers / workstations, and higher-end home
systems; ATX boards support up to seven
expansion slots.
Mini-ATX INTEL 1995 11.2’’× 8.2’’ A slightly smaller version of ATX that fits
into the same case as ATX. Many so-called
ATX motherboards are actually mini-ATX
motherboards; mini-ATX boards support up
to six expansion slots.
Micro-ATX INTEL 1997 9.6’’× 9.6’’ A smaller version of ATX, used in Mid-range
desktop or mini-tower systems.
Flex-ATX INTEL 1999 9’’×7.5’’ Smallest version of ATX, used in expensive
or low-end small desktop or mini-tower
systems; entertainment or appliance systems.
Mini-ITX VIA 2002 6.7’’x 6.7’’ Minimum-size flex-ATX version, used in set-
(Information top boxes and compact/small form factor
Technology comput ers; highly integrated with one PCI
Extended) expansion slot. .

Q) List any 2 motherboard formfactors ? (2 marks)

Q) Define the term motherboard formfactor ? (2 marks)
Q) Explain different motherboard formfactors ? (9 marks)
Q) Define form factor and explain different formfactors ? (7 marks)

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ATX motherboard :

Block diagram of ATX motherboard :

A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system. It holds together many of
the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing unit (CPU), memory and
connectors for input and output devices. The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of
non-conductive material, typically some sort of rigid plastic. Thin layers of copper or aluminum
foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet. These traces are very narrow and form the

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circuits between the various components. In addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number
of sockets and slots to connect the other components.
The motherboard connects the various parts of a computer system together. The typical parts
are given below :
• CPU socket: The processor is directly soldered onto the socket. Since high speed
processors generate a lot of heat, there are heat sinks and mounting points for fans right next
to the CPU socket.
• Power connector: To distribute power to the processor and other components.
• Chipset: A chip forms an interface between the processor, the main memory and other
components, this is referred to as the Northbridge. This chip also contains a large heat sink.
A memory controller is located on the northbridge, which gives the processor fast access to
the memory.The northbridge also connects to the AGP or PCI Express bus and to the
memory itself A second chip controls the input and output (I/O) functions. It is not
connected directly to the processor but to the Northbridge. This I/O controller is referred to
as the Southbridge. Other busses connect the southbridge to the PCI bus, the USB ports and
the ID(PATA) or SATA hard disk connections.. The Northbridge and Southbridge combined
are referred to as the chipset.
• DRAM chips: Slots for the system's main memory, typically in the form of DRAM chips.
• Connectors: It provide the physical interface between input and output devices and the
motherboard. The Southbridge handles these connections.
• Hard Drive Slots: Slots for one or more hard drives to store files. The most common types
of connections are Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment(SATA).
• Read-Only Memory (ROM) chip : ROM contains the firmware, or startup instructions for
the computer system. This is also called the BIOS.
• Video or Graphics card slot: To connect hardware in the form of the Accelerated Graphics
Port (AGP) and Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
• PCI slots : Additional slots to connect hardware in the form of Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) slots.

Q) Explain the block diagram of ATX motherboard organization ? (7 marks)

Q) With neat diagram explain motherboard organization ? (8 marks)
Q) Draw the block diagram of ATX motherboard and mark relevant parts? (8 marks)

Evolution of Microprocessors:
We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the
microprocessor:
• First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors): The first generation microprocessors were
introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It was named Intel 4004 since it was
a 4-bit processor. It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and
logical operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND. It had a
control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction from storage
memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.
• Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor): The second generation microprocessors were
introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit microprocessor which could perform
arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008, and another improved
version was Intel 8088.

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• Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor) : The third generation microprocessors,

introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, 80286 which were 16 - bit processors
with a performance like minicomputers.
• Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors) : Several different companies introduced
the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is the Intel 80386, Pentium.
• Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors): From 1995 to now we are in the fifth
generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium Pro CPU,
which allows multiple CPUs in a single system to achieve multiprocessing.

Later new generations with improved 64-bit processors like Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core
processors etc.. are present
Comparison of Microprocessors :

NAME YEAR DATA CLOCK SPEED

4004 1971 4-Bits 0.74MHz
8008 1972 8-Bits 0.5MHz
4040 1974 4-Bits 0.74 MHz
8080 1974 8-Bits 2MHz
8085 1976 8-Bits 3MHz
8086 1978 16-Bits 5MHz
8088 1979 16-Bits 5MHz
80186 1981 16-Bits 6MHz
80286 1982 16-Bits 8MHz
80386 1985 32-Bits 16MHz
80486 1989 32-Bits 25MHz
Pentium 1993 32-Bits 60MHz
Pentium Pro 1995 64-Bits .15GHz
Pentium II 1997 64-Bits .25GHz
Celeron 1998 64-Bits .15GHz
Pentium III 1999 64-Bits .45GHz
Pentium IV 2000 64-Bits 1.3GHz

Computer Memories: A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small
parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address.

Memory is primarily of 2 types −

1. Primary Memory/Main Memory: Primary memory holds only those data and instructions
on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when

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power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are
not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
2. Secondary Memory: This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-
volatile memory. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing
data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they
are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-
ROM, DVD, etc.

NOTE :

Volatile memory Non-volatile memory

• It is the type of memory in which data is • It is the type of memory in which data
lost as it is shut down. remains stored even if it is is shut down.
• Contents of Volatile memory are stored • Contents of Non-volatile memory are
temporarily. stored permanently.
• It is faster in operation. • It is slower in operation.
• Eg.RAM(Random Access Memory), • Eg.ROM(Read Only Memory)
Cache Memory

RAM (Random access memory): It is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data. RAM is a Volatile memory i.e. data
stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup
Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. Access time in RAM is
independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as
other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly.

RAM is of two types −

1.  Static RAM (SRAM)
2.  Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM): The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.

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SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis. There is extra space in the
matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, making
the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM): DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small.
All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Since real capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is
refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to
SRAM and other static memory. The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one
transistor and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to six transistors in SRAM. This allows
DRAM to reach very high density.

NOTE:
SRAM DRAM
• SRAM memory cell composed of a • DRAM memory cell composed of one
matrix of 6-transistors capacitor and one transistor.
• No need to refresh • It must be continually refreshed in order
to maintain the data.
• Faster in operation • Slower in operation
• Small memory size. • Large memory size.
• High power consumption • Less power consumption
• Expensive • Less expensive

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Q) Explain DRAM & SRAM ? (6 marks)

SDRAM (Synchronous dynamic random-access memory) : It is dynamic random access

memory (DRAM) that has a synchronous interface. Traditionally, dynamic random access memory
(DRAM) has an asynchronous interface, which means that it responds as quickly as possible to
changes in control inputs. SDRAM has a synchronous interface, meaning that it waits for a clock
signal before responding to control inputs and is therefore synchronized with the computer's system
bus. The clock is used to drive an internal finite state machine that pipelines incoming instructions.
This allows the chip to have a more complex pattern of operation than an asynchronous DRAM,
which does not have a synchronized interface. The term pipelining is used to describe the process
whereby the SDRAM can accept a new instruction before it has finished processing he previous
one. In other words, it can effectively process two instructions at once.

Types of SDRAM:

• SDR SDRAM (Single data rate SDRAM): It can accept one command and transfer one
word of data per clock cycle. Typical clock frequencies are 100 and 133 MHz.

• DDR SDRAM (Double data rate SDRAM): Compared to the preceding single data rate
SDR SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more
strict control of the timing of the electrical data and clock signals. Enables the chip to
transfer twice the memory data (two consecutive words) on each clock cycle. Since it is
difficult to further increase the internalclock speed of memory chips, these chips increase
data rate by transferring data in larger blocks. The interface uses double pumping
(transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to lower the clock
frequency.
◦ DDR2 SDRAM transfers 4 consecutive words per internal clock cycle.
◦ DDR3 SDRAM transfers 8 consecutive words per internal clock cycle.
◦ DDR4 SDRAM transfers 16 consecutive words per internal clock cycle.

• RDRAM (Rambus DRAM): It is a type of computer device active memory developed and
licensed by Rambus Inc. RDRAM is typically used for video memory on graphics acclerator
cards, for cache memory (located on the CPU), and for system memory in high-performance
workstations and servers. An improvement to RDRAM called Direct Rambus (DRDRAM)
allows for even faster data transfer rates.

Q) Describe the RAM memory used in computer system ? (7 marks)

Q) Explain the different types of RAM used in computer? (7 marks)

Memory Refreshing: Memory refresh is a process that largely defines the characteristics of
dynamic random access memory (DRAM), which is the most used computer memory type. The
process involves the periodic reading of information from a certain section of the memory and the
immediate rewriting of the read information to the very same area without making any changes. It is
a background maintenance process that is necessary for operation of DRAMs. When in operation,
each of the memory cells needs to be refreshed repeatedly. In a DRAM semiconductor chip, small
capacitors store each bit of data by the presence or absence of an electric charge. Over the passage
of time, these charges tend to leak away, which would mean that loss of charge is equivalent to the

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loss of data. In order to counter this, external circuitry is designed to read the data and then rewrite
it immediately, thereby restoring the charge on the capacitor to its normal level. Every memory
refresh cycle is also done as per a succeeding area of memory cells and eventually refreshing every
cell in a full cycle. The process happens automatically in the background. Memory read and write
operations are also not available during the process of a refresh cycle, however, in modern memory
chips the time for overhead is so small that it usually does not noticibly slow down memory
operation.
Q) Explain memory refresing ? (7 marks)
Q) Describe memory refreshing and its necessity ? (6 marks)
Q) State the need of memory refreshing in RAM? (2 marks)

Memory modules: A memory module is a printed circuit board on which memory integrated
circuits are mounted on a computer motherboard. Memory modules are categorized, according to its
size and pin configuration as,
• SIMM(Single Inline Memory Module)
• DIMM(Double Inline Memory Module)
• RIMM(Rambus Inline Memory Module)
SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module): A SIMM, or single in-line memory module, is a type of
memory module containing random access memory used in computers from the early 1980s to the
late 1990. The first variant of SIMMs(SIMM-30) has 30 pins and provides 8 bits of data. The
second variant of SIMMs(SIMM-72) has 72 pins and provides 32 bits of data.
DIMM(Double Inline Memory Module): A DIMM or dual in-line memory module comprises a
series of dynamic random-access memory integrated circuits. These modules are mounted on a
printed circuit board and designed for use in personal computers, workstations and servers. DIMMs
began to replace SIMMs. While the contacts on SIMMs on both sides are redundant, DIMMs have
separate electrical contacts on each side of the module. Another difference is that standard SIMMs
have a 32-bit data path, while standard DIMMs have a 64-bit data path. Variants of DIMM slots
support DDR, DDR2 and DDR3 RAM.
RIMM(Rambus Inline Memory Module): The memory module used with RDRAM chips. It is
similar to a DIMM package but uses different pin settings. Rambus trademarked the term RIMM as
an entire word. It is the term used for a module using Rambus technology. RIMM modules are
commonly used on the Intel Pentium 4 motherboards. Unlike most other computer memory,
computers that support RIMM require a continuous signal. If a memory socket is left empty, the
computer will not work properly. Therefore, users must utilize C-RIMM modules in any slots that
do not have RIMM modules. RIMM memory is expensive and slower then DIMMs. RIMM that use
16-bit data bus has 2 notches and 184-pins

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Q) Briefly explain different memory modules used in computer ? (9 marks)

Q) Explain SIMM, DIMM, RIMM ? (6 marks)
Q) Name any 2 memory modules ? (2 marks)

Cache Memory: Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory (small size RAM)
which can speed up the CPU. It is
a supplementary memory system that temporarily stores frequently used instructions and data for
quicker processing by the central processor of a computer. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and
the main memory. The data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the
operating system, from where the processor can access them. The cache memory lies in the path
between the processor and the memory. The cache memory therefore, has lesser access time than
main memory and is faster than the main memory but have limited capacity. When a computer
processor accesses its internal memory, it first checks to see if the information it needs is stored in
the cache. If it is, the cache returns the data to the processor. If the information is not in the cache,
the processor retrieves it from the main memory.

Types of cache memory: Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is categorized as
"levels" that describe its closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor.
There are three general cache levels:

• L1 cache, or primary cache, is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded
in the processor chip as cache. The Size of the L1 cache very small comparison to others
that is between 2KB to 64KB, it depent on computer processor. It is a embedded register in
the processor.The Instructions that are required by the processor that are firstly searched in
L1 Cache.
• L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more capacious than L1.The Size of the L2 cache is
more capacious than L1 that is between 256KB to 512KB. L2 cache may be embedded on
the processor, or it can be on a separate chip or co-processor and have a high-speed
alternative system bus connecting the cache and processor. That way it doesn't get slowed by
traffic on the main system bus. After searching the instructions in L1 Cache, if not found
then it searched into L2 cache by computer microprocessor.
• Level 3 (L3) cache is specialized memory developed to improve the performance of L1 and
L2. L1 or L2 can be significantly faster than L3, though L3 is usually double the speed of
DRAM. The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2, it’s size is
between 1MB to 8MB. With multicore processors, each core can have dedicated L1 and L2
cache, but they can share a common L3 cache.

Q) Explain the need for cache memory & its classification ? (6 marks)
Q) Discuss different levels of cache memory ? (6 marks)
Q) Why cache is used and describe its classifications? (6 marks)

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Q) How cache memory improves processor’s speed and state the different types of cache
memory ? (6 marks)

Advantages:
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages:
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.

ROM(READ ONLY MEMORY): The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on
it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap.
MROM(Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which
are inexpensive.
PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be modified
only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It
can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate
region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For
erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure
to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can
be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a

Q) Explain the ROM memory in computer system ? (7 marks)

Q) Explain the different types of ROM used in computer? (7 marks)

Firmware: It is a computer program that is "embedded" in a hardware device and is an essential

part of the hardware. It is sometimes called embedded software. Unlike normal software, firmware

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cannot be changed or deleted by an end-user without using special programs, and remains on that
device whether it's on or off. Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM,
EPROM, or flash memory. BIOS is a classic example of a Firmware which is connected to the
motherboard.

NOTE : Software's are generally a set of instructions to instruct a computer. Firmware's are
generally a type of software used to control hardware devices.

BIOS(Basic Input/Output System): The BIOS is a firmware stored in a chip on your computer's
motherboard. It is the first program that runs when you turn on your computer. When the computer
power ON, the CPU approaches the BIOS to find out all Input-Output devices and to look over if all
hardware connections are properly functioning. BIOS is the one which loads the operating system
in to the computer memory, thus completing the booting process.
BIOS is a part of the motherboard. It is stored in the permanent memory called non-volatile Read-
only Memory or Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EPROM) chip or Flash Memory on
the Motherboard of a computer. EPROM and Flash memory is used to upgrade the BIOS program
as we can change the contents of EPROM and Flash memory.
Once the booting process is complete, the BIOS acts as an intercessor between the Input-Output
devices and the processor. All hardware details of the computer are known and managed by the
BIOS. Whenever IO device changes, the information needs to be communicated to the BIOS.
Main Functions of BIOS:
• Power-On Self-test (POST): The primary function of BIOS is to check whether computer
hardware is functioning properly and there is no issues with the hardware. It is done by
POST. If POST fails, computer generates BIOS issues an error message which may be text
on the display screen and a different beep sounds to indicate the error. The pattern of beeps
may be a variable numbers of short beeps or a mixture of long and short beeps, depending
on what type of BIOS is installed.
• Bootstrap Loader: Once POST is done, BIOS looks for capable operating system. If found,
it will pass control to the operating system. This is called Booting.
• BIOS Drivers: BIOS drivers are low level drivers. Low level drivers are a collection of
programs which are stored in non-volatile erasable memory chips. They give basic
information about computer hardware and also give basic operational control over computer
hardware.
• BIOS setup or CMOS setup: BIOS setup is a configuration program that allows us to
configure computer hardware settings like passwords, time and date.

Q) Explain the mechanism of POST ? (6 marks)

Q) Describe the importance of BIOS and its effect on the booting process ? (8 marks)
Q) What is BIOS ? (2 marks)
Q) Describe the role of BIOS in a computer ? (7 marks)
Q) Explain the POST and BIOS mechanism ? (8 marks)

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NOTE : When you start your computer, you may see a message like "Press F2 for setup."
This setup is your BIOS configuration interface.

CMOS(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chip: The CMOS chip is battery-powered

and stores the hard drive's configuration and other information. In a microcomputer and a
microcontroller, CMOS chips normally provide real-time clock (RTC) and CMOS memory. When
you make changes to your BIOS configuration, the settings are not stored on the BIOS chip itself.
Instead, they are stored on a special memory chip, which is referred to as the CMOS Chip.
The lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 Years. When the battery drains out of energy, CMOS
is reset, loses all the custom settings and system clock is also reset. The CMOS returns to factory
settings when the power is not coming from the battery. It’s a regular practice to remove the battery
to recall CMOS settings if there is a configuration problem.
CMOS stores a small amount of data, usually 256 bytes. The information on the CMOS chip
contains different types of disk drives that are installed, the current date and time of the system
clock, and the computer’s boot sequence.

NOTE: Your BIOS memory is non-volatile, it retains its information even when your computer
has no power because your computer needs to remember its BIOS settings even when it's turned
off. That's why the CMOS has its own dedicated power source, which is the CMOS battery.

Q) Write a short note on i) CMOS chip ii) BIOS ? (8 marks)

Expansion cards: An expansion card, also known as an expansion board, adapter card or accessory
card, is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an electrical connector, or expansion slot, on
a computer motherboard, backplane or riser card to add functionality to a computer system via the

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expansion bus. Expansion cards allowed a processor system to be adapted to the needs of the user,
allowing variations in the type of devices connected, additions to memory, or optional features to
the central processor. Expansion cards can often be installed or removed in the field, allowing a
degree of user customization for particular purposes. Some expansion cards take the form of
"daughterboards" that plug into connectors on a supporting system board. Expansion cards contain
edge connectors that are used to create an electronic link between motherboard and an expansion
card. The expansion slot is a socket that is mounted on a motherboard to insert circuit board.

Video Card(Graphics Card): A video card connects to the motherboard of a computer system and
generates output images to display. Video cards are also referred to as graphics cards. Video cards
include a processing unit, memory, a cooling mechanism and connections to a display device. A
video card is a printed circuit board (like a motherboard) and contains its own processing unit and
memory. It is like a kind of computer in itself. This essentially takes the load off the motherboard's
processor and memory to process images. The processing unit on a video card is referred to as a
graphics processing unit (GPU). This is very similar to a CPU, but its design is optimized to work
with images. The memory on a video card called VRAM or Video RAM is very similar to the
regular RAM on a motherboard. A video card connects to the motherboard of a computer system
using a slot, typically an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) or a Peripheral Component Interconnect
Express (PCIe) connection. High-performance video cards generate a lot of heat. Video cards
therefore need to employ heat sinks, which consist of metal strips to distribute the heat evenly and
dissipate the heat into the surrounding air. A heat sink is often located right on top of the GPU.
Sometimes a fan is added for additional cooling.

Sound Card(audio card): A sound card is an internal expansion card that provides input and
output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs. The term
sound card is also applied to external audio interfaces used for professional audio applications.
Typical uses of sound card functionality include providing the audio component for multimedia
applications such as music composition, editing video or audio, presentation, education and
entertainment (games) and video projection. Sound cards are also used for computer-based
communication such as voice over IP and teleconferencing.
Sound cards use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which converts recorded or generated digital
signal data into an analog format. The output signal is connected to an amplifier, headphones, or
external device. Most sound cards have a line in connector for an analog input from a sound source
that has higher voltage levels than a microphone. In either case, the sound card uses an analog-to-
digital converter to digitize this signal. Some cards include a sound chip to support production of
synthesized sounds, usually for real-time generation of music and sound effects using minimal data
and CPU time. The card may use direct memory access to transfer the samples to and from main

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Computer Hardware & Networking (Course Code 6043) Semester VI ( Revision 2015)

memory, from where a recording and playback software may read and write it to the hard disk for
storage, editing, or further processing.

Network Interface Card (NIC) or LAN Adapter or Network Adapter: It is a hardware

component without which a computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a printed circuit
board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network connection to the computer. NIC
allows both wired and wireless communications. NIC allows communications between computers
connected via local area network (LAN) as well as communications over large-scale network
through Internet Protocol (IP). NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it
provides the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link
layer processes can
run on it.
Types of NIC’s:
• Internal Network Cards: In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the
network card where it can be inserted. It requires network cables to provide network access.
Internal network cards are of two types. The first type uses Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA).
• External Network Cards: In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC,
external NICs are used. External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based.
Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable
is required to connect to the network. They are useful while traveling or accessing a wireless
signal.

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Computer Hardware & Networking (Course Code 6043) Semester VI ( Revision 2015)

Modem: Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a

computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet. It converts or
"modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a
computer can recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into an
analog signal that can be sent over standard telephone lines. The process of converting digital signal
into analog signal is called modulation computer store data in digital form. Since a modem
transmits data using telephone lines. So it is converted from digital to analog from. The process of
converting analog signal into digital signal is called demodulation. The modem on receiving
computer receives data in analog form. The incoming analog data is converted back into digital
format to be used by computer.

Types of Modem :
• External Modem: It is attached to the system unit as an external device through telephone
line. It is connected to the telephone wall jack by another cable. External modem is
connected to computer using serial cable to COM1 or COM2 port. It requires external power
supply. It is easy to setup. External modem is expensive.
• Internal Modem: It is a circuit board that is inserted into an expansion slot on the
motherboard. Internal modem cannot be moved from one computer to anther easily. It is
difficult to setup than other types of modem. It is less expensive than external modem.
• Wireless Modem: It transmits the data signals through air instead of cable. It also known as
radiofrequency modem. It is designed to work with cellular technology and wireless local
area networks.

Q) Name any 4 expansion cards used in computer system ? (2 marks)

Q) Write a short note on Network Interface Card and Video card ? (6 marks)
Q) Explain Network Interface Card and Internal Modem ? (7 marks)
Q) Briefly explain different expansion cards used in computers ? (8 marks)

Lijo V Jacob, Lecturer, Department of Electronics, GPTC - Vechoochira 16