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Switched Reluctance Electronic Drive:
Reverse Engineering To Improve The Quality

And Manufacturability Of A Commercial
Application
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters Of Engineering
In
Electronics and Computer Systems Engineering
At Massey University, Palmerston North
New Zealand
Michael John Lusby
2012
Abstract
This thesis presents a new prototype for a low maintenance and high quality switched
reluctance electronic drive. Switched reluctance machine technology describes a modern
brushless electric motor topology that is perhaps the most simple of all rotating electric
machines. However, a switched reluctance machine requires power electronic switching
and sophisticated digital control to be a viable competitor against alternative electronic
machine topologies.
Commercial switched reluctance machine systems are normally designed and built by
pairing the motor and the electronic drive together. This pairing increases the difficulty and
cost of quality improvement. The motivation for this research is to improve the quality
within a commercial switched reluctance machine electronic drive.
This particular electronic drive suffers from repeated common modes of failure. To achieve
this, an accurate understanding of the interactions between functional components of the
drive is crucial to reducing this complexity. This reduction in complexity can be achieved
through appropriate separation of these functional components. Reverse engineering the
electronic drive provides the detailed information required to design a component
separated prototype solution.
The complexity of the electronic drive has been reduced by separation into power and
control functional components; these components are present on separate circuit boards.
This has reduced the complexity of investigating each circuit in detail and for isolating the
cause of failures within each circuit. This has also standardised the necessary connections
required between the power and control components should one of the circuits need to be
redesigned.
i|P a g e Abstract
ii | P a g e
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Ibrahim Al-Bahadly for his guidance and instruction. He
consistently went above and beyond his commitments as a supervisor and for that I am
grateful. I also want to thank Ibrahim for maintaining a strong conviction that I would find
the necessary answers, even when I believed I could not.
I received a great deal of knowledge and understanding in the subjects of analysis, reverse
engineering, design, control, and critical thinking through his supervision. I would like to
extend my appreciation for his mastery of the Switched Reluctance Machine.
I would also like to thank Roger Latimer, Brian Latimer, and Nathan Stantiall of Teknatool
International Limited for their continued support and patience with this project. They
provided me with the challenge to prove myself, and the opportunity to work co-
operatively with them on this challenging and interesting project.
To my family I extend my gratitude for their endless support, and for the countless hours
they provided an ear to relieve the stress of the work effort. I would like to especially thank
them for continuing to believe in me.
I extend my sincere thank you to my friends, colleagues, and staff members of the School of
Engineering and Advanced Technology for their continued support and inspiring words.
Thank you to everyone, without your contributions this work would not have been possible.
Michael J. Lusby
January 11, 2012
iii | P a g e Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 What is a “Switched Reluctance Machine”.................................................................... 2
1.2 Definition of Quality....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Description of Problem Domain .................................................................................... 2
1.4 Aim and Scope of Research ........................................................................................... 4
1.5 Research objectives ....................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Organisation of the thesis .............................................................................................. 5
Chapter 2 Operating Principles ......................................................................................... 9
2.1 Switched Reluctance Machine Overview..................................................................... 10
2.2 Basic Principles ............................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Motoring operation ..................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Inductance ............................................................................................................ 14
2.3.2 Flux-linkage ........................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 Phase Current ....................................................................................................... 18
2.3.4 Power and Torque ................................................................................................ 19
2.4 Torque-Speed and Power-Speed Relationships........................................................... 21
2.5 Acoustic Noise .............................................................................................................. 23
2.5.1 Sound power level ................................................................................................ 23
2.5.2 Acoustic Noise Generation ................................................................................... 24
2.5.3 Reducing Acoustic Noise....................................................................................... 25
2.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 3 Motor Construction ........................................................................................ 27
3.1 Stator Construction ...................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Rotor Construction....................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Pole and Phase Configurations .................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Single Phase .......................................................................................................... 31
3.3.2 Two phase ............................................................................................................. 32
3.3.3 Three phase .......................................................................................................... 34
3.3.4 Four Phase ............................................................................................................ 35
3.3.5 Higher phase count motors .................................................................................. 36
3.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 4 Power Supply and Electronic Converter ......................................................... 37
4.1 Power Supply Overview ............................................................................................... 38
4.2 Power Supply Architecture .......................................................................................... 39
4.3 Power Factor ................................................................................................................ 40
Table of Contents iv | P a g e
4.3.1 Reactance Phase Shift .......................................................................................... 41
4.3.2 Measurement of power quantities ...................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Vector relationship of power quantities .............................................................. 44
4.3.4 Calculation of power factor .................................................................................. 45
4.3.5 Impact of Power Factor on Circuit Performance.................................................. 46
4.3.6 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................................. 46
4.4 Power Factor Correction ............................................................................................. 48
4.4.1 Passive Power Factor Correction ......................................................................... 49
4.4.2 Correction of harmonically distorted current ...................................................... 52
4.4.3 Active Power Factor Correction ........................................................................... 57
4.5 Electronic Power Converter......................................................................................... 61
4.5.1 Split Rail Converter ............................................................................................... 61
4.5.2 Miller converter (N+1 topology) .......................................................................... 63
4.5.3 Resistor-dump Converter ..................................................................................... 65
4.5.4 Capacitor-dump converter ................................................................................... 67
4.5.5 Freewheeling Capacitor-dump converter ............................................................ 69
4.5.6 Asymmetric half-bridge converter ....................................................................... 70
4.5.7 Shared Switch Converter ...................................................................................... 72
4.6 Summary...................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 5 Control Methodology and Algorithms ........................................................... 75
5.1 Control Algorithm Overview ........................................................................................ 76
5.2 Average Torque Control .............................................................................................. 77
5.3 Low-speed motoring.................................................................................................... 78
5.3.1 Current Hysteresis Control ................................................................................... 80
5.3.2 Current Hysteresis Control – Delta Modulation ................................................... 82
5.3.3 Voltage Pulse Width Modulation Control ............................................................ 82
5.3.4 Singular Pulse Control .......................................................................................... 84
5.4 High – speed motoring ................................................................................................ 84
5.5 Sensor-less Control ...................................................................................................... 85
5.6 Summary...................................................................................................................... 87
Chapter 6 DVR SRM Implementation ............................................................................. 89
6.1 Motor Construction ..................................................................................................... 90
6.2 Phase Characteristics ................................................................................................... 91
6.3 Power Supply ............................................................................................................... 94
6.4 Electronic Power Converter......................................................................................... 96
6.5 Control Topologies ...................................................................................................... 97
6.6 Torque-Speed and Power-Speed Relationships .......................................................... 99
v|Page Table of Contents

6.7 Acoustic Noise ............................................................................................................ 101
6.8 Summary .................................................................................................................... 101
Chapter 7 Separation Process ....................................................................................... 103
7.1 Familiarisation with DVR electronic drive .................................................................. 104
7.2 Identification of ideal separation points .................................................................... 105
7.3 Detailed reverse engineering of electronic drive ...................................................... 107
7.4 Plausibility of proposed separation points ................................................................ 109
7.5 Identification of final separation points .................................................................... 110
7.6 Summary .................................................................................................................... 113
Chapter 8 Prototype design and manufacture.............................................................. 115
8.1 Criteria for prototype circuit boards .......................................................................... 116
8.2 Manufacture and assembly of circuit boards ............................................................ 119
8.3 Assembly testing of circuit boards ............................................................................. 121
8.4 Revision of circuit board design ................................................................................. 124
8.5 Delivery Of Solution ................................................................................................... 126
8.6 Summary .................................................................................................................... 127
Chapter 9 Instrumentation and Testing ........................................................................ 129
9.1 The need for isolated instrumentation ...................................................................... 130
9.2 Waveforms of significant interest.............................................................................. 131
9.3 Voltage measurement ............................................................................................... 132
9.4 Phase current measurement ..................................................................................... 134
9.5 Electromagnetic Interference .................................................................................... 136
9.6 Power Factor Comparison ......................................................................................... 137
9.7 Power Supply Performance ....................................................................................... 140
9.7.1 +360V Rail ........................................................................................................... 140
9.7.2 +15V Rail ............................................................................................................. 141
9.7.3 +5V Rail ............................................................................................................... 142
9.7.4 +2.5V Rail ............................................................................................................ 142
9.7.5 -5V Supply ........................................................................................................... 143
9.7.6 +5V Isolated Rail ................................................................................................. 144
9.8 Phase Winding Comparison ....................................................................................... 144
9.8.1 100rpm ............................................................................................................... 145
9.8.2 1000rpm ............................................................................................................. 147
9.8.3 2000rpm ............................................................................................................. 148
9.8.4 3000rpm ............................................................................................................. 150
9.8.5 Full-sweep acceleration ...................................................................................... 152
9.9 Summary .................................................................................................................... 154
Table of Contents vi | P a g e
Chapter 10 Quality Improvement ................................................................................... 155
10.1 Appropriate Isolation of Control Circuitry ............................................................... 156
10.2 Improved Current Sensing....................................................................................... 159
10.3 -5V Rail Regulation .................................................................................................. 163
10.4 Phase Switching Components ................................................................................. 165
10.5 Integration of circuit boards.................................................................................... 167
10.6 Active Braking for Emergency Stop ......................................................................... 167
10.7 Sensor-less Operation ............................................................................................. 168
10.8 Recommendations for improvement ...................................................................... 169
10.9 Summary ................................................................................................................. 171
Chapter 11 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 173
11.1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 174
11.2 Research outcome ................................................................................................... 175
11.3 Future work ............................................................................................................. 176
11.4 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................. 177
Appendix A DVR Technical Information .......................................................................... 183
Appendix B Measurement Data ...................................................................................... 197
Appendix C Research Outputs ......................................................................................... 203
Appendix D Component Datasheets ............................................................................... 231
Appendix E Photos .......................................................................................................... 301
vii | P a g e Table of Contents

List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Histogram Of Fault Mode Frequency ..................................................................... 3
Figure 2-1: SRM Drive Architecture ........................................................................................ 10
Figure 2-2: Cross-section Of A Typical SRM............................................................................ 11
Figure 2-3: Simple Clockwise Rotation Excitation Sequence ................................................. 12
Figure 2-4: Plausible Clockwise Rotation Excitation Sequence .............................................. 13
Figure 2-5: Pole Alignment Overview ..................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-6: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle ............................................................ 14
Figure 2-7: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current ....................................... 15
Figure 2-8: Flux-Linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle .......................................................... 16
Figure 2-9: Flux-linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current ...................................... 17
Figure 2-10: Unconstrained Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle ........................... 18
Figure 2-11: Chopped Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle ..................................... 18
Figure 2-12: Torque Generation As A Function Of Rotor Angle ............................................. 20
Figure 2-13: Idealised Torque Speed Relationship ................................................................. 21
Figure 2-14: Idealised Power Speed Relationship .................................................................. 22
Figure 3-1: Switched Reluctance Stator And Winding Cross-section ..................................... 28
Figure 3-2: Cross-section of rotor construction ..................................................................... 29
Figure 3-3: Cross-section Of A Single Phase 4/4..................................................................... 31
Figure 3-4: Cross-section Of A Two Phase 4/4 ....................................................................... 32
Figure 3-5: Rotor Modifications For Ease Of Starting............................................................. 33
Figure 3-6: Cross-section Of A Three Phase SRM ................................................................... 34
Figure 3-7: Cross-section Of A Four Phase SRM ..................................................................... 35
Figure 4-1: Power Supply Architecture .................................................................................. 39
Figure 4-2: Power Waveforms Of A Unity Load ..................................................................... 41
Figure 4-3: Power Waveforms Of An Inductive Load ............................................................. 42
Figure 4-4: Power Waveforms Of A 0.6PF Lagging Load ........................................................ 43
Figure 4-5: Vector representation of Power Factor quantities .............................................. 44
Figure 4-6: Power Waveforms For A Harmonically Distorted Load ....................................... 47
Figure 4-7: AC Circuit With Resistive And Inductive Loading ................................................. 49
Figure 4-8: Capacitively Corrected Inductive And Resistive AC Circuit .................................. 51
Figure 4-9: Bridge Rectified AC Supply With Smoothing Capacitor ....................................... 52
Figure 4-10: AC Side Series Harmonic Distortion Filter ......................................................... 53
Figure 4-11: AC Side Series Band-Pass Harmonic Distortion Filter ........................................ 54
List of Figures viii | P a g e

Figure 4-12: AC Side Harmonic Distortion Trap Filtering ....................................................... 55
Figure 4-13: AC Side Capacitor-Fed Bridge Rectifier Harmonic Distortion Filter ................... 56
Figure 4-14: Functional Diagram Power supply Including Active Power Factor Correction .. 57
Figure 4-15: Active Power Factor Correction Buck DC-DC Converter .................................... 58
Figure 4-16: Active Power Factor Correction Boost DC-DC Converter .................................. 59
Figure 4-17: Active Power Factor Correction Buck-Boost DC-DC Converter ......................... 60
Figure 4-18: Split Rail Converter Schematic........................................................................... 61
Figure 4-19: Split Rail Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms ....................................... 62
Figure 4-20: Miller Converter Schematic ............................................................................... 63
Figure 4-21: Miller Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms ........................................... 64
Figure 4-22: Resistor-dump Converter Schematic ................................................................. 65
Figure 4-23: Resistor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms ............................. 66
Figure 4-24: Capacitor-dump Converter Schematic .............................................................. 67
Figure 4-25: Capacitor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms .......................... 68
Figure 4-26: Freewheeling capacitor-dump Converter Schematic ........................................ 69
Figure 4-27: Freewheeling Capacitor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms.... 70
Figure 4-28: Asymmetric Half Bridge Converter .................................................................... 71
Figure 4-29: Asymmetric Half Bridge Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms .............. 72
Figure 4-30: Shared Switch Converter ................................................................................... 73
Figure 4-31: Shared Switch Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms .............................. 74
Figure 5-1: General Control diagram For An SRM ................................................................. 78
Figure 5-2: Control diagram For A Current Hysteresis Controller ......................................... 81
Figure 5-3: Control Diagram For A Voltage PWM Controller ................................................. 83
Figure 5-4: Control Diagram For A Singular Pulse Controller ................................................ 84
Figure 6-1: Teknatool DVR SRM Inductance Profile ............................................................... 90
Figure 6-2: DVR Phase Characteristics Measurement Circuit ................................................ 92
Figure 6-3: DVR Phase Flux-Linkage Characteristics .............................................................. 92
Figure 6-4: DVR Phase Inductance Characteristics ................................................................ 93
Figure 6-5: Teknatool DVR SRM Electronic Power Converter Schematic .............................. 96
Figure 6-6: DVR Rotor Position Sensor Capture ..................................................................... 97
Figure 6-7: Low-Speed Control System Captures of DVR Motor ........................................... 98
Figure 6-8: High-Speed Control System Captures of DVR Motor .......................................... 99
Figure 6-9: DVR Torque-Speed Plot ..................................................................................... 100
Figure 6-10: DVR Power-Speed Plot .................................................................................... 100
Figure 7-1: Drive Component Separation Diagram .............................................................. 104
ix | P a g e List of Figures
Figure 8-1: Photo Of Prototype Separated Electronic Drive ................................................ 126
Figure 9-1: Short Circuit Current For Differential Measurements ....................................... 130
Figure 9-2: Differential Phase Voltage Isolated Measurement Circuit ................................ 133
Figure 9-3: Phase Current Measurement Isolation Circuit ................................................... 135
Figure 9-4: Low Pass EMI Filter Schematic ........................................................................... 136
Figure 9-5: Power factor Correction Comparison ................................................................ 138
Figure 9-6: AC Supply Voltage, Current, And Power Waveform Comparison ...................... 138
Figure 9-7: Power Factor Comparison of PFC Enabled And PFC Disabled............................ 139
Figure 9-8: +360V Rail Waveform Comparison .................................................................... 140
Figure 9-9: +15V Rail Waveform Comparison ...................................................................... 141
Figure 9-10: +5V Rail Waveform Comparison ...................................................................... 142
Figure 9-11: +2.5V Rail Waveform Comparison ................................................................... 142
Figure 9-12: -5V Rail Waveform Compariosn ....................................................................... 143
Figure 9-13: +5V_INT Isolated Rail Waveform Comparison ................................................. 144
Figure 9-14: Current Waveform Variation At Constant Speed............................................. 145
Figure 9-15: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 100rpm Unloaded .............................. 146
Figure 9-16: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 100rpm Lightly Loaded ...................... 146
Figure 9-17: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 1000rpm Unloaded ............................ 147
Figure 9-18: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 1000rpm Lightly Loaded .................... 147
Figure 9-19: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 1000rpm Heavily Loaded ................... 148
Figure 9-22: Chopping Signal And Phase Current at 2000rpm Heavily Loaded ................... 149
Figure 9-25: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 3000rpm Heavily Loaded ................... 151
Figure 9-26: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Unloaded .............................................. 152
Figure 9-27: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Lightly Loaded ...................................... 153
Figure 9-28: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Heavily Loaded ..................................... 153
Figure 10-1: Transformer T1 Defeating Control Circuit Isolation ......................................... 157
Figure 10-2: +2.5V/+5V Power Supply Schematic ................................................................ 157
Figure 10-3: +5V_INT Isolated Power Supply Schematic ..................................................... 158
Figure 10-4: Proposed isolation Modification To +2.5V/+5V Power Supply ........................ 158
Figure 10-5: Converter Implementing Per-phase Resistive Current Sensing ....................... 160
Figure 10-6: Converter Implementing Per-phase Inductive Current Sensing ...................... 161
List of Figures x|P a g e

Figure 10-7: Converter Implementing DC bus Inductive And Resistive Current Sensing .... 162
Figure 10-8: -5V Power Rail Capture Showing Cyclical Step ................................................ 163
Figure 10-9: -5V Power Supply Schematic ........................................................................... 163
Figure 10-10: Proposed Regulator Modification To -5V Power Supply ............................... 164
Figure 10-11: Asymmetric half-bridge Converter Implementing MOSFET Transistors ....... 166
Figure A-1: DVR Control Board Schematic ........................................................................... 189
Figure A-2: Interface Board Circuit Schematic ..................................................................... 190
Figure A-3: Rotor Position Circuit Schematic ....................................................................... 191
Figure A-4: Mains EMI Filter Schematic ............................................................................... 191
Figure A-5: DVR Control Circuit Board Top Layer ................................................................ 192
Figure A-5: DVR Control Circuit Board Bottom Layer .......................................................... 193
Figure A-6: Interface Panel Circuit Board Top Layer ............................................................ 194
Figure A-7: Interface Panel Circuit Board Bottom Layer ...................................................... 194
Figure A-8: Rotor Position Sensor Circuit Board Top Layer ................................................. 195
Figure A-9: Rotor Position Sensor Circuit Board Bottom Layer ........................................... 195
Figure B-1: Motor Dimensions ............................................................................................. 198
Figure C-1: Major Component Areas Within DVR Electronic Drive ..................................... 204
Figure C-2: Idealised Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive ................................. 205
Figure C-3: Identification Of Groupings And Separation Points Following Deep Analysis... 206
Figure C-4: Separation line Plotted From Proposed Separation Points ............................... 207
Figure C-5: Identification Of Proposed Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive ..... 208
Figure C-6: Separation Line Plotted From Proposed Separation Points .............................. 209
Figure C-7: Revised And Final Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive ................... 210
Figure C-8: Final Separation Line Plotted From Final Separation Points ............................. 211
Figure C-9: Prototype Power Supply PCB Top Layer ............................................................ 227
Figure C-10: Prototype Power Supply PCB Bottom Layer .................................................... 227
Figure C-11: Prototype Power Supply Gerber Data ............................................................. 228
Figure C-12: Prototype Power Supply PCB NC Drill Data ..................................................... 228
Figure C-13: Prototype Controller PCB Top Layer ................................................................ 229
Figure C-14: Prototype Controller PCB Bottom Layer .......................................................... 229
Figure C-15: Prototype Controller Gerber Data ................................................................... 230
Figure C-16: Prototype Controller NC Drill Data .................................................................. 230
xi | P a g e List of Figures
List of Tables
Table 6-1: DVR Acoustic Noise Levels................................................................................... 101
Table A-1: Fault Repair Information ..................................................................................... 186
Table A-2: Fault Mode .......................................................................................................... 186
Table A-3: DVR Control LCD Board Fault Messages ............................................................. 187
Table A-4: DVR SRM Motor Parameters............................................................................... 188
Table B-1: Motor Dimensions............................................................................................... 198
Table B-2: Phase Flux-Linkage Characteristics ..................................................................... 199
Table B-3: Phase Inductance Characteristics........................................................................ 199
Table B-4: DVR Torque - Power - Speed Results .................................................................. 200
Table B-5: Power Factor Measurements (PFC On) ............................................................... 201
Table B-6: Power Factor Measurements (PFC Off) .............................................................. 201
Table B-7: Power Factor Measurement (PFC On) ................................................................ 202
Table B-8: Power Factor Measurement (PFC Off) ................................................................ 202
Table C-1: Capacitive Component Listing ............................................................................. 213
Table C-2: Resistive Component Listing ............................................................................... 216
Table C-3: Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component Listing ............................................ 218
Table C-4: Connector Component Listing............................................................................. 218
Table C-5: Capacitive Component Location ......................................................................... 220
Table C-6: Resistive Component Location ............................................................................ 223
Table C-7: Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component Location ......................................... 225
Table C-8: Connector Component Location ......................................................................... 225
Table C-9: Power NET Designators ....................................................................................... 225
Table C-10: Additional Connector Information .................................................................... 226
Table C-11: Additional Connector Signals ............................................................................ 226
List of Tables xii | P a g e

Chapter 1
Introduction
“The first step towards getting somewhere is to decide

that you are not going to stay where you are”
- John Pierpont Morgan
This chapter introduces and provides definition to the title of this thesis. The problem
domain, motivations, and outcome objectives for this research are discussed. Finally, the
structure of the information is outlined.
1|Page C h a p t e r 1 |Introduction
1.1 What is a “Switched Reluctance Machine”
The term Switched Reluctance Machine describes a specific electric machine technology
usually pertaining to a rotating electric motor; however, linear actuators based on this
technology do exist [1-4]. Switched Reluctance Machines (SRM) are utilised commercially in
various applications and are characterised by simple motor construction but complex
electronic drive and control topologies [5-8]. This complexity results in the motor and
electronic components being designed and paired together; this pairing increases the
difficulty and cost of quality improvement in commercial systems.
1.2 Definition of Quality
The definition of Quality used in this thesis is not a definition of quality utilised within the
reliability engineering discipline specifically. Rather, quality is considered to be not only the
reliability of the system as a whole, but also the ability to maintain, repair, and develop the
system. This capability requires the availability of intimate product design knowledge which
helps to improve the quality of service provided by the manufacturer; these quality aspects
are investigated and improved within this thesis.
1.3 Description of Problem Domain
The motivation for this research was to improve the quality within a commercial SRM
electronic drive. This commercial electronic drive suffers from repeated common modes of
failure; this data can be seen in Table A-2: Fault Mode in Appendix A, DVR Technical
Information, on page 186 of this document. The failure modes presented are the result of
categorising the supplied failure and repair data; this data can be seen in Table A-1: Fault
Repair Information, also in Appendix A on page 186 of this document. The frequency of the
failure modes is shown in Figure 1-1:
C h a p t e r 1 |Introduction 2|P a g e
30
25
20
Frequency 15
10
0
C1 C2 C3 C4 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 P1 P2 P3 P4 X1 N/A
Fault Mode
Figure 1-1: Histogram Of Fault Mode Frequency
It is shown that certain fault modes appear significantly more frequently. It is noted that
N/A is the fault code category for fault events that did not contain information about the
type of failure. It is also noted that no information regarding the failure mode was recorded
in almost half of the cases; this is indicative of the lack of drive failure information provided.
This highlights a problem-solution framework to quality management. This quality

approach results in quick fixes and recurring failures, regardless if it is intentional or not. A
superior framework for quality management is Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
which highlights the need to identify the root causes of failures. This framework results in
permanent solutions to quality problems, and the ability to quantify quality and improve it.
Failure of the electronic drive is undesirable due to the cost involved in replacing, or
repairing the faulty drive. Identification of the underlying cause(s) of these failure modes is
of critical importance.
The repeated common mode failures illustrate insufficient quality within the design,
components, or manufacturing of the electronic drive. However, the complexity of the
electronic drive prevents identification of the underlying cause(s) of these failures.
Therefore the problem domain can be expressed as the inability to identify the cause(s)
responsible for the lack of quality within the electronic drive. This inability arises from the
complexity of the electronic drive architecture. This complexity must be reduced to allow
the cause(s) for the lack of quality to be discovered and corrected.
1.4 Aim and Scope of Research
The aim of this research is to resolve the quality issues associated with the electronic drive.
To achieve this aim, the scope of the research is outlined as follows:
Develop an understanding of general SRM knowledge including: operating principles,

construction, machine configuration, electronic drive topologies, power converter
topologies, and control algorithms. This allows the identification of the specific
implementations within the commercial system.
Utilise the knowledge gained via researching to identify the specific component
implementations present in the commercial system, and comment on the suitability of
these implementations. This development of intimate system knowledge will allow in-depth
analysis of the commercial system as a whole.
Understanding how the system operates allows detailed analysis of the electronic drive,
and its functional components. An accurate understanding of the interactions between
these functional components is crucial to reducing complexity; this reduction in complexity
can be achieved through appropriate separation of these functional components. Reverse
engineering the electronic drive provides the detailed technical information required to
design a component separated prototype solution.
Knowledge gained from the reverse engineering process facilitates separation at the
appropriate points as dictated by: safety, component function, and suitability. The
identification of these points allows the design and construction of a prototype circuit. The
prototype is to be designed to a standard that is manufacturable and a direct replacement
for the original electronic drive; the size and placement of the prototype circuit boards
must be considered to achieve this.
Comparative evaluation testing will ensure that the performance of the prototype meets, at
minimum, the performance of the original electronic drive.
Identifying areas within the design that can be investigated for quality improvement will
allow the discussion of plausible solutions and facilitates the development of a quality
improvement roadmap.
1.5 Research objectives
This research aims to achieve the following objectives at completion:
1. Provide intimate knowledge about the Teknatool machine configuration

2. Measurement of major signals present on the electronic drive
3. Justified separation points for the electronic drive that do not compromise safety or
performance
4. A separated prototype electronic drive of manufacturable quality that is a direct
replacement for the Teknatool electronic solution
5. Demonstrate that the prototype drive meets the performance of the Teknatool
electronic drive via comparative analysis
6. Identification of areas for investigation of quality improvement
7. Completed documentation for the electronic drive, including complete component
and signal listing, connector information, and revised schematics
These objectives will be used to determine a successful outcome of the research.
1.6 Organisation of the thesis
This thesis is organised as follows. Chapters 2 through 5 discuss the general knowledge of
SRMs, while chapters 6 through 10 concentrate on the specific implementations present in
the commercial machine, and achievement of the research objectives. Chapter 11
concludes and discusses the research outcomes.
Chapter 1, Introduction, presents the research topic, problem domain, scope, and
objectives. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the topic of discussion,
and to provide a detailed structure for the content such that the information contained
within this thesis is easily navigated.
Chapter 2, Operating Principles, discusses the operation of SRMs as a basic overview. It

covers the inception of the SRM, simple control schema, torque and power generation, and
comparison with competing technologies. This chapter highlights the various major
components present in an SRM.
Chapter 3, Motor Construction, contains information concerning the stator and rotor
components of an SRM. It discusses these components in various configurations, and their
respective effects on performance. It draws attention to the known problems of starting
ability, torque ripple, and acoustic noise generation.
Chapter 4, Power Supply and Electronic Converter, investigates the power supply
component of an SRM in detail, notably the architecture and sub-components. Power
Factor, a quantification of how efficiently power is drawn from the supply, is a major topic
as it is of critical significance in the design of an SRM power supply.
The electronic power converter is discussed separately because of its critical importance to
the efficiency and performance of an SRM. Various electronic power converter designs are
demonstrated, explained, and critiqued.
Chapter 5, Control Algorithms, is concerned with the various methods of controlling an

SRM. Schemas for both low and high speed operation are introduced. The critical system
variables for successful control are identified, and their integration with the control
algorithm is demonstrated. Lastly, position sensor-less operation of an SRM is discussed.
Chapter 6, DVR SRM Implementation, utilises the broad information presented in the
previous chapters to identify and comment on the specific implementations present in the
Digital Variable Reluctance (DVR) SRM. This chapter provides the necessary background to
understand the technical challenges in achieving the objectives of the research.
Chapter 7, Separation Process, describes the identification of appropriate separation points

by analysis and the reverse engineering approach to achieve this. An iterative process is
demonstrated to highlight the migration of the separation points as the depth of analysis
and intimate system knowledge increases.
Chapter 8, Prototype design and manufacture, illustrates the design process of the
prototype circuit boards. This prototype is intended to replace the original electronic drive.
The need for further migration of the separation points is highlighted as the design of the
separated prototype is attempted.
It also demonstrates the need for additional information beyond the reverse engineering
process to successfully carry the prototype through to a manufacturable solution.
Chapter 9, Instrumentation and Testing, demonstrates the need for isolated

instrumentation to successfully, and safely, take measurements from the electronic drive.
Appropriate isolation circuitry is presented to alleviate the requirement of an isolated
oscilloscope for basic measurements. This chapter provides justification for the use of an
isolated oscilloscope, which became necessary as the depth of analysis increased.
This chapter also compares the operation and performance of the prototype against the
original electronic drive highlighting any significant difference. These differences are
explained in context and prove the validity of the prototype solution.
Chapter 10, Quality Improvement, presents and categorises the quality observations
recorded throughout the research. These improvements are discussed on their respective
merits, and plausible implementations are suggested for their realisation.
Chapter 11, Discussions and Conclusion, discusses the research outcomes and the
achievement of the objectives. The successful outcome of the research is considered, and
concluding remarks and justifications are provided.
Appendix A, DVR Technical Information, contains information from the SRM manufacturer
including fault information, motor parameters, and schematics.
Appendix B, Measurement Data, contains information not present in the main text
obtained through experimentation on the SRM.
Appendix C, Research Outputs, contains additional information not present in the main text
regarding the outputs from this research. Oscilloscope captures and printed circuit board
designs are contained in this appendix.
Appendix D, Datasheets, contains the datasheets for the major components utilised in the
electronic drive, and proposed component replacements.
Appendix E, Photos, contains a collection of photographs from the project.
Chapter 2
Operating Principles
“All knowledge has its origins in our perceptions”
- Leonardo da Vinci
This chapter presents the basic operating principles of SRM technology. Specifically: the
basic machine overview, control schema, and the development of torque. The aim of this
chapter is to provide sufficient background information to allow detailed discussion of
specific component areas in the later chapters.
9|Page C h a p t e r 2 |Operating Principles

2.1 Switched Reluctance Machine Overview
SRM technology describes a modern brushless electric motor technology that is perhaps
the most simple of all rotating electric machines. However, an SRM requires power
electronic switching and sophisticated digital control to be a viable competitor against
alternative electric machine topologies [7, 9, 10].
The heritage of the SRM can be found in the work of W.H Taylor who received a patent for
an electromagnetic machine in the United States of America in 1838 [9]. The SRM has
experienced strong development since the 1960’s therefore it is still a relatively young
technology [7]. It has found industrial application, in small quantities, ranging from general-
purpose electric drives to appliances [11]. The commercial success enjoyed is due to the
motor’s low cost, flexibility and excellent reliability [9, 10].
A typical SRM consists of the stator housing, rotor, electronic power converter, controller,
position and current sensors [7, 8, 11]. The electronic power converter delivers the current
required for the motor to generate torque, while the controller and sensors provide closed-
loop control to the system. It is standard practice to design and package the converter,
controller, and motor together [9, 12, 13]; this is the result of the strong relationship
between these components.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the relationship of components in an SRM topology:
Figure 2-1: SRM Drive Architecture
C h a p t e r 2 |Operating Principles 10 | P a g e
Until recent advancements in microcontroller performance and features, it was standard
practice to implement the control aspect of the SRM drive using analogue electronics; these
advancements in microcontroller technology have seen a shift towards researching and
implementing digital control algorithms [7].
2.2 Basic Principles
The SRM is a brushless design in which both the stator and the rotor contain salient poles;
conversely there is a class of SRMs which are singly salient, known as SSRMs, which are not
covered in this thesis. Further reading of SSRMs can be found in [14].
The doubly salient arrangement, as shown in Figure 2-2, allows the SRM its high efficiency,
although not as high as competing technologies [10], as little energy is lost during
electromagnetic energy conversion [7, 9]. However, a study in 1997 highlighted the cost-
effectiveness and higher efficiency of the SRM against the induction motor [15].
Figure 2-2: Cross-section Of A Typical SRM
Figure 2.2 illustrates the simplified cross-section of a three phase SRM containing six stator
poles arranged into three phases: A, B, C, and four rotor poles; this configuration is known
11 | P a g e C h a p t e r 2 |Operating Principles
as 6/4. The motor is shown at rest with complete alignment and minimum reluctance of
Phase A with respect to the rotor poles.
Rotation requires excitation of phases in the correct sequence. Generation of clockwise

rotation from the illustrated position requires Phase B to be excited. This causes the motor
to rotate until the rotor poles are completely aligned with Phase B. Continuous rotation is
caused by extension of this sequence to a repeating pattern; Phase C is next in this
particular sequence. Counter-clockwise rotation is achieved by reversing the sequence.
The basic pattern for exciting rotor poles to cause a continuous clockwise rotation is shown
in Figure 2-3:
Figure 2-3: Simple Clockwise Rotation Excitation Sequence
The sequence shown illustrates excitation of the phases with mutual exclusivity; this is not
plausible as the windings present an inductive load to the converter circuit. The phases
need to be switched prematurely to allow sufficient time for the current to rise and decay.
The phases must be excited in this manner to ensure positive torque generation; thus
preventing drag placed against the rotor by negative torque generation, which occurs when
the rotor pole passes a phase which is still energised.
This behaviour results in the phase excitations overlapping, and is shown in Figure 2-4:
Figure 2-4: Plausible Clockwise Rotation Excitation Sequence
2.3 Motoring operation
Figure 2-5 illustrates a partial cross-section of a typical SRM; note one of the rotor poles is
in complete alignment with a stator pole, whilst the other rotor pole illustrates complete
misalignment.
Figure 2-5: Pole Alignment Overview
Clockwise rotation of the rotor causes the completely misaligned rotor pole to rotate
towards its closest stator pole; this angular region, used for motoring operation, is known
as the positive torque generation region. This rotation also causes the completely
misaligned rotor pole to rotate away from its closest stator pole; this angular region, used
for generating operation, is known as the negative torque generation region.
Various electrical and magnetic properties for the given pole-pair change magnitude as the
rotor advances from complete misalignment to complete alignment. The most significant of
these properties are: the winding inductance, flux-linkage, phase current, and
instantaneous electromagnetic torque. The typical waveforms of these properties are
graphed with respect to alignment angle in the following sections.
2.3.1 Inductance
Inductance can be rudimentarily described as the capacity to store energy in the magnetic
field surrounding a conductor, which is relative to the current flowing in the conductor;
inductance is measured in Henrys, H. The inductance is said to have saturated when the
maximum capacity of the magnetic field has been achieved [8].
The inductance is dependent upon the material of the magnetic conductor itself, the
alignment angle of the rotor, and the current flowing through the phase windings [16, 17].
Reluctance is the mathematical inverse of inductance and the rotor of an SRM aligns at
minimum reluctance; a plot showing inductance developed in the winding, at a fixed
current, as a result of rotor angle is presented in Figure 2-6:
Figure 2-6: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle
This shows the change in inductance with respect to the alignment. The inductance reaches
the minimum value at complete misalignment, and the maximum value at complete
alignment. The rate of change of the inductance determines the rate of change of the
current waveform when a voltage is applied across the windings; the maximum current that
can flow is determined by the saturation of the magnetic field. This is commonly plotted
comparing the resulting inductance profiles from a varying phase current magnitude,
against a known rotor angle. A plot showing this behaviour is shown in Figure 2-7:
Figure 2-7: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current
The inductance increases with increased allowable current until saturation is achieved. At
saturation the value of the inductance peaks and losses increase.
It was mentioned previously that the inductance of the winding determines the rate of
change of the current flowing through it. Should the winding saturate then the current
flowing will be determined by only the DC resistance of the winding; this results in high
currents and high losses, therefore operation in saturation should be avoided.
The losses present in the winding as a result of the DC resistance are described by the
following formula:
‫ ݏݏ݋ܮܹ݃݊݅݀݊݅ܥܦ‬ൌ ݅ ଶ ܴ (2.1)
2.3.2 Flux-linkage
Flux-linkage can be described as the total flux flowing perpendicularly through a surface,
and is measured in volt-seconds. Flux-linkage ߰ is described by the following equation:
ሬԦǤ ݀ܵ
߰ ൌ ܰ න ‫ܤ‬ (2.2)
ௌ
ሬԦ is the magnetic field strength vector.

Where N is the number of turns in the coil and ‫ܤ‬
Faraday discovered that the rate of change of flux-linkage passing through a magnetic loop
is proportional to the ElectroMotive Force (EMF) generated by the conductor, known as
Faraday’s law, and therefore we can define flux-linkage as the integral of applied voltage
with respect to time:
߰ ൌ න ‫ݒ‬Ǥ ݀‫ݐ‬ (2.3)
Therefore the instantaneous flux-linkage, for a linear case, can be expressed in terms of
instantaneous inductance ‫ ܮ‬and instantaneous current ݅:
߰ ൌ ‫݅ܮ‬ (2.4)
Knowing that the flux-linkage ߰ is relative to both the inductance and current, we can hold
the current to a known value and investigate how the flux-linkage varies with misalignment
angle. This behaviour is shown in Figure 2-8:
Figure 2-8: Flux-Linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle
At complete misalignment the magnitude of the flux-linkage is at minimum which results in
maximum reluctance, low likelihood of inductive saturation, and creates zero torque
generation in unstable equilibrium due to the lack of pole affinity; this means that the
direction of rotation is uncertain should a phase be energised [11].
Conversely, at complete alignment the flux-linkage achieves its maximum magnitude.

Therefore, minimum reluctance is also achieved resulting in the high likelihood of inductive
saturation, and zero torque generation in stable equilibrium due to strong pole affinity. The
flux-linkage must be completely extinguished before the rotor achieves complete alignment
[11].
As mentioned previously, the inductance of the SRM can saturate at higher current flows,
and flux-linkage is strongly related to inductance. Therefore saturation of the inductance
will also saturate the flux-linkage [8]. This behaviour is shown in Figure 2-9:
Misaligned
θ1
θ2
Flux Linkage
θ3
θ4
θ5
θ6
θ7
θ8
Current
Figure 2-9: Flux-linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current
It is shown that with sufficient current the flux-linkage will saturate for any rotor angle with
the difference being the time taken to saturate; this is caused by saturation of the phase
inductance. Saturation of the flux-linkage should be avoided when operating in motoring
because of the increase in losses.
2.3.3 Phase Current
An unconstrained phase current flow is illustrated in Figure 2-10:
Figure 2-10: Unconstrained Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle
This illustrates a typical current flow, measured in amperes, A, in the phase winding with
respect to the alignment. This waveform assumes that the voltage is applied across the
winding at complete misalignment, and is removed at the appropriate time to prevent
residual current flow in the windings at complete alignment. The peak current is shown to
be unconstrained for illustrative purposes; the peak value may be very high and damage
the winding. The current can be effectively constrained by chopping [7-9, 11] which is
shown in Figure 2-11:
Figure 2-11: Chopped Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle
This shows the phase current limited by chopping; which forms the basis of the current
control within a SRM [11]. Formulae 2.5 - 2.7 are provided courtesy of [7]. The formula
describing the relationship between the voltage, flux-linkage and current is:
݀߰ ݀߰
‫ ݒ‬ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ߱௠ (2.5)
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀ߠ
Where ‫ ݒ‬is the terminal voltage, ߰ is the flux-linkage in volt-seconds, ݅ is the current
flowing, ܴ is the resistance of the phase in ohms, ‫ ݐ‬is time in seconds, and ߱m is the angular
velocity in radians per second. Phase inductance can be substituted for flux-linkage giving
rise to the following equation, courtesy of [7]:
݀ሺ‫݅ܮ‬ሻ ݀݅ ݀‫ܮ‬
‫ ݒ‬ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ‫ݓ‬௠ ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ‫ ܮ‬൅ ߱௠ ݅ (2.6)
݀ߠ ݀‫ݐ‬ ݀ߠ
Where ‫ ܮ‬is the inductance of the stator winding, in henrys, and ߠ is the angular position of
the rotor, in radians. The last term is considered to be the back-EMF and can be expressed
as:
݀‫ܮ‬
݁ ൌ ߱௠ ݅ (2.7)
݀ߠ
2.3.4 Power and Torque

The instantaneous electrical power‫ ݅ݒ‬delivered to the winding can be expressed by its
major constituents: the resistive voltage drop, the inductive voltage drop, and back-EMF
voltage drop by the following equation, Formula 2.8 – 2.12 are provided courtesy of [7]:
݀݅ ݀‫ܮ‬
‫ ݅ݒ‬ൌ ܴ݅ ଶ ൅ ‫݅ܮ‬ ൅߱௠ ݅ ଶ (2.8)
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀ߠ
The rate of change of the magnetic energy stored at any given instant is defined as:
݀ ͳ ଶ ͳ ݀‫ܮ‬ ݀݅ ͳ ݀‫ܮ‬ ݀݅
൬ ‫ ݅ܮ‬൰ ൌ ݅ ଶ ൅ ‫ ݅ܮ‬ൌ ݅ ଶ ߱௠ ൅ ‫݅ܮ‬ (2.9)
݀‫ʹ ݐ‬ ʹ ݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬ ʹ ݀ߠ ݀‫ݐ‬
According to the conservation of energy principle, the mechanical power remains after the
resistive losses of ܴ݅ ଶ and the rate of change of magnetic energy stored are subtracted
from the instantaneous electrical power ‫݅ݒ‬. Mechanical power ܲ is defined as:
ܲ ൌ ߱௠ ܶ௘ (2.10)
Where ܶ௘ is the instantaneous electromagnetic torque developed. Equation 2.7 can

rearranged and substituted to obtain the equation for instantaneous electromagnetic
torque developed:
ͳ
‫݌‬ ݀ሺʹ ‫ ݅ܮ‬ଶ ሻ
ܶ௘ ൌ ଶ
ൌ ‫ ݅ݒ‬െ ܴ݅ െ (2.11)
‫ݓ‬௠ ݀‫ݐ‬
ͳ ݀‫ܮ‬
ܶ௘ ൌ ݅ ଶ (2.12)
ʹ ݀ߠ
ௗ௅
It should be noted that ௗఏ
is the slope of the inductance profile, and this is negative after
the angle of complete alignment allowing the generation of a negative torque. Current
must be prevented from flowing during the negative inductance ramp as this places drag
against the rotor.
The graph showing typical torque generation is shown in Figure 2-12:
Figure 2-12: Torque Generation As A Function Of Rotor Angle
2.4 Torque-Speed and Power-Speed Relationships
The torque-speed relationship, and the power-speed, of an SRM is dependent upon the
control topology [7, 9, 12], and can be modified in low-speed operation by the allowable
maximum current; this is an advantage of the SRM over competing technologies.
The SRM is continuously variable between low and high torque operation depending on the
average phase current. This is achieved without the requirement to dissipate energy which
makes the SRM very flexible; particularly if the application requires both high and low
torque operations at low speed. This highlights the machines ability to produce constant
output power efficienty over a wide range of rotational speeds [10, 18].
The peak torque developed is limited by the maximum current; this is limited by the supply
voltage, and the maximum temperature of the motor. The temperature rise of the stator
windings is related to the magnitude of the average current flowing [11] .
Figure 2-13 illustrates the general torque-speed relationship of a SRM should maximum
current flow at all rotational speeds; this plot represents the maximum achievable torque
output. Figure 2-14 shows the closely related power-speed relationship.
Figure 2-13: Idealised Torque Speed Relationship
Figure 2-14: Idealised Power Speed Relationship
In explanation of Figure 2-13 and Figure 2-14 above, Region 1 represents the motor at rest,
there is no excitation of the stator windings and therefore there is zero torque production.
Region 2 represents the instant at which the windings are excited with the rotor at rest. The
maximum torque output is available immediately, assuming zero current rise time.
Region 3 represents the motor in low-speed operation where the maximum torque is
limited by the supply voltage, or the maximum permissible current; this relationship
persists with increasing rotational speed until the back-EMF begins to limit the supply
voltage. The rotational speed at which this occurs is called the base speed, denoted by ωb.
Operation beneath the base speed is known as constant torque operation [7, 9].
Rotation above the base speed signifies Region 4, which is called constant power operation;
At the base speed the maximum output power has been achieved. The motor will continue
to produce its maximum output, but with increasing shaft speed torque must decrease due
to the power limit being reached [9].
Further increasing rotational speed shifts the relationship into Region 5, called the natural
mode. In this mode, increasing back-EMF causes the output power to decrease with
increased rotational speed; the product of the torque and the square of the speed remain
constant when in natural mode [9].
The SRM holds a strong advantage over conventional electric machines, with the difference
in its maximum speed and base speed commonly being up to a factor of ten [9].
2.5 Acoustic Noise
SRMs have the potential to generate excessive levels of acoustic noise [7, 19]; the level
generated is accepted to be higher than that of competing electric machine technologies
[20, 21]. The acceptability of acoustic noise is dependent upon the environment the
machine is operated within.
2.5.1 Sound power level

Sound power relates the volume of a noise source to the human ear, and is described by
the following equation:
ܹ
ܵ‫ܮݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݀݊ݑ݋‬௪ ൌ ͳͲ ଵ଴ (2.13)
ܹ଴
Where ‫ܮ‬௪ is the sound power level and is measured in decibels (dB), ܹ is the power of the
noise source measured in watts, and ܹ଴ is the base power level, given to be 1pW.
The sound pressure level is defined as:
ܲ
ܵ‫ܮ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎܲ݀݊ݑ݋‬௉ ൌ ʹͲ ଵ଴ (2.14)
ܲ଴
Where ‫ܮ‬௉ is the sound pressure level and is measured in decibels (dB), P is the pressure of
the noise source in pascals, and ܲ଴ is the base pressure level, given to be 20μPa (rms).
Given two separate sources, A and B, the combined sound power can be calculated by:
ܲ஺ ܲ஻ ௉ಲ ௉ಳ
ܲ஺ ൅ ܲ஻ ൌ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൅ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൌ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൤ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൅ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൨ (2.15)
ܲ଴ ܲ଴
௉ಳ ି௉ಲ
ܲ஺ ൅ ܲ஻ ൌ ܲ஺ ൅ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൤ͳ ൅ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ൨ (2.16)
This equation illustrates that the power level of two identical noise sources combined is not
doubled. This is an important result for the generation of acoustic noise in noisy
environments, as it indicates the acceptability of noisy environments e.g. workshops.
2.5.2 Acoustic Noise Generation

The most significant source of noise generation within a SRM is the physical distortion of
the stator housing by the radial magnetic forces [7, 19, 22]; this distortion can be minimised
with increased stator pole count and increased structural rigidity.
The torque generation of the SRM is discontinuous therefore the radial magnetic forces are
also discontinuous; this gives rise to the potential to generate significant acoustic noise
from a small current should the distortion be excited at its natural resonant frequency.
However, this results in the ability to largely cancel this acoustic noise by slight modulation
of the current to prevent excitation at the natural resonant frequency.
Unfortunately, such an approach assumes that there is only a single distortion frequency
within the stator housing. In practice there are various vibration frequencies present which
are capable of generating significant acoustic noise [7] and this suggests that cancellation
by harmonic injection of the current waveform will be difficult as it requires attention to
many frequencies.
Compounding the acoustic noise generation problem is the high transient switching nature
of the tangential electromotive force acting on the rotor. The maximum acoustic noise
generated by this factor occurs by allowing the stator windings to remain energised until
the rotor pole reaches maximum alignment before exciting the next phase in sequence; this
control behaviour also results in the highest torque ripple leading to a strong relationship
between torque ripple and acoustic noise [23, 24].
Operating the motor in this fashion results in the rotational momentum of the motor being
required to overcome the opposing electromotive force applied by the winding against the
intended direction of rotation resulting in lower efficiency.
The choice of an appropriate pole configuration, electronic converter and control algorithm
can greatly reduce the acoustic noise produced by the SRM [25-27]; therefore acoustic
noise can be an audible indicator of control system performance.
2.5.3 Reducing Acoustic Noise
Excessive acoustic noise generation can be largely regarded as a matter of perspective. The
inherent advantages of the SRM lie in low-cost manufacturing, so it is likely that they will be
utilised within residential and consumer grade products; excessive noise is not acceptable
within these areas [28].
It has been shown in 2.5.1, Sound power level, that perception of acoustic noise is strongly
dependent upon other noises present in the environment. Therefore should the SRM
operate in an environment which already contains significant noise pollution, the
generation of acoustic noise from the SRM loses significance. The acceptability of acoustic
noise generation is dependent upon the situation in which the motor is intended to be
operated within.
The process of minimising the acoustic noise generated by an SRM is unique to every
implementation as they vary greatly in construction and control. There are a large number
of design rules which are effective at reducing the acoustic noise generated and can be
applied to every SRM in the design stages. A significant few of these rules are shown below
in example:
x Maximise the width of rotor and stator poles

x Increase pole configuration multiplicity; this is achieved by increasing the number
of poles for a given phase.
x Increase the air-gap to the maximum permissible distance without significantly
affecting the inductance profile
x Use the largest possible motor shaft diameter
An SRM was successfully designed to reduce torque ripple, acoustic noise and still retain
the low-cost manufacturing benefits of the switched reluctance topology. This motor is
known as the Stagger-Tooth motor [7, 29] developed by Wayne A. Pengov and received a
US Patent, 5852334, on December 22 1998.
2.6 Summary
This chapter reviewed the basic topics of the SRM discipline. Specifically: the development
history, comprising components, basic motor layout, simple control schema, the principles
of torque and power generation for motoring operation, and acoustic noise.
The information contained in this chapter is an overview to the basic terminology and
concepts required to understand the basic operation of an SRM. This information is crucial
to the novice reader in understanding and placing the information presented in the
following chapters.
Chapter 3
Motor Construction
“When one has finished building one's house, one
suddenly realises that in the process one has learned
something that one really needed to know in the worst
way - before one began”
- Friedrich Nietzsche
-
This chapter discusses the construction of an SRM, and why it is critical to achieving
optimum performance within the intended application. Relation of performance to the
construction of the machine can be separated into three major topics: materials, design of
the stator and rotor to maximise flux linkage and minimise losses, and the pole and phase
configuration. Material selection is outside the scope of this thesis and will not be discussed
as it lies outside the scope of this work. Information regarding appropriate material
selection and the effect of material on performance can be found in [17, 18, 30-33].
Optimisation of the stator and the rotor construction will be discussed in the following
sections, as well as the performance impacts of differing pole and phase configurations
27 | P a g e C h a p t e r 3 |Motor Construction
3.1 Stator Construction
The SRM incorporates a simple stator construction containing all of the excitation sources;
therefore the total power losses are concentrated in the stator. Due to the external nature,
and size of the stator, these losses are easily dissipated; especially in motors which are
enclosed by a metallic frame [7, 9, 11]. Figure 3-1 shows the cross-section of an eight pole
stator.
Figure 3-1: Switched Reluctance Stator And Winding Cross-section
The stator contains equidistantly spaced salient poles. These poles are encased by a
concentrated single pitch winding allowing simple manufacture and repair [7, 10]. The
windings are electrically exclusive, except windings connected in phases, and are operated
in near mutual exclusivity thereby greatly reducing the insulation stresses as seen in
conventional electric drives; this behaviour improves the reliability of the SRM stator by
effectively eliminating the risk of phase to phase insulation failure [11].
The simplicity of the windings compared to conventional motor topologies allows them to
be shorter in length, and therefore reduces the losses by minimising the end winding;
which provides no beneficial torque generation when excited [11].
The stator construction allows the high efficiency, reliability, and maintainability
characteristics of the SRM [7, 11]
C h a p t e r 3 |Motor Construction 28 | P a g e
3.2 Rotor Construction
The SRM employs a very simple rotor construction, usually constructed by stacks of
laminated steel surrounding the motor shaft. The rotor contains no excitation source and
this makes it extremely durable, reliable, and cost-effective to maintain [9, 11].
The cross-sectional shape of the rotor is critical to the operation of the SRM [11].The poles
protrude from the rotor giving it a comparatively low rotational inertia, which is loosely
described by the following equation:
ܴ‫ ܫ݉ݑݐ݊݁݉݋ܯ݈ܽ݊݋݅ݐܽݐ݋‬ൌ ‫ ܴܯ‬ଶ (3.1)
This improves transient behaviour of the system and reduces mechanical shock placed on
the motor shaft in high gear ratio applications. Figure 3-2 details the cross-section of a basic
SRM rotor.
Figure 3-2: Cross-section of rotor construction
The rotor is constructed of thin laminated steel discs. It is constructed in this manner to
reduce magnetic eddy currents, and this decreases power losses in the rotor resulting in
high efficiency [9]. However, windage losses can result from poor geometry design [11, 34].
The lack of excitation sources on the rotor is advantageous; it improves the fault-tolerance
such that a fault in one phase is not energised by the passing rotor, and therefore does not
generate negative torque [9]. The lack of excitation sources also allows the rotor to run
relatively cool, resulting in prolonged motor shaft, bearing, and lubricant life, further
increasing reliability [11]. This behaviour ensures rotor power losses are very low, even at
full-load operation, and this is advantageous for high speed operation. This allows the SRM
to start under full-load conditions or remain in a stalled condition with energised phases for
prolonged timeframes without overheating the machine [11]
The ability to start the machine under full-load condition with exceptionally low power
losses translates to an infinite number of possible full-load starts per hour and the
prevention of run on losses in variable speed applications; such behaviours are not possible
with conventional electric machines due to the comparatively high rotor losses [10].
The construction of the rotor is imperative to the performance, reliability, fault tolerance
and high speed operation of the SRM. The simplistic construction allows effective in-field
repairs.
3.3 Pole and Phase Configurations
The SRM can be implemented with various topologies for stator and rotor pole
configurations. It is common for equidistantly spaced stator poles to be connected in
phases for simultaneous excitation; this approach allows electromotive force to be applied
tangentially to more than one face of the rotor during positive torque generation thereby
improving the balance of the machine.
Pole and phase configurations impact the SRM’s performance and therefore the following
factors need to be considered before selecting an appropriate topology:
x Starting ability
x Direction of rotation
x High speed operation
x Cost
x Reliability
x Power density
The impact of these factors can be illustrated by investigating the behaviour of various
machine configurations, and noting the capabilities of the typical machine configurations,
such as single phase, two phase, three phase, and four phase are detailed in the following
sections.
3.3.1 Single Phase
The simplest SRM would consist of four salient rotor poles which are all members of a
single phase. The cross-section of such a machine is shown in Figure 3-3:
Figure 3-3: Cross-section Of A Single Phase 4/4
The motor consists of four salient stator poles grouped into a single phase, A, therefore all
four poles are excited simultaneously. This is the SRM of all with respect to construction,
complexity, number of electrical connections, and control.
This configuration exhibits very high torque ripple due to the binary nature of the positive
torque generation. It also suffers an inability to begin rotation from rest at two separate
rotational positions. If the salient poles on the rotor are resting equidistant from the salient
stator poles, complete misalignment, or complete alignment, the motor will not rotate
when the phase is excited due to the electromotive force being equal in magnitude in both
clockwise and counter-clockwise directions. This results in zero net positive torque
generation. These non-start positions can be removed by adding small permanent magnets
into the stator [35].
Asymmetry in the design of the rotor poles can improve starting conditions by biasing the
direction of positive torque generation; this technique is implemented in motors that are
intended to rotate in a single direction [35].
This pole configuration is generally intended for use in high speed applications where the
rotational momentum of the system prevents the motor from decelerating sufficiently
between phase excitations to minimise torque ripple.
A simple modification to this topology allows minimisation of torque ripple and improved
ease of starting at the completely misaligned rest angle. This modification is to separate the
stator poles into two phases, known as a two phase SRM.
3.3.2 Two phase

The two phase motor topology is an improvement on the disadvantages of the single phase
motor topology, having both reduced torque ripple and the ability to start from complete
misalignment of the rotor poles. The cross-section of a two phase 4/4 is shown in Figure
3-4:
Figure 3-4: Cross-section Of A Two Phase 4/4
The two phase 4/4 SRM has almost identical construction to that of the single phase 4/4,
with the major difference being the introduction of a second phase. The additional phase
arises by exciting diametrically opposite salient stator poles in groups, instead of exciting all
stator poles simultaneously. This change in construction results in additional complexity in
the wiring, control algorithm, and converter.
The two phase SRM improves the starting problem inherent in the single phase machine by
only exciting two of the stator poles at any time, therefore when the rotor poles are
completely misaligned, the electromotive force is only applied in the direction of intended
rotation.
If the rotor poles are aligned with the stator poles the motor will not rotate without
modification to the rotor. Such modifications are shown in Figure 3-5:
Figure 3-5: Rotor Modifications For Ease Of Starting
A stepped air gap is shown on the left, and an asymmetrical rotor is shown on the right.
The rotor requires modification to consist of fewer poles than the stator, this prevents
alignment with both phases simultaneously, and either stepping the air gap or introducing
asymmetry into the pole design. These designs increase the angle of complete
misalignment to ninety degrees and cause the two phase 4/2 motor to become uni-
directional. However, a technique was developed that allows bi-directional rotation based
on the inherent magnetic asymmetry alleviating the need for rotor modifications [36].
The two phase machine generally exhibits a high torque ripple and fewer rotor poles than
stator poles. It may employ asymmetric rotor poles, or stepped air gaps to aid in starting. It
can be implemented where a mechanical or hand starting mechanism is not ideal yet the
high number of phases is not justified, or high-speed operation is desired. It should be
noted that the single phase and dual phase machines are not limited to four poles and an
increase in both stator and rotor poles will result in smaller maximum misalignment angles
and decreased torque ripple.
There has been research recently into utilising a higher number of rotor poles to stator
poles to reduce the torque ripple present in two phase SRMs [37].
The most common and simple solution to the torque ripple and starting problems is the
three phase SRM.
3.3.3 Three phase

The most common SRM used in industry is the three-phase [8]. The design inherently
reduces the torque ripple and overcomes the starting problems associated with a lower
number of phases. Therefore, the three phase motor is generally the most cost-effective
motor for construction, complexity and performance [38]. A cross-section of a three-phase
6/4 is shown in Figure 3-6:
Figure 3-6: Cross-section Of A Three Phase SRM
The three phase SRM incorporates equidistantly spaced stator poles grouped to form the
phases; it is not uncommon for the rotor to have less poles than the stator in this
configuration. .
The uneven stator to rotor pole ratio reduces the maximum misalignment angle which
allows easy starting and minimisation of torque ripple. This is because when one group of
rotor poles are completely aligned, the other group are completely misaligned. However,
recent research has shown that torque ripple can be significantly decreased if the rotor
contains more poles than the stator [39].
The advantage of increasing the number of poles per phase in a three-phase SRM is an
improvement in the low-speed characteristics. This is achieved in three ways: the first is a
reduction in the need for rotational momentum to keep the motor rotating between phase
excitations thereby reducing the torque ripple. The second being that the application of the
tangential electromotive force to more faces of the rotor simultaneously results in
increased balance. The third benefit is significantly decreased radial forces acting upon the
stator which are known to generate vibration and acoustic noise [40]. These advantages
come at the cost of lower efficiency due to increased core losses [40].
Torque ripple is still measurably present in a three-phase SRM. The four phase SRM offers
reduced torque ripple at the cost of increased complexity and control.
3.3.4 Four Phase

The four-phase SRM is useful when the required torque ripple cannot be met sufficiently by
a three-phase machine. The cross-section of a four phase SRM is shown in Figure 3-7:
Figure 3-7: Cross-section Of A Four Phase SRM
The four phase machine offers measurable torque ripple reduction over the three phase
construction [7, 38]. However, this is at the cost of complexity in both the construction and
the required control. The additional complexity in terms of electronic control and
component count results in this construction not being a popular choice except in specific
applications. It has generally been concluded that the three phase motor offers superior
overall performance than the four phase construction due to lower switching loss and
higher output capacity per volume [38].
3.3.5 Higher phase count motors

The torque ripple minimisation offered by higher phase count SRMs extends to five and six
phase machines, but these implementations are very expensive and complex. Therefore
they are only reserved for very specific applications.
It should be noted that as the number of phases increases so does the base switching
frequency to rotate the motor at a given speed; this results in increased switching loss. A
higher number of phases also limits the maximum speed the motor can reach due to the
higher switching frequencies and shorter excitation times of the phases.
3.4 Summary
This chapter reviewed the basic construction principles of an SRM, concentrating equally on
both the stator and rotor constructions; the advantages of the switched reluctance design
over competing topologies are raised and supported.
The main area of focus is upon the configuration of poles and phases, namely the number
of poles in the stator, the grouping of the stator poles into phases, and the number of poles
on the rotor, and how this configuration impacts system performance.
Many of the challenges involved with SRM phase and pole configurations are raised in this
chapter, particularly torque ripple and starting from all rest positions are discussed and the
solutions to these problems are addressed.
Understanding the information present in this chapter is critical to understanding the

design and implementation of the SRM presented in Chapter 6, DVR SRM Implementation
on page 89 of this document.
Chapter 4
Power Supply and Electronic Converter
“Make the best use of what is in your power, and take
the rest as it happens”
- Epictetus
This chapter discusses both the power supply and the electronic converter as they form
integral and crucial parts of the electronic drive of an SRM. Shortcomings in either of these
components will heavily affect the quality, performance, efficiency, and reliability of the
final product. The following sections will discuss these components in detail, from the
necessary requirements through to critiquing past and present implementations. A major
factor to consider for the power supply is the power factor and this is discussed in great
depth.
37 | P a g e C h a p t e r 4 |Power Supply and Electronic Converter

4.1 Power Supply Overview
The term power supply for a SRM can be used to describe the means of providing a DC
voltage bus and electronic converter circuit; the phase windings only require a uni-polar
current to generate rotation in either direction. The term can also be used to describe all
the electrical supply rails required to operate the drive successfully, including the electronic
converter circuit.
This thesis uses the term power supply broadly covering every power supply rail required to
operate the drive except the electronic converter. The reason for this is the crucial role that
the electronic converter circuit plays in the final characteristics of the motor. For this
reason the electronic converter circuit has been covered separately to the power supply.
The power supply is required to provide a variety of outputs from a given input source; a
typical power supply for a SRM would be required to provide the following power rails:
x High voltage low impedance DC Supply for the electronic converter

x Low voltage DC supply for the control electronics
x Positive and negative rails for current measurement circuitry (Negative rail
dependent on current sensing implementation)
x Supply for rotor position sensors
x Supply for the control panel (if fitted)
The power supply is required to provide these rails reliably, with: minimal voltage ripple,
user safety, and maximum efficiency at converting the input power source. The high power
nature of electric machines means the power supply is normally required to convert a high
voltage AC input source. It is common for the control and power electronics to be
separated by isolation. This reduces the effect of electromagnetic interference and reduces
the risk of serious electric shock for the operator.
The SRM windings present an inductive load to the output of the power supply. The phase
separation of voltage and current must be corrected to ensure maximum performance; this
is covered in detail in 4.3, Power Factor, on page 40.
C h a p t e r 4 |Power Supply and Electronic Converter 38 | P a g e

4.2 Power Supply Architecture
The power supply is required to provide supply rails for various components within the
switched reluctance system; these components having vastly different requirements. A
block diagram is presented in Figure 4-1 to highlight the different tasks and paths present in
a typical SRM drive power supply implementation.
Figure 4-1: Power Supply Architecture
A point to be noted is the rectification of the high voltage AC input source before the
transformer. This approach removes the requirement for handling negative voltages
present in the switch mode converters that provide the isolated low voltage rails for the
control circuit, user control panel, sensors and current measurement.
It should be noted that some current measurement techniques require a negative rail to
operate correctly. This can be provided by a centre-tapped winding connected to the earth
of the motor. This approach poses a problem for isolated control circuitry.

Isolation of low voltage electronic equipment in an electric drive is of high importance, it
reduces electromagnetic interference by taking the differential of the two floating rails.
Therefore any noise signal coupled to the isolated supply is largely removed by common
mode rejection.
Isolation also has significant improvements for safety by preventing the user from being
able to come into contact with any high voltage component through use of the control
panel. It should be noted that the isolation barrier can pose difficulties for current
measurement using sense resistors, as the control circuitry floats in relation to the motor
winding. This problem can be overcome by using isolation amplifiers or by modification to
the current measurement technique; these techniques can be costly.
It is not uncommon to find power supplies in commercial use that do not implement
isolation between power and control components and these implementations tend to have
concerns with electromagnetic interference, reliability, and safety.
An important consideration for the power supply is the implementation of Power Factor
Correction (PFC). The windings of an SRM present a variable inductive load to the supply
and therefore the severity of correction required is also variable. For an SRM to obtain peak
line efficiency, PFC must be implemented [12, 41].
4.3 Power Factor
The perceived and measurable efficiency of any electrical device is strongly related to its
Power Factor (PF). The perceived power drawn from the supply can be labelled as the
apparent power, while the actual power consumed is labelled true power. The power that is
not consumed is known as reactive power, and this represents the power that is being
returned to the supply. The relationship between true power and apparent power is known
as the power factor. The power factor of a system is a unit-less ratio and is explained by the
following relationship [42]:
‫݀݁ݐܽ݌݅ݏݏ݅ܦݎ݁ݓ݋݈ܲܽݑݐܿܣ‬ሺܶ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݁ݑݎ‬ሻ
ܲ‫ ݎ݋ݐܿܽܨݎ݁ݓ݋‬ൌ (4.1)
ܲ݁‫݊ݓܽݎܦݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݀݁ݒ݅݁ܿݎ‬ሺ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲݐ݊݁ݎܽ݌݌ܣ‬ሻ

4.3.1 Reactance Phase Shift
Power factor is affected by the presence of reactive components within a circuit. Reactive
components appear to dissipate power by flowing currents and creating potential
differences; this power is the result of energy being stored within the reactive component,
either magnetically or electrically, to be returned to the supply at a later time. The reactive
component does not dissipate this energy as heat.
A circuit which consists of only resistive components will have a power factor of one, called
unity [43]; this is considered to be the perfect power factor because all power drawn is
consumed within the circuit. The expected waveforms for a purely resistive circuit are
300 1
200
0.5
100 Voltage
Power
0 0
Average Power
-100 Current
-0.5
-200
-300 -1
Figure 4-2: Power Waveforms Of A Unity Load
For circuits which are purely resistive, the power waveform can never be negative. This is
because the voltage and current waveforms are in phase and the positive to negative
transition for both waveforms occurs simultaneously [44]. Positive power represents power
consumed by the device, whereas negative power represents power drawn but returned to
the supply. It should also be noted that the power waveform is double the frequency of the
voltage and current waveforms.
A purely reactive circuit will have a power factor of zero [43], which implies that all power
drawn is returned to the supply. The expected waveforms for a purely reactive circuit,
consisting only of inductance are shown in Figure 4-3:

300 1
200
0.5
100 Voltage
Power
0 0
Average Power
-100 Current
-0.5
-200
-300 -1
Figure 4-3: Power Waveforms Of An Inductive Load
The power waveform consists of positive and negative components. The voltage and
current waveforms are ninety degrees out of phase; this causes a power factor of zero.
Power is drawn from the supply during the positive cycle of the power waveform and is
returned to the supply on the negative cycle [42, 44]. This power factor is called lagging as
the current trails the voltage, and is represented as a positive.
The reactive component is not required to be purely inductive, it may be purely capacitive
or a combination. For a circuit which has reactive properties stemming primarily from a
capacitive reactance it is said to have a leading power factor, and is represented as negative
and has a negative reactive power vector [43, 44]; this is because the current leads the
voltage waveform.
A circuit which contains equal reactance from capacitive and inductive components has the
reactive component nullified due to the opposition in sign. This would behave identically, in
terms of power factor, to a purely resistive circuit; this forms the basis of power factor
correction.
For a circuit containing both resistive and reactive components, the power factor will vary
between zero and one. Therefore of the amount of power perceived to be drawn, a portion
will be consumed within the circuit and the remaining will be returned to the supply. The
expected waveforms for a 0.6 lagging power factor are shown in Figure 4-4:

300 1
200
0.5
100 Voltage
Power
0 0
Average Power
-100 Current
-0.5
-200
-300 -1
Figure 4-4: Power Waveforms Of A 0.6PF Lagging Load
The power waveform is offset vertically from the horizontal axis. This offset is affected by
the presence of both reactive and resistive components. This is because the integral of the
positive cycle of the power waveform exceeds the negative cycle. Due to the presence of
positive power it can be said that this circuit is consuming power. This power consumption
is related to the magnitude of the current drawn by the resistive components in the circuit.
4.3.2 Measurement of power quantities

AC supplies have three measurable power quantities, apparent power (S) which is
measured in volts-amperes (VA), true power (P) which is measured in watts (W) and
reactive power (Q) which is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). Apparent power is
related to the total circuit impedance (Z), true power is related to the total resistance of the
circuit (R), and reactive power is related to the total reactance of the circuit (X). The
equations governing these three quantities are shown below:
‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲݐ݊݁ݎܽ݌݌ܣ‬ሺܵሻ ൌ ‫ ܫ‬ଶ ܼ (4.2)

‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲݐ݊݁ݎܽ݌݌ܣ‬ሺܵሻ ൌ ܸ‫ܫ‬ (4.3)
ܶ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݁ݑݎ‬ሺܲሻ ൌ ‫ ܫ‬ଶ ܴ (4.4)
ܴ݁ܽܿ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݁ݒ݅ݐ‬ሺܳሻ ൌ ‫ ܫ‬ଶ ܺ (4.5)

The formula for calculating power from voltage and current, Equation 4.3, is only applicable
for calculating apparent power; this is because the formula is traditionally used to calculate
power from the RMS values of voltage and current and therefore assumes total circuit
impedance. This formula can be used for calculating instantaneous true or reactive power
on a singular component basis only.
4.3.3 Vector relationship of power quantities

The calculation of apparent power, true power, and reactive power by relationship requires
the magnitude of those quantities and the impedance angle. The impedance angle is the
absolute angle formed by the apparent power between the true power and reactive power
components; reactive power is always perpendicular with respect to true power. These
quantities can therefore be treated as vector quantities, and this simplifies the relationship
between the quantities to Pythagoras trigonometry as shown in Figure 4-5 [44, 45]:
Figure 4-5: Vector representation of Power Factor quantities
Reactance can be separated into inductive reactance and capacitive reactance, which
consist of j and –j phase angles respectively. Inductive and capacitive reactance are polar
opposites and therefore scalar calculation can be used to calculate the overall reactance.
ܱ‫݁ܿ݊ܽݐܴ݈݈ܿܽ݁ܽݎ݁ݒ‬ሺܺሻ ൌ ݆ܺ௅ െ ݆ܺ௖ (4.6)
Figure 4-5 shows the vector relationship for a circuit which is primarily inductive, if the
circuit was primarily capacitive then the reactive power would be of negative magnitude;

therefore the magnitude of the impedance angle is dependent only upon the magnitude of
the reactive power. The sign of the reactive power determines if the current waveform lags
or leads the voltage waveform.
The phase angle difference between the voltage and current waveforms is the same as the
angle created by the various power quantities; this thesis denotes this angle current phase
angle or ߶, as this relates it more directly to the separation of the current and voltage
waveforms.
This allows the solution of any power quantity value, given that two of the quantities are
known, or the current phase angle is known. Apparent power and true power are the easily
measured quantities, reactive power can be found by the following equation:
ܳ ൌ ඥሺ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲݐ݊݁ݎܽ݌݌ܣ‬ሺܵሻሻଶ െ ሺܶ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݁ݑݎ‬ሺܲሻሻଶ (4.7)
4.3.4 Calculation of power factor

Power factor is defined as the ratio between perceived power draw and actual power
consumption [46], and can be expressed as:
ܶ‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲ݁ݑݎ‬ሺܲሻ
ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ (4.8)
‫ݎ݁ݓ݋ܲݐ݊݁ݎܽ݌݌ܣ‬ሺܵሻ
However, since the current phase angle φ is equivalent to the angle between the adjacent
and hypotenuse of the triangle formed by the various power quantities, the current phase
angle can be used to calculate power factor by the following equation:
ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ (4.9)
This equation is valid if the current waveform is purely sinusoidal. In practice, this is
generally not the case as the current waveform tends to be harmonically distorted by semi-
conductor devices [46]. This form of power factor distortion is covered in depth in section
4.3.6, Harmonic Distortion.

4.3.5 Impact of Power Factor on Circuit Performance
Power factor is an important consideration for the design of circuits operating from an
alternating current supply. A low power factor results in higher peak and average currents
being drawn from the supply than would be expected. The excess power is a result of the
higher than expected current draw, and since it is returned to the source it can therefore
not be considered real power; however it does result in real current and this current results
in power loss along any conducting path in the circuit, as described by the following
equation:
ܲ ൌ ‫ܫ‬ଶ ܴ (4.10)
Therefore all conductors and components must be specified to handle the excess demand.
In the case of current limited supplies, power factor plays a large part in achieving the
maximum output from the device. Therefore low power factor results in a low efficiency
power delivery system. It is common practice for power supply companies to charge
industrial customers penalties for poor power factor, generally sub 0.95 lagging [47].
4.3.6 Harmonic Distortion

The power factor disruption discussed previously is known as displacement power factor.
When considered as a whole, true power factor includes harmonic distortion created by
non-linear loads and is described by the following equation, courtesy of [46]:
ܸ௥௠௦ ‫ܫ‬ଵǡ௥௠௦ ȁ ߶ȁ ‫ܫ‬ଵǡ௥௠௦ ȁ ߶ȁ

ܶܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ൌ ൌ ‫ܭ‬௣ ȁ ߶ȁ (4.11)
ܸ௥௠௦ ‫ܫ‬௥௠௦ ‫ܫ‬௥௠௦
Where ‫ܫ‬௥௠௦ is the total rms current, ‫ܫ‬ଵǡ௥௠௦ is the fundamental rms current, and ܸ௥௠௦ is the
rms voltage. ‫ܭ‬௣ is known as the purity factor of the current waveform, and is of value
between 0 and 1. For a circuit which contains no harmonic distortion, then ‫ܭ‬௣ is of value 1
and only the current phase angle ߶ is relevant to the power factor [46]. This is not typical
for devices operating from the mains supply, as they tend to employ diode based bridge
rectifiers to provide a DC supply; this introduces harmonic distortion into the current
waveform reducing the value of ‫ܭ‬௣ .

A non-linear load reshapes the current waveform of an AC signal by the addition of
harmonics at frequencies which are multiples of the basal frequency. An example of such a
component is a diode. The voltage will rise but the diode will not conduct current until the
voltage is sufficiently high; this creates a high frequency step in the current. A bridge
rectified low voltage alternating current supply is shown in Figure 4-6:
2 1
1.5 0.8
0.6
1
0.4
0.5 0.2 Voltage
0 0 Power
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 -0.2
-0.5 Current
-0.4
-1
-0.6
-1.5 -0.8
-2 -1
Figure 4-6: Power Waveforms For A Harmonically Distorted Load
The scenario presented is exaggerated by the small voltage waveform in relation to the
forwards conductive voltage drop of the bridge rectifier. This was chosen to easily illustrate
the presence of harmonic distortion as a result of non-linear loading.
It can be seen that the non-linear loading of the bridge rectifier prevents the flow of current
until sufficient voltage is achieved; note that this does not affect the phase angle between
the voltage and the current as the circuit presented is purely resistive; this would not be
true of a reactive circuit. The non-linear load therefore introduces harmonic distortion into
the current waveform which results in distortion of the same frequency to be present in the
power waveform; this distortion results in a low purity factor ‫ܭ‬௣ and therefore a low power
factor.
While the level of harmonic distortion present in a high voltage AC circuit would be minimal
in amplitude in comparison to that of the dominant frequency, it impacts the ability for the
circuit to distribute power effectively and cleanly; this effect is related to the size of the
non-linear load, some circuits will present large harmonic distortion due to the voltage
required to cause a current flow, or the number and frequency of switching devices.

In circuits which contain a reactive component, the presence of harmonic distortion affects
the total circuit impedance. Capacitive elements will offer higher admittance to harmonic
currents, while inductive components will resist harmonic currents. The presence of
harmonic distortion can therefore further affect the power factor by causing the total
reactance of the circuit to decrease or increase.
4.4 Power Factor Correction
The root cause of low power factor is the introduction of phase difference between the
voltage and current waveforms of an AC supply and generation of harmonic currents. The
method of correcting low power factor is to provide the opposite reactance of the same
magnitude; correction of a lagging power factor is achieved by the addition of capacitance,
and a leading power factor is corrected by the addition of inductance [42].
The addition of the equal but opposite reactance means that the power that was being
returned to the supply is now passed between the capacitor and the inductor. This also
creates losses in the path. However, these losses are minimal in comparison to a low power
factor. This is known as Passive Power Factor Correction (PPFC) and is used to correct the
power factor of a device with the characteristics of static reactance and linear loading.
A device with static reactance has no change in reactance during operation therefore
passive correction is a suitable and cost-effective solution. Should the load not be static,
then the technique for correcting the power factor is Active Power Factor Correction
(APFC).
The SRM is a variable reactive load. This results in a phase difference between the voltage
and current waveforms that is dependent upon the switching frequency of the electronic
converter. Active Power factor correction is important in this situation as it varies the
opposing reactance presented to the AC supply to present the smallest phase angle
difference; this is achieved by switching of reactive components.

4.4.1 Passive Power Factor Correction
PPFC involves the inclusion of additional passive components, without feedback control,
into the circuit in an attempt to minimise the current phase angle φ and prevent the
propagation of harmonic currents that reduce the purity factor ‫ܭ‬௣ .
Passive techniques can be used to rectify displacement power factor if the reactance of the
load is static; this implies that the dominant frequency of operation is fixed. It can also be
used to correct harmonic distortion of the input current waveform if the harmonic
behaviour is consistent; this is achieved by the addition of capacitors and inductors to
create second order harmonic filters.
A harmonic filter is a frequency filter designed to prevent the propagation of the harmonic
current through the load. In the case of circuit boards utilising non-rhythmic electronic
switching equipment, such an approach is implausible and active power factor correction
must be used.
PPFC has advantages in lower component count, higher circuit reliability, insensitivity to
noise and surges, does not generate high-frequency EMI, and generally has lower power
loss than active techniques due to the lack of switching components [48].
4.4.1.1 Reactance Balancing

Displacement power factor distortion is corrected passively by addition of the opposing
reactance. This effectively nullifies the reactive component present in the total circuit
impedance, resulting in the total circuit impedance comprising of only the resistive
component [42]. This technique is only effective at correcting static reactance, and provides
little benefit to prevent the propagation of harmonic currents. An example of a non-
corrected inductive and resistive AC circuit is shown in Figure 4-7:
Figure 4-7: AC Circuit With Resistive And Inductive Loading

Where R is a perfect resistor of resistance 500Ω, and L is a perfect inductor of inductance
1.6H. Therefore the inductive reactance of the inductor is described by:
ܺ௅ ൌ ߱‫ ܮ‬ൌ ʹߨ݂‫ ܮ‬ൌ ʹߨ‫ݔ‬ͷͲ‫ͳݔ‬Ǥ͸ ൌ ͷͲʹǤͶߗ (4.12)
The values of resistance, and inductive reactance can be placed directly into the power
triangle shown in Figure 4-5 as they are both related by the common factor of ‫ ܫ‬ଶ ; the
inductive reactance is of phase angle j. The current phase angle can be obtained by the
following equation:
ܺ௅ െ ܺ௖ ͷͲʹǤͶ െ Ͳ
߶ ൌ ିଵ ൬ ൰ ൌ ିଵ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͶͷǤͳ͵Ǐ (4.13)
ܴ ͷͲͲ
Therefore the power factor of this arrangement is calculated by:
ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ ൌ ȁሺͶͷǤͳ͵ሻȁ ൌ ͲǤ͹Ͳ͸ (4.14)
As was mentioned previously, power factor can be corrected passively by the addition of
reactance of the opposing magnitude [45]. In the circuit presented in Figure 4-7, this would
be a capacitor of capacitive reactance 502.4Ω. The required capacitance can be calculated
by the following equation:
ܺ஼ ൌ ܺ௅ ൌ ͷͲʹǤͶߗ (4.15)
ͳ ͳ
ൌ ߱‫ ֥ ܮ‬ ൌ ʹߨ݂‫ ܮ‬ൌ ͷͲʹǤͶ (4.16)
߱‫ܥ‬ ʹߨ݂‫ܥ‬
ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ
‫ ܥ‬ൌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͸Ǥ͵͵͵Ɋ‫ܨ‬ (4.17)
߱ܺ௅ ʹߨ݂ሺʹߨ݂‫ܮ‬ሻ ሺʹߨ݂ሻ ‫ͳ ܮ‬͸ͲͲͲߨ ଶ
ଶ
Therefore a capacitor of value 6.333μF placed in parallel with the inductor L will correct the
power factor passively. This addition to the circuit is shown in Figure 4-8:

Figure 4-8: Capacitively Corrected Inductive And Resistive AC Circuit
The inductive reactance presented by the inductor L remains 502.4Ω. The resistance
provided by the resistor R remains 500Ω, and the capacitive reactance provided by the
capacitor is described by:
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͷͲʹǤ͸ߗ (4.18)
ʹߨ݂‫ܥ‬ ʹߨ‫ݔ‬ͷͲ‫ݔ‬͸Ǥ͵͵͵‫଺ିͲͳݔ‬
Therefore the overall reactance X is described by:
ܱ‫ ܺ݁ܿ݊ܽݐܴ݈݈ܿܽ݁ܽݎ݁ݒ‬ൌ ݆ܺ௅ െ ݆ܺ௖ ൌ ͷͲʹǤͶ െ ͷͲʹǤ͸ ൌ െ݆ͲǤʹߗ (4.19)
The current phase angle can be solved by use of the power factor triangle resulting in a
current phase angle described by:
ܺ௅ െ ܺ௖ ͷͲʹǤͶ െ ͷͲʹǤ͸
߶ ൌ ିଵ ൬ ൰ ൌ ିଵ ൬ ൰ ൌ െͲǤͲʹ͵Ǐ (4.20)
ܴ ͷͲͲ
Therefore the power factor of the passively corrected circuit is:
ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ ൌ ȁሺെͲǤͲʹ͵ሻȁ ൌ ͲǤͻͻͻ (4.21)
Therefore the displacement power factor distortion of the inductive and resistive AC has
been passively corrected by the addition of an appropriately sized capacitor.

4.4.2 Correction of harmonically distorted current
The technique for correction of a harmonically distorted input current waveform in passive
power factor correction is the addition of passive components to create filters; these filters
are tuned to sink or prevent the propagation of harmonic currents [48].
This section will outline the case of a bridge rectifier connected to the mains supply, and
the various filter configurations that can be applied to correct harmonic currents. These
filters will be discussed based on their strengths and weaknesses.
Figure 4-9 illustrates a rectified mains supply powering a resistive load:
Figure 4-9: Bridge Rectified AC Supply With Smoothing Capacitor
The presence of the smoothing capacitor C1 in the bridge rectifier will cause a phase
difference between the voltage and current waveforms, but this behaviour will be ignored
for the purpose of illustrating harmonic correction; when a harmonic correction technique
also benefits the phase angle separation it will be noted. The harmonic filtering can be used
in conjunction with reactance balancing of the load to achieve minimal current phase angle
and maximum purity factor.
The capacitance of the smoothing capacitor C1 will have an effect on the amplitude of the
harmonic current drawn when the bridge rectifier diodes forwards conduct; the larger the
value of the capacitor the greater the amplitude of the harmonic current. Reduction in the
size of the capacitance will reduce the peak amplitude of the harmonic current, but
significantly increase voltage ripple which is undesirable.

The harmonic filter circuits which will be discussed are:
x AC Side Series Inductance

x Series Band-pass filtering
x Harmonic trap filtering
x Capacitor-fed rectifier
4.4.2.1 AC Side Series inductance

The AC side series inductance harmonic correction is shown in Figure 4-10:
Figure 4-10: AC Side Series Harmonic Distortion Filter
The presence of the inductor between the mains supply and the rectifier smooths the
current waveform and reduces the current phase angle created by the smoothing capacitor
C1. The design consideration for the inductor is such that the magnitude of the current
flowing is zero when the voltage waveform crosses the zero axis. The main points of
comparison for this harmonic correction technique can be summarised by:
x Low-cost and high reliability due to single component

x Moderate correction to the current phase angle
x Moderate correction to the harmonic currents

4.4.2.2 Series Band-pass filtering
The series band-stop filter is shown in Figure 4-11 and is present on the AC side of the
rectifier:
Figure 4-11: AC Side Series Band-Pass Harmonic Distortion Filter
The frequency response of the filter is described by the following equation:
ͳ
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ (4.22)
ʹߨξ‫ܥܮ‬
The band-pass filter consists of an Inductor L and a capacitor C2, and is tuned to allow the
line frequency to pass, and to attenuate frequencies either side of the line frequency; as
line frequencies are low this tends to result in large values for the band-pass components.
The band-pass harmonic filter effectively eliminates harmonic currents and provides good
current phase angle correction; this phase angle change can be further corrected by
reactance balancing of the load.
The main points of comparison for this technique can be summarised by:
x Moderate cost due to two high value components

x Good correction to the current phase angle
x Excellent correction of harmonic currents

4.4.2.3 Harmonic trap filtering
A modification to the series band-pass filter is the harmonic trap filter. This approach is
shown in Figure 4-12 and is present on the AC side of the rectifier:
Figure 4-12: AC Side Harmonic Distortion Trap Filtering
The difference between this filter and the series band-pass filter is the series LC network is
providing a very low impedance path around the bridge rectifier; this prevents the
harmonic current from flowing through the load. The resistor is present in each trap filter to
limit the peak value of the current flowing through the filter. The presence of this resistor
reduces the efficiency of this approach.
The frequency response equation of each harmonic trap filter is same as the series band-
pass. Each harmonic trap filter is tuned to a specific harmonic frequency, therefore this
approach is expensive due to the high component count.
The harmonic trap filter exhibits excellent harmonic current correction, and excellent
current phase angle balancing when tuned appropriately; the current phase angle can be
further corrected by reactance balancing of the load.
x Highest cost due to individual trap filters for each harmonic frequency
x Excellent correction of current phase angle
x Excellent correction of harmonic currents

4.4.2.4 Capacitor Fed Rectifier
The capacitor-fed rectifier is shown in Figure 4-13, and is present on the AC side of the
rectifier:
Figure 4-13: AC Side Capacitor-Fed Bridge Rectifier Harmonic Distortion Filter
The capacitor-fed rectifier is a very simple circuit which reduces harmonic current
amplitudes. The harmonics are still present as steps in the sinusoidal current waveform
when the rectifier switches.
The current phase angle correction of this technique is poor and will require reactance
balancing of the load. There is also a significant decrease in available voltage across the
load.
x Very low cost due to single component

x Poor correction of current phase angle
x Poor correction of harmonic currents
x Significant reduction in output voltage

4.4.3 Active Power Factor Correction
APFC is a complete electronic system that corrects both the current phase angle φ and the
harmonic distortions present in the current waveform by increasing ‫ܭ‬௣ .
This is usually achieved by the use of a DC-DC converter following the bridge rectifier, and
the switching of a reactive component into and out of the circuit. The reactive component
switched is generally inductive as capacitors exhibit ringing of the voltage waveform upon
switching; this requires the reactance of an inductive biased circuit to be passively
overbalanced to capacitive.
One of the key drawbacks to an active power factor correction approach is the generation
of high-frequency EMI; this requires passive filtering before the bridge rectifier.
Figure 4-14 shows illustrates the basic accepted topology of a power supply incorporating
active power factor correction:
Figure 4-14: Functional Diagram Power supply Including Active Power Factor Correction
The presence of the PFC stage reduces the harmonics present in the current waveform,
hence greatly improving the purity factor ‫ܭ‬௣ Ǥ The switching element employed is usually an
inductor, and this can be used to reduce the current phase angle φ if the circuit reactance
has been overbalanced to capacitive resulting in excellent power factor correction.
The drawback is that the PFC stage is complex and incorporates high frequency switching
which increases generation of EMI, as well as lowering overall efficiency due to increased
switching losses; this lowering of efficiency results in greater heat production and therefore
the PFC stage tends to consist of bulky components increasing the size, weight, and
lowering the reliability of the electronics.

The DC-DC converter stage can be implemented in three various base configurations, which
are as follows:
x Buck
x Boost
x Buck-Boost
4.4.3.1 Buck Converter

The buck converter, which is illustrated in Figure 4-15, is an implementation of the DC-DC
Converter stage in a typical APFC:
Figure 4-15: Active Power Factor Correction Buck DC-DC Converter
The buck converter has a step-down conversion, which allows an output voltage lower than
that of the input voltage. However, the converter can only operate when the line voltage
exceeds the output voltage; this behaviour results in discontinuous conduction of the
current within the inductor which results in higher EMI generation.
The step-down conversion of the buck converter is described by the equation:
ܸ௢௨௧ ൌ ‫ܸܦ‬௜௡ (4.23)
Where ܸ௢௨௧ is the output voltage, ܸ௜௡ is the input voltage, and ‫ ܦ‬is the duty cycle of the
transistor; this equation ignores the semi-conductor voltage drops.

4.4.3.2 Boost Converter
The boost converter, which is illustrated in Figure 4-16, is an implementation of the DC-DC
Converter stage in a typical active power factor correction circuit:
Figure 4-16: Active Power Factor Correction Boost DC-DC Converter
The boost converter has a step-up conversion relationship with the input voltage, and
therefore the output voltage always exceeds the line voltage; this results in continuous
current flow through the inductor as operation throughout the entire cycle of the line
voltage is possible which reduces EMI generation.
As the boost converter is of a step-up relationship with the input voltage, it is a typical
choice in electronics that must operate from a wide range of input voltages; typically
115Vrms or 230Vrms supplies.
The step-up conversion of the boost converter is described by the equation:
ܸ௜௡
ܸ௢௨௧ ൌ (4.24)
ͳെ‫ܦ‬
transistor; this equation ignores the semi-conductor voltage drops and assumes continuous
current flow in the inductor.

4.4.3.3 Buck-Boost Converter
The buck-boost converter, which is illustrated in Figure 4-17, is an implementation of the
DC-DC Converter stage in a typical APFC:
Figure 4-17: Active Power Factor Correction Buck-Boost DC-DC Converter
The buck-boost converter has both a step-up and step-down conversion relationship with
the line voltage; this allows an output voltage which is higher or lower than the input
voltage allowing greater freedom in design. This behaviour allows conversion throughout
the entire cycle of the line voltage.
The major drawback is that the output voltage is inverted with respect to the input voltage
which results in greater stress for the switching components, and the inductor current is
discontinuous which results in a greater generation of EMI. The buck-boost can be
implemented in a two-switch design which alleviates the stress of the inverted output
voltage, at the cost of increased conduction loss and component cost [49, 50].
The voltage conversion of the buck-boost converter is described by the equation:
‫ܦ‬
ܸ௢௨௧ ൌ ܸ (4.25)
ͳ െ ‫ ܦ‬௜௡
transistor; this equation ignores the semi-conductor voltage drops and assumes continuous
current flow in the inductor.

4.5 Electronic Power Converter
There are various methods for implementing the power electronics to switch the phases,
whether the phases are operated by independent or shared switching components
depends on the application the motor intends to be used as. Some of the topologies
introduced concentrate on lowering component count, while others allow the maximum
voltage rating of the motor to be closer to that of the switch component; this is particularly
useful at operating the motor to its maximum potential where the input voltage is limited
4.5.1 Split Rail Converter

The split rail converter, also known as a Split-DC Converter, is a high efficiency electronic
power converter topology for an SRM. This efficiency is achieved through the storage of
electrical energy from the DC Bus into capacitors, and free-wheeling the current when the
phases are de-energising into these capacitors for energy recovery; the drawback of this
approach is that the DC Bus voltage is effectively halved.
The split rail converter also boasts a lower component count than competing topologies;
this is due to only one switch per phase and therefore one free-wheeling diode.
The basic schematic for a split rail converter is shown in Figure 4-18:
Figure 4-18: Split Rail Converter Schematic

This converter operates in two modes, phase excitation, and phase discharging.
To excite a given phase, the respective switch is closed to allow conduction of current
through the winding; closing switch S1 results in a current flow through phase winding P1
and closing switch S2 results in a current flow through phase winding P2. When the current
flowing through a given winding exceeds the maximum permissible current, the converter
will operate in phase discharging mode
In phase discharging mode, the respective switch for the active phase winding is opened,
causing the corresponding free-wheeling diode to conduct and freewheel the current
through the capacitor for energy recovery. Opening switch S1 will cause diode D1 to free-
wheel, while opening switch S2 will cause diode D2 to free-wheel. The winding has
approximately half the DC bus voltage applied across it in reverse polarity, resulting in a
rapid decay of the current, thereby increasing the chopping frequency over competing
topologies.
The typical voltage and current waveforms of a split rail converter are shown in Figure 4-19:
Figure 4-19: Split Rail Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
This converter is capable of chopping to control the average current flowing; this chopping
is achieved by phase excitation followed by partial phase discharging. The switching of the
operation mode from phase excitation to phase discharging is determined when the
current exceeds the maximum reference, or decays beneath the minimum reference. The
single switch and free-wheeling diode per phase arrangement of this converter topology
limit the control of current decay to bi-polar switching therefore current decay is rapid. The
phases are not required to be operated in mutual exclusivity.

4.5.2 Miller converter (N+1 topology)
The Miller converter is also known as the N+1 topology converter as the number of switch
elements is always one greater than the number of phases.
The advantage of this topology is the reduction in the number of switching elements, and
providing the full DC bus voltage across the phase windings; resulting in a high inverter
power rating to drive power rating ratio.
The main drawback of this converter is lack of flexible phase current control. This stems
from the presence of a common mode switch; this limits the commutation period and
prevents two phases from being excited simultaneously. This lack of allowable overlap
results in higher torque ripple.
The basic schematic for a miller converter is shown in Figure 4-20:
Figure 4-20: Miller Converter Schematic
The Miller converter operates in three distinct modes, phase excitation, current chopping,
and phase discharging.
In phase excitation, the common mode S4 will conduct in pair with another phase winding
switch. To excite phase A, switch S4 and switch S1 will be closed and the current flowing
through the phase winding P1 will begin to increase; the current supplied from the source is
equal to the current drawn by the motor winding.

Chopping occurs when the phase current surpasses the maximum reference and the
common mode switch S4 will be opened, this will result in common mode diode D4
conducting. This results in a zero-volt-loop and the currently will decay slowly.
When the current beneath the reference, common mode switch S4 will conduct and the
phase winding will have the full DC bus voltage applied across it and the current will begin
to increase.
This converter operates between phase excitation and chopping modes while the rotor is
moving towards the stator pole. Before the rotor reaches the stator pole, the converter will
operate in phase discharging mode.
Phase discharging results in both the common mode switch S4 and all phase switches being
open circuit. Continuing the example of phase A results in conduction of both diode D1 and
the common mode diode D4 as the phase winding current decays and recharges the DC
bus.
The typical voltage and current waveforms of a miller converter are shown in Figure 4-21:
Figure 4-21: Miller Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms

4.5.3 Resistor-dump Converter
The resistor dump converter is a low cost topology. This is due to the presence of a single
switching component per phase without the need for a common mode switch; this further
reduces component count over the Miller converter presented in 4.5.2.
The drawback is the presence of a resistive dump component. This results in low efficiency
as the energy that is removed from the phase during discharging is lost as heat.
The schematic of a resistor-dump converter in shown in Figure 4-22:
Figure 4-22: Resistor-dump Converter Schematic
The resistor-dump converter has two modes of operation, phase excitation and phase
discharging.
The phases are excited by closing the respective switch to cause a current flow through the
winding. For example, phase P1 will be excited by closing switch S1; this results in the DC
supply voltage being applied across the phase winding P1. The current supplied by the DC
bus is not always equal to that of the phase winding as this converter topology allows
simultaneous excitation of phase windings.
Phase discharging occurs when the winding current increases to the maximum reference.
Switch S1 is opened and diode D1 will conduct as the inductor voltage rises. The capacitor

voltage will exceed the DC supply voltage due to conduction of diode D1. The path for the
current to decay is through the dump resistor R. Therefore the differential voltage applied
to the phase winding P1 is negative.
The result is the decay of phase current P1 and the associated energy dissipated bled by the
resistor R. The presence of the capacitor C is to snub the turn-off overvoltage condition that
presents during switching; this reduces energy switching losses and extends the life of the
switching components.
The typical voltage and current waveforms of a resistor-dump converter are shown in
Figure 4-23:
Figure 4-23: Resistor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
This converter is capable of chopping to control the average current; this chopping is
achieved by phase excitation followed by partial phase discharging. The switching of the
operation mode from excitation to discharging is determined when the current exceeds the
maximum reference, or decays beneath the minimum reference. The single switch and
free-wheeling diode per phase arrangement of this converter topology limit the control of
current decay to bi-polar switching; therefore current decay is rapid.

4.5.4 Capacitor-dump converter
Figure 4-24 illustrates the schematic of a capacitor-dump converter; it operates on a similar
principle as the resistor-dump converter. However, as the dump component is reactive, the
energy in phase discharging is conserved. Therefore, this converter has greater efficiency
than the resistor-dump converter.
Figure 4-24: Capacitor-dump Converter Schematic
This topology is also a single switch per phase which reduces cost by reduction in
component count.
The capacitor present across the DC bus reduces voltage ripple in the supply and this
presents itself in reduced torque ripple.
This topology allows more precise control of the phase current increase and decay curves
by providing the ability to negatively bias the phase windings. However, this converter is
not capable of freewheeling. Therefore, the energy stored into the capacitor must be
discharged appropriately. This converter is inflexible due to the presence of the common
switch and is only capable of operating in motoring mode.

The capacitor-dump converter is capable of operating in seven different modes, although
only four modes are generally used. These are phase excitation, current chopping, capacitor
voltage regulation, current dumping.
In phase excitation mode, switch S1 will be closed and current will increase through the
phase winding. When the phase current reaches the maximum reference switch S1 will be
opened and diode D1 is forced to conduct; this operation mode is current chopping.
In current chopping mode the voltage applied across the winding is –Vs, phase current
decreases until minimum reference is reached at which point switch S1 will be closed and
the converter will operate in phase excitation mode.
The typical voltage and resulting current waveforms of a capacitor-dump converter are
Figure 4-25: Capacitor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
During capacitor voltage regulation mode, switch S4 is closed, and none of the phase
diodes are conducting. The inductor L, diode D4, and switch S4 create a DC-DC step-down
converter and this reduces the voltage of capacitor C. There is a similar mode of operation
in which the phase diodes are also conducting; this mode is more complex and is not
usually implemented as it provides no beneficial behaviour.

4.5.5 Freewheeling Capacitor-dump converter
Figure 4-26 illustrates the schematic of a free-wheeling capacitor-dump converter; this
converter topology offers the benefits of the capacitor-dump converter. It offers strong
advantages over the traditional capacitor-dump converter, primarily the ability to free-
wheel current and utilise a uni-polar switching scheme.
Figure 4-26: Freewheeling capacitor-dump Converter Schematic
The converter operates in five modes, phase excitation, capacitor charging, current
chopping, phase-discharging, and capacitor discharging. In practice, only three of these are
utilised.
In phase excitation, switch S1 is closed and current flow increases through the phase
winding P1. When this current reaches the maximum reference switch S1 is opened, diode
D1 will conduct, and switch S4 is closed providing a zero-volt loop across the phase winding
to slowly decay the current, this is the current chopping mode of this converter.
In phase discharging mode, switch S1 is opened while switch S4 remains closed, this
provides –Vs across the phase winding decreasing the current rapidly.
The typical voltage and current waveforms of a freewheeling capacitor-dump converter are

Figure 4-27: Freewheeling Capacitor-dump Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
In capacitor charging mode, Switch S4 is opened while none of the phase diodes are
conducting, this results in the capacitor C charging up to the DC bus voltage. When the
capacitor voltage exceeds the DC bus voltage from current dumping of the phases, Switch
S4 can be closed to reduce the capacitor voltage.
This converter is also a single switch per phase converter and therefore offers reduced
component count, and reduced complexity when compared with the capacitive-dump
converter.
4.5.6 Asymmetric half-bridge converter

The asymmetric half-bridge converter is a commonly implemented as the electronic
converter in an SRM. The reasons for this is converter offers very flexible control as the
phases are switched independently, and the presence of two switches per phase allows the
choice of uni-polar or bi-polar switching; this control flexibility comes at the cost of
increased component count.
This is a high efficiency converter as it recharges the DC supply when current chopping and
discharging the phase winding. This converter topology allows the motor to run extremely
close to the rail voltages.
The basic schematic diagram for an asymmetric half-bridge converter is shown in Figure
4-28:

Figure 4-28: Asymmetric Half Bridge Converter
This converter operates in three modes, phase excitation, current chopping, and phase
discharging.
In phase excitation, both the top and bottom switches, S1 and S2 respectively, of the
converter bridge will conduct allowing a current to flow in the motor winding P1. As the
current in the motor winding crosses the maximum reference, switch S1 will stop
conducting and the converter will operate in current chopping mode.
In current chopping mode, switch S2 continues to conduct, while switch S1 is open circuit.
Therefore the energy stored in the phase winding will create a freewheeling current flow
through switch S2 and Diode D2. This provides a zero-volt-loop which allows the current in
the winding to decay slowly to the minimum reference; this switching schema is known as
bi-polar switching and is effective at reducing the chopping frequency.
When the phase is to be completely discharged, both switches will not conduct and the
winding will rapidly discharge into the DC supply through the freewheeling diodes; this is
achieved by reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to the winding.
Switch S2 is commonly named the commutation transistor, as it tends to be switched on at

the beginning, and off at the end, of the positive torque generation region; thereby
controlling commutation time of the winding. The associated free-wheeling diodes are
named by the same nomenclature.

Switch S1 is commonly named the chopping transistor, as it tends to be switched on and off
continuously through the commutation period, determined by switch S2, to control the
current flowing in the winding. the associated free-wheeling diode is named by the same
nomenclature.
The typical voltage and resulting current waveforms of an asymmetric half-bridge converter
are shown in Figure 4-29:
Figure 4-29: Asymmetric Half Bridge Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
4.5.7 Shared Switch Converter

A shared switch asymmetric half-bridge converter reduces the component cost of the
asymmetric half-bridge converter but with an impediment to current control flexibility as
the phases are not mutually exclusive. The shared switch must be rated to at least twice the
peak winding current flow.
The schematic for a shared switch asymmetric half-bridge converter is shown in Figure
4-30:

Figure 4-30: Shared Switch Converter
This converter operates in three different modes, phase excitation, current chopping, and
phase discharging.
In phase excitation, the common switch S2 and switch S1 are closed, and the current
through phase winding increases. When this current reaches the maximum reference
switch S1 will open and a zero-volt-loop will be created through diode D3, the converter is
now operating in current chopping mode.
In current chopping mode, the common switch remains closed as phase winding P2 is still in
phase excitation mode, and this creates a slower current decay rate reducing chopping
frequency. The phase current will decrease slowly until it reaches the minimum reference
at which point switch S1 will close and phase current will increase as the converter is now
operating in phase excitation mode.
In phase discharging mode, both common switch S2 and switch S1 will open, this results in
both diodes D3 and D1 conducting and applying –Vs across the phase winding; this rapidly
decays the current until it reaches zero.
The typical voltage and resulting current waveforms of a shared switch asymmetric half-
bridge converter are shown in Figure 4-31:

Figure 4-31: Shared Switch Converter Voltage And Current Waveforms
4.6 Summary
This chapter investigates a detailed field in SRMs, the power supply and electronic
converter. These are both extremely important topics as they are crucial components in
achieving the best performance and efficiency from an SRM.
Power factor, and power factor correction, are both covered in depth in this chapter as
these topics largely impact the efficiency of the power supply. Power factor is a significant
design consideration for the electronic drive of an SRM.
Electronic power converters are also covered in depth, as they are not only critical to the
efficiency of the machine; they also provide the ability to control it appropriately.
The information contained within this chapter is critical to understanding the specific
implementation of the power electronics present in the commercial system which is
presented in Chapter 6, DVR SRM Implementation.

Chapter 5
Control Methodology and Algorithms
“The cybernetic exchange between man, computer and
algorithm is like a game of musical chairs: The frantic
search for balance always leaves one of the three
standing ill at ease”
- Alan J. Perlis
This chapter covers the various aspects of providing appropriate control to an SRM. It
covers the basic approach to control, and the various modes that the motor operates
within, namely low and high speed motoring. The information in this chapter relates to
information in earlier chapters which brings rise to the mentioned control methodologies
presented. There is a brief mention of a control methodology which is currently being
actively researched, known as sensor-less control.
75 | P a g e C h a p t e r 5 |Control Methodology and Algorithms

5.1 Control Algorithm Overview
The choices for control algorithms are limited for an SRM; although use of the correct
algorithm at the correct point in the torque-speed relationship is of critical importance [7,
9]. There are various factors to be considered when choosing the control algorithm, these
are:
x Rotational Speed
x Impact on motor performance
x Efficient use of energy
x Reduction in generation of acoustic noise
x Prevention of negative torque generation
x Greater machine uptime
The maximum instantaneous torque produced is proportional to the peak current flowing
in the winding, while the rotational speed of the motor is dependent upon the ability for
the average torque to accelerate the load and the frequency at which the phases are
excited. It should be noted that the frequency that the phases are switched at is not a
causative relationship with rotational speed, but rather the phases must have increased
switching frequency with increased rotational speed to prevent negative torque
generation; therefore rotational speed has the causative relationship with the frequency.
As current tends to be constrained at higher rotational speeds due to the growing back-
EMF, the control algorithm needs to be adaptive if it is to correctly control torque and
speed.
As mentioned earlier it is important to choose the appropriate control algorithm based

upon the position in the torque-speed relationship. This is because at rotational speeds
beneath the base speed, ωb, the peak current must be constrained by the control algorithm
to prevent damage to the motor windings; this control method is known as chopping
control.
Rotational speeds above the base speed result in natural current constraint and therefore
peak current control is not a requirement of the control circuit at such speeds. This
behaviour results in a singular rise and fall in the current in the winding, therefore this
control methodology is known as singular pulse control.
C h a p t e r 5 |Control Methodology and Algorithms 76 | P a g e

The control algorithms can be separated into two distinct categories, average torque
control, and instantaneous torque control [7]; there are various categories of control within
these two major groupings generally dependent on the rotational speed of the motor.
Instantaneous torque control is an advanced control theory topic and is outside the
intended scope of this thesis and is therefore not discussed. Information regarding
instantaneous torque control can be found in [7, 51-53]
These modes are known as low speed operation and high speed operation, depending if the
rotational speed of the motor is beneath or above the base speed; this assumes the full
torque of the motor is required. It is still possible to implement current chopping above the
base speed if the full torque is not required.
5.2 Average Torque Control
Due to the SRM’s discontinuous nature of operation, electromagnetic torque is developed

in impulses; these impulses are the result of current flowing in the phase windings. Average
torque is defined to be the average of the torque developed over one complete stroke. The
number of strokes ܵ, and corresponding stroke angle ߝ, in an SRM are defined to by:
ܵ ൌ ݉ܰ௥ (5.1)
ʹߨ ʹߨ
ߝൌ ൈ ͵͸Ͳͼ ൌ ൈ ͵͸Ͳͼ (5.2)
ܵ ݉ܰ௥
Where ݉ is the number of phases, and ܰ௥ is the number of salient rotor poles.
The function of the control algorithm is to synchronise the phase currents with rotor
position in order to achieve the desired operational behaviour of the motor; be it constant
torque, constant speed, shaft position, or a combination. The commonly accepted control
diagram an SRM is shown in Figure 5-1:

Figure 5-1: General Control diagram For An SRM
This control diagram is similar to that of other electric machines. With the exception that
the torque control aspect is very specific to the SRM; this is due to the discontinuous nature
of torque generation. Therefore, the required torque signal must be interpreted into
individual current reference signals for each individual phase [28]. It is apparent that the
torque control is open loop due to the lack of a torque sensor, therefore the torque control
algorithm must utilise a motor model in order to achieve smooth torque generation; this
differs from competing electric machine technologies which can be characterised by a
simple torque-ampere ratio. The need for motor specific modelling within the torque
control algorithm results in the requirement of designing, optimising and packaging the
motor and controller together [7]; this prevents the development of a universal electronic
drive for an SRM.
The torque control algorithm is required to be rotational speed dependent as rising shaft
speed increases the back-EMF generation; this back-emf will rise until there is insufficient
phase voltage to sufficiently regulate the current. Therefore, the techniques for average
torque control can be categorised into either low-speed operation or high-speed operation,
and are discussed in the following sections:
5.3 Low-speed motoring
Low speed operation refers to all operating speeds beneath the base speed ωb; this is
because at low speeds the peak current must be constrained by the controller, which in
turn controls the torque output of the motor [7, 11]. This requirement arises due to the fact
that the back-EMF ݁ is insignificant when compared to the DC bus voltage.

There are four options for controlling average torque output during low-speed operation,
these are: current hysteresis, current hysteresis delta modulation, voltage pulse width
modulation, and singular pulse control [7, 54].
Voltage pulse width modulation is characterised by the use of a fixed chopping frequency
and varying the duty cycle to control the average current. Current hysteresis establishes
minimum and maximum references that the current is constrained within, this results in a
variable chopping frequency. Singular pulse control operates on the principle of varying the
firing angle, and the dwell angle.
It most common to implement current chopping techniques at low rotational speeds as

they offer the greatest flexibility. The firing angle, dwell angle, average current, and current
decay rate can be controlled by appropriate switching of the electronic converter. The
current decay rate can be controlled by the voltage applied across the windings, which is
+VS, 0, and –VS if the voltage drops of the transistors are ignored; 0V only applies to
converters which are capable of uni-polar switching.
The simplest approach to average torque control in low-speed motoring is to ensure

constant current supply throughout the positive torque generation region. The controller
attempts to reach achieve this by varying the dwell angle, the allowable current hysteresis
in variable frequency chopping, the duty cycle of the pulse in fixed frequency chopping, or a
combination of these techniques.
These techniques are designed to limit the peak current and achieve an average current
over the longest possible timeframe. If the motor speed is currently below the target speed
the controller will allow the generation of excess torque, this leads to rotational
acceleration of the motor. If the motor speed is above the target speed, the controller will
only allow the generation of a small torque to cause the motor to slow in a controlled
fashion.
The various low-speed operation techniques are discussed in the following sections:

5.3.1 Current Hysteresis Control
Current hysteresis control, more commonly known as bang-bang control, variable chopping
or the current control method, operates on the principle of a maximum and minimum
permissible current, flowing through a given winding.
This is achieved by the creation of a hysteresis zone, in which current is allowed to flow
through the winding until the magnitude has exceeded the upper limit, at which point no
further increase in current is permitted and the current is forced to decay. The decay rate
of the current is dependent upon the electronic converter topology used, and if bi-polar,
hard chopping, or uni-polar, soft chopping, switching is utilised. The current will then decay
to the minimum permissible magnitude at which point, the maximum permissible current is
allowed to flow again resulting in current rise in the windings.
If the switching scheme is bi-polar, then both switches will be turned off during chopping,
resulting in both freewheeling diodes conducting. The current flow through the winding will
continue in the same direction. However, the polarity of the voltage being applied across
the winding will be reversed to allow forward biasing of the freewheeling diodes. This will
result in rapid decay of the current flowing through the winding; this switching scheme
tends to result in higher current ripple and higher switching frequencies.
The alternative switching method is uni-polar, in this method only one of the switches is
turned off during chopping. This causes one of the freewheeling diodes to conduct,
resulting in a zero volt loop with the phase winding and a slower current decay. This
switching scheme tends to offer reduced switching frequency, and a reduction in power
factor distortion.
When the motor has rotated to the end of the dwell angle period, both switches are turned
off regardless of switching scheme. This allows the current to decay very quickly. This rapid
decay allows a larger dwell angle and therefore a longer period of torque generation. This is
because the current rapidly approaches zero magnitude before negative torque generation
would occur.

The control diagram of current hysteresis control algorithm is shown in Figure 5-2:
Figure 5-2: Control diagram For A Current Hysteresis Controller
This current control behaviour is only allowed to occur during the phase excitation period,
known as the dwell angle. The current must be of a zero magnitude before the rotor pole
aligns with the stator pole or negative torque generation will occur.
This approach controls peak torque production and thereby average torque production and
is useful at providing constant rotational speed by adjusting the current hysteresis with
rotational speed and phase current feedback.
Ignoring the set target speed for the controller to achieve, the controller must first ensure
that the preset current has been achieved before the decision to increase or decrease the
reference current can be made; the current error is directly used to control the state of the
transistors. Therefore, as the current error increases so does the switching frequency. This
discontinuous behaviour presents both a non-static reactive load and non-linear load to the
power supply which increases the difficulty of maintaining a high power factor and filtering
of electromagnetic noise.
It is standard practice to fix the dwell angle to a static setting; this helps to minimise torque
ripple by increasing the commutation angle. This allows a lower peak current to obtain the
average torque desired as the torque is applied for a longer period of the stroke angle. The
dwell angle is normally set as to provide significant overlapping of the excited phases, yet
prevent negative torque generation.

5.3.2 Current Hysteresis Control – Delta Modulation
A variant upon the current hysteresis controller is the delta modulation controller. The
main difference is that the current waveform is sampled at a fixed frequency rather than
continuously polled; this does not result in a fixed switching frequency, but the switching
frequency cannot exceed the sampling frequency.
If the phase current has exceeded the maximum reference current then the controller
establishes either a zero volt loop, or reverses the polarity of the DC bus voltage; this
decision is dependent upon the magnitude of the current overshoot.
If the phase current has decayed beneath the minimum reference current, then the
controller re-establishes the DC bus voltage across the winding to increase the phase
current.
This converter shares the same control diagram as the current hysteresis control
methodology as the sampling rate of the phase current is internal to the PWM converter.
The main advantage to this controller is that it places an effective hard upper limit on the
switching frequency; this simplifies filtering of electromagnetic noise. It also simplifies
programming of the control algorithm, as the current control becomes a timed event;
bringing this controller topology closer to a PWM technique.
5.3.3 Voltage Pulse Width Modulation Control

It is apparent that the disadvantage of the current hysteresis control method is the variable
switching frequency. The alternative is to use a fixed switching frequency; thereby
simplifying the problems associated with solving distorted power factor and the increased
variable reactance present with a variable switching frequency.
Voltage pulse width modulation control is categorised by varying the duty cycle of either
one, known as uni-polar, or both, known as bi-polar, of the transistors present in the phase-
leg of an electronic converter at a fixed frequency; this prevents the ability of instantaneous
torque control. Peak current is constrained by switching off one, or both, of the transistors
to cause current to free-wheel and decay.
While operating in uni-polar mode, the commutation transistor in the phase-leg will
determine the firing angle, and remain on throughout the entire dwell angle. When the

chopping transistor is switched on the full DC bus voltage is applied across the phase
winding and the current begins to increase. When the chopping transistor is switched off
the current will free-wheel through a zero volt loop and decay slowly. When both chopping
and commutation transistors are switched off the DC bus voltage is applied in reverse
polarity across the phase winding and this results in rapid current decay.
In bi-polar mode, the commutation and chopping transistor are switched simultaneously
resulting in inability to provide a zero volt loop across the phase winding during current
chopping; this results in greater fluctuation in the current waveform, or the use of a higher
switching frequency.
The control diagram of a voltage pulse width modulation controller is shown in Figure 5-3:
Figure 5-3: Control Diagram For A Voltage PWM Controller
It is standard practice to fix the dwell angle to a static setting while operating in chopping
mode; this helps to minimise torque ripple. This is achieved by allowing a long conduction
time but a low peak current to provide torque of a smaller magnitude but for a longer time.
The dwell angle is normally set up to provide significant overlapping of the excited phases,
yet prevent negative torque generation.
A higher duty cycle allows the current more time to increase, and less time to decay, while
the opposite is true for a lower duty cycle. Therefore average current can be stabilised by
varying the duty cycle over the dwell angle to result in an identical rise in and fall in current.
An over-current reference level is setup so that the controller can protect the windings.
There is no need for individual phase current sensors because the peak current flowing in
the windings will not occur during phase overlap; therefore only the DC bus current needs
to be monitored.

5.3.4 Singular Pulse Control
As a rule varying the dwell angle as the only variable to control low-speed operation is
generally not advised as this is very difficult to obtain stable torque production [7]. If the
dwell angle is varied appropriately in combination with the current control methods then
safer operation and greater flexibility in controlling the SRM can be achieved. This control
approach generally exhibits poor system control and excessive torque ripple in low-speed
operation. This control methodology is explained in depth in 5.4, High-speed motoring
section of this thesis
5.4 High – speed motoring
High speed operation refers to all operating speeds above the base speed ωb. Therefore the
motor is operating in either constant power or natural mode. In both of these modes the
back-EMF ݁ results in natural current constraint due to reduction of the available DC bus
voltage. Due to this behaviour and ever reducing commutation time, hysteresis control
methods for regulation of the current is difficult. Therefore, they are not viable control
methodologies for regulation of torque generaton at high speeds.
The only effective control methodology available for use in high speed operation, and ultra-
high speed operaton, is singular pulse control. The control diagram of a singular pulse
controller is shown in Figure 5-4:
Figure 5-4: Control Diagram For A Singular Pulse Controller
This control methodology operates by adjusting the switch on and switch off angles for a
given phase. This provides the ability to advance and retard the firing angle as well as dwell

angle. Adjustment of the firing angle can control the rate at which the current rises by
shifting the switch on position in the inductance ramp.
The switch off angle determines the total dwell angle, which is adjusted such that the peak
current can never exceed the maximum limit. This behaviour can cause large but
discontinous torque production. This is because truncation of the dwell angle prevents
overlapping of the phase torques creating periods of zero positive torque generation. This
discontinous production of positive torque results in excessive torque ripple.
If the motor is required to accelerate, the firing angle is normally advanced to result in
longer and earlier torque generaton, thereby increasing average torque. If the motor is
required to decelerate the firing angle is delayed to reduce the commutation period and
therefore decrease average torque.
The current is constrained by the back-EMF and is not required to be controlled, hence the
terminology of singular pulse control. Unlike the current control methodologies the
controller does not attempt to stabilise any current flow or system variable until a decision
can be made to increase or decrease reference values.
The rotational speed error is used to directly alter the firing and dwell angles. The turn-off
angle is usually only advanced as a function of increasing rotational speed to prevent
negative torque generation.
5.5 Sensor-less Control
Sensor-less operation refers to the elimination of the rotor position sensors, and is a
misnomer because it implies that the motor is controlled sensors; this is not true, sensor-
less control has a greater reliance upon accurate current sensing. Sensor-less control does
not currently offer the same level of performance as position sensed controllers, and
therefore the traditional control topologies remain popular [7].
Sensor-less control is not directly related to the work of this thesis, therefore the discussion
will provide a broad overview of the fundamentals and techniques.
The main motivations for sensor-less control are:

1. Cost reduction: Eliminating the rotor position sensors reduces the number of
components in the electronic drive; this results in a significant cost saving.
2. Reliability: The position sensors are usually optical or magnetic, and are a common
point of failure; current sensors are considered to be more robust. This increase in
reliablity ensures greater machine uptime.
3. Simplification: The rotor position sensors require additional mechanical components
and space in the motor cavity. Care must be taken when assembling or maintaining the
motor not to damage the sensors.
The basis of many sensor-less operation techniques is the accurate estimation of the rotor
position from the phase current and voltage waveforms, either energised or non-energised.
The accurate measurement of these variables facilitates the calculation of the flux-linkage
and inductance; both of these magnetic properties are related to the alignment angle of
the rotor. The relationship of flux-linkage to current and rotor position in shown in Figure
2-9 on page 17.
This illustrates the non-linearity in the relationship between flux-linkage, current and the
alignment angle; however the alignment angle is clearly defined. It can been seen that
magnetic saturation limits rotor position fidelity at higher current flows.
݀߰ ݀݅ ݀‫ܮ‬
ܸ ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ൌ ܴ݅ ൅ ‫ ܮ‬൅ ߱௠ ݅ (5.3)
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬ ݀ߠ
The sensor-less control techniques can be represented in three categories based upon the
fundamental idea of rotor position detection. These categories are:
x Stability Torque Control

x Energised Phase
x Non-Energised Phase
Stability torque control is an open loop control methodology; it does not provide a direct
indication of rotor position. Examples of techniques that fall into this category are dwell
angle compensation, and commutation angle compensation.
The energised phase methodologies rely on measurement of electrical properties, voltage

and current, of an energised phase to indirectly assess rotor position; this allows the

calculation of magnetic properties, flux-linkage and inductance, which are functions of rotor
position. An example of this approach is described in [55], and [56].
An early publication regarding indirect detection of rotor position was [57]. An interesting
approach which utilises irregularity in the rotor and stator pole constructions for detection
of the rotor position received a US Patent, 6150778, on the 21st of November 2000.
Non-energised methodolies rely on measurent of inductance ,for a given rotor angle, in an

non-excited phase; this is usually achieved by the injection of a low magnitude chopping
current. This approach effectively reduces the effect of back-EMF or irregular torque
generation, and eliminates the issues associated with saturation. An example of this
technique is shown in [58].
5.6 Summary
This chapter summarises the major challenges and categories present in controlling SRMs.
The control methodologies presented are for average torque control and cover both low
and high speed operation. Instantaneous torque control is mentioned, but due to the
complexity of this topic being outside the scope of this thesis it is not discussed.
The methodologies discussed are voltage pulse width modulation, current hysteresis,
currrent hysteresis delta modulation, and singular pulse control for high speed operation;
sensor-less control is investigated and discussed.
This information provided in this chapter is important to understanding the control

algorithm utilised wihtin the Teknatool DVR electronic drive which is presented in Chapter
6, DVR SRM Implementation of this thesis.

Chapter 6
DVR SRM Implementation
“Knowledge is a process of piling up facts; wisdom lies
in their simplification”
- Martin H. Fischer
This chapter discusses the SRM topologies implemented with the Teknatool DVR motor.
Specifically, the construction of the motor including phase and pole configuration, the
requirements and technical aspects of the power supply, the topology of the electronic
converter circuit utilised and how control of the machine is achieved. The information
presented here will be related to the information presented in the literature in Chapters 2
through 5, and provide some technical insight into the real world implementation of such a
machine.
89 | P a g e C h a p t e r 6 |DVR SRM Implementation

6.1 Motor Construction
The SRM utilised in the Teknatool DVR products follows conventional construction
methodology as presented in Chapter 2. The stator is encased in the cast metal body of the
lathe, preventing the propagation of electromagnetic interference while providing
sufficient heat-sinking for dissipation of heat as a result of power losses within the stator.
The stator contains twelve salient poles arranged into three phases.
The rotor is also of conventional construction, being produced of thin iron laminates
arranged around a motor shaft. The rotor is supported on the motor shaft by a key-way;
this prevents the rotor slipping against the shaft when producing torque. The motor shaft is
suspended within the cast casing of the lathe body by two bearings, one at each end of the
shaft. The rotor contains eight salient poles.
The pole and phase configuration of this motor is a three-phase 12/8; this configuration
satisfies the ideal rotor and pole ratio for ease of starting and minimisation of torque ripple.
The maximum angle of misalignment to a specific phase is 22.5 degrees. However, the
angle between maximum misalignments of sequential phases is 15 degrees resulting in
significant phase overlap. The inductance profile of this motor construction is shown in
Figure 6-1:
Phase A Phase B Phase C

425
375
325
Inductance (mH)
275
225
175
125
75
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Rotor Angle (Degrees)
Figure 6-1: Teknatool DVR SRM Inductance Profile
C h a p t e r 6 |DVR SRM Implementation 90 | P a g e

The higher number of windings per phase minimise torque ripple at the expense of higher
switching frequency, thereby increased losses and distorted power factor, and a lower
maximum rotational speed due to increased reactance with the motor windings; however
high rotational speed is not a usual requirement of woodworking lathe motors whereas
minimisation of torque ripple is critical.
The motor has been constructed to the meet the following criteria:
x Minimisation of torque ripple due to significant phase overlap

x Sufficient commutation period due to significant misalignment angle
x Ability to produce rotation in both directions
x Ability to begin rotation from any rest angle
x Machine reliability due to high number of phases
x High peak torque across wide rotational speed range
x Ability to rotate at speeds up to 5500rpm
The achievement of these criteria by the SRM makes this motor construction a suitable
choice for use as a woodworking lathe motor. The full motor dimensions can be found in
Appendix B.1, Motor Dimensions, on page 198.
6.2 Phase Characteristics
Measurement of the flux-linkage and inductance characteristics of the motor can be

achieved by measurement of the current profile at differing rotor angles [59-61]. Accurate
measurement of the phase characteristics is crucial to developing a precise motor model.
The flux-linkage can be calculated by the following equation:
߰ ൌ නሺ‫ ݒ‬െ ܴ݅ሻǤ ݀‫ݐ‬ (6.1)
Where ‫ݒ‬is the applied voltage, ݅is the current and ܴis the DC resistance of the winding.
The measured winding DC resistances are 9.85Ω for Phase A, 9.96Ω for Phase B, and 10.13Ω
for Phase C; an imbalance of 2.84% of the smallest phase impedance. This is not a large
imbalance but it is significant.

A circuit was designed and built to allow measurement of the phase characteristics; this
experimental setup is shown in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2: DVR Phase Characteristics Measurement Circuit
The voltage of 72V was chosen as to allow saturation of the windings due to high DC
resistance. The circuit operates by biasing the IGBT for a sufficient time period as to allow
the current to rise to saturation without damaging the windings. The diode is present to
free-wheel the energy stored in the winding when the IGBT stops conducting. The rotor was
locked to a range of angles and the voltage and current waveforms were captured. The flux-
linkage was calculated and has been tabulated and is shown in Appendix B on page 199.
The flux-linkage characteristics shown in Figure 6-3: DVR Phase Flux-Linkage Characteristics
1.60
1.40 1
1.20 2.5
Flux Linkage (VS)
5.5
1.00
7
0.80 7.5
0.60 12
15
0.40 19.5
0.20
0.00
0.48 1.04 1.52 2 2.48 3.04 3.52 4 4.48 5.04 5.52
Current (Amps)
Figure 6-3: DVR Phase Flux-Linkage Characteristics

The flux-linkage can be seen to be approximately linear at lower current, however as
current increases the flux-linkage begins to saturate; this is especially true as the rotor
approaches alignment. The general shape of the flux-linkage graph agrees with the
idealised plot shown in Chapter 2, Operating Principles.
The inductance profile is related to the flux-linkage by equation 2.4 in Chapter 2, Operating
Principles.
Utilising this relationship the inductance profile was calculated and is tabulated in Appendix
B on page 199. The graph of the inductance profile is shown in Figure 6-4:
0.80
0.48A
0.70
1.04A
0.60 1.52A
2.00A
Inductance (H)
0.50
2.48A
0.40 3.04A
3.52A
0.30
4.00A
0.20 4.48A
5.04A
0.10
5.52A
0.00
1 2.5 3.5 7.5 15 19.5
Rotor Angle (Degrees)
Figure 6-4: DVR Phase Inductance Characteristics
The inductance profile also begins to saturate at the same rotor angle and current
combinations as the flux-linkage, which is an expected behaviour. The inductance profile
shown agrees with the idealised plot in shown in Chapter 2, Operating Principles, on page
15.

6.3 Power Supply
The Teknatool DVR power supply is required to operate the motor from both 115V and
230V RMS alternating current supplies; this allows a single electronic drive design for all
countries the product will be sold in.
The power supply forms a crucial component in the system as the SRM is unable to be line
driven, therefore efficient operation is desirable. As mentioned in Chapter 4, the electronic
converter is separated from the power supply due to its critical importance.
The power supply incorporated by the DVR involves active power factor correction due to
the non-linear variable reactive load presented to the input supply; the topology used is
boost conversion (Refer Appendix D.2 on page 233). The inclusion of power factor
correction reduces the current being drawn from the supply for the same power output of
the motor, and therefore line efficiency increases and motor output power increases, at the
cost of increased resistive loss within the power supply of approximately 3%.
The power supply of the Teknatool DVR is required to provide the following rails:
x +360V for the direct current supply to the electronic converter circuit
x +15V for biasing the phase transistors in the electronic converter
x +5V for the control circuitry, current sensing, position sensing
x -5V for the current sensing
x +2.5V for the lower voltage devices in the control circuitry
x +5V Isolated for the user control panel
x 0V Isolated for the user control panel
x 0V circuit wide except isolated supplies
The rails supplied by the power supply are numerous and have differing requirements and
methodologies for generation. It is important to note that the power supply does not utilise
isolation between the motor and the control circuitry and this is an important point for
discussion later in this thesis.
The incoming AC mains supply is full wave rectified before being boost converted by the
power factor correction unit, regulation is provided by the presence of large capacitors.
This provides the +360V rail to power the electronic converter circuit.

A transformer is situated downstream of the rectified mains signal, yet is connected before
regulation. This ensures that a frequency is present to enable the transformer to operate.
The transformer produces various outputs, +15V, -5V, +5V Isolated and 0V Isolated. The
transformer contains no connection between the primary and secondary windings;
however it is centre-tapped and this centre is connected to the return of the full wave
bridge rectifier. This connection removes any isolation that would be present between the
motor and the control circuitry.
The +15V rail is used to bias the driving transistors in the electronic converter, there is no
regulation present on this supply, the +15V rail is used to bias a twin output voltage
regulator which provides the +5V for the control circuitry, current sensing, and position
sensing. It also provides the +2.5V rail for the control circuitry. The potential of these rails
are all with respect to the ground of the motor.
The +5V isolated and 0v isolated rails are generated by the transformer. This is a completely
separate winding in the transformer which contains no common point with the rest of the
circuit. Regulation is provided by a linear 5V regulator. This rail is used to supply power for
the user control panel, communication with the control panel requires opto-coupling due
to the potential difference that results with the control circuitry as a result of the isolation.
At all times, the shape of the input waveform from the AC mains is being sampled for
harmonic frequencies, and the phase difference is being measured between the voltage
and current waveforms to correct for any disruption to power factor.
The power supply is a highly complex electrical circuit that operates from high voltages. The
rectified mains supply makes direct measurements with instrumentation difficult unless
isolated equipment is utilised. This is discussed in depth in Chapter 9, Instrumentation and
testing.

6.4 Electronic Power Converter
The electronic power converter topology used by the Teknatool DVR product is the
asymmetric half-bridge converter, which was discussed on page 70. This converter is the
most expensive in terms of component cost, yet provides flexible control, high efficiency
and reduced torque ripple due to phase overlap. The DVR is of three phase construction
and the schematic of the full electronic converter is shown in Figure 6-5:
Figure 6-5: Teknatool DVR SRM Electronic Power Converter Schematic
This electronic converter allows the use of current chopping, PWM, or dwell angle control.
It also allows either uni-polar or bi-polar switching which allows a reduction in switching
frequency yet allows rapid current decay to maximise commutation time before negative
torque generation occurs.
The switching elements consist of IGBT’s (Refer Appendix D.4 on page 247); these
transistors are biased with a voltage signal at the gate and are capable of high voltage and
current. The converter circuit also incorporates winding current sensing via a resistor. The
voltage drop across the resistance provides a voltage signal to the microcontroller that is
proportional to the current flow, and this information is used to control the torque output
of the motor.

A woodworking lathe requires precise speed control with minimal torque ripple, therefore
the use of the asymmetric half bridge converter is justified.
6.5 Control Topologies
The Teknatool DVR operates both above and beneath the base speed ωb. It employs both
low speed and high speed control, namely current hysteresis delta modulation control, and
singular pulse control for low-speed and high speed operation respectively. The phase
excitations are overlapped, and this is shown by the commutation transistor switching
signals in Figure 6-6; this result aligns with the theoretical switching schema shown in
Figure 2-4 of Chapter 2, Operating Principles, on page 13 of this document.
Figure 6-6: DVR Rotor Position Sensor Capture
To achieve this, there are three seperare position signals from the rotor; these signals
provide the microcontroller with the instantaneous position of the rotor with significant
resolution. This allows the calculation of the exact angle of rotation, the angular
displacement from the phase poles and the current acceleration or deceleration rate of the
rotor. There are also three current sensors, which measure the current flowing through
each of the phase windings, this provides the controller with peak current, average current
and rate of change of current.

Low speed operation is achieved through the use of a uni-polar current hysteresis delta
modulation control scheme, shown in Figure 6-7:
Figure 6-7: Low-Speed Control System Captures of DVR Motor
The chopping transistor in the asymmetric half bridge converter is switched synchronously
with the dwell angle switching.
The top transister is switched at a fixed maximum frequency of approximately 6kHz, note
that this does not match the frequency specified in Table A-4: DVR SRM Motor Parameters
contained in Appendix A, DVR Technical Information on 188. which is the sampling
frequency of the current waveform. The chopping transistor is frequently switched at much
lower frequency as the current may not exceed the upper reference limit when the current
waveform is observed; this allows control of average current, peak current and rate of
change of current. This controls the average torque output, and thereby speed control with
varying load is achieved within the Teknatool DVR controller.
High speed operation is achieved through singular pulse control, shown in Figure 6-8, as
this is the only viable control algorithm for control of rotational speeds above the base
speed. This is characterised by advancing the firing angle to a portion of the inductance
ramp that allows current to build faster, as the inductance ramp builds the current is
naturally constrained by the back-EMF. This approach maximises commutation time at high
speed to reduce torque ripple, while providing control over average torque produced.

Figure 6-8: High-Speed Control System Captures of DVR Motor
This control setup allows appropriate torque control for low-speed and high-speed
operation with minimal torque ripple. This is important for a woodworking lathe, as large
ripple would impact on the ability of the motor to produce quality product.
6.6 Torque-Speed and Power-Speed Relationships
The Torque-Speed and Power-Speed relationships are shown in the following table of
information contained in Table B-4: DVR Torque - Power - Speed Results in Appendix B,
Measurement Data, on page 200. These results are graphed into the two respective
relationships of Torque-Speed, and Power-Speed in Figure 6-9 and Figure 6-10 respectively.
The results for these tables are obtained from the motor operating from a 115V AC power
source.

Torque (Nm)

Speed (RPM)
Figure 6-9: DVR Torque-Speed Plot
Comparing this torque-speed relationship to the idealised torque-speed relation presented

in Figure 2-13 of Chapter 2, Operating Principles, on page 21, it can be observed that the
two curves agree. The Power-Speed relationship can also be plotted as is shown in Figure
6-10 below:
1400
1200
Power (Watts)
1000
800
600
400
200
Speed (RPM)
Figure 6-10: DVR Power-Speed Plot

As with the torque-speed relationship, the power-speed relationship is directly comparable
to the idealised power-speed relationship presented in Figure 2-14, of Chapter 2, Operating
Principles, on page 22 of this document.
It is apparent from these relationships that the constant torque region of operation extends
to approximately 500rpm, and that the constant power region ranges from 500rpm to
1200rpm after which the motor operates in natural mode.
6.7 Acoustic Noise
The noise emitted from the Teknatool DVR motor is highlighted in Table below:
Speed (RPM) Complete Band 63Hz 125Hz 250Hz 500Hz 1kHz 2kHz 4kHz 8kHz
1500 76dB 40dB 46dB 52dB 64dB 75dB 65dB 60dB 54dB
2500 74dB 45dB 53dB 54dB 62dB 71dB 70dB 66dB 53dB
Table 6-1: DVR Acoustic Noise Levels
The noise emitted by the DVR is not insignificant. However, the noise level is acceptable for
use within a working environment.
6.8 Summary
This chapter reviews the Teknatool DVR implementation of an SRM. Namely, identifying the
key component areas and the specific implementations; this allows discussion upon
improvement or justification of the current topologies. Identification of the exact
implementation is an important requirement to understanding the structure and specific
implementation of the electronic drive to facilitate separation and reverse engineering.
The information of the Tekantool DVR implementation draws on and is related to the
information presented in Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5; highlighting a real world implementation
of the theoretical topologies discussed.
Understanding of the information presented in this chapter is crucial to understanding the

remaining chapters in this thesis as it forms the underpinning to the practical work that was
undertaken as part of this research.

Chapter 7
Separation Process
“Success is neither magical nor mysterious. Success is
the natural consequence of consistently applying the
basic fundamentals”
- Jim Rohn
This chapter discusses the process of separating the electronic drive into separate circuit
boards, including decisions, challenges, and solutions. The focus will be on the activities
undertaken during separation; this provides an explanation of the separation as a whole
and the difficulties encountered in achieving successful separation.
103 | P a g e C h a p t e r 7 |Separation Process

7.1 Familiarisation with DVR electronic drive
Familiarity with the topologies utilised in the motor construction, power supply, electronic
converter, and the control circuitry is the first step in separating the power supply from the
control board. The ability to identify the key topologies utilised, and connection points
between the functional components will yield ideal separation points; these points being
directly translatable to a drive component diagram.
Identifying the affinity of the major components of an SRM to either power supply or
control architecture will highlight the connection points. A component diagram highlighting
affinity is shown in Figure 7-1:
Figure 7-1: Drive Component Separation Diagram
The components are separated into control and power components on a simple basis; a
component that is involved with adjusting the target speed, receiving feedback, or
providing a variable output as to achieve constant speed operation is a control component.
Therefore user controls, control circuitry, current and position measurement can be
considered control components; they would benefit being separated from the power
supply.
The power supply itself, the electronic converter, and the motor are all power components
as they operate with power signals.
C h a p t e r 7 |Separation Process 104 | P a g e

Identifying these major components on the drive schematic allows familiarisation with the
design, their operation, and how they interconnect is possible due to the knowledge
learned during the literature review. The drive schematic highlighting the functional
components is shown in Figure C-1 in Appendix C.1 on page 204:
Identification of the major component areas simplifies the complex circuit schematic into
smaller groups that are easily analysed and understood. Analysis of these groups resulted in
the identification of the idealised separation points. These separation points can be
considered the theoretical separation points where separation of the power supply and
control circuits is plausible; these points are determined from a simplistic overview of the
entire electronics and therefore are not the actual separation points. The reasons for the
differences between the ideal and actual separation points are discussed in a later section.
7.2 Identification of ideal separation points
The ideal separation points can be found by locating the connection points between the
major component groupings. As mentioned previously these component groupings can be
assorted into power supply or control circuit affinity. Therefore, further simplification of the
component grouping can be achieved.
By grouping the controller circuit, current measurement, position measurement, and user
controls under the title of control circuitry, and the power supply, electronic converter, and
motor windings under the title of power electronics, we can achieve the following
groupings as shown in Figure C-2 in Appendix C.2 on page 205.
The ideal separation points are named in the following list:
1. Electronic converter IGBT gate drives (Phase A High Side, Phase A Low Side, Phase B
High Side, Phase B Low Side, Phase C High Side, Phase C Low Side)
2. IGBT driver high side floating references (VS1, VS2, VS3)
3. Current sense resistors (RS1, RS2, RS3)
4. Bus Signals (FO, 1/0, UIN’, IIN’,SO)
5. Power Rails (+5V, -5V, OV_IZM, +5V_INT, 0V_INT, +15V, +360V)

While the above separation points are valid for the basic connection points between the
two proposed circuit boards, they do however present safety problems as a result of high
voltage and current signals.
These two factors alone make separation at these points implausible due to safety
concerns, as well as the cabling requirements to connect the two circuit boards together.
This highlights the inability to simply disconnect the power supply from the control circuitry
due to the non-modularity of the SRM drive design and implementation. As mentioned
earlier, it is common practice to combine the power supply and control circuit together.
This non-modularity typically arises from the presence of grey-area components. These
components do not exhibit sole affinity to either the control circuit or the power supply;
examples of such devices are the IGBT driver, and the current sense resistors.
Successful separation of the circuit boards is highly dependent on appropriate handling of

the grey-area components. Fortunately these components typically exhibit a stronger
affinity for one circuit, normally due to the presence of power signals.
The presence of power signals requires modification to the rules for deciding appropriate
separation points. These modifications are:
x No high voltage signals are to be routed to the control circuit, unless unavoidable in
the form of power signal feedback. If such a connection is required it must be made
through significant resistance.
x No high current signals to be routed through the control circuit, no exceptions.
The results from the identification of the idealised separation points raised the need for
deeper investigation into both the power supply and control circuits before a decision on
the actual separation points could be made. The idealised separation points were not
mapped onto the circuit board due to the implausibility of appropriate separation; the
actual separation points form a line on the circuit board known as the separation line.

7.3 Detailed reverse engineering of electronic drive
The presence of grey-area components in the attempt to find the idealised separation
points resulted in the original points being implausible for separation. Therefore, deeper
analysis of the operation of the individual circuits was required to identify all grey-area
components and tag them with the appropriate affinity. To help achieve this task a
component listing was established. This listing gathered the following columns of
information:
x Designator
x Type and Footprint
x Value
x Peak Voltage
x Proposed Location (affinity)
x Categorical Purpose
x Description of purpose
This point in the research timeline is considered to be the beginning of the reverse
engineering process as both the design of the circuit and detailed information about the
components is being collated. Not all the information could be collected during this stage of
the project, namely footprint and value information.
The main purpose of this activity was to develop an intimate understanding of both the
control and power supply circuits. This knowledge would later be used to identify more
appropriate separation points and later plot the separation line on the circuit board.
During this activity it was noted that not only were grey-area components present, but also
control components were nested within the power supply region of the schematic and vice
versa for the power supply components. This observation reinforced the previously stated
non-modularity of SRM electronic drive design.
It became apparent that the Teknatool DVR electronic drive could be described as a single
circuit with two highly inter-dependent entities. This was in contradiction to an earlier
assumption that the electronic drive was two related but independent circuits sharing a
circuit board. This resulted in a change to the definition of the separation process of the
electronic drive; separation was no longer attempting to find the points at which the two

circuits could be separated from each other. The separation process now focused upon
unravelling the inter-dependent circuits into a coherent architecture.
It was also observed that the schematic did not exactly match the electronic drive. The
schematic contained components which were not present on the drive, and vice versa. The
schematic also contained typographical errors such as misrouted connections between
components.
After deep analysis of the operation of the electronic drive, a bus and net listing was also
added to the earlier component spreadsheet; this would prove an invaluable resource
during testing.
The grey-area and missing components were noted on the schematic, and the control and
power circuits were unravelled from each other. This resulted in the following changes to
the schematic as shown in Figure C-3 in Appendix C.3 on page 206:
The schematic shows the power supply and control circuit components present on the
electronic drive, it also shows the components which are not present on the circuit board.
The components have been selected based not only on their behavioural role, but also the
presence of power signals. If a component contains a power signal it is not considered to be
part of the control circuit, unless its primary purpose is to add resistance to a power signal
for feedback. The actual separation points are determined by the result of this activity and
this is discussed in the next section.

7.4 Plausibility of proposed separation points
The change in rules that determine correct component location resulted in significant
change to the possible separation points; this was due to the attempted removal of all
power signals from the control board. The change in these rules resulted in the following
separation points:
1. IGBT driver transistor control inputs (TO_HA, TO_HB, TO_HC, TO_LA, TO_LB, TO_LC)
2. Fault tolerance inputs for the IGBT driver(SD, F_CL, FLT_I, ITRP)
3. Negative voltage cap diode for IGBT driver input ITRP (Component VD31)
4. +5V Pull-up resistor for IGBT driver pin ITRP (Component R32)
5. IGBT driver ITRP current limiting resistor and Comparator D5:4 (Component R33)
6. +360V feedback voltage dividing resistor for Comparator D7:1 (Component R40)
7. Current sense resistors from motor phase windings (RS1,RS2,RS3)
8. Control bus signals (K_OVC, KOUT)
9. +360V feedback voltage dividing resistor for signal UD” (Component R12)
10. +360V feedback current limiting resistor (Missing Component R72)
11. Bridge rectifier return feedback resistor (Component R75)
12. Power factor correction bus signals (0/1, FO)
13. Power supply rails (+2.5V, +5V, -5V, 0V_PWR, OV_IZM, +5V_INT, 0V_INT)
These points are a plausible set of separation points when taken in context from the
schematic diagram. In practice, there are significant differences between a schematic and
the resulting printed circuit board. A key difference is that component placement may be
very different to what is indicated by the circuit schematic. Attempting to plot a line
through the separation points resulted in the following separation line for the electronic
drive printed circuit board as shown in Figure C-4 in Appendix C.4 on page 207.
This separation line passes through several difficult areas. To ease separation, another rule
was added to the separation point definition. This was to aid in finding the easiest
separation points in terms of the physical separation line of the printed circuited board. The
additional rule was to choose the easiest separation point providing that all previous rules
regarding power signals and component behaviours were also met. These points would
only be considered if sufficient justification for separation at the easier point could be
provided.

Further investigation resulted in the finding of the final separation points which are
discussed and justified in the following section.
7.5 Identification of final separation points
The attempt to plot an appropriate separation line on the printed circuit board led to the
addition of a new rule in determining separation points which allowed for easier
separation. This resulted in a small change to the boundaries of the control circuit and
power supply and therefore shifted the separation line on the circuit board.
The resulting separation points are considered the final separation points and design of
circuit boards incorporating these points could begin. The differing boundaries of the
control and power supply circuits are shown in Figure C-5 in Appendix C.5 on page 208.
Therefore the final and justified separation points are as follows:
1. Transistor control inputs for the IGBT driver (TO_HA, TO_HB, TO_HC, TO_LA, TO_LB,
and TO_LC). The IGBT driver is a grey-area component and therefore is shifted to
the power supply to prevent the propagation of the high voltage DC supply to the
control circuit. Separating at the low voltage high impedance switching inputs
allows the IGBT driver to be shifted to the power supply circuit. There is concern
here due to the increase in conductor length, this is somewhat negated due to the
inputs to the IGBT being high impedance. The concern is with EMI causing spurious
switching signals.
2. Fault tolerance inputs for the IGBT driver (SD, F_CL, FLT_I, and ITRP). As mentioned
for the transistor control inputs, the IGBT driver is a grey-area power component
and therefore must be placed on the power supply. Separation at the high
impedance fault pins facilitates this movement. Signal integrity concerns are
consistent with the transistor control inputs.
3. Negative voltage cap diode for IGBT driver input ITRP (Component VD31). This
component should be placed as close as physically possible to the ITRP pin of the
IGBT driver as possible, therefore this component is placed on the power supply
circuit board.
4. +5V Pull-up resistor for IGBT driver pin ITRP (Component R32). This separation at
this point was made for ease of separation, but also to keep the pull-up as close to

the comparator as possible, therefore this component is placed on the control
circuit board.
5. Current limiting resistor for IGBT driver pin ITRP and Comparator D5:4 (Component
R33). This point was chosen due to ease of separation and also to keep the
component as close to the comparator as possible.
6. +360V feedback voltage dividing resistor for Comparator D7:1 (Component R40).
The separation was made at this point to eliminate +360V from the control circuit
board. The +360V supply is sourced through two resistors.
7. Current sense resistors from motor phase windings (R67, R68, and R69). The
separation was made here to prevent high current flowing through the control
circuit board and inter-board connections and prevent the ability to directly
connect to the electronic converter circuit. It also facilities ease of separation and
circuit board design. The current signal that is present by the voltage drop across
the sense resistors may be sensitive to the increased conductor length and EMI
8. Control bus signals (K_OVC, KOUT). Separation made at these points for ease of
separation. Both signals are generated by components that are not present on the
circuit board.
9. +360V feedback voltage dividing resistor for signal UD” (Component R12).
Separation was made here to eliminate +360V from the control circuit board.
10. +360V feedback current limiting resistor (Missing Component R72). Separated this
point to prevent propagation of the +360V signal to the control circuit board.
11. Bridge rectifier return feedback resistor (Component R75). Separaton was made
here to add resistance between the control circuit board and the return side of the
bridge rectifier to increase safety of the control circuit board.
12. Power factor correction ON/OFF switch resistance (Component R86). This point was
chosen to ease separation between the circuits.
13. Power factor correction fault output (Component C80). This point was chosen to
ease separation between the two circuits.
14. Twin-rail switching voltage regulator output SO (Component R118). This point was
chosen to ease separation the two circuits.
15. Twin-rail switching voltage regulator output +5V (Component C67). This separation
was chosen because the control circuit contains the only components to operate
from the +5V rail; however the regulator itself is a power supply component.
Capacitor C67 is the output smoothing capacitor for the switching waveform and
therefore this needs to remain close to the regulator as it forms an integral part of

its operation. The other capacitors present across this rail are decoupling capacitors
and these must be kept close to their respective devices.
16. -5V Rail output (Component VD18). This point was chosen to ease separation of the
two circuits.
17. Power supply rails (+2.5V, +5V, -5V, 0V_PWR, OV_IZM, +5V_INT, 0V_INT). These
supply rails are integral to the operation of the control circuit and therefore must
be carried over to the control circuit board.
These justified separation points can be considered final in the process of investigating the
circuit schematic and printed circuit board for the appropriate separation points. Any
revision to these points will come from difficulties in the manufacture of the circuit boards
or in testing the circuit boards. When these separation points are plotted onto the circuit
board, the following separation line is shown in Figure C-6 in Appendix C.6 on page 209.
This separation line follows a path which is less difficult to separate. It helps to avoid areas
dense with tracks or other components; this helps to minimise the level of reworking
required to achieve the separation. This is achieved because the separation line crosses
significantly less unrelated connections than the previous attempt.
It should be noted that the circuit board cannot be physically cut and then bridged due to
the aforementioned reasons; this requires two new circuit boards to be designed. The
design of the new power supply and control circuit boards is discussed in Chapter 8,
Prototype design and manufacture.

7.6 Summary
This chapter investigates the plausibility of separating the electronic drive utilised within
the Teknatool DVR commercial system. It highlights the choice of points for separation
based on theory presented in earlier chapters, and discusses the challenges of separating
the electronic drive at these points.
This chapter highlights an iterative process of learning by continuously increasing the depth
of analysis upon each-pass until reverse engineering the design became the focus; the
migration of the separation points is detailed as the intimate knowledge of the electronic
drive design was created. This facilitated the identification of plausible points of separation
and provided appropriate justification for these points.
Understanding the information presented in this chapter is crucial to understanding the

design, development, and testing of the prototype circuit boards, which is covered in
Chapter 8, Prototype design and manufacture, and Chapter 9, Instrumentation and Testing
respectively.

Chapter 8
Prototype design and manufacture
"Different is not necessarily better. But better is
necessarily different"
- Georg C. Lichtenberg
This chapter discusses the process of designing the new prototype circuit boards, based
upon the proposed separation line from Chapter 7, Separation Process. The discussions for
this chapter include the criteria for the design of the new circuit boards, the viability of the
proposed separation line, the specific challenges to overcome, and testing. Testing of the
design forms an important discussion for the design process, as it resulted in further
migration of the separation points and meeting the criteria in the least number of
iterations.
115 |P a g e C h a p t e r 8 |Prototype design and manufacture

8.1 Criteria for prototype circuit boards
Due to the inability to physically cut the existing electronic drive, it was necessary to design
two new circuit boards to achieve separation. The two circuit boards would prove the
viability of separation along the proposed separation line.
The design process also provides the ability to manufacture the electronic drive with
separated power supply and control circuits; this is the direct result of the manufacturing
information generated as a result of the design process.
To ensure the quality of the prototype circuit boards was of sufficient standard to be viable
for manufacturing, some early decisions were made:
1. The prototype circuit boards would be designed and assembled to production

quality.
2. The design of the circuit board would retain standard component placement as
much as possible. This was to ensure familiarity between the original circuit board
and the separated circuit boards. Significant change to the placement and layout
would reduce the quality aspects of maintainability and repair.
3. The circuit boards would be designed to be dual-sided and utilise plated through
holes. The reason for this was the ability to run a large ground plane and prevent
the use of jumpers. This decision is in line with the design of the original circuit
board.
4. Due to the high voltage nature of the circuit board, a high quality substrate would
be utilised, of sufficient thickness to prevent blow-through arcing.
5. The circuit boards would utilise solder masking. While solder masking increases the
difficulty of modifying prototype circuit boards, it will ease assembly significantly.
This improves safety by reducing the chance of accidental electrocution, and short-
circuits by foreign material on the board.
6. Component designators would be used where possible to aid in identifying
incorrect component placement during assembly. This reduces the number of
errors to be rectified during testing.
7. Maintaining the basic layout and shape of the power supply circuit board is
important to allow the circuit board to be attached to the standard heat-sink.
Preventing redesign to the heat-sink reduces the level of reworking required to
manufacture the newly developed circuit boards.
C h a p t e r 8 |Prototype design and manufacture 116 | P a g e

8. The control circuit board is to be designed to fit behind the control panel of the DVR
Lathe headstock. This placement is logical and reduces the presence of EMI due to
the casing of the motor consisting entirely of metal.
9. There should be significant room left on the circuit boards at the end of the design
process. This allows ease of modification to the existing circuits for improved quality
or functionality. It also allows amalgamation with the smaller circuits such as the
EMI filter.
10. The connections between the new circuit boards are to be separated into two
separate connectors. These connectors being for input/output signals and power
signals. These connectors are to be labelled IX1 and IX2 respectively; IX stands for
inter-board connection
The circuit boards were designed with the establishment of these rules. The early design
process involved measuring and identifying the footprints of all components on both sides
of the separation line. This was a significant process and resulted in a large number of
footprints that were not available in the footprint library of the circuit board design
program. These missing footprints were created and added before design of the circuit
boards could begin.
The initial design of the circuit boards themselves was to measure the power supply, the
standard heat-sink, and the space available behind the control panel. The space behind the
control panel became limited due to the tapering nature of the housing. The tapered
housing is made from plastic and appears to be moulded; the angle of the taper could be
reduced, or removed completely, to facilitate the height requirements of the control circuit
board to fit. This possible rework for manufacture was noted and blank circuit boards were
created to the dimensions measured. The large copper planes were then measured for
their corner co-ordinates, and these co-ordinates were then mapped onto the blank circuit
boards.
The next step was to mimic the standard placement and layout on both the power supply
circuit board and control circuit for components not related to the separation line. The
tracks between component pads and planes were placed during this stage. It should be
noted that any flaws noticed during the design of the circuit board, poor track spacing,
sharp track bends, and undersized tracks, were noted and corrected.

Design of the circuit boards around the separation point was very difficult. This was an
iterative process beginning with placement of the component. The tracks for connection of
the components were placed, then checked against the schematic and existing electronic
drive, and modified if necessary. This process was iterated until no difference in the
schematics between the separated circuit boards and the original circuit board could be
identified.
The next step was organising the separation points into two connectors, the position of
these connectors on the circuit board would be determined by ease of connection by track
with the respective signals. The table of signals for the connectors is shown in Table C-11:
Additional Connector Signals, in Appendix C, Research Outputs , on page 226.
The last step was to select and place an appropriate connector. The connectors had to have
a flat profile as to fit comfortably in the space available for the control board, but have
sufficient specification for voltage, current, temperature and connection cycles. The
chosen connectors are shown in Table C-10: Additional Connector Information, also in
Appendix C, on page 226. The datasheets for these connectors are available in Appendices
D.10 and D.11 starting on page 278.
Based upon the physical location for the generation of the power supply rails, and the
input/output signals, the location for the power signal connector was decided to be placed
beside the twin-rail regulator on the bottom right of the power supply board, and beneath
the motor phases on the top right of the power supply board for the input/output signal
connector. These were placed in corresponding positions on the control circuit board, with
the input/output signal connector placed at the top near the current signal processing
components; the reason for this was to reduce the length of the conductor between the
generation of the waveform and the operational amplifiers to reduce EMI concerns.
The power supply connector was placed as close to the necessary components as allowable
to ease routing of the tracks.
The resulting circuit board designs can be seen in Appendix C, Research Outputs.

8.2 Manufacture and assembly of circuit boards
As mentioned in the previous section, the circuit boards were to be manufactured to

production specification. Therefore manufacture of the base printed circuit boards was
outsourced to a professional company; Advanced Circuits Ltd. This would allow the
necessary manufacturing techniques to take place and the quality of the board would be
very high.
The specifications for the manufactured printed circuit boards are:
1. High quality substrate of sufficient thickness, 2.0mm, to prevent blow-through

arcing of the circuit boards.
2. Sufficient weight copper sheet to minimise track and plane resistance, 4oz was
chosen for this purpose.
3. As the circuit boards are square, there is no need for routing operations and the
circuit boards can be guillotined.
4. Green solder mask. This reduces the chance of electrocution, shorting by foreign
material on circuit board, and eases assembly.
5. White component designators. This ensures component placement errors are highly
visible when assembling the circuit boards. This is not a large concern for
automated manufacturing, but was of significant concern to prototyping the
separated electronic drive circuit boards by hand.
6. The use of high quality plated through holes to improve electrical contact and
prevent the use of jumpers.
7. Pre-drilled for through-hole components.
The first step in the assembling process, upon arrival of the prototype printed circuit
boards, was to drill out the necessary mounting holes to allow the boards to be mounted in
their respective positions within the DVR motor housing. Assembly of the circuit board
components could begin once correct mounting of the circuit boards was achieved
Before the components could be soldered onto the new circuit boards, they were required
to be removed from the existing circuit board; this was due to the non-availability of new
components. This presented a significant challenge to overcome to successfully assemble
the circuit boards, it can be a difficult task to remove a component and re-solder it
successfully without damaging it. Removal of the components allowed measurement of the

corresponding electrical values, which aided the reverse engineering process by allowing
completion of the tabulated component data.
The most challenging components to remove were the microcontroller, the IGBT driver,
and the Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD); this was due to their flat package
designs; the quad packages of the microcontroller and the CPLD proved exceedingly
difficult.
This difficulty was due to the inability to access the appropriate equipment to facilitate the
removal of surface mount quad flat packages. To remove these components required
significant heating to the rear of the original circuit board and a piece of machined
aluminium to soak up spillage of heat. The drawback to this approach was the permanent
damage of the existing circuit board; however the components were removed without
damage.
During the assembly process, numerous errors in the design and prototype circuit boards
were found; these errors were as follows:
1. The pads in the footprint for the large power supply capacitors (Components C52
and C53) were spaced too far apart and required drilling
2. The large black capacitors (Components C52 and C53) are situated too close to the
current feedback resistors (Components RS1,RS2 and RS3)
3. The pads in the footprint for the feedback resistor (Component R39) from the
360V rail are too close together
4. The plated through-hole from the +5.0V rail smoothing capacitor (Component
C67) to the ground plane on the reverse of the board was not physically
connected to the capacitor footprint pad with a track
5. The back-EMF protection diodes (Components VD2, VD3, VD4, VD5, and VD6) on
the reverse of the board all have the correct spacing except for the protection
diode (Component VD1) closest to the power factor correction unit, which has
larger pad spacing and therefore was difficult to fit
6. The thyristor (Component VS1) footprint has uneven pad spacing and sizes and
this made installation difficult
7. The very small capacitor (Component C81) at the top left hand side of the board
has a footprint which is too large for it, installation was possible but difficult
8. The twin-rail voltage regulator (Component D15) does not have the pads
underneath to allow a good thermal connection to its heat-sink

9. The capacitor (Component C86) closest to the voltage transformer has a pad
which is spaced correctly but the pads are very long and could be shortened
10. The position sensor feedback connector is positioned too close to the surrounding
components and needs to be moved to allow ease of connection
11. The crystal (Component ZQ1) is not spaced sufficiently from the components
surrounding it
12. Some components were damaged during the de-soldering and re-soldering process
and were required to be replaced
These changes were noted and corrected as a later revision; these changes will be compiled
with any changes evident as a result of testing the new circuit boards. With the prototype
circuit boards completely assembled they were ready to be tested; the results of testing are
discussed in the next section.
8.3 Assembly testing of circuit boards
To ensure safe and eventual correct operation of the circuit boards, a plan for incremental
testing of the circuit boards was decided upon and implemented. The steps in the testing
plan can be grouped into the following steps:
1. Visual inspection of all components under a microscope to ensure quality soldering,

prevention of bridging, and components are mounted flat with no broken legs.
2. Continuity test of all power rails on the power supply circuit board to ensure the
lack of short circuits within the power rails, including the input to the power supply
from the mains supply.
3. The circuit boards are mains powered, and are required to be tested by a registered
electrician to ensure suitability for operating from the mains supply. The prototype
circuit boards will therefore be tested by a registered electrician.
4. First switch-on to be undertaken with a registered and practicing electrician
present.
5. Thorough testing of all power rails until satisfaction that the power supply is
operating correctly.
6. Gradual connection of the control circuit board to ease fault finding.

Visually inspecting the circuit boards resulted in numerous dry solders being found; this was
the direct result of poor quality flux. High quality flux was utilised and all joins reheated
until the solder became molten. Both circuit boards were alcohol bathed in an ultrasonic
cleaner to remove any surface impurities that could carry charge. The solder joints were
then re-examined under a microscope; this process was iterated until all solder joints were
of an excellent standard.
Further testing of the assembled power supply circuit board involved a thorough inspection
of all components to ensure they were making a strong electrical connection after being re-
soldered. Visually inspecting the board in this manner highlighted components which had
been damaged during the assembly process; this also ensured that no components were
installed in reverse polarity or in the wrong location.
Continuity testing of the power supply rails was then able to completed; this highlighted
that the +5.0V rail contained a dead short condition. Extensive inspection with the
microscope revealed that the microcontroller contained a damaged leg and was bridging
the supply rail to the 0V_PWR rail; the microcontroller was de-soldered and replaced, It
was found that the short condition was resolved upon retesting for the short condition
following the repair.
The next step in the testing plan was to have the boards inspected by a registered
electrician. The electrician was satisfied with the quality of the workmanship, the design of
the circuit boards, and the prior testing. Upon his recommendation, live testing was to be
made utilising a Residual Current Device (RCD) and an inline fuse to ensure safety for both
electrocution and over-current respectively.
The power supply circuit board was connected to the mains supply with the registered
electrician present, using the RCD and the inline fuse recommended. The power supply
circuit board tripped neither device and did not exhibit any areas of unexpected heat
generation. This successful first switch-on enabled progression to the next phase of testing.
The power supply has two main functions, to supply a stable and phase corrected voltage
to the motor itself, and to supply a range of stable outputs to the control circuitry. In order
to test that the power delivery to the motor is working effectively requires the control
circuitry to operate; however, testing that the power rail for the motor is in operating
condition and that all power rails to the control circuit operate is an acceptable

compromise in determining appropriate operation of the power supply as a whole. Further
testing of the power supply rails can be undertaken once the control circuitry is operating.
The power supply outputs seven different rails and all but two of these were providing the
correct voltage; these rails being the -5V measuring -13.6V peak while oscillating, and
+5V_INT measuring 0.24V stable. Deeper investigation highlighted an oversight in the
separation process with three of the components comprising the -5V power rail being
placed on the new control circuit board; this was noted so that these components can be
moved onto the power supply circuit board in the next revision. Testing of the +5V_INT rail
resulted in the discovery of a damaged regulator and this was replaced.
The next step in the testing plan was to gradually connect and test the functionality of the
control circuit board. The first connections made were all the power rails, these being
+2.5V, +5V, -5V, 0V_PWR, +5V_INT and 0V_INT. At this point the board was quickly
powered. The -5V rail was tested and found to be the correct voltage, all other rails were
also functioning correctly.
The user control panel is powered by +5V_INT and +0V_INT and complained of a lack of
connection to the main control unit; displaying the error “Not Connected” on the LCD. This
was found to be the lack of tracks on the control circuit board responsible for providing
power to the opto-couplers; this was noted to be changed in the next revision. The opto-
couplers were powered by the use of jumpers and on next power cycle the user control
panel and control circuit booted together successfully.
The next challenge to overcome in connecting the control circuit board was another error
being reported by the LCD. The error displayed was “PFC Fault” this code is the result of the
power factor correction FO signal remaining high. Therefore the next connections to make
were the two PFC bus signals FO and ON/OFF. Upon the next power cycle the LCD displayed
the error “Low Voltage” indicating the lack of feedback from the +360V supply; the
feedback from the +360V rail was then connected.
The last error message displayed on the LCD was “Hardware Fault” which indicated a
problem with the IGBT driver. Upon examination under a microscope it was found that
there was a dry solder, that was missed under visual inspection testing, on one of the
switching input pins; this was repaired with fresh flux and re-heating the solder joint.
At this point all the remaining connections were made, and an attempt at operating the
motor was made. The motor rotated easily, however it was not operating smoothly. There

was an audible miss as the motor rotated, reinforcing the idea that the acoustic sound of
the motor is an effective indicator of control circuit performance, and the motor refused to
start from all operating positions. It was immediately apparent that one of the phases was
not operating.
In depth testing revealed that the microcontroller was providing a switching signal for all
transistors, both high side and low side driving. However the switching signal for the Phase
C high side driver was not present at the input of the IGBT driver. It was noted at this point
that the switching signals from the microcontroller pass through the CPLD, and the signal
was not present after the CPLD.
Tracing all connections into the CPLD highlighted that the current feedback signal from
Phase C was routed to pin 35, while the correct pin, 36, was left floating; this was resolved
by cutting the offending track and connecting pin 36 to the current feedback signal for
Phase C.
At this point the motor rotated smoothly, started from all rest angle positions and operated
without detectable flaw; this indicated initial successful separation of the power and
control circuit boards. Comparative performance testing would highlight any performance
differences between the original solution and the new separated circuit boards. The results
of this comparative testing are discussed in Chapter 9, Comparative Evaluation Testing.
8.4 Revision of circuit board design
The first revision of the circuit boards proved the successful separation of the power supply
and control circuitry of the Teknatool DVR electronic drive; however various observations
were made to improve the design of the circuit board. These observations ranged from
footprint dimension errors to incorrect diagnosis of placement location for two
components.
The necessary corrections to the circuit board design were:
1. Correction to the footprints for power supply capacitors (Components C52 and
C53).
2. Moving the capacitors (Components C52 and C53) upwards to remove fouling on
current sense resistors (Components RS1, RS2 and RS3).

3. Correction to the footprint for the +360V feedback resistor (Component R39).
4. Addition of the track to connect smoothing capacitor (Component C67) in the +5.0V
rail to the plated through-hole connected to 0V_PWR.
5. Correct spacing for the footprint used in back-EMF protection diode (Component
VD1).
6. Correction to the footprint for thyristor (Component VS1).
7. Correction to the footprint for a small power supply capacitor (Component C81).
8. Correction to the footprint of the twin-rail voltage regulator (Component D15).
9. Correction to the footprint for power supply capacitor (Component C86)
10. Shifting the position sensor feedback connector downwards to increase room for
fitment.
11. Shifting of components surrounding the timing crystal (Component ZQ1) to allow
ease of fitment.
12. Movement of the smoothing capacitor (Component C66) for the -5V rail to the
power supply circuit board.
13. Movement of the reverse current protection diode (VD19) for the -5V rail to the
power supply circuit board.
The movement of the two components comprising the -5V rail did not affect the separation
points, as they were in parallel with each other and connected directly to the original
separation point; It did however make a small change to the separation line. The resulting
schematic highlighting the change is shown in Figure C-7 in Appendix C.7 on page 210.
This change in the boundaries between the two circuits results in a change which is shown
in the separation line drawn on the circuit board in Figure C-8 in Appendix C.8 on page 211.
The individual printed circuit board designs for the power supply and control circuit can be
found in Appendix C, Research Outputs.

8.5 Delivery Of Solution
The final manufacturable solution consists of the following information:
1. Printed circuit board design files

2. Printed circuit board gerber files
3. Printed circuit board machine drilling files
4. Electrical schematics of both separated circuits
5. Component listing, including all values, footprints, identifiers, component location
6. Additional information to assist with servicing, further design and improvement
This information is available in Appendix C, Research Outputs, starting on page 203.
A photo of the completed prototype separated circuit boards is shown in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1: Photo Of Prototype Separated Electronic Drive

8.6 Summary
This chapter investigates the design process of the prototype separated circuit boards. It
highlights the differences between working at a schematic level and a real world circuit.
This chapter continued the iterative process from Chapter 7: Separation Process, by
attempting to design the circuit boards using the separation points discovered; this proves
to be a failure and a revision of these points takes place to allow the circuit board to be
developed.
This chapter also highlights the difficulty in producing the working prototype, and the need
for iterative testing as the circuit is designed and then assembled. Finally, it highlights the
vast amount of information gained from the reverse engineering process to design and
build a successful prototype.
This chapter brings the reverse engineering and design process to conclusion, and leads the
discussion to the comparison between the original and prototype solutions in Chapter 9,
Instrumentation and Testing.

Chapter 9
Instrumentation and Testing
“The test is to recognize the mistake, admit it and
correct it. To have tried to do something and failed is
vastly better than to have tried to do nothing and
succeeded”
- Dale E Turner
This chapter discusses the difficulty involved with obtaining waveform captures from the
Teknatool DVR electronics; this difficulty was primarily due to the lack of appropriate
instrumentation. Namely the lack of isolation between the earth of the mains supply and
the negatives of the measurement channels present on the oscilloscope.
This chapter details the design and production of an interface board which provided
isolated single sided signals to allow waveform capture utilising non-isolated
instrumentation.
Finally, this chapter discusses the comparative evaluation testing undertaken to confirm
that the performance of the electronic drive is maintained while operating the DVR SRM
from the new prototype solution. The basis of this evaluation is a side by side analysis of
key waveforms captured from both implementations of the electronic drive.
129 | P a g e C h a p t e r 9 |Instrumentation and Testing

9.1 The need for isolated instrumentation
A key objective of this thesis is to compare the performance of the original solution against
the prototype solution. This evaluation ensures the correct operation of the power supply
and control electronics of the prototype solution.
The need for the isolated instrumentation is due to the rectification of the AC input voltage.
Isolated instrumentation refers to all devices which operate from a separate power supply
and allow differential measurement of system quantities regardless of negative reference
rail potential; this is achieved through floating.
With non-isolated instrumentation, all measurements are taken with respect to the
negative reference of the instrumentation itself. This prevents differential measurement of
any system variable as short-circuiting of components present in the electronic drive or the
instrumentation is a serious risk. For example, the original oscilloscope was not isolated
from the mains ground, nor between individual channels; therefore direct usage of this
oscilloscope on the Teknatool DVR electronics would result in a short of the rectifier bridge.
This is illustrated in Figure 9-1:
Figure 9-1: Short Circuit Current For Differential Measurements
Diode D3 in the bridge rectifier is shorted out by the negative of the probe pair as it is
connected directly to mains earth, and to the negative of all probes connected to the
oscilloscope. It is also not possible to measure directly across ground to the high side of the
C h a p t e r 9 |Instrumentation and Testing 130 | P a g e

load; this is because the output of the bridge rectifier is floating with significant potential
difference between the positive and negative half cycles of the input waveform.
To take measurements in such a manner would be dangerous and result in erroneous

waveforms. To remove the connection of the oscilloscope to mains earth by removing the
pin in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) power connector would allow
such measurements to be taken, however should more than one waveform be captured at
once, the waveforms must be from the same reference potential due to the lack of isolation
between channels.
To allow measurements to be taken from the electronic drive without isolated

instrumentation requires the design and construction of an isolation and measurement
circuit; this circuit can be designed to provide isolation from both mains and differing
reference potentials. This allows measurement of waveforms referenced to the low side of
the bridge rectifier, as well as concurrent measurement of signals across differing reference
potentials with a non-isolated oscilloscope.
The original measurement equipment utilised was non-isolated and therefore the design of,
and assembly of an isolation and measurement circuit was a critical requirement for the
progress of the project. The need for this equipment later became superfluous due to the
procurement of isolated measurement equipment.
9.2 Waveforms of significant interest
Due to the cost of isolation components, only the most significant waveforms need to be
captured. It was determined that the most important waveforms to capture were the
voltage and current waveforms of each phase as they would provide sufficient information
to discuss the performance of the prototype solution.
Performance of the electronic drive can be estimated from the current and voltage
waveforms of the motor windings for a given load and rotational speed. Average torque
production can be observed from the current waveform, while the voltage waveform
highlights the control and switching methodology being utilised for the current rotational
speed and loading of the motor.

The ability to capture waveforms concurrently shows the overlap between phases and
therefore the torque ripple can be investigated by the envelope of the overlapped current
waveforms. The current waveforms can also highlight variability in the impedances of the
phase circuits; this condition is known as imbalance and has significant negative impact on
the generation of torque ripple.
The RMS and peak voltages of the +360V DC Bus can be investigated through the use of a
digital voltmeter, or handheld single channel oscilloscope; these devices are capable of
floating as they are powered by a battery. Both devices are rated for input voltages up to
600V and therefore require no conditioning of the input signals is required to reduce
voltage.
Therefore the isolation circuit provided six outputs:
1. Phase A Voltage
2. Phase A Current
3. Phase B Voltage
4. Phase B Current
5. Phase C Voltage
6. Phase C Current
The mains supply was not included in this isolation and measurement circuit, as the
negative reference is earth; this is the same negative reference as the oscilloscope.
Therefore the mains supply waveform can be investigated by the non-isolated oscilloscope.
9.3 Voltage measurement
Measuring the voltage waveform present across the phase winding requires probing of the
electronic converter. The electronic converter is a high voltage DC supply and therefore the
potential of the measured voltage waveform must be divided to prevent damage to
instrumentation and improve the safety of taking measurements.
The electronic converter is of asymmetric half bridge converter topology, therefore the
peak voltages expected when the converter is operating in bi-polar switching is
approximately +VDC and –VDC; +360V and -360V in the case of the Teknatool DVR drive.

Measurement of the voltage waveform can therefore not be made in reference to the 0V
rail, and differential measurement must be used.
Differential measurement requires that both the top and bottom sides are measured and
subtracted from each other. The difference in the input signals is known as the differential
and represents the potential present across the winding; the polarity of the differential is
equivalent to the polarity of the phase winding. The differential method for measurement
of the phase voltage is shown in the schematic in Figure 9-2:
Figure 9-2: Differential Phase Voltage Isolated Measurement Circuit
The schematic shows the electronic converter circuit with the isolated and divided potential
measurement of the phase winding voltage. It should be noted that the differential voltage
across the phase winding was required to be of a much smaller potential to prevent
damage to the isolation amplifier; this requires voltage dividers on both the high side and
low differential measurements. The power supply for the isolation amplifier was also
required to be divided as the isolation amplifier cannot operate from a +360V source.
The isolation amplifier takes the small differential voltage between the input pins and
converts this to a fixed frequency variable duty cycle pulse to drive an LED; the isolation

barrier is therefore optically based. The pulsed light from the LED is received on the other
side of the isolation barrier and the same potential differential voltage is created across the
output pins; therefore the gain of this isolation amplifier is one (Refer Appendix D.12 on
page 291).
To ensure that the isolation is complete, the lack of isolation between probes on the same
oscilloscope needs to be taken into account, also the differential low output pin cannot be
directly connected to ground; this requires the signal to be converted to single sided. An
operation amplifier is used to achieve this, also with a gain of one. The operation amplifier
will measure the differential across the input pins, and will bias the single sided output to
be centred at the voltage in the middle of the differential inputs.
This results in a fully isolated voltage measurement, capable of being measured with a non-
isolated oscilloscope or digital voltmeter.
9.4 Phase current measurement
Measurement of the current through the phase would require the addition of a component
into the electronic phase converter. It is beneficial to place this component directly after
the phase winding and before the lower switching element; this allows current
measurement when the bottom transistor is open circuit and therefore the current decay
rate can be measured. The original current sense resistor is not placed in a position to be
able to measure the decaying current and therefore making use of this component is not an
option. Placing another current sense resistor was discredited due to the need for
differential voltage measurement techniques as it would experience reversal of the source
voltage polarity when switching in bi-polar operation.
Measurement of the phase current was therefore provided by the means of a Hall Effect
current sensor, operating on the principles of current transforming; this approach allows
the current waveform to be fully isolated with the signal conditioning circuitry of the sensor
operating on a different power supply to that of the Teknatool DVR drive. The schematic
showing how the Hall-effect current sensor was connected in the electronic converter
circuit is shown in Figure 9-3:

Figure 9-3: Phase Current Measurement Isolation Circuit
This schematic shows the electronic converter with the Hall Effect current sensor in series
with the phase winding; the output of the Hall Effect current sensor is completely isolated
and powered by a different supply. It should be noted that the current sensor utilised can
measure both positive and negative current flow and outputs a 2.5V signal for no flowing
current (Refer Appendix D.8 on page 272). This presented a problem for the oscilloscope
which had no feature for adjusting DC offset voltage. The addition of a voltage subtraction
circuit to remove the 2.5V bias was connected to the output of the current sensor to
remedy this problem.
To ensure that complete isolation is achieved, the isolated supplies used here are also used
for the voltage measurement circuitry; this allows measurement of a current and voltage
waveform simultaneously without short-circuiting. The result of the circuit is complete
isolation from the Teknatool DVR drive for the measurement of phase currents.

9.5 Electromagnetic Interference
Obtaining clear waveforms from the SRM was difficult due to the high generation of EMI
presenting as white noise in captures. The most significant contributors, ordered in lowest
to highest frequency, are:
x Radiation from Transformer T1

x Commutation Transistor Switching
x Chopping Transistor Switching
x +2.5/+5V Switching Regulator
x Power Factor Correction Switching
The result is the generation of white noise which interferes at frequencies of interest in the
waveform captures; this is very difficult to filter. Fortunately, the amplitude of the EMI at
frequencies of interest is small in comparison to the intended waveform which only results
in a loss of fidelity in the information. The large amplitude noise is at frequencies much
higher, therefore low pass filtering is an effective method.
The low pass filter schematic is shown in Figure 9-4:
Figure 9-4: Low Pass EMI Filter Schematic
The frequency response of this filter is described by the following equation:
ͳ
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ (9.1)
ʹߨܴ‫ܥ‬
Where ܴ is the value of the resistance, and ‫ ܥ‬is the value of the capacitance.
Therefore the cut frequency of this filter is 15915Hz.

9.6 Power Factor Comparison
Ensuring that the prototype circuit board performs PFC appropriately is of critical
importance to realising the full power output of the motor. Power factor was compared by
comparative evaluation, and the results are available in Appendix B; this result was
extended to comparison of power factor with PFC disabled to ensure that the overall
reactive load presented to the supply is identical between the two electronic drives.
The power factor results for the prototype electronic drive are listed in Table B-5: Power
Factor Measurements (PFC On) and Table B-6: Power Factor Measurements (PFC Off), in
Appendix B, Measurement Data, on page 201.
The power factor results for the original electronic drive are listed in Table B-7: Power
Factor Measurement (PFC On) and Table B-8: Power Factor Measurement (PFC Off), in
Appendix B, Measurement Data, on page 202.
The results of the power factor evaluation allows us to draw the conclusion that the load
presented to the mains supply is overbalanced by the presence of capacitive reactance; this
is because all the power factors are negative, implying that current leads the voltage
waveform. This is further reinforced that by increased commutation angle, higher
rotational speed and loading, of the motor windings results in an improved power factor
even with power factor disabled.
Comparison of the results obtained with PFC enabled highlighted a significant performance
difference between the prototype electronic drive and the original electronic drive; the
prototype electronic drive displays significantly improved power factor. This is graphically
represented for ease of observation in Figure 9-5:

1.2
1
Existing Heavy Load
0.8
Prototype Heavy Load
0.6 Existing Light Load

Prototype Light Load
0.4
Existing No Load
0.2 Prototype No Load
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Figure 9-5: Power factor Correction Comparison
Capturing the voltage, current, and power waveforms from the AC mains supply will
illustrate the current phase angle φ, and the harmonically distorted current waveform.
These captures are shown in side-by-side comparison in Figure 9-6:
Figure 9-6: AC Supply Voltage, Current, And Power Waveform Comparison
The original electronic drive waveform is shown on the left, with the prototype electronic
drive electronic shown on the right; the voltage waveform is shown in green and is a
division of ten, the current waveform is shown in purple, and the power waveform is shown
in red. It is immediately obvious that the original electronic drive shows significantly
harmonically distorted current and power waveforms when compared to the prototype
electronic drive; this is also present in increased vibration and noise from the motor while
operating.

It can be seen that the power factor correction result of the prototype electronic drive is
superior, at almost all rotational speeds and loading; this is an unexpected result as the aim
of the research was to match the performance of the original electronic drive.
The PFC performance of the original electronic drive is disappointing, and it is unlikely that
a commercial product would exhibit such an obvious flaw; therefore a hypothesis is formed
that the PFC of the supplied original electronic drive has a fault preventing correct
operation. To test this hypothesis, the results of the PFC enabled and disabled on the
original electronic drive are compared graphically in Figure 9-7:
0.8
0.7
0.6 PFC ON Heavy Load

0.5 PFC OFF Heavy Load
0.4 PFC ON Light Load
0.3 PFC OFF Light Load

PFC ON No Load
0.2
PFC OFF No Load
0.1
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Figure 9-7: Power Factor Comparison of PFC Enabled And PFC Disabled
The observations from this graphical representation align with the hypothesis that the PFC
is faulty. This conclusion is drawn because the power factor remains uncorrected for most
combinations of speed and loading. There is a considerable increase in power factor at
1000rpm, which is seen at all loadings. This is important to note as it is contradictory to the
hypothesis; investigation of the cause of this result are outside the scope of this thesis, and
further investigation is not necessary to achieving the research objectives.

9.7 Power Supply Performance
The performance of the power supply can be determined by comparative analysis of the
power rails it provides. The rails of interest are the +360V, +15V, +5V, +2.5V, -5V, and
+5V_INT. The results of the comparisons are discussed in the following sections.
9.7.1 +360V Rail

The +360V rail is the output of the boost DC-DC converter of the APFC circuit which was
noted in to be faulty in the original drive in 9.6, Power Factor Comparison, on page 137 of
this document. A significant difference can be expected in the +360V rails between the two
drives; the waveform captures of this rail are shown in Figure 9-8, these waveforms were
captured with the motor operating at a rotational speed of 2500rpm with light loading.
Figure 9-8: +360V Rail Waveform Comparison
The original electronic drive is shown on the left, while the prototype electronic drive is
shown on the right; the waveforms of the two rails are significantly different; as expected
from the results of the power factor comparison.
The original circuit board develops a peak voltage of 319V, which is close to the peak value
expected of a 230Vrms supply if semi-conductor and resistive losses are considered. The
prototype circuit board establishes a peak voltage of 368V, and can be seen to be
constantly adjusting the DC bus voltage as expected of an active power factor correction
supply; this is further evidence that the PFC of the original electronic drive supplied is
faulty.

It can be concluded from this result that the +360V rail of the prototype electronic drive is
superior to the original electronic drive it was compared against; this is only confirmed true
for the original electronic drive supplied, and it is hypothesised that it is not representative
of the original electronic drive design in general.
9.7.2 +15V Rail

The +15V charges the high-side IGBT driver capacitors for the electronic converter, and
provides the input voltage to the +2.5V and +5V regulator; therefore appropriate
performance is critical. The voltage waveforms of the +15V rail are shown in Figure 9-9, the
motor was operating at 2000rpm and was lightly loaded:
Of note is the differing vertical positions within the trace; this is the DC offset of the
oscilloscope and is not related to the +15V rail performance. The original electronic drive is
shown on the left, while the prototype electronic drive is shown on the right.
The performance is almost identical; the +15V rail of the prototype drive exhibits less
interference and less peak to peak variation; the mean voltage is exactly 15.0V. The
increased interference and peak to peak swing in the original electronic drive is the possible
result of harmonic current flow in the windings of Transformer T1 due to the lack of PFC.
This is an untested hypothesis drawn from the results available. Both rails perform with
acceptable performance. However, the prototype electronic drive has the favourable
performance.

9.7.3 +5V Rail
The +5V rail is utilised to power the control circuitry, which is sensitive to poor rail
regulation. The voltage waveforms of the +5V rail are shown Figure 9-10:
The original electronic drive is shown on the left, while the prototype electronic drive is
shown on the right. It can be seen that both drives show identical performance and
therefore the +5V rail meets the research objective.
9.7.4 +2.5V Rail

The +2.5V rail also powers the control circuitry and is therefore appropriate regulation and
performance is required. The voltage waveforms of the +2.5V rail from are shown in Figure
9-11:
Figure 9-11: +2.5V Rail Waveform Comparison

The original electronic drive shown on the left, and the prototype electronic drive is shown
on the right; there is a differing DC offset used to capture the two waveforms that is not
related to the performance of the +2.5V rail.
The performance of the drives is almost identical, and the small difference can be explained
by measurement error. The peak to peak variation is identical, and there is a small
difference in the measured maximum potential, 2.59V against 2.61V, and the minimum
voltage, 2.52V against 2.54V. The +2.5V rail of the prototype electronic drive meets the
research objective requirements.
9.7.5 -5V Supply

The -5V power rail is utilised by the current sensor conditioning circuit. The voltage
waveforms of the -5V rail are shown in Figure 9-12:
Figure 9-12: -5V Rail Waveform Compariosn
The -5V rail is shown to be working appropriately. The square step is present in both the
original and prototype solutions. This square step forms the basis of a quality improvement
and is discussed in Chapter 10, Quality Improvement. The excess noise present in the right
capture was due to the capture being taken with a long wire connecting the probe to the
negative of the supply rail. This capture was unable to be retaken due to the prototype
boards being released to Teknatool.

9.7.6 +5V Isolated Rail
The +5V isolated rail provides power to the interface control panel; the components on this
circuit board are sensitive to poor voltage regulation. The voltage waveforms are shown in
Figure 9-13:
Figure 9-13: +5V_INT Isolated Rail Waveform Comparison
The original electronic drive is shown on the left, while the prototype electric drive is shown
on the right. It can be seen that the two rails exhibit almost identical performance and are
of acceptable performance. The prototype solution has lower peak to peak variation and
therefore meets the requirements of the research objective.
9.8 Phase Winding Comparison
The chopping transistor control signal and resultant phase current waveforms indicate the
performance of the motor. These waveforms can highlight speed control by the
commutation period, and average torque control by the current waveform. The waveforms
may not completely agree in comparative analysis due to the discontinuous nature of
torque generation, resulting in variance between the sequential torque impulses of a given
phase. This is illustrated in Figure 9-14:

Figure 9-14: Current Waveform Variation At Constant Speed
The variation in average and peak phase current can be seen in sequential phase
excitations. This behaviour is indicative of torque ripple present within an SRM, and
illustrates the need to constantly adjust the torque contribution of any given phase to
achieve steady state speed control.
The significant points to note are the appropriate control of the current waveform and the
commutation period. These waveform captures are compared for motor speeds ranging
from 500 to 3500rpm, and varying loads in the following sections.
9.8.1 100rpm
The chopping transistor control and phase current waveform captures for unloaded and
light loading at 100rpm are shown in Figure 9-15, and Figure 9-16. Heavy loading was not
possible due to insufficient motor power at this speed:

Figure 9-15: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 100rpm Unloaded
Figure 9-16: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 100rpm Lightly Loaded
The original electronic drive waveforms are shown on the left, and the prototype drive
waveforms are shown on the right; there is a DC offset difference between the waveforms,
and this is not related to the performance of the electronic drives. There is some EMI
inherent in the current waveforms; this was unable to be completely removed by filtering,
as it would risk losing fidelity in the captures.
It can be seen from the captures that the commutation period and shape of the current
waveform for both drives is similar but not identical; this shows the difficulty in obtaining
identical waveform captures from an SRM due to the inherent variability of discontinuous
torque generation. The performance of the prototype drive meets that of the original drive
at 100rpm operation.

The waveform captures of the 100rpm results highlight the long commutation period
available at low rotational speeds; approximately 37.5ms. The rise of the current waveform
appears sharp but this due to the long time-base division of 5ms.
9.8.2 1000rpm
The chopping transistor control and phase current waveform captures for unloaded, light
loading, and heavy loading at 1000rpm are shown in Figure 9-17, Figure 9-18, and Figure
9-19:

Figure 9-19: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 1000rpm Heavily Loaded
waveforms are shown on the right.
It can be seen from the results that the control algorithm moves towards singular pulse
control as the loading increases; this indicates that the motor is operating at or near the
base speed ߱௕ .
There is no significant difference between the waveform captures at any loading; therefore,
the prototype drive meets the performance of the original drive while operating at
1000rpm.
The commutation can be seen to have noticeably decreased from approximately 37.5ms, at
100rpm, to approximately 3.75ms; this reduction is expected as the commutation period is
inversely proportional to the rotational speed of the motor.
9.8.3 2000rpm
9-22:

Figure 9-22: Chopping Signal And Phase Current at 2000rpm Heavily Loaded

waveforms are shown on the right. Figure 9-20 uses a differing current-division scale of
200mA/division for the original drive, and 500mA/division for the prototype drive. Figure
9-21 also uses a differing current-division scale of 500mA/division for the original drive, and
1A/division for the prototype drive.
2000rpm.
It can be seen that the phase current is beginning to self-constrain and the dependence on
phase voltage control is decreasing. This is apparent when the motor is running unloaded
which is strong evidence that the motor is operating well above the base speed ߱௕ . Under
heavy loading the control algorithm is operating in singular pulse control.
100rpm, to approximately 2ms.
9.8.4 3000rpm
9-25:

Figure 9-25: Chopping Signal And Phase Current At 3000rpm Heavily Loaded
200mA/division for the original drive, and 500mA/division for the prototype drive. Figure
9-23 also uses a differing time-base of 250μS/division for the original drive, and
500μS/division for the prototype drive. Figure 9-24 also uses a differing current-division
scale of 500mA/division for the original drive, and 1A/division for the prototype drive.
Figure 9-24 also uses differing time-base of 250μS/division for the original drive, and
500μS/division for the prototype drive.
3000rpm.

It can be seen that the phase current is more likely to self-constrain and the dependence on
phase voltage control is further decreased over 2000rpm. Under heavy loading the control
algorithm is operating in singular pulse control.
100rpm, to approximately 2ms.
9.8.5 Full-sweep acceleration

Acceleration of the motor from rest to maximum rotational speed, 3500rpm, with varying
load illustrates the ability of the control algorithm to allow the production of positive
torque with a continuously increasing shaft speed. This requires the peak of the phase
current to be limited while allowing the generation of the highest average torque.
This also highlights the ability of the control algorithm to continuously adapt the frequency
of switching the phases sequentially to prevent negative torque generation, and the ability
to prevent overshoot of the target shaft speed. Therefore, it is important to show this
behaviour in side-by-side comparative analysis between the original and prototype
electronic drives. The current and chopping control signal waveform captures for unloaded,
light loading, and heavy loading are shown for in Figure 9-26, Figure 9-27, and Figure 9-28:
Figure 9-26: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Unloaded

Figure 9-27: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Lightly Loaded
Figure 9-28: Full-sweep Acceleration Comparison Heavily Loaded
2A/division for the original drive, and 1A/division for the prototype drive. The control
algorithm can be seen to regulate the speed of the motor following the acceleration in all of
the captures above.
There is no significant difference present between any of the waveforms, the allowable
current is high while the motor is accelerating, but is quickly constrained when the
reference speed is reached. The average current then falls into a steady rhythmic pattern
indicating the lack of overshoot. This confirms that the prototype electronic drive meets the
performance of the original drive and therefore meets the requirements of the research
objectives.

9.9 Summary
This chapter reviews the inability to take appropriate measurements from the electronic
drive with conventional measurement equipment; specifically illustrating the need for
isolation. A circuit is presented which allows measurement of key waveforms from the
electronic drive without the need for an isolated oscilloscope. However, this circuit does
not allow differential measurements to be taken.
This chapter also presents and discusses the results of a comparative evaluation between
the original electronic drive and the prototyped separated electronic drive; this
comparative analysis was carried out using an isolated oscilloscope.
The results of this evaluation prove that the prototype drive has no loss of performance
when compared to the original solution. Conversely, the prototype displayed superior
performance at correcting the power factor in both phase angle difference and purity
factor; this may be the result of a faulty original drive and not the general case.
The information presented in this chapter highlights the achievement of a key objective of
this research, this being the ability to demonstrate that there is no degradation in
performance between the original drive and the prototype separated drive.

Chapter 10
Quality Improvement
"The ability of discerning high quality unavoidably
implies the ability of identifying shortcomings“
- Edsger W. Dijkstra
This chapter introduces the various quality observations noted throughout the research.
These quality observations are discussed in depth for their merits, and solutions are
proposed to improve overall system quality. These observations form possible future
development for the electronic drive, and this chapter will discuss the most appropriate
combination of the proposed solutions to for improvement. These solutions are
determined based upon the electronic drive’s specific needs, manufacturing cost,
development time, and implementation difficulty.
155 | P a g e C h a p t e r 1 0 |Quality Improvement

10.1 Appropriate Isolation of Control Circuitry
The electronic drive is required to achieve two major functional tasks, primarily to provide
transformation and conversion of the input power signal to facilitate current flow through
the windings of the motor without exceeding the capabilities of the components. Secondly,
to continuously adjust that power delivery appropriately through a combination of
feedback sensors, and actuators, to provide torque and speed control.
The power aspect of the electronic drive handles high voltage and high current signals;
these signals are potentially lethal, and capable of generating large amounts of electrical
noise. An example of this is the cyclic variation in the potential of the bridge rectifier return.
This is due to the switched nature of the current flowing through the motor windings.
Conversely, the control circuit handles low voltage, and low current signals. The result
being that the control circuit is more susceptible to EMI generated by the power supply
circuitry.
There is also human interaction with the control circuitry, and it is common practice to
isolate the control circuit from the power supply by allowing it to float. This floating allows
high common mode signal rejection, improving the accuracy of the readings from sensors,
and the presence of electrical isolation greatly reduces the chance of electrocution for the
user. Therefore it is common industry practice to isolate the control circuit from the power
supply.
A cursory glance at the schematic for the DVR SRM electronic drive gives the false
impression that the control circuit and the power supply are isolated through the use of the
isolated windings of transformer T1. It can also be noted that there are various electrical
nets (e.g 0V, 0V_PWR, 0V_IZM) which allows the assumption that these are electrically
separate; this is not the case as all negative nets are connected together.
It is important to note that the centre of the winding utilised to generate the control circuit
power rails, +5V, +2.5V, is directly connected to 0V_PWR which removes any isolation that
would be provided by the transformer T1. This removal of isolation by the transformer in
this manner is shown in Figure 10-1, and is highlighted by the red circle:
C h a p t e r 1 0 |Quality Improvement 156 | P a g e

Figure 10-1: Transformer T1 Defeating Control Circuit Isolation
The schematic for the non-isolated control circuit supply rails is shown in Figure 10-2:
Figure 10-2: +2.5V/+5V Power Supply Schematic
The electronic drive does contain an isolated +5V supply, the nets for this supply being
referred to as +5V_INT and +0V_INT respectively. This isolated supply provides power to
the interface panel which ensures safe operation for the human user. The schematic for the
isolated +5V_INT supply rail is shown in Figure 10-3:

Figure 10-3: +5V_INT Isolated Power Supply Schematic
However, the combination of the non-isolated +5V and isolated +5V_INT causes
communication difficulties between these two functionally related circuits, which requires
opto-coupling to correct (Refer Appendix D.6 on page 263).
With the aim of providing complete separation between the control circuit and the power
supply circuit, the line of isolation should be identical to the separation line. To achieve this,
the secondary windings in transformer T1 should be allowed to float, and the duplicated
+5V_INT isolated supply can be removed. The interface circuit board can operate from the
same power supply rails as the rest of the control circuit. This requires the addition of opto-
coupling to the digital communication inputs and outputs present between the power
supply and the control circuit board, as well isolated operational amplifiers or hall-effect
sensors for measurement of phase currents. The proposed changes to the control circuit
board power supply rails schematic are shown in Figure 10-4, and are highlighted by the red
circles:
Figure 10-4: Proposed isolation Modification To +2.5V/+5V Power Supply

Achievement of this quality improvement is dependent upon modifying the extant current
sensing, which is an implementation of resistive sensing. The required modifications to the
phase current measurement are discussed in detail in the following section.
Implementation of this quality improvement allows the integration of the separate

interface circuit board resulting in further reduction in complexity of the electronic drive,
removal of a duplicated power rail, and removal of a surplus winding from the transformer;
this translates into reduced cost and higher product quality.
10.2 Improved Current Sensing
An integral variable in the control of an SRM is the phase current; therefore accurate
measurement of this current is of critical importance. The current waveform is beneficial to
the control algorithm for several reasons, the primary reason being to detect an over-
current condition in one, or many, of the motor phases. Operation of the motor is then
ceased to prevent damage to the respective winding; this is also advantageous in displaying
relevant error messages for machine diagnostics.
The measurement of current is also used to control the torque output of an SRM. As
mentioned in Chapter 6, Control Algorithms, the current is continuously measured and the
power switching devices are operated as to control the average torque produced by the
motor, thereby achieving speed regulation. An accurate current measurement is crucial to
extracting the greatest performance. An accurate current measurement can be used to
estimate the rotational position of the rotor, thereby removing the need for additional
position sensors [62].
There are various methods of measuring the phase current, these being the use of either a
very small series resistance, known as resistive sensing, or coupling through the use of a
hall-effect sensor, known as inductive sensing; the benefit of the hall-effect sensor is that it
provides isolation by its nature of operation (Refer Appendix D.9 on page 274).
The present implementation of current sensing utilised by the DVR electronic drive is
resistive sensing: the flow of current creates a measurable potential difference across the
sensing resistance in series with the motor winding. The sensing resistor utilised is a wire
hoop which is trimmed to length, and soldered through a plated through-hole on the circuit

board. This approach causes a large variance in the resistance of the sensing components,
which skews the calibration of the current sensing between phases.
The schematic of the resistive sensing current approach utilised within the DVR electronic
converter is shown in Figure 10-5:
Figure 10-5: Converter Implementing Per-phase Resistive Current Sensing
An improvement to this approach would be the use of commercially available motor sense
resistors (Refer Appendix D.7 on page 270). This would ensure accurate and consistent
current measurement across all three phases. However, this approach lacks isolation. To
allow isolation of the control circuit with this approach would require the use of isolation
amplifiers (Refer Appendix D.12 on page 291). The isolation amplifier does not amplify the
differential input as the gain is unity; it allows the same amplitude signal to be present
relative to a different potential reference on the far side of the isolation barrier. This is the
simplest approach to improving the accuracy of the current sensing, as well as providing
signal isolation.
The use of a hall-effect sensor would provide extremely accurate and consistent current
measurement that is isolated by the nature of the sensor, allowing appropriate isolation of
the control circuit; the drawback to this approach is the individual cost of the sensors. A
possible sensor is (Refer Appendix D.8 on page 272). A schematic for phase current
measurement using inductive sensing is shown in Figure 10-6:

Figure 10-6: Converter Implementing Per-phase Inductive Current Sensing
In an effort to further reduce component count, the individual phase current sensors can be
removed and replaced by a single DC Bus current sensor; this technique applies to both
resistive sensing and inductive sensing.
Due to the near exclusivity of phase excitation, except for overlap between a phase
becoming excited and a phase de-energising, it could be possible to use the envelope of the
current waveform in combination with the rotor position sensors to provide an accurate
current measurement for all phases. This technique may not scale to position sensor-less
operation due to the inability to identify the respective phase for the measured current.
This is a viable area for further investigation if position sensor-less operation is not desired.
A schematic highlighting both resistive and inductive sensing techniques for a single DC bus
current sensor is shown in Figure 10-7:

Figure 10-7: Converter Implementing DC bus Inductive And Resistive Current Sensing
This quality improvement promises to reduce the variability in the measurement of current
flowing through the phase windings. This will result in a reduction in the variance of the
torque produced by each phase and therefore a reduction in torque ripple. It also allows a
higher peak torque output by allowing the motor to operate closer to the maximum
allowable current flow of the windings.

10.3 -5V Rail Regulation
Capturing power rail waveforms for comparative analysis identified the -5V rail as an area
for quality improvement. The power rail exhibited a cyclical square step present in the
voltage waveform. The captured waveform is shown in Figure 10-8:
Figure 10-8: -5V Power Rail Capture Showing Cyclical Step
The current flowing through the primary winding of transformer T1 is coupled to the
secondary winding and creates a path for the current to flow through. This current flows
through capacitor C66 and creates a potential difference between 0V_IZM and the -5V rail;
diode VD19 provides reverse polarity protection. The load presented to the -5V is related to
the voltage regulation achieved. The schematic for the generation of the -5V rail is shown in
Figure 10-9:
Figure 10-9: -5V Power Supply Schematic

The cyclical step as shown Figure 10-8 is caused by two factors. The first being that the
+360V voltage present across the winding of transformer T1 is switched to earth through
the TOPS switch D10; this results in a discontinuous voltage being applied to the winding
and therefore a cyclical variation in the current. The second is the lack of a voltage
regulator present on the output of the -5V rail.
The cyclical square step in the -5V rail could be completely eliminated with the use of a
voltage regulator. A linear regulator would be the most appropriate choice due to the high
frequency present in the -5V rail. A switching regulator could be utilised effectively if the
rate of change of the voltage is reduced. A schematic for the proposed modification is
shown in Figure 10-10, and is highlighted by the red square:
Figure 10-10: Proposed Regulator Modification To -5V Power Supply
This modification requires the inductance of the secondary winding to be increased to

create a larger potential difference across the secondary winding; this will increase the
magnitude of the negative potential, in reference to 0V_IZM, that capacitor C66 will charge
to. The capacitance could also be increased to reduce the rate of voltage change, allowing
the use of a switching regulator or reducing the losses of a linear regulator. The voltage
stored in capacitor C66 should be of sufficient potential to exceed the sum of the dropout
voltage and the rail potential of the voltage regulator. The output capacitors, in parallel
with the voltage regulator, are present to improve the voltage regulation of transient
voltage inputs such as the cyclical nature of the input to the voltage regulator.
This quality improvement promises to achieve a stable -5V supply rail, with significantly
reduced ripple. The regulated output will provide a -5V supply regardless of load allowing
changes to the circuit without the need to recalibrate the supply rail.

10.4 Phase Switching Components
The +360V DC Bus rail is switched by IGBT’s to conduct current through the phases. They
are used in both high and low side driving to allow a uni-polar switching scheme; the
datasheet for the IGBT utilised can be found in Appendix D.4 on page 247. The schematic
highlighting this arrangement can be seen in Figure 10.5:
The Bi-polar Junction Transistor (BJT) family has traditionally been the only plausible choice
as a power transistor in high voltage, high current operation. However BJT transistors
require a current signal for biasing, which increases the complexity of the control circuitry.
BJT transistors also have a long current tail, and due to their negative temperature co-
efficient are liable for thermal-runaway. The lowest on-state voltage drop attainable is
voltage between the collector and the emitter while operating in saturation.
In comparison, the Metal Oxide Strip Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is biased by the
voltage present at the gate which alleviates the complexity associated with current-
controlled transistors. Thermal-runaway is prevented by the positive temperature co-
efficient, and the current tail is very short. The on-state voltage drop is very minimal at low
currents in comparison to the BJT transistor and this significantly reduces both the
switching and on-state losses. Traditionally the MOSFET could not handle high voltage, and
high current waveforms making it a poor choice as a power transistor.
The IGBT is a compromise between the BJT and MOSFET; it behaves as a BJT transistor, but
is voltage controlled. The IGBT therefore carries over the inherent disadvantages in the
design of the BJT transistor, such as long current tail, significant conductive voltage drop,
thermal-runaway due to negative temperature co-efficient. The IGBT transistor was the
power transistor of choice due to its exceptionally high current and voltage capabilities,
while remaining a voltage-controlled device.
The MOSFET transistor has shown recent advances in the capabilities of high voltage and
current handling, while maintaining the positive benefits over the IGBT transistor;
particularly notable is the difference in cost. The two transistors can be utilised almost
interchangeably with both devices available in the same packages, and being pin
compatible. The same floating driving circuitry (Refer Appendix D.3 on page 238) can be
utilised to switch either device as they are both voltage-controlled. The IGBT’s utilised on

the Teknatool DVR electronic drive can be replaced for pin-compatible N-channel
MOSFET’s; the schematic showing this modification is shown in Figure 10-11:
Figure 10-11: Asymmetric half-bridge Converter Implementing MOSFET Transistors
A suitable power N-channel Power MOSFET for this quality improvement is shown in
Appendix D.5 on page 257.
This quality improvement promises the following benefits:
x Reduction in manufacturing cost

x Drop-in replacement, no modification to existing circuit board design
x Inclusion of body drain diode helps free-wheel limited currents
x Significant reduction in current tail on switch-off
x Prevention of thermal-runaway due to positive temperature co-efficient
x Improvement in overall circuit efficiency
x Reduction in heat generation of electronic drive
x Increase in life of phase switching transistors

10.5 Integration of circuit boards
This research focused on the electronic drive circuit board and separation of the power and
control aspects onto respective individual circuit boards. An extension to this project would
be to utilise the free space now available on each of the boards respectively, see Appendix
C, Research Outputs, to amalgamate the remaining circuit boards.
In Chapter 4, Power Supply Architecture, Figure 4.1 shows the functional diagram of a
typical SRM power supply. An important aspect of this diagram is the EMI filtering. In the
present version of the electronic drive, the EMI filter is present on a separate circuit board.
This circuit board can be amalgamated into the newly separated power supply circuit board
to physically group all similar function components together.
Similarly, the main control circuit board, and the interface panel are also currently placed
on separate circuit boards. These circuit boards can also be amalgamated together to
further reduce electronic drive complexity. This amalgamation is logical following the
introduction of appropriate isolation as discussed in section 10.1 of this chapter.
This quality improvement improves ease of manufacturing and reduces the number of
connections between circuit boards, thereby reducing connectors and cabling.
10.6 Active Braking for Emergency Stop
A quality observation that was noticed initially was the run-down period of the motor
following switch-off of the input power. Investigating this run-down period resulted in two
major findings. The first being that the energy stored in the +360V DC Bus is not dumped on
power switch-off, and the rotational momentum of the spinning rotor is not counteracted
upon switch-off.
An initial proposal, to monitor the state of the +360V bus and switch in a dump resistance
to bleed the energy from the capacitors, was decided against as this only provides a
solution for the torque generation after switch-off, and required the addition of
components to the power supply circuit.

An elegant solution is to implement active braking to utilise the energy stored in the
capacitors to counteract the rotational momentum of the spinning rotor. To achieve this,
the phases are excited after the salient rotor pole has passed the position of minimum
reluctance; thereby operating in the negative torque generation region. This negative
torque opposes the positive torque provided by the rotational momentum; to achieve the
most rapid deceleration of the rotor requires the maximum allowable current to flow
through the windings.
This quality improvement will result in the motor stopping rapidly upon power switch-off,
in the attempt of reducing personal injury as the result of the motor continuing to generate
torque after switch-off. There are no extra components required for this improvement as
the state of the input power is already sensed.
This improvement does require an addition to the programming of the control algorithm to
detect when the motor is rotating and the input power is not present.
10.7 Sensor-less Operation
Sensor-less operation is an area of extensive research in the field of SRMs [63], it proves to
reduce manufacturing cost and improve system reliability by eliminating the need for
position sensors. This is achieved by calculation of the rotor position from the current
waveforms of each phase. Therefore, the term sensor-less operation is somewhat of a
misnomer, as there is a heavier dependence upon an accurate current waveform; a more
appropriate name would be position sensor-less operation.
Sensor-less operation is technically not a currently viable quality improvement for the
Teknatool DVR electronic drive, as this is an area that is currently being researched.
However, it does present itself as a possible long-term goal for quality improvement within
the electronic drive.
Sensor-less operation allows a significant reduction in the manufacturing cost, and

complexity of the electronic drive. This is because all of position sensors, and supporting
hardware, can be removed; thereby removing a point of failure from the system. The
position sensors have been a common failure within the Tekantool DVR electronic drive,

and removing the dependence of the control algorithm from them would result in a
significant increase in product quality.
10.8 Recommendations for improvement
The previous sections of this chapter have discussed the various aspects of the circuit board
where quality can be improved, and provided an appropriate solution for the respective
observation. For some observations, many solutions were discussed. The focus of this
section is to bring these improvements together into a coherent improvement plan that
identifies the most appropriate solutions, in the correct order, to facilitate quality
improvement of the Teknatool DVR electronic drive.
An ideal starting point for the quality improvement process is to replace the IGBT switching
transistors with N-MOSFET equivalents. This is a relatively simple task, as the current IGBT
driver circuitry will also operate FET devices with no modifications to the circuit board, and
both transistors utilise the same package and are pin-compatible.
Improving the -5V power supply rail by the addition of regulation is another simple task.
This requires the additional components, a voltage regulator and capacitors, for the power
supply. My recommendation would be to increase the capacitance value of capacitor C66 to
facilitate the use of a switching regulator for the highest efficiency. This will provide a stable
-5V rail.
At this point, Isolation of the circuit boards is possible, and required to proceed with quality
improvement. This task is simplified since the electronic drive has been separated into two
circuit boards, therefore diminishing the task of identifying shorts between the two
negative references significantly. Isolation can be achieved by removing the connection
between 0V_PWR net and the centre tap of transformer T1, and correction of the negative
references utilised during the generation of the control circuit power supply rails
(+5V,+2.5).
Isolation also requires isolation of the analogue current sensor signals, and the digital
communication lines between the power supply and control circuits. Therefore I propose
not to remove the existing +5V_INT regulator and transformer winding, but to tie one end
of the winding to 0V_PWR and replace the linear regulator with a switching regulator. This

will form the power supply for the isolation barrier components such as the isolation
amplifiers, and opto-couplers, which require a reference to both negative nets.
Integration of the EMI filter into the power supply, and integration of the interface panel
into the control circuit is now possible. There is sufficient space remaining on each board to
facilitate the movement of these components. This will reduce manufacturing cost and
group like function components together.
The recommendations so far have not required any modification to the control algorithm.
However, the remaining quality improvements require this. Throughout the duration of the
research I did not have access to the high-level microcontroller programming, therefore the
next logical step in quality improvement is to obtain, or rewrite, the control algorithm.
Completion of this allows further modification to the control algorithm and continued
quality development.
The ability to modify the microcontroller programming facilitates the integration of the two
microprocessors. The interface circuit board operates from a second microcontroller and
therefore there is component overhead. Amalgamation of the two microcontrollers
together reduces both cost and component count.
Upgrading the current sensing is an important step that requires the ability to adjust the
calibration of the current sensor in the control algorithm. My recommendation for the
current sensing is to utilise commercially available motor sense resistors for a number of
reasons. The first being that the topology is a direct replacement for the current sensing
already utilised, as it is also resistive sensing. The second reason is that it requires no
modifications to the hardware of the electronic drive to facilitate, only correction in the
control algorithm software. The last reason is the increase in phase impedance balance due
to the very low variance, component value tolerance, in the motor sense resistors; this
minimises torque ripple due to variations in the calibration of the current sensing. I do not
recommend utilising a single DC bus current sensor at this time, as it is currently an area of
active research, and there is some current waveform information loss when the phase
currents overlap and the freewheeling current of the phases is also visible to the sensor.
Modification to the control algorithm allows the implementation of Active Braking by

adjusting the firing angle of the phase excitations to the negative torque generation region;
this allows the motor to stop rapidly. Implementation of Active Braking is a small addition
to the programming of the control algorithm.

As mentioned in Chapter 10.7, Sensor-less operation is a long-term goal, but if successfully
implemented would allow further reductions in cost, component overhead, and complexity,
while improving system reliability. Therefore it has been placed as the final milestone in the
quality improvement of the Teknatool DVR electronic drive.
10.9 Summary
This chapter investigated the quality improvement observations noted throughout the
undertaking of this research. Namely concentrating on the ability to improve reliability,
performance, and safety while reducing component count and manufacturing cost. The
observations covered were:
x Isolation
x Current Sensing
x Regulation
x Switching Components
x Integration for manufacturing
x Active Braking
x Sensor-less position detection
Solutions for improving quality in all of these areas were presented, discussed and
assembled into a roadmap for continuous quality development of the electronic drive.

Chapter 11
Conclusion
“If I have seen farther than others, it is because I was
standing on the shoulders of giants.”
- Sir Isaac Newton
This chapter considers the outcome of the research, and draws conclusions about the
success of the research based upon achievement of the key research objectives, and
appropriately addressing the problem domain. Finally, the possibilities of future work
extending from this research are proposed.
173 | P a g e C h a p t e r 1 1 |Conclusion
11.1 Research Objectives
Successful completion of this research was attributed to the achievement of seven key
objectives outlined in Chapter 1.6, Research Objectives. Therefore each of these objectives
must be considered for achievement, with supporting justification, before the research can
be concluded as a success.
The first objective states the requirement to “Provide intimate knowledge about the
specific machine configuration, including motor and electronic topologies”. Achievement of
this objective can be shown by the detailed information presented in Chapter 6, Teknatool
DVR SRM Implementation; this chapter builds upon knowledge presented in Chapter 2,
Operating principles, Chapter 3, Motor construction, Chapter 4, Power supply and electronic
converter, and Chapter 5, Control algorithms; these chapters contain the background
information required for the specific implementations to be identified.
The second objective states the requirement of providing “The ability to take
measurements of major signals present on the electronic drive”. Achievement of this
objective is presented in Chapter 9, Instrumentation and testing, which highlights the
difficulties in obtaining measurements from the electronic drive. The outcome of this
objective is the design of an instrumentation circuit that can be connected between the
electronic drive and the motor; this circuit provides the ability to capture waveforms using
non-isolated measurement equipment.
The third objective states the requirement for the identification of “Justified separation
points between functional components of the electronic drive. These points must present
the best possible separation based upon safety, circuit operation, and ease of future quality
improvement”. Achievement of this objective is presented in Chapter 7, Separation process,
and Chapter 8, Prototype design and manufacture; these chapters discuss the process of
identifying the separation points in an iterative process, and justifications for the decision
of the final points.
The fourth objective states the requirement of “Development of a separated prototype

electronic drive that can be demonstrated to operate the specific SRM correctly. The circuit
boards will be of manufacturable standard, and be able to directly replace the existing
electronics”. Achievement of this objective is discussed in Chapter 8, Prototype design and
C h a p t e r 1 1 |Conclusion 174 | P a g e
manufacture, which highlights the design process of the separated prototype electronic
drive, and basic assembly testing to ensure operation of the SRM.
The fifth objective states the requirement to “Demonstrate that there is no degradation of
performance between the prototype and the original electronic drive; comparative
evaluation will be undertaken to achieve this”. Achievement of this objective is shown in
Chapter 9, Instrumentation and testing, which illustrates the validity of the prototype
electronic drive performance by comparative analysis with the original electronic drive. The
performance of the prototype electronic drive is shown to at meet, at minimum, the
performance the supplied original electronic drive. In the case of power factor correction,
the prototype electronic drive exhibited superior performance.
The sixth objective states the requirement of “Identification of areas for investigation of
quality improvement. The inclusion of these areas will be discussed and justified”.
Achievement of this objective can be seen in Chapter 10, Quality improvement, which lists,
prioritises, and discusses in depth, the quality observations recorded throughout the
research. Plausible solution(s) are illustrated in response to each quality observation, and
justified recommendations collated into a roadmap for improving the quality of the
electronic drive design.
The seventh and last objective states the requirement to “Completed documentation of the
electronic drive, including complete component and signal listing, connector information,
and revised schematics. This thesis is evidence of the achievement of this objective as it
provides SRM knowledge from general background through to specific implementations of
component topologies present in the DVR SRM. The specific information pertaining to the
electronic drive design is illustrated specifically in Chapter 7, Separation process, and
Chapter 8, Prototype design and manufacture; the outcomes of achieving this objective can
be found in Appendix C, Research Outputs, starting on page 203.
11.2 Research outcome
To consider this research successful, achievement of the research objectives must be met,
and appropriate addressing of the problem domain; achievement of the research objectives
is shown in Chapter 11.1, Research objectives.
The problem domain expressed in Chapter 1.3, Description of Problem Domain, states “The
problem domain can be expressed as the inability to identify the cause(s) responsible for
the lack of quality within the electronic drive. This inability arises from the complexity of
the electronic drive architecture; this complexity must be reduced to allow the cause(s) for
the lack of quality to be discovered and corrected”.
This can be expressed as two major constituents to be considered: the inability to identify
the cause of insufficient quality, the complexity of the electronic drive must be reduced.
These considerations need to be addressed before the research can be considered
successful.
The complexity of the electronic drive has been reduced by separation into power and
control functional components; these components are present on separate circuit boards.
This has reduced the complexity of investigating each circuit in detail, and for isolating the
cause of failures within each circuit. This has also standardised the necessary connections
required between the power and control components should one of the circuits be
redesigned.
The inability to identify the cause of insufficient quality was related to the lack of intimate
product design knowledge, and the complexity of the electronic drive; both of these
complications have been resolved. This thesis provides the intimate product design
knowledge, including areas of potential quality improvement, and the design of the
separated prototype electronic drive.
These deliverables address the problem domain and bring successful conclusion to this
research.
11.3 Future work
The successful result of this research has resulted in the generation of intimate product
design knowledge, a quality improvement roadmap, and a separated prototype electronic
drive that is proven to operate with at least the same performance of the original electronic
drive.
This facilitates into three major projects for future consideration: Manufacturing of the
prototype separated electronic drive, detailed quality analysis, and implementation of the
quality improvement roadmap. The prospects of these projects will be briefly considered.
Manufacturing of the prototype separated electronic drive is a project which will carry the
current prototype solution through to a mass manufacturable solution, and is
manufacturing engineering focused; the outcome of this project is the cost-effective
manufacture and inclusion of the separated prototype electronic drive in the commercial
product.
Detailed quality analysis involves using the intimate system knowledge gained here to find
the root cause(s) of the common mode failures shown in Appendix A, DVR Technical
Information, on page 186, and implementing the necessary solutions to reduce the
frequency of electronic drive failure; this project is electronic engineering focused.
Implementation of the quality improvement roadmap involves utilising the quality

observations recorded in this thesis and implementing the proposed changes to improve
efficiency, performance, and reliability of the DVR SRM as a whole. This project is also
electronic engineering focused.
11.4 Concluding remarks
Undertaking this research has been a great experience; the lessons learnt from this project
will become an invaluable resource to me in my future career. I have enjoyed the challenge
of improving my skills, and knowledge, to the proficiency that a Master’s degree demands.
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Appendix A
DVR Technical Information
183 | P a g e A p p e n d i x A |DVR Technical Information

A.1 Fault Information
No. Serial Fault Mode Repairs
1 (94)6967 N/A OK
2 (94)6969 N/A Re-soldered
3 (94)6970 N/A New capacitors, LM2901, Transformer
4 (94)6972 N/A OK
5 (94)6973 N/A OK
7 (94)6975 F1 New P6KE200A
8 (94)6977 N/A New capacitors, TOP221, Transformer
9 (94)6979 C1 New capacitors, Transformer, Resistor
10 (94)6980 P1 OK
11 (94)6981 F1 New P6KE200A
12 (94)6982 N/A New Processor
13 (94)6983 P1 New processor, Capacitors
14 (94)6984 P2 OK
15 (94)6985 C2 New Processor, PLM, Capacitors
16 (94)6986 N/A New transformer
17 (94)6988 N/A OK
18 (94)6990 F2 New P6KE200A
19 (94)6994 F3 New P6KE200A
20 (94)6995 N/A New Capacitors
21 (94)6996 F1 New P6KE200A
23 (94)6998 F3 OK
25 (94)7012 N/A OK
26 (94)7013 F4 OK
C2 New Capacitors, Transformer, Resistor,

27 (94)7016
Thyristor
A p p e n d i x A |DVR Technical Information 184 | P a g e

28 (94)7071 C2 New Processor, Capacitors, PLM, Resonator
30 (94)7074 F3 New P6KE200A
31 (94)7076 N/A New P6KE200A
32 (94)7077 F1 New P6KE200A
33 (94)7078 N/A New P6KE200A
34 (94)7079 F1 New P6KE200A
35 (94)6987 P1 Re-soldered
36 (94)6976 F5 Re-soldered
37 (94)6978 P2 OK
39 (94)6971 N/A New MCP100
40 (94)6963 F6 Film Capacitors was broken
41 (94)6964 F1 Transformer was broken
42 (94)6965 N/A New Capacitors, TOP221
43 (94)6966 P2 N/A
44 (94)6968 F1 N/A
45 (94)6989 F1 N/A
46 (94)6991 N/A N/A
47 (94)6992 P2 N/A
48 (94)7000 F7 New Transformer
49 (94)7001 C3 New Transformer
50 (94)7002 N/A New Transformer
51 (94)7003 N/A
52 (94)7004 C4 New Transformer
53 (94)7005 N/A Replace PCB
54 (94)7006 X1 New Transformer
55 (94)7007 N/A Replace PCB
56 (94)7008 P3 New Transformer
57 (94)7009 N/A New Transformer

58 (94)7010 N/A N/A
59 (94)7011 N/A New Capacitors
60 (94)7014 N/A First board for testing
61 (94)7073 F1 N/A
62 (94)7075 P4 New Transformer
Table A-1: Fault Repair Information
Fault Mode Fault Description Count
C1 Broken Transformer
C2 Tantalum Capacitor Burned
C3 Circuit Board Burnt On Front Right
C4 Mess 01 Bad Board
F1 Pilot Lamp Flashing
F2 Sometimes Goes To Reverse
F3 Running On It’s Own
F4 Suddenly Slowed While Accelerating
F5 RPS State Error
F6 Flashing LCD
F7 Motor Will Not Start
P1 Lost Power
P2 Overload Problem
P3 No Power
P4 Current Fault
X1 Board Damaging In Shipping
Table A-2: Fault Mode

A.2 Fault Messages
Fault Mode Fault Description
Not connected No Communication between Control and Interface PCBs
Unexpected Fault Wrong error code was received by Interface PCB
SRM Not Rotate Motor did not start successfully after five attempts
RPS State Error0 All Rotor Position Sensor Signals have the logical ”0” value
RPS State Error1 All Rotor Position Sensor Signals have the logical ”1” value
Low Voltage DC Bus voltage is less than 300 VDC for two seconds
PFC fault PFC Fault signal has the active for five seconds
Hardware fault Hardware problems detected (See note below)
Unexpected Trap Unexpected software trap
Table A-3: DVR Control LCD Board Fault Messages
Note: The hardware fault is detected in the following conditions:
1. The fault signal from the IGBT driver was detected

2. At least one motor phase current reached critical value (overcurrent protection)
3. Hardware fault in the driver/inverter circuit (i.e a damaged IGBT)
4. An overvoltage condition was detected on the DC bus capacitors

A.3 Motor Parameters
Parameter Value
Motor Type Switched Reluctance Motor (DVR)
Motor Phase Number 3
Rotor Pole Number 8
Stator Pole Number 12
Output Power 1.25kW
Power Supply Voltage 115V@60Hz, 230V@50Hz
Motor Speed Range 100 – 5500RPM
Power Factor ≥ 0.95
Temperature Range 0˚C - 70˚C
PWM Frequency 8kHz
PWM Protect Frequency 9kHz
Starting Torque 50% Maximum
Table A-4: DVR SRM Motor Parameters

A.4 Control Board Schematic
Figure A-1: DVR Control Board Schematic
A larger version of this schematic is available on the supplied CD

A.5 Interface Board Schematic
Figure A-2: Interface Board Circuit Schematic

A.6 Rotor Position Sensor Schematic
Figure A-3: Rotor Position Circuit Schematic
A.7 EMI Filter
Figure A-4: Mains EMI Filter Schematic

A.8 Control Board Printed Circuit Boards
Figure A-5: DVR Control Circuit Board Top Layer

Figure A-6: DVR Control Circuit Board Bottom Layer

A.9 Interface Board PCB
Figure A-7: Interface Panel Circuit Board Top Layer
Figure A-8: Interface Panel Circuit Board Bottom Layer

A.10 Rotor Position Sensor PCB
Figure A-9: Rotor Position Sensor Circuit Board Top Layer
Figure A-10: Rotor Position Sensor Circuit Board Bottom Layer

Appendix B
Measurement Data
197 | P a g e A p p e n d i x B | Measurement Data

B.1 Motor Dimensions
Figure B-1: Motor Dimensions
ID Description Dimension (mm)

Lsy Stator yoke thickness 10
Wst Stator teeth width 10
Hst Stator teeth height 25
Rst Stator teeth radius 40
Rsi Yoke inner radius 65
Rso Yoke outer radius 75
Wrt Rotor teeth width 12.78-13.32 (trapezoidal)
Rri Rotor inside radius 31.5
Rro Rotor outer radius 39.65
Hrt Rotor teeth height 8.2
Ag Stator rotor air gap 0.35
Table B-1: Motor Dimensions
A p p e n d i x B | Measurement Data 198 | P a g e

B.2 Flux-Linkage Characteristics
All values are in Volt-Seconds unless otherwise specified.
Rotor Misalignment Angle (Degrees)

Current (A) 1 2.5 3.5 5.5 7 7.5 12 15 19.5 22.5
0.48 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.21 0.29 0.34 0.06
1.04 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.52 0.58 0.15
1.52 0.17 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.77 0.83 0.23
2 0.21 0.28 0.30 0.31 0.62 0.65 0.66 0.98 1.03 0.29
2.48 0.27 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.77 0.79 0.81 1.17 1.20 0.37
3.04 0.34 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.91 0.93 0.95 1.27 1.30 0.46
3.52 0.41 0.53 0.54 0.56 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.31 1.34 0.54
4 0.47 0.60 0.62 0.63 1.06 1.09 1.12 1.34 1.36 0.60
4.48 0.54 0.67 0.69 0.71 1.13 1.15 1.18 1.37 1.40 0.68
5.04 0.60 0.76 0.78 0.78 1.20 1.22 1.23 1.40 1.41 0.79
5.52 0.66 0.83 0.85 0.86 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.41 1.42 0.86
Table B-2: Phase Flux-Linkage Characteristics
B.3 Inductance Characteristics
All values are in Henry’s unless otherwise specified.
Rotor Misalignment Angle (Degrees)

Current (A) 1 2.5 3.5 7.5 15 22.5
0.48 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.36 0.61 0.71
1.04 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.33 0.50 0.56
1.52 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.33 0.51 0.55
2 0.10 0.14 0.15 0.32 0.49 0.51
2.48 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.32 0.47 0.48
3.04 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.31 0.42 0.43
3.52 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.29 0.37 0.38
4 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.27 0.33 0.34
4.48 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.26 0.31 0.31
5.04 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.24 0.28 0.28
5.52 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.23 0.25 0.26
Table B-3: Phase Inductance Characteristics

B.4 Torque-Power-Speed
Speed (RPM) Loading Voltage (V) Power (W)

150 22.0 16.4 345.40
250 22.0 16.7 575.67
350 21.7 19.4 794.94
450 21.3 19.4 1003.23
500 19.6 19.6 1025.73
600 17.3 19.6 1086.44
700 15.6 19.5 1142.96
800 14.1 19.3 1180.64
920 12.2 17.8 1174.78
1050 9.9 15.7 1088.01
1200 8.0 13.6 1004.80
1300 7.0 12.5 952.47
1430 5.9 11.2 883.07
1600 4.7 10.0 787.09
1850 3.7 8.6 716.44
2000 3.3 8.1 690.80
2150 2.8 7.2 630.09
2370 2.3 6.7 570.53
2500 1.9 6.3 497.17
2700 1.5 5.9 423.90
3000 1.2 5.5 376.80
3500 0.70 - 256.43
4000 0.54 - 226.08
5000 0.40 - 209.33
Table B-4: DVR Torque - Power - Speed Results

B.5 Power Factor (Prototype)
Speed Loading Voltage Current True Power Reactive Apparent Power
(RPM) (V) (A) (W) Power (VAr) Power (VA) Factor
0 None 246 0.388 23.9 -j92.7 95.9 -j0.26
100 None 242 0.410 24.4 -j96.4 99.4 -j0.25
100 Light 242 0.523 56.8 -j113 126 -j0.45
100 Heavy 245 0.741 88 -j159 182 -j0.48
500 None 245 0.390 23.4 -j92.8 95.7 -j0.24
500 Light 245 1.260 169 -j257 308 -j0.55
500 Heavy 245 3.530 435 -j715 836 -j0.52
1000 None 245 0.484 44.7 -j110 119 -j0.38
1000 Light 244 1.120 194 -j192 273 -j0.71
1000 Heavy 235 3.280 724 -j265 771 -j0.94
1500 None 245 0.624 80.1 -j136 157 -j0.50
1500 Light 244 1.490 317 -j180 364 -j0.87
1500 Heavy 234 4.470 1010 -j261 1050 -j0.97
2000 None 245 0.709 96.2 -j145 174 -j0.55
2000 Light 244 1.440 300 -j184 352 -j0.85
2000 Heavy 234 4.510 1020 -j278 1050 -j0.96
2500 None 245 0.774 126 -j142 190 -j0.66
2500 Light 234 2.770 613 -j214 649 -j0.94
2500 Heavy 235 4.430 1000 -j279 1040 -j0.96
3000 None 245 0.903 165 -j146 221 -j0.75
3000 Light 234 2.570 569 -j197 602 -j0.95
3000 Heavy 235 5.090 1115 -j426 1190 -j0.96
3500 None 244 1.010 198 -j149 248 -j0.80
3500 Light 235 2.400 532 -j192 565 -j0.94
3500 Heavy 235 4.690 1070 -j265 1100 -j0.97
Table B-5: Power Factor Measurements (PFC On)

0 None 247 0.388 23.9 -j92.7 95.9 -j0.26
100 None 247 0.410 24.4 -j96.4 99.4 -j0.25
100 Light 246 0.523 56.8 -j113 126 -j0.45
100 Heavy 236 0.741 88 -j159 182 -j0.48
500 None 247 0.390 23.4 -j92.8 95.7 -j0.24
500 Light 247 1.260 169 -j257 308 -j0.55
500 Heavy 239 3.530 435 -j715 836 -j0.52
1000 None 245 0.484 44.7 -j110 119 -j0.38
1000 Light 245 1.120 194 -j192 273 -j0.71
1000 Heavy 244 3.280 724 -j265 771 -j0.94
1500 None 245 0.624 80.1 -j136 157 -j0.50
1500 Light 236 1.490 317 -j180 364 -j0.87
1500 Heavy 234 4.470 1010 -j261 1050 -j0.97
2000 None 245 0.709 96.2 -j145 174 -j0.55
2000 Light 236 1.440 300 -j184 352 -j0.85
2000 Heavy 234 4.510 1020 -j278 1050 -j0.96
2500 None 245 0.774 126 -j142 190 -j0.66
2500 Light 236 2.770 613 -j214 649 -j0.94
2500 Heavy 234 4.430 1000 -j279 1040 -j0.96
3000 None 245 0.903 165 -j146 221 -j0.75
3000 Light 235 2.570 569 -j197 602 -j0.95
3000 Heavy 235 5.090 1115 -j426 1190 -j0.96
3500 None 245 1.010 198 -j149 248 -j0.80
3500 Light 235 2.400 532 -j192 565 -j0.94
3500 Heavy 234 2.400 532 -j192 565 -j0.94
Table B-6: Power Factor Measurements (PFC Off)

B.6 Power Factor (Original)
0 None 244 0.334 14.0 -j80.2 81.5 -j0.15
100 None 244 0.375 15.5 -j90.0 91.3 -j0.17
100 Light 243 0.422 35.0 -j96.6 103 -j0.34
100 Heavy 239 0.613 64.7 -j134 149 -j0.43
500 None 245 0.361 23.8 -j85.1 88.4 -j0.27
500 Light 245 0.990 129 -j205 242 -j0.53
500 Heavy 237 4.50 471 -j985 1090 -j0.43
1000 None 246 0.435 32.9 -j101 106 -j0.31
1000 Light 244 1.42 213 -j274 347 -j0.61
1000 Heavy 243 4.20 701 -j737 1020 -j0.69
1500 None 246 5.01 54.1 -j111 123 -j0.44
1500 Light 244 2.65 429 -j483 646 -j0.66
1500 Heavy 243 6.03 1050 -j1020 1470 -j0.72
2000 None 246 0.591 73.4 -j136 156 -j0.48
2000 Light 244 3.66 605 -j654 891 -j0.68
2000 Heavy 243 5.98 1040 -j1020 1450 -j0.71
2500 None 244 0.771 101 -j159 188 -j0.54
2500 Light 242 3.22 527 -j574 779 -j0.68
2500 Heavy 241 5.72 978 -j968 1380 -j0.71
3000 None 244 1.01 142 -j200 245 -j0.58
3000 Light 243 3.05 500 -j547 741 -j0.67
3000 Heavy 241 6.70 1170 -j1110 1610 -j0.73
3500 None 244 1.09 157 -j217 267 -j0.59
3500 Light 243 3.21 526 -j576 780 -j0.67
3500 Heavy 240 6.49 1140 -j1070 1560 -j0.73
Table B-7: Power Factor Measurement (PFC On)

0 None 238 0.342 13.6 -j80.2 81.5 -j0.15
100 None 237 0.385 15.5 -j90.0 91.3 -j0.17
100 Light 237 0.435 35.0 -j96.6 103 -j0.34
100 Heavy 236 0.631 64.7 -j134 149 -j0.43
500 None 237 0.373 23.8 -j85.1 88.4 -j0.27
500 Light 236 1.03 129 -j205 242 -j0.53
500 Heavy 235 5.94 632 -j1240 1390 -j0.45
1000 None 238 1.46 213 -j274 347 -j0.61
1000 Light 237 4.30 701 -j737 1020 -j0.69
1000 Heavy 236 6.13 1030 -j1010 1440 -j0.71
1500 None 238 0.517 54.1 -j111 123 -j0.44
1500 Light 236 2.16 337 -j383 510 -j0.66
1500 Heavy 234 6.11 1030 -j995 1430 -j0.72
2000 None 237 0.607 73.4 -j136 156 -j0.48
2000 Light 236 2.63 422 -j455 621 -j0.68
2000 Heavy 234 6.09 1020 -j1010 1430 -j0.71
2500 None 238 0.790 101 -j159 188 -j0.54
2500 Light 236 2.49 400 -j431 588 -j0.68
2500 Heavy 234 4.71 782 -j778 1100 -j0.71
3000 None 237 1.03 142 -j200 245 -j0.58
3000 Light 235 2.69 433 -j457 630 -j0.69
3000 Heavy 235 4.69 779 -j778 1100 -j0.71
3500 None 237 1.12 157 -j217 267 -j0.59
3500 Light 235 2.45 396 -j420 577 -j0.69
3500 Heavy 234 5.76 960 -j941 1340 -j0.71
Table B-8: Power Factor Measurement (PFC Off)

Appendix C
Research Outputs
203 | P a g e A p p e n d i x C | Research Outputs

C.1 Electronic Drive Functional Components
Figure C-1: Major Component Areas Within DVR Electronic Drive
A p p e n d i x C | Research Outputs 204 | P a g e

C.2 Ideal Separation Points
Figure C-2: Idealised Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive

C.3 Gray-Area Revised Separation Points
Figure C-3: Identification Of Groupings And Separation Points Following Deep Analysis

C.4 Initial Separation Line
Figure C-4: Separation line Plotted From Proposed Separation Points

C.5 Proposed Separation Points
Figure C-5: Identification Of Proposed Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive

C.6 Proposed Separation Line
Figure C-6: Separation Line Plotted From Proposed Separation Points

C.7 Final Separation Points
Figure C-7: Revised And Final Separation Points Within DVR Electronic Drive

C.8 Final Separation Line
Figure C-8: Final Separation Line Plotted From Final Separation Points

C.9 Capacitive Components Listing
ID Material Present Specification Footprint Use

C1 Ceramic Yes 1nF, 25V 0805 Low Pass Filter
C4 Ceramic Yes 270pF,25V 0805 Noise reduction
C7 N/A No N/A N/A N/A
C8 Tantalum Yes 82uF, 16V 1206 Noise reduction
C9 Plastic Yes 1.82uF, 630V, Axial-0.9 Low Frequency Blocker
C10 Ceramic Yes 180pF, 25V 0805 Timing Circuit
C11 Ceramic Yes 550pF, 25V 0805 Timing Circuit
C15 Ceramic Yes 250pF, 25V 0805 Low Pass Filter
C16 Ceramic Yes 820pF,25V 0805 Low Pass Filter
C19 Ceramic Yes 470pF, 25V 0805 Noise reduction
C20 Tantalum Yes 66uF, 25V 1206 Rail Regulation
C23 Tantalum Yes 1.5uF. 25V 1206 Bootstrapping
C24 Tantalum Yes 1.5uF, 25V 1206 High Voltage
C25 Tantalum Yes 1.5uF, 25V 1206 High Voltage
C26 Ceramic Yes 77nF, 25V 0805 Noise Reduction
C27 Ceramic Yes 1uF, 25V 0805 Stable Reference
C28 Ceramic Yes 750pF, 25V 0805 Stable Reference
C29 Ceramic Yes 110pF, 25V 0805 Stable Reference
C31 Ceramic Yes 11.1nF, 25V 0805 Low Pass Filter
C45 Ceramic Yes 470nF, 25V 0805 Rail Regulation
C48 Ceramic Yes 1.3uF, 25V 1206 Noise reduction
C50 Ceramic Yes 470nF,25V 0805 Rail Regulation
C51 Electrolytic Yes 2.2uF, 275VAC CAPPA-46 EMI Suppression

ID Material Present Specification Footprint Use
C52 Electrolytic Yes 470uF, 450Vp CAPPR-0.4 Rail Regulation
C53 Electrolytic Yes 470uF, 450Vp CAPPR-0.4 Rail Regulation
C54 Electrolytic Yes 1.5uF, 630VDC CAPPA-46 EMI Suppression
C55 Electrolytic Yes 1.5uF, 630VDC CAPPA-46 EMI Suppression
C56 Plastic Yes 22nF, 630VDC Axial-0.4 Rail Regulation
C57 Plastic Yes 22nF, 630VDC Axial-0.4 Rail Regulation
C59 Electrolytic Yes 1.5uF CAPPA-46 EMI Suppression
C60 Tantalum Yes 22uF, 25V 2512-WAVE Energy Storage
C61 Tantalum Yes 15uF, 25V 2512-WAVE Noise reduction
C63 Ceramic Yes 330nF, 25V 0805 Noise reduction
C64 Tantalum Yes 95uF, 25V 2512-WAVE Rail Regulation
C65 Electrolytic Yes 47uF, 25V CAPPR-0.1 Rail Regulation
C66 Electrolytic Yes 47uF, 16V CAPPR-0.1 Rail Regulation
C70 Ceramic Yes 240nF, 25V 0805 Energy Storage
C74 Ceramic Yes 74nF, 25V 0805 Duty Cycle -> Voltage
C80 Ceramic Yes 460nF,25V 0805 Noise reduction
C81 Ceramic Yes 470nF.25V 0805 Noise reduction
C86 Ceramic Yes 47nF, 500V 2010-WAVE Rail Regulation
Table C-1: Capacitive Component Listing

C.10 Resistive Component Listing
ID Present Specification Footprint Use

L1 Yes 750Ω 1206 Pull Up Resistor
RS1 Yes Wire-Link Wire Hoop Phase A Current Sensing
RS2 Yes Wire-Link Wire Hoop Phase B Current Sensing
RS3 Yes Wire-Link Wire Hoop Phase C Current Sensing
R1 Yes 330Ω 0805 Current Limiting
R3 Yes Shorted-Link 0805 Jumper
R4 No N/A N/A N/A
R6 Yes 5k1Ω 0805 Pullup Resistor
R7 Yes 2kΩ 0805 Pullup Resistor
R11 Yes 150kΩ 1206 Voltage Divider
R14 Yes 3kΩ 0805 Low Pass Filter
R15 Yes 2kΩ 0805 Current Limiting
R16 Yes 10kΩ 0805 Pull Up Resistor
R17 Yes 56Ω Axial-0.9 Current Limiting
R18 Yes 56Ω Axial-0.9 Current Limiting
R21 Yes 5k1Ω 0805 Current Limiting
R22 No N/A N/A N/A
R23 No N/A N/A N/A
R24 No N/A N/A N/A
R27 Yes 10kR 0805 Pullup Resistor
R31 Yes 10Ω 0805 Low Pass Filter
R34 Yes 5k1Ω 0805 Low Pass Filter
R36 Yes 100Ω 0805-WAVE Current Limiting
R38 Yes 2k4Ω 0805 Voltage Divider
R39 Yes 2k7Ω 0805 Pull Up Resistor
R40 No N/A N/A N/A
R41 No N/A N/A N/A
R43 Yes 180Ω 0805 Voltage Divider
R44 Yes 2k7Ω 0805 Voltage Divider
R47 Yes 3kΩ 0805 Capacitor Discharge

R71 No N/A N/A N/A
R72 No N/A N/A N/A
R73 No N/A N/A N/A
R74 No N/A N/A N/A
R76 No N/A N/A N/A
R77 No N/A N/A N/A
R78 No N/A N/A N/A
R79 Yes 1kΩ 0805 Pull Down Resistor
R80 Yes 10Ω, C5-37B Axial -1.2 Inrush Current Limiting
R85 Yes 10kΩ 1206 Discharge Resistor
R90 Yes 100Ω 0805-WAVE Voltage Divider
R98 No N/A N/A N/A
R100 No N/A N/A N/A

R104 Yes 180Ω 0805 Timing Circuit
R128 Yes 10kΩ 0805 Pull Down Resistor
R137 Yes 5k1Ω 0805 Pull Down Resistor
Table C-2: Resistive Component Listing

C.11 Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component Listing
ID Device Present Specification Footprint Use

D1 Microcontroller Yes XC164CS P-TQFP-100-16 Control
D2 CPLD Yes XC9536-15VQ44 VQFP44 Control
D3 IGBT Driver Yes IR2131S SOIC28 IGBT Control
D4 N/A No N/A N/A N/A
D5 Comparator Yes LM2901D SO-14 Current Sensing
D8 Op Amplifier Yes LM2904D SO-8
D9 PF Controller Yes PM52AUBW060 Proprietary PF Correction
D10 PWM Switch Yes TOP221P DIP-8 Current control
D12 Regulator Yes KA7805A TO-220 +5V_INT Supply
D15 Regulator Yes TLE7469 PG-DSO12 +2.5,+5V Supply
U1 Opto-coupler Yes SFH690BT SOP-4 Isolation
VD1 Diode Yes HFA15TB60 TO-220 Back-EMF
VD7 Diode No N/A N/A N/A
VD9 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Signal Conditioning
VD12 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Voltage Constraint
VD13 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Voltage Constraint
VD15 Bridge Rectifier Yes GBPC3506W Proprietary Rectification
VD16 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Current Direction
VD17 Diode Yes SF54 MIC Axial-0.8 Current Direction
VD18 Diode Yes SMD Diode 2010-WAVE Current Direction
VD19 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Polarity Protection
VD20 Diode Yes EIC 35 00A Axial-0.5 Back EMF
VD21 Diode Yes UFC40 MIC Axial-0.4 Back EMF
VD22 Diode Yes LL4148-SMD 4148 Current Direction
VD23 Zener Diode Yes BZX55C8V2-SMD DO-35 TOPS Reference
VD24 Diode Yes SF54 MIC Axial-0.8 Current Direction
VD25 Diode Yes SMD Diode 2010-WAVE Bootstrapping
VD28 Diode Yes SMD Diode 2010-WAVE Polarity Protection
VD31 Diode Yes Germanium Diode Axial-0.35 Voltage Clamping
VS1 Thyristor (SCR) Yes 40TPS08A TO-247 Inrush Current

ID Device Present Specification Footprint Use
VT1 IGBT Transistor Yes G4BC30F TO-220 Phase Switching
VT7 FET Transistor No N/A N/A N/A
VT8 BJT Transistor Yes SMD BJT SOT-23 Current Switch
VT9 BJT Transistor No N/A N/A N/A
VT10 BJT Transistor Yes SMD BJT SOT-23 Current Switch
ZQ1 Crystal Yes 18MHz Axial-0.2 Clock Genereration
T1 Transformer Yes Custom EP25 Voltage Conversion
Table C-3: Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component Listing
C.12 Connector Component Information

ID Connection Present Specification Footprint
X1 Rotor Position Sensors Yes Connector Terminal N/A
X2 N/A No N/A N/A
X3 CPLD Programming Header Yes 2x3 Pin Header 3 x 2 @ 0.1
X4 Microcontroller Programming Yes 2x13 Pin Header 13 x 2 @ 0.1
X5 Inductor to R80, DR1 Yes Blade Terminal N/A
X6 AC 230V Input, ~220V" Yes Blade Terminal N/A
X7 Inductor to PFC, DR2 Yes Blade Terminal N/A
X8 AC 230V Input, ~220V Yes Blade Terminal N/A
X9 N/A No N/A N/A
X11 Power Supply to Motor Yes 6-Pin Connector N/A
X12 N/A No N/A N/A
X13 N/A No N/A N/A
X14 Input Voltage Select Yes 2 Pin Header 1x2 @ 0.1
X15 Interface Board Yes 2x5 Pin Header 2x5 @ 0.1
Table C-4: Connector Component Listing
C.13 Capacitive Component Location

ID Voltage Location Details
C1 5V Control Used with R93 to low pass filter Position Sensor A output
C2 5V Control Used with R96 to low pass filter Position Sensor B output
C3 5V Control Used with R95 to low pass filter Position Sensor B output
C4 5V Control Removes white noise on the UIN signal line
C5 5V Control Removes white noise on the IIN\I signal line
C6 5V Control Removes white noise on the UD signal line
C7 N/A N/A N/A
C8 5V Control Provides energy storage on signal TMP_C to catch white noise.
C9 360V Supply Reduces amplitude of the DC component
C10 5V Control Used in clock signal generation for the Microcontroller
C11 5V Control Used in clock signal generation for the Microcontroller
C12 N/A N/A N.A
C13 N/A N/A N/A
C14 N/A N/A N/A
C15 5V Control Used in combination with R25 as a low pass filter for signal FLT_I
C16 5V Control Used in combination with R28 as a low pass filter for signal ICI_CL
C17 5V Control Used in combination with R29 as a low pass filter for signal ICI_BL
C18 5V Control Used in combination with R30 as a low pass filter for signal ICI_AL
C19 5V Control Provides energy storage to signal K_OVC to catch white noise

C20 15V Supply Used to provide a stable 15V rail for the IGBT driver D3
C21 N/A N/A N/A
C22 5V Control Used to provide energy storage to signal ITRP to catch white noise
C23 15V,360V Supply Provides 15V floating reference for switching high side IGBT VT1
C26 5V Control Catches white noise at input of Comparator D7:1
C27 5V Control Provides stable reference at the ‘-‘ input of D7:1
C28 5V Control Provides stable reference at the ‘+’ inputs of D5:1, D6:1 and D7:4
C29 5V Control Provides stable reference at the ‘+’ inputs of D5:2, D6:2 and D7:2
C30 5V Control Low pass filter with R34 for the ‘-‘ input of Comparator D5:4
C31 5V Control Low pass filter with R51 for the ‘+’ input of Comparator D5:2
C34 5V Control Low pass filter with R67 for the ‘-‘ inputs of D5:1, D5:2, D5:3
C37 5V Control Low pass filter with R54 for the ‘+‘ input of Comparator D5:3
C39 5V Control Low pass filter with R56 for the ‘+' input of Comparator D7:3
C40 5V Control Removes white noise from signal UD_OV
C42 5V Control Low pass filter with R58 for the ‘+’ input iof Comparator D6:1
C43 5V Control Low pass filter with R59 for the ‘+’ input into Comparator D7:4
C44 N/A N/A N/A
C45 5V Control Decouples Comparator D5
C47 5V Control Decouples Operation Amplifier D8
C48 5V Control Removes white noise at input I2 on Regulator D15
C50 15V Control Decouples D4 which is not present on the circuit board
C51 230V AC Supply Used to suppress EMI induced onto the mains input rails
C52 360V Supply Provides energy storage on +360V Rail
C53 360V Supply Provides energy storage on +360V Rail
C54 360V Supply Provides low ESR energy storage on the +360V Rail
C55 360V Supply Provides low ESR energy storage on the +360V
C56 360V Supply Provides energy storage on the +360V Rail
C58 5V Control Decouples CPLD D2
C60 25V Supply Provides energy storage for pins CAOUT and VCTRL on PFC
C61 15V Supply Removes white noise at ON/OFF pin of PFC
C62 N/A N/A N/A
C63 15V Supply Removes white noise at VSIG pin of PFC
C64 15V Supply Stores energy from pulsed output of Transformer T1 for 15V Rail
C65 15V Supply Stores energy from pulsed output of Transformer T1 for 15V Rail
C66 -5V Supply Stores energy from pulsed output of Transformer T1 for -5V Rail
C67 5V Supply Used to smooth the output of the 5V output of Regulator D15 5V
C68 -5V Control Decouples Comparator D6
C69 15V Supply Provides energy storage for the input to the TOPS switch
C70 16V Supply Steadies input voltage for Regulator D12
C71 16V Supply Steadies input voltage for Regulator D12 D12
C72 5V DC Supply Reduces voltage ripple of the 5V switching regulator
C73 5V DC Supply Reduces voltage ripple of the 5V switching regulator
C74 5V Control Integrates digital signal from D1 to generate analog signal IREF_I

C75 5V Control Forms a low pass filter with R107 to filter the signal ICI_AH
C76 5V Control Forms a low pass filter with R106 to filter the signal ICI_BH
C77 5V Control Forms a low pass filter with R105 to filter the signal ICI_CH
C79 N/A N/A N/A
C80 5V Control Provides energy storage to signal FO to catch white noise
C81 25V Supply Removes white noise at ON/OFF pin of PFC
C82 5V Control Decouples the power pins on the CPLD programming connector
C83 5V Control Decouples Microcontroller D1
C84 5V Control Used to provide rail regulation to the 5V rail
C85 N/A N/A N/A
C86 360V Supply Catches white noise radiated from Transformer T1
C87 5V Control Provides rail regulation to the 5V rail
C88 2.5V Control Decouples +2.5V Input of Microcontroller D1
C89 2.5V Control Decouples +2.5V Input of Microcontroller D1
C90 5V Control Decouples CPLD D2
C91 2.5V Control Ensures smooth regulation of the 2.5V Rail
Table C-5: Capacitive Component Location

C.14 Resistive Component Location

L1 5V Control Strong pull up for signal TMP_C
RS1 360V Supply Measures current flowing through Phase A
RS2 360V Supply Measures current flowing through Phase B
RS3 360V Supply Measures current flowing through Phase C
R1 5V_INT Control Current limiting resistor LED in opto-coupler U4 input
R3 5V Control Provides a jumper across a track
R4 N/A N/A N/A
R6 5V Control Pull-up for Pin AD11 on Microcontroller
R8 5V Control Pull-up for DP_A Rotor position hall effect sensor
R9 5V Control Pull-up for DP_B Rotor position hall effect sensor
R10 5V Control Pull-up for DP_C Rotor position hall effect sensor
R11 360V Supply Voltage Divider for 360V in series with R12
R12 360V Supply Voltage Divider for 360V in series with R11
R13 5.7V Control Lower half of voltage divider with R11 & R12
R14 5.7V Control Low pass filter for noise reduction with C6
R15 5V Control Current limiting resistor for P3.1 on Microcontroller
R16 5V Control Pull up resistor for EA pin on Microcontroller
R17 15V Supply Current limiting resistor for the input to 5V and 2.5 regulator
R18 15V Supply Current limiting resistor for the input to 5V and 2.5 regulator
R19 360V Supply Limits the current from the 360V rail through the transformer
R21 5V Control Limits the current flowing into the base of the BJT Transistor VT10
R22 N/A N/A N/A
R23 N/A N/A N/A
R24 N/A N/A N/A
R25 5V Control Pull-up resistor for FLT_I signal
R28 5V Control Pull-up resistor for ICI_CL signal
R29 5V Control Pull-up resistor for ICI_BL signal
R30 5V Control Pull-up resistor for ICI_AL signal
R31 15V Supply Provides low pass filtering with C20 for Component D3
R32 5V Control Pull-up resistor for ITRP signal
R33 5V Control Current limiting for output of Comparator D5 into D3
R34 5V Control Low Pass filter with C30 for input into Comparator D5
R35 5V Control Low pass filter with C29 for input on Comparator D5
R36 0V_IZM Control Current limiting for input into Comparator D5
R37 5V Control Lower half of voltage divider with R38
R38 5V Control Upper half of voltage divider with R37
R39 5V Control Pull up resistor for input into Comparator D7
R40 N/A N/A N/A
R41 N/A N/A N/A
R42 5V Control Current limiting resistor for input into Comparator D7 pin 2
R43 5V Control Used with R44 and R49 to provide a reference voltage
R45 5V Control Current limits and divides D8 output with R50
R46 5V Control Used to limit the current, slow charging rate, into Capacitor C74
R47 5V Control Provides a consistent draw on Capacitor C74 to cause discharge

R48 5V Control Sets voltage with R66 for input for Comparators D5,D6,D7
R50 5V Control Reduces D8 by forming a voltage divider with R45
R51 5V Control Used in combination with C31 to low pass filter the input to D6
R60 5V Control Used to limit the current from the output of D5:3
R66 5V Control Sets voltage with R48 as an input to Comparators D5,D6,D7
R67 5V Control Current limits all Phase A current inputs into Comparator D5
R68 5V Control Current limits all Phase B current inputs into Comparator D6
R69 5V Control Current limits Phase C current inputs into Comparator D7
R70 5V Control Used to pull signal UD_OV up to 5V
R71 N/A N/A N/A
R72 N/A N/A N/A
R73 N/A N/A N/A
R74 N/A N/A N/A
R75 360V Supply Used to limit the current into Operational Amplifier D8:1
R76 N/A N/A N/A
R77 N/A N/A N/A
R78 N/A N/A N/A
R79 5V Control Pulls the positive input to Operational Amplifier D8:1 down
R80 360V Supply Provides inrush current protection to the PFC
R81 360V Supply Limits the current flowing into the PFC voltage select pin
R82 360V Supply Limits the current flowing into the PFC voltage select pin
R85 15V Supply Used to provide a resistive discharge path for Capacitors, C61, C81
R86 5V Control Limits the current into the base of BJT Transistor VT8
R87 15V Supply Sets the voltage on VSIG pin on PFC
R91 -18V Supply Limits the current able to be provided by the -5V rail
R92 5V Control Limits the current able to flow into Operational Amplifier D8:2
R93 5V Control Limits the current provided from Position Sensor A output
R94 15V Supply Limits the current provided to the input of Voltage regulator D15
R95 5V Control Limits the current provided from Position Sensor C output
R96 5V Control Limits the current provided from Position Sensor B output
R97 5V Control Limits the current flow through L.E.D HL1 with R135
R98 N/A N/A N/A
R99 5V Supply Used in combination with C80 to low pass FO signal
R100 N/A N/A N/A
R101 5V Control Divides voltage with R116 for input to D1:AD13

R104 5V Control Used in the clock generation timing circuit
R105 5V Control Used to pull signal ICI_CH up
R106 5V Control Used to pull signal ICI_BH up
R107 5V Control Used to pull signal ICI_AH up
R108 360V Supply Used to limit the current into the gate of IGBT VT1
R114 5V Control Divides voltage with R103 to provide an input to D1:AD15
R117 15V Supply Limits the current into INH pin of Voltage Regulator D15
R118 5V Control Limits the current that can flow from +5v into SO in Regulator D15
R119 5V Control Pulls up pin AD10 on the Microcontroller
R128 5V Control Pulls down pin ALE on the Microcontroller
R129 5V Control Pulls up pin WR on the Microcontroller
R130 5V Control Pulls up pin RD on the Microcontroller
R131 5V Control Pulls up RXDA0 bus signal
R132 15V Supply Divides voltage with R133 to provide a reference to pin SI on D15
R133 15V Supply Divides voltage with R132 to provide a reference to pin SI on D15
R135 5V Control Limits the current flow through L.E.D HL1 with R97
R136 -18V Supply Limits the current able to be provided by the -5V rail in with R91
R137 5V Supply Pulls down the base of the BJT Transistor VT8
Table C-6: Resistive Component Location

C.15 Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component
Location

D1 5V Control Contains the programming and motor control algorithm
D2 5V Control Provides fail-safe logic for control signals
D3 360V Supply Provides floating driving for the IGBT Transistors
D4 N/A N/A N/A
D5 +5/-5V Control Provides over-current signal for Phase A
D6 +5V/-5V Control Provides over-current signal for Phase B
D7 +5/-5V Control Provides over-current signal for Phase C
D8 360V Control Provides AC Power On signal
D9 360V Supply Actively corrects the power factor of the circuit.
D10 360V Supply Controls current flow through transformer winding for -5V Rail
D11 N/A N/A N/A
D12 15V Supply Provides the +5_INT isolated supply rail
D13 N/A N/A N/A
D14 N/A N/A N/A
D15 15V Supply Used to provide 5.0V and 2.5V rails for use in the control circuit
U1 5V Control Allows signal to pass to isolated interface board
VD1 360V Supply Back-electromotive force protection for IGBT VT1
VD3 360V Supply Back-electromotive force f protection for IGBT VT3
VD7 N/A N/A N/A
VD8 N/A N/A N/A
VD9 5V Control Used to condition the signal from Position Sensor A
VD10 5V Control Used to condition the signal from Position Sensor B
VD11 5V Control Used to condition the signal from Position Sensor C
VD12 5V Control Used to cap the voltage at R12,R13 to 5V
VD13 5V Control Used to cap the voltage at C27 to 5V
VD14 N/A N/A N/A
VD15 325VDC Supply Rectifies 230V Mains AC to 325V DC
VD16 5V Control Prevents negative feedback of Voltage affecting divider R43,R44
VD17 15V Supply Prevents discharge C64 of from pulse output of Transformer T1
VD18 -5V Supply Prevents discharge C64 of from pulse output of Transformer T1
VD19 -5V Supply Reverse polarity protection -5V Rail
VD20 360V Supply Voltage clamp at 1.4V for TOPS Switch D10
VD21 360V Supply Voltage clamp at 1.4V for TOPS Switch D10
VD22 15V Supply Allows current flow into the control pin of TOPS/ C69
VD23 15V Supply Provides input switching for TOPS to control current through T1
VD24 15V Supply Prevents discharge of C70,C71 from pulsed output of T1
VD25 360V Supply Prevents discharge of VT1 floating reference C25
VD28 360V Supply Used to prevent current flowing from the gate of Thyristor VS1
VD29 N/A N/A N/A
VD30 N/A N/A N/A

VD31 15V Supply Prevents voltage on D3 ITRP pin from exceeding -0.3V
VS1 360V Supply Prevents Inrush current by switching R80 at turn on
VT1 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 1 (Phase A)
VT2 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 1 (Phase A)
VT3 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 2 (Phase B)
VT4 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 2 (Phase B)
VT5 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 3 (Phase C)
VT6 360V Supply Used to switch the current through Winding 3 (Phase C)
VT7 N/A N/A N/A
VT8 5V Supply Used to turn the PFC off when biased
VT9 N/A N/A N/A
VT10 5V Control Used to switch current through Optocoupler U2
ZQ1 5V Control Used to generate 18MHz clock signal for Microcontroller D1
T1 360V Supply Generates varies output voltages from a single input voltage
Table C-7: Semi-Conductor and Inductive Component Location
C.16 Connector Component Location

ID Voltage Present Details
X1 5V Control Rotor Position Sensor Connectors
X2 N/A N/A N/A
X3 5V Control Programming the CPLD
X4 5V Control Programming/Additional I/O Microcontroller
X5 230V RMS Supply Connection to external inductor
X6 230V RMS Supply Mains input connection
X7 230V RMS Supply Connection to external inductor
X8 230V RMS Supply Mains input connection
X9 N/A N/A N/A
X11 N/A N/A N/A
X12 360V Supply Connects the motor to the power supply
X13 N/A N/A N/A
X14 N/A N/A N/A
X15 360V Supply For 230V or 115V PFC Select
Table C-8: Connector Component Location
C.17 Power NET Designators

NET Connection Regulated Isolated
~220V" 230V RMS Phase No No
~220V 230V RMS Neutral N/A No
+360V 360V Yes – Via PFC No
+15V 15V No No
+5V_INT 5V Isolated Yes Yes
+5V 5V Internal Yes – Via D15 No
-5V -5V Internal N/A No
0V_IZM Control Circuitry negative N/A No
0V_PWR Power Negative N/A No
0V_INT 0V Isolated Negative N/A Yes
+2.5V 2.5V Internal Yes – Via D15 No
Table C-9: Power NET Designators

C.18 Additional Connector Information
ID Connection Part Number

IX1 Power Supply -> Control Board (I/O) DF11-20DP-2DSA/DF11-20DS-2C
IX2 Power Supply -> Control Board (Power) Molex 90130-1210 2x5
Table C-10: Additional Connector Information
Signal IX1 Connector (I/O Signal) IX2 Connector Power Signal

TO_HA Yes No
TO_HB Yes No
TO_HC Yes No
TO_LA Yes No
TO_LB Yes No
TO_LC Yes No
SD Yes No
F_CL Yes No
FLT_I Yes No
ITRP Yes No
Resistor 67 Yes No
Resistor 68 Yes No
Resistor 69 Yes No
K_OVC Yes No
K_OUT Yes No
Power Factor Correction ON/OFF R86 Yes No
Power Factor Correction FO Yes No
Twin-rail Regulator Reset Line Yes No
Twin-rail Regulator SO Yes No
+2.5V Rail No Yes
+5.0V Rail No Yes
-5.0V Rail No Yes
Resistor 72 No Yes
+5V_INT Isolated No Yes
0V_INT Isolated No Yes
Resistor 12 No Yes
Resistor 75 No Yes
Resistor 40 No Yes
OV_PWR/OV_IZM Yes Yes
Table C-11: Additional Connector Signals

C.19 Prototype Power Supply Printed Circuit Board
Figure C-9: Prototype Power Supply PCB Top Layer
Figure C-10: Prototype Power Supply PCB Bottom Layer

Figure C-11: Prototype Power Supply Gerber Data
Figure C-12: Prototype Power Supply PCB NC Drill Data

C.20 Prototype Control Printed Circuit Board
Figure C-13: Prototype Controller PCB Top Layer
Figure C-14: Prototype Controller PCB Bottom Layer

Figure C-15: Prototype Controller Gerber Data
Figure C-16: Prototype Controller NC Drill Data

Appendix D
Component Datasheets
231 | P a g e A p p e n d i x D | Component Datasheets

A p p e n d i x D | Component Datasheets 300 | P a g e
Appendix E
Photos
301 | P a g e A p p e n d i x D | Component Datasheets

Experimental Setup of Teknatool DVR. Showing 72V Lead-Acid Battery Array, Tektronix Isolated Oscilloscope,
Current Probe, DC Power Supply, And Function Generator
Experimental Setup Showing Rotor Locking Mechanism And Left Hand Brake
A p p e n d i x E | Photos 302 | P a g e
DVR SRM Rotor With Rear Shaft Bearing Housing. Note The Rotational Balance Drillings
DVR SRM Iron Stator Housing Showing Windings And Electronics Cavity
303 | P a g e A p p e n d i x E | Photos
DVR SRM Rotor Showing Laminates And Rotary Position Encoder Wheel
DVR SRM Rotor Showing 8 Trapezoidal Salient Poles
DVR SRM Stator Housing Showing Twelve Windings Grouped Into Three Phases
Prototype Power Supply Circuit Board Top Side
Prototype Power Supply Circuit Board Bottom Side
Prototype Control Circuit Board Top Side
Prototype Control Circuit Board Bottom Side
Power Supply Circuit Board Heatsink Top Side
Power Supply Circuit Board Heatsink Bottom Side

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Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.

Permission is given for

Reverse Engineering To Improve The Quality

A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Electronics and Computer Systems Engineering

At Massey University, Palmerston North

Michael John Lusby

v|Page Table of Contents

Appendix B Measurement Data ...................................................................................... 197

Appendix C Research Outputs ......................................................................................... 203

Appendix D Component Datasheets ............................................................................... 231

Appendix E Photos .......................................................................................................... 301

vii | P a g e Table of Contents

List of Figures viii | P a g e

List of Figures x|P a g e

List of Tables xii | P a g e

“The first step towards getting somewhere is to decide

- John Pierpont Morgan

1.2 Definition of Quality

1.3 Description of Problem Domain

Figure 1-1: Histogram Of Fault Mode Frequency

This highlights a problem-solution framework to quality management. This quality

Develop an understanding of general SRM knowledge including: operating principles,

This research aims to achieve the following objectives at completion:

1. Provide intimate knowledge about the Teknatool machine configuration

These objectives will be used to determine a successful outcome of the research.

1.6 Organisation of the thesis

Chapter 2, Operating Principles, discusses the operation of SRMs as a basic overview. It

Chapter 5, Control Algorithms, is concerned with the various methods of controlling an

Chapter 7, Separation Process, describes the identification of appropriate separation points

Chapter 9, Instrumentation and Testing, demonstrates the need for isolated

Appendix E, Photos, contains a collection of photographs from the project.

9|Page C h a p t e r 2 |Operating Principles

Figure 2-1 illustrates the relationship of components in an SRM topology:

Figure 2-1: SRM Drive Architecture

2.2 Basic Principles

Figure 2-2: Cross-section Of A Typical SRM

Rotation requires excitation of phases in the correct sequence. Generation of clockwise

Figure 2-3: Simple Clockwise Rotation Excitation Sequence

2.3 Motoring operation

Figure 2-5: Pole Alignment Overview

Figure 2-6: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle

Figure 2-7: Inductance As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current

ሬԦ is the magnetic field strength vector.

߰ ൌ න ‫ݒ‬Ǥ ݀‫ݐ‬ (2.3)

Figure 2-8: Flux-Linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle

Conversely, at complete alignment the flux-linkage achieves its maximum magnitude.

Figure 2-9: Flux-linkage As A Function Of Rotor Angle And Current

Figure 2-10: Unconstrained Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle

Figure 2-11: Chopped Phase Current As A Function Of Rotor Angle

2.3.4 Power and Torque

Where ܶ௘ is the instantaneous electromagnetic torque developed. Equation 2.7 can

The graph showing typical torque generation is shown in Figure 2-12:

Figure 2-12: Torque Generation As A Function Of Rotor Angle

Figure 2-13: Idealised Torque Speed Relationship

2.5.1 Sound power level

The sound pressure level is defined as:

2.5.2 Acoustic Noise Generation

x Maximise the width of rotor and stator poles

Figure 3-1: Switched Reluctance Stator And Winding Cross-section

ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ (4.9)

ܸ௥௠௦ ‫ܫ‬ଵǡ௥௠௦ ȁ ߶ȁ ‫ܫ‬ଵǡ௥௠௦ ȁ ߶ȁ

ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ ൌ ȁሺͶͷǤͳ͵ሻȁ ൌ ͲǤ͹Ͳ͸ (4.14)

ܲ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ȁሺ߶ሻȁ ൌ ȁሺെͲǤͲʹ͵ሻȁ ൌ ͲǤͻͻͻ (4.21)