DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

REMEDIAL CLASS PROGRAM

TEACHING MATERIAL FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSE

COMPILED BY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

FEB, 2023
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INTRODUCTION
This course is intended to enable students to integrate basic skills at macro and micro levels
with varied and interesting topics and higher level contents. The remedial education helps
students to provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university. There are
different tasks students should be able to practice. The tasks are generally aimed at
encouraging students to learn by doing things in English and by reflecting on the activities
they do in each unit.

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COURSE CONTENTS
Unit One: Hobbies and Crafts
1.1. Listening Skills - My favourite free -time activity - Listening for details
1.2. Grammar
1.3. Reading Comprehension
1.4. Speaking -What I like doing in my free time? -Classroom survey -Agreeing and Disagreeing
1.5. Writing -Descriptive writing -Keeping a diary

Unit Two: Moral Education and Personal Responsibility

2.1. Listening Skills - The Story of an Orphan - Listening for details
2.2. Grammar
2.3. Speaking
2.3.1. Using so and neither
2.3.2. Apologizing
2.4. Reading Comprehension -A Difficult situation
2.5. Writing -Warnings

Unit Three: Education

3.1. Listening Skills - The Education System in Ethiopia - Listening for details
3.2. Grammar
3.3. Speaking -The Education system: Present, past and future -Comparing Schools
3.4. Reading Comprehension -Barriers to Learning -Oweka Learns a lesson
3.5. Writing - Letter Writing

Unit Four: Water

4.1. Listening Skills - The Water Cycle - Listening for details -Extracting main ideas
4.2. Reading Comprehension - The Tale of a Tap
4.3. Speaking - All about Water - Water shortage: Describing cause and effect
-Expressing regrets (Wish)
4.4. Grammar
4.5. Writing - Saving Water in Ethiopia (Paragraph writing)

Unit Five: Family Life

5.1. Listening Skills - A Father’s Voice - Listening for details - Note Taking -Vocabulary in context
5.2. Grammar
5.3. Reading Comprehension - My Family - A Childhood Memory
5.4. Speaking - Expressing Opinion - Agreeing and Disagreeing - A Happy Family Life
5.5. Writing - Memories - A Formal Letter

Unit Six: United Nations

6.1. Listening Skills - A Lecture on the UN - Listening for details
6.2. Speaking – Pronunciation- contractions
6.3. Reading Comprehension - The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
Vocabulary - acronyms - adjectives to describe leaders
6.4. Grammar
6.5. Writing - Writing a report

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 UNIT ONE: HOBBIES AND CRAFTS

1.1. LISTENING: My favourite free-time activity

Introduction: What do you do in your free time?

Work in small groups and discuss these questions.

1. How much free time do you have? Take into account the time you spend at school;
doing homework; household and family duties; and sleeping.
2. What kind of things do you do in your free time? Make a list of different activities, such
as listening to music; playing football; playing a musical instrument; sewing; chess.
3. Put the activities in your list into the following categories:
● Sport (for example, football), Hobbies (for example, chess), Crafts (for example,
pottery)
4. Which of these activities are individual activities and which are group activities?
5. What hobbies would you encourage fellow students to enjoy?
6. Are there any hobbies that you would discourage?
7. Is there any reason why boys and girls should not be actively interested in the same
hobbies?

Listen to your teacher reading some short texts in which each of the teenagers describes
their hobby. Decide if the statements about them are True or False.

A: Demissie
1 Demissie has no free time. 4 You must not sow seeds in your opponent’s store.
2 Mancala is a popular game in his village. 5 The winner loses all his seeds to his opponent.
3 Demissie has a special board to play mancala.

B: Zebida
1 Zebida reads comics, magazines and newspapers. 4 She only reads things once.
2 She doesn’t spend much time on her hobby. 5 She likes all kinds of stories.
3 Her mother is pleased that reading is her hobby.

C: Fanose
1 She also helps on the farm by doing the milking. 4 Her hobby is becoming a business.
2 She only makes cakes now.
3 Cooking is an expensive hobby because she has to buy lots of things.

D: Ibrahim
1 Ibrahim has been in the computer club for a short time.
2 He is leader of the club.
3 At the club they spend their time on the Internet and playing computer games.
4 Mr Kiatu knows quite a lot about computers.
5 The computer club is free.

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Complete the following chart about the speakers’ hobbies:

1.2. GRAMMAR
1.2.1. Simple present tense - Active and passive forms
A sentence is presented in simple present tense when it is used to describe an action that's
happening at present and does not indicate when the action is expected to end. Simple
present tense is used when:

 The action that is taking place in general.

 The action is not only occurring now; it repeats after regular intervals of time.
 To indicate facts those are generally true.
 The action for relating habits and routines that happen all the time, be it in the
future, past or present.

Structure:
Active: Verb "+s/es/ies" form
Passive: is/am/are + v3

Consider the following examples.

 The sun sets in the west.
 Michael teaches social studies in a school.
 The students attend classes every day.
 Do you play tennis?
 The letter is written by me.

In Negative Sentences, the pattern for simple present is- Subject + do/does + not + V1 ......
For example: 1. I do not learn my lesson. 3. You do not go to school.
2. They do not play hockey. 4. We do not read our books.

In Interrogative Sentences, the Pattern for simple present is - Do/Does + subject + V1 ... ? OR
Wh-Question Word + do/does + subject + V1 ......?
For example: 1. Does he read a book? 5. When does he go to school?
2. Do I give you a pen? 6. How many pencils do they want?
3. Does your mother love you? 7. Who comes to your house daily?
4. Why does she come here?

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Exercise: Change the verbs in bracket into appropriate form of simple present and
complete the sentences.
1. John usually.................up at 4 o’clock in the morning. (get)
2. They often.................to the movies. (go)
3. The sun.................in the west. (set)
4. Every mother.................her children affectionately. (love)
5. Hilina.................games regularly in the morning. (play)
6. He.................milk before going to bed. (take)
7. Those who.........always succeed. (try)
8. Birds usually.................nests in the trees. (make)

1.2.2. Present progressive tense -Active and passive forms

Present continuous usually defines an act that is going on at the time of speaking. The
sentences with present progressive tense are used when:
 Something is taking place now, while speaking and has a definite end as well.
 When something is already decided and arranged as well to perform it.

Structure:
Active: Subject + be (is, am, are) + Verb+ -ing + Object"
Passive: is/am/are + being + v3

Consider the following examples.

 Please wait for a moment, John is talking to his teacher.
 We are late; he will be waiting for us at the restaurant now.
 I am playing football.
 Are they still living here?
 She is having her breakfast now.
 I’m planning to meet the Director tonight.

In negative Sentences, the Pattern for present continuous is – Subject + is/am/are + not + V1
+ (ing).....
For example: 1.I am not reading a book. 3. Ram is not playing in the field.
2.She is not playing with her doll.

In interrogative Sentences, the Pattern is – Is/Am/Are + Subject + V1 + (ing)...... ?

For example: 1- Are the girls reading in the room? 3-Whose book is he reading now?
2- Is the sun rising in the sky?

Exercise: Change the verbs in bracket into appropriate form of present continuous
and complete the sentences.
1. My father wears T-shirt daily, but he........a white suit today. (wear)
2. She..........in her bed now. (sleep)
3. The sun..........behind the clouds now. (hide)
4. Suresh..........a lot these days. (earn)
5. The Education Minister..........this place next week. (visit)
6. She..........clothes at this time. (wash)
7. My younger brothers..........a factory these days. (run)

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 1.2.3. Present perfect tense -Active and passive forms
The Present Perfect Tense explains the incident that has happened in the past and that
continues until the present time.

Structure:
Active: has/have + v3
Passive: has/have + been + v3

In affirmative (Positive) Sentences, the pattern is – Subject + has/have + V3 .......

For example: 1- Ram has gone to school. 3- He has killed a snake.
2- I have sent a letter to him. 4- They have learnt all the lessons.

In negative Sentences, the pattern is – Subject + has/have + not + V3 .......

For example: 1- She (He) has not sung the song. 3- They have not sold the horse.
2- The carpenter has not made the chair. 4- We have not seen our teacher.

Rule — in negative sentences 'not' is used after helping verb 'has/have'.

In Interrogative Sentences, the pattern is – Has/Have + Subject +V3 .......?

For example: 1- Has he sold his cow? 3- How many boys have come today?
2- Have you learnt your lesson? 4- Who has not brought his book?

Exercise: Put the verbs into the correct form of Present Perfect.
1. I .......................... (not work) today.
2. We .......................... (buy) a new lamp.
3. We .......................... (not plan) our holiday yet.
4. Where .......................... you ......................(be) today?
5. He .......................... (write) five letters.
6. She .......................... (not see) him for a long time.
7. .......................... you .......................... (be) at school?

1.2.4. Simple Future tense

This tense is used for those sentences which refer to the actions which will occur later, in
future. This requires a future tense auxiliary verb even though the verb would be unmarked.
It is useful to make future predictions and promises.

Structure:
Active: will/shall + v1
Passive: will/shall + be + v3

Consider the following examples.

 She will not come tomorrow.
 Will you come to play with me after school?
 I will keep in touch with you.
 The room will be cleaned by 7p.m.
 He will stay with us for a week.

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In negative Sentences, the pattern is – Subject + will/shall + not + V1 .......
For example: 1- I shall not go to school tomorrow.
2- The boys will not sleep in the day.

In interrogative Sentences, the pattern is – Will/Shall + Subject + V1 ....... ?

For example: 1- Will he give you some pens?
2- Shall we eat mangoes?
3- Will your brother not come tomorrow?

Exercise: Fill in the blanks with Present Continuous or Simple Future :

1. I .................... (not reply) you unless you write to me.
2. I ....................(wait) here until she comes back.
3. If you don't work hard you .................... (not pass) this year.
4. Our class .................... (play) a friendly football match next Sunday.
5. My mother .................... (come) on Monday.
6. She .................... (go) again next Monday.
7. He .................... (know) about it tonight.

1.2.5. Verb forms

English uses two types of verbs: regular and irregular. The difference between these types
can be seen when using the simple past and past participle forms of the verbs.

1.2.5.1. Regular verbs

Regular verbs are called such because they are predictable: both the simple past and the
past participle forms add –ed or –d to the infinitive form of the verb.

For example:
I play tennis once a week. (Present simple)
I played tennis last Wednesday. (Past simple)
I have played tennis since I was a child. (Present Perfect)

1.2.5.2. Irregular verbs

Irregular verbs do not use ‐ed and are not predictable. The simple past and past participle
forms must simply be learned. If you are unsure what the correct form is, dictionaries will
provide these forms under the entry for the infinitive of the verb. The chart below
demonstrates the wide variation in how irregular verbs are conjugated:

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 1.2.6. Asking questions
1.2.6.1. Wh- questions
'Wh-' questions ask for specific information and start with a WH- word: What / Which /
When / Where / Whereabouts / Why / Whose / How. The most common question structure
is: Question word + Auxiliary Verb + Object or Main Verb.

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Here are some more examples of subject questions:

SUBJECT (+ VERB + OBJECT)

Who broke the window? Peter (broke the window).
Who discovered America? Columbus (discovered America).

OBJECT QUESTIONS (Auxiliary “DO” needed)

What did Peter break? (“Peter” is the subject)
Which continent did Columbus discover? (“Columbus” is the subject)

1.2.6.2. Yes/No questions

'Yes/No' questions ask for a positive or negative answer.

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Negative 'Yes/No' questions are used:
 To show surprise: Didn't you hear the bell? I rang it four times!
 In exclamations: Doesn't that dress look nice! (= That dress looks very nice)
 When we expect the listener to agree with us: Haven't we met somewhere before? (=
I think we have)

Be careful with the answers to negative questions:

Didn't Dave go to Canada? Yes. (He went there.) / No. (He didn't go there.)

1.2.6.3. Tag questions

Question tags have the same form as reply questions but are used either to ask for
confirmation or a response.
 If a positive statement is made, the question tag is negative. Eg. You're Brazilian,
aren't you?
 If a negative statement is made, the question tag is positive. Eg. You haven't finished
yet, have you?

PLEASE NOTE!
 After 'Let's....' the question tag is 'Shall we?' Eg. Let's go out for a meal, shall we?
 After the imperative the question tag is 'Will you?' Eg. Open the door for me, will
you?
 A positive question tag can follow a positive statement when expressing interest or
surprise. Eg. Oh, You think he'll win, do you?

1.2.6.4. Indirect questions

Indirect questions are questions that remain part of another sentence. Unlike direct
questions, which include verb before subject, indirect questions contain a subject followed
by a verb.

1.3. READING: The karate lesson

This extract comes from a book called Nosipho and the King of Bones by Ginny Swart. Set in Cape
Town, South Africa, the story is about Nosipho, a secondary school student who lives with her
mother and her young brother, Mondli. Nosipho’s classmate, Phindile, has come to the house and is
giving Mondli his first lesson in karate.

Nosipho sat on the back step and watched as Phindile instructed her brother.“ Now in karate, a man
needs no weapons except his own body,” he began.“Ya! Kick him! I want to learn how to kick
people!” shouted Mondli. “Oh no, my friend, that is not the way of a karataka,” smiled Phindile.“A
what?” “That’s what a student of karate is called,” he explained. “A karataka is a man of peace. But
he is so well trained and has so much power in his body that whenever he needs it, he can explode
with strength and can overcome anybody, even someone three times his own size.” “Explode with
strength! I want to be a … what you said,” breathed Mondli, his eyes shining. “Well, I can show you
how to begin. But after that you should have proper instruction from the Dan at the Youth Club,”
said Phindile. “All karatakas must learn thirty different fighting exercises. They are called kata. Like
this!”

He crossed his arms in front of his chest, swung round on his left leg and kicked his right leg as high
as his head, giving a loud shout as he did so. “Haiaa! Without stopping, he brought his right hand up

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to his chest with the palm flat and held his arm up in a threatening pose. “Haiaa! This is called The
Cat,” he said. “This shouting is called kaia,” he explained. “The noise is not made by your throat but
comes from your stomach. It helps you push the strength out from your body. Of course, it frightens
your opponent too.”

Mondli held his body stiff and copied Phindile. Soon he was leaping and shouting “Haiaa!” all over
the yard. “And so who is this?” Temba came up behind her from the kitchen. “Where did you find
this big monkey? And what are these tricks he is doing?” Nosipho shrank away from her cousin. “His
name is Phindile and he’s in my class,” she answered unwillingly. “He’s teaching Mondli how to do
karate.” “Karate, eh?”

She could see that he was impressed. He went back to the kitchen, but she knew that he was still
standing there, watching from the window. After a time, Phindile stopped and said, “OK, my man,
that’s enough for now. You must practise and I’ll teach you some more next time. If you keep on
long enough, one day you’ll be able to chop a brick in half with the side of your hand.” Temba
stepped out and greeted him casually. “That’s not bad, bra. Where did you learn those tricks?”
“Karate is not tricks. It’s self-defence. I’m learning it at the Youth Club.” “It could be useful though in
a fight. You could kill a man like that.”

Nosipho could almost see Temba’s brain working as he smiled thoughtfully at Phindile. “Hey, no,
karate is not for killing! It’s a way to defend yourself if you run into a bad situation.” “Hmm,” said
Temba. “I think I must learn this stuff too. How about a few lessons, bra?” “Sorry,” said Phindile
briefly. “I don’t have the time. I have work to do. But you can learn it at the Youth Club at the
Community Centre.” Nosipho walked with Phindile to the gate. “Is Temba your brother?” he asked.
“Oh no, he’s my cousin. He’s supposed to go and live with his father, but we haven’t heard a word
from him. And he doesn’t send any money for Temba’s food. It’s hard for my mother, but he won’t
listen to her.” “Take care with him,” warned Phindile darkly. “I’ve seen him with his friends. They are
not good news. And don’t let Mondli hang around with Temba, he will pick up bad habits.” “He
already has,” she sighed. “He thinks it’s smart to do no work and act tough.” “I’ll take him down to
the Youth Club with me and get him interested,” said Phindile. “Ask your mother if I can do that.
There’s a lot going on there to keep him busy and off the street.” “I’ve lived here all my life and I
never knew there was a Youth Club,” she said. “My mother would be very pleased if you could get
Mondli away from those boys he goes around with.”

Nosipho and the king of Bones by Ginny Swart

Answer the questions below and write the answers in your exercise book.
1. Why did Mondli want to learn karate?
2. How did Phindile react to Mondli’s reasons for wanting to learn karate?
3. Why is shouting important when you do karate?
4. How did Nosipho know that Temba was interested in what Phindile was doing?
5. Why did Phindile warn Nosipho about Temba?
6. What influence has Temba had on Mondli already?

Discuss the following questions with a partner.

1 What do you think Phindile has himself learned from karate?
2 Do you think karate is a good hobby for Mondli? Why?
3 What do you think could happen to Mondli if he doesn’t start going to the Youth Club?
4 What can we learn from the text about the importance of hobbies?

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Now say if you agree or disagree with the following statements and the reasons why.
1 Karate is useful in self-defence.
2 Karate would be useful in a fight.
3 Karatakas must be well trained.
4 Temba is smart.
5 Temba is a bad influence on Mondli.

The following words have been taken from the text. Choose the correct definitions for
each one.

1.4. SPEAKING: Agreeing and Disagreeing

You are going to have a class discussion on this subject: Listening to the radio is a waste of
time. Work in a group with people who have the same opinion as you. In your group do the
following:
● Think of points to support your opinion. For example: Listening to the radio is important
because without it we would not learn about world events.
● Think about possible arguments against your viewpoint and what you can say against
them.
For example, Argument 1: You can waste a lot of time listening to pop music.
Argument 2: Yes, but it gives me pleasure to hear local Ethiopian artists on the radio

Use some of these expressions:

In my opinion … I think …
I’d like to say that … What do you think?
I’m sorry I don’t agree. I agree / disagree.
I agree with you but … I don’t see it like that.
You’re absolutely right. That is / isn’t true.
Yes, but don’t you think …? I’m sorry but you’re wrong.

1.5. WRITING: Keeping a diary (Descriptive writing)

A diary is a record of your daily activities. This is Moges’s diary for last week. Read it and
answer the questions below.

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1 On which day did Moges play football?
2 When does Moges go to the mosque?
3 What was the date when Moges went to the football match?
4 Where did Moges go last Monday?
5 Did Moges help his father on 20th August?

Look at Moges’s diary again and create your own diary for last week. Write the day of the
week and the date on the left side of the page. Write what you did each day on the right
side.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 UNIT TWO: MORAL EDUCATION AND PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY

2.1. Listening Skills - The Story of an Orphan - Listening for details

2.2. Grammar
2.2.1. Simple past tense - Active and passive forms
Simple past tense is used to narrate an action of the past. The verb in the past tense ends
with an '-ed' and hence, there are seven ways of marking the irregular verbs in the past
tense. The most common being the change of the vowel as in 'drink' - 'drank'.

Structure:
Active: v2
Passive: was/were + v3

Examples:
 He passed away in 1999.
 We went for the movie yesterday.
 Three years ago, I studied at the Canada University.
 The book was sold.

In negative Sentences, the pattern is – Subject + did not + V1 .......

For example: 1- He did not play hockey yesterday. 3- The peon did not ring the bell.
2- The boys did not learn their lesson. 4- I never came late.

In interrogative Sentences, the pattern is– Did + Subject + V1 .......?

For example: 1- Did you go to school? 3- Where did your brother go yesterday?
2- Did your sister sing a song yesterday? 4- When did Kebede return?

Exercise: Put the sentences into Past Tense. The first is done for you as an example.
1. She wins the prize. She won the prize.
2. They eat food. They ............................. food.
3. She goes home. She .......................... home.
4. We do shopping. We ............................ shopping.
5. She runs to school. She .......................... to school.
6. I work hard. I .......................................... hard.
7. We buy a new car. We ........................... a new car.

2.2.2. Past continuous tense -Active and passive forms

This tense denotes an action that was happening at some point of time in the past.
Structure:
Active: was/were + v (ing) ......
Passive: was/were + being + V3

Examples:
I was playing football at this time yesterday.
They were swimming in the tank.
The room was being cleaned.

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In negative Sentences, the pattern is– Subject + was/were + not + V (ing) .......
Examples: 1- They were not going home. 3- I was not going to school.
2- Ram was not jumping over the wall. 4- He was not buying a cow.

In interrogative Sentences, the pattern is – Was/Were + Subject + V (ing) .......?

Examples: 1- Were we going to the market?
2- Was Mulat abusing his servant?
3- Were those boys not making a noise?

Exercise: Fill in the blanks with Past Indefinite or Past Continuous.

1. When I .......................... to school, I .......................... Jaya. (walk, see)
2. When I .......................... in the kitchen, Marta .......................... . (help, come)
3. While she .......................... the soup, the children .......................... . (cook, play)
4. While they .......................... cards, the baby .......................... . (play, sleep)
5. When I .......................... in the garden, my uncle ..........................me . (work, call)
6. Amare .......................... TV, while Hirut and Roman .......................... football. (watch, play)
7. When she .......................... her hair, the baby .......................... to cry. (wash, begin)

2.2.3. Past perfect tense -Active and passive forms

This tense refers to an action or a process that has been completed in the past time. In a
simple sentence we never use the Past Perfect Tense, unless it contains adverbials like
already, before, never, still etc.

Structure:
Active: had + v3
Passive: had + been + v3

Examples:
I had never seen such a beautiful before.
She understood the movie only because she had read the book.

In affirmative (Positive) Sentences, the pattern is – Subject + had + V3 .......

Examples: 1. We had reached home before it rained.
2. The train had started before I reached the station.
3. She had read her book before she went to bed.

In negative Sentences, the pattern is– Subject + had + not + V3 .......

Examples: 1. I had not seen this house before.
2. The patient had not died before the doctor came.
3. The thief had not run away before the police came.

Exercise: Fill in the blanks with Past Indefinite or Past Perfect Tense :
1. After they ..........................(see) the Tower they .......................... (go) to Delhi.
2. He .......................... (ask) me which animals I .......................... (hunt) in Africa.
3. After Columbus ....................... (discover) America he ...................... (return) to Spain.
4. Before they .......................... (move) to Udaipur they ....................... (sell) everything.
5. After he .......................... (work) very hard he .......................... (fall) ill.
6. She .......................... (open) the box after she .......................... (find) the key.

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 2.2.4. Conditional sentences
2.2.4.1. Type I: Likely/ Probable condition
This CONDITIONAL sentence is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present
or in the future. The first conditional is used to talk about things which are possible in the
present or the future -- things which may happen.

2.2.4.2. Type II: Unlikely and imaginary condition

This CONDITIONAL sentence is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the
present or in the future. The second conditional is used to talk about things which are
unreal (not true or not possible) in the present or the future -- things which don't or won't
happen.

2.2.4.3. Type III: Impossible condition

This CONDITIONAL sentence is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the
past. The third conditional is used to talk about things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the past. If
your native language does not have a similar construction, you may find this a little strange,
but it can be very useful. It is often used to express criticism or regret.

2.2.4.4. Type IV: Zero-condition

ZERO CONDITIONAL is a structure used for talking about general truths -- things which
always happen under certain conditions (note that most zero conditional sentences will
mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of "if"). The zero conditional is used to talk
about things which are always true -- scientific facts, general truths, and so on.

Exercise: Put the verb in brackets in correct form.

1. If I __________________ (be) you, I wouldn’t risk.
2. If they had waited another month, they could probably ________________ (get) a
better price for their house.

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3. It's quite simple really. When it's cold, water __________________ (freeze).
4. If he decides to accept that job, he __________________ (regret) it for the rest of his
life.
5. If he hadn't been driving so fast, he ___________________ (hit) the motorcyclist.
6. If he __________________ (be) more careful, he would have spotted the mistake.
7. If she goes on passing her exams, ___________________ (be) qualified to practise as a
lawyer.
8. If I pay you twice as much, will you _____________________ (able) to finish by Tuesday?
9. If only I'd invested in that company, I _____________________ (become)a millionaire by
now.

2.2.5. Modal auxiliaries

‘Will’
Making personal predictions
I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.
I doubt if I'll stay here much longer.
Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions)
I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the Department can do
There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they said they'd be writing.
Talking about the future with certainty
I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.
Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10 o'clock lecture.
Talking about the past with certainty
I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen sharply.
Reassuring someone
Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.
It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.
Making a decision
For the main course I'll have grilled tuna.
I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.
Making a semi-formal request
Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
Sign this, will you?
Offering to do something
You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks. Centre for Academic Success
Making a promise or a threat
You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed!

‘Shall’
Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in
any case in spoken English it would be contracted to "-ll" and be indistinguishable from will.
The only time you do need to use it is in questions, when:
Making offers
Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
Making suggestions
Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

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‘May and Might’
May & might sometimes have virtually the same meaning; they are used to talk about
possibilities in the past, present or future. May & might are used, then, for:

Talking about the present or future with uncertainty

She may be back in her office: the lecture finished ten minutes ago.
I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet.
England might win the World Cup, you never know.

Talking about the past with uncertainty

I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on the day of the exam.

They can also sometimes be used for talking about permission, but usually only in formal
situations. Instead of saying May I open a window? we would say Is it all right/OK if I open a
window? or Can I open a window? for example. You might, however, see: Students may not
borrow equipment without written permission

‘Would’
As the past of will, for example in indirect speech
The next meeting will be in a month's time becomes
He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.

Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will)

Would you like another cup of tea?
Would you give me a ring after lunch?
I'd like the roast duck, please.

In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality': imagined, unreal, impossible situations

If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of Spring.
It would have been better if you'd word processed your assignment.

After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over someone (or something's) refusal or
insistence on doing something (present or future)
I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.
I wish it would snow.

Talking about past habits (similar meaning to used to)

When I was small, we would always visit relatives on Christmas Day.

‘Can and Could’

Talking about ability
Can you speak Mandarin? (present)
She could play the piano when she was five. (past)
Making requests
Can you give me a ring at about 10?
Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more formal, polite or 'softer')

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 Asking permission
Can I ask you a question?
Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal, polite or indirect)
General possibility
You can drive when you're 17. (present)
Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.
Choice and opportunities
If you want help with your writing, you can come to classes, or you can get some 1:1 help.
We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the forecast's not brilliant. (less definite)
Future probability
Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way as might or may, often indicating
something less definite.
When I leave university I might travel around a bit, I might do an MA or I suppose I could
even get a job.
Present possibility
I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.
Past possibility
If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed in bed longer.

‘Must’
Necessity and obligation
Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; what you think you yourself or other
people/things must do. If the obligation comes from outside (eg a rule or law), then have to
is often (but not always) preferred:
I really must get some exercise.
People must try to be more tolerant of each other.

‘Should’
Giving advice
I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi.
You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not going to finish it.
Obligation: weak form of must
The university should provide more sports facilities.
The equipment should be inspected regularly.

‘Ought to’
Ought to usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in affirmative statements in
the present:
You should/ought to get your hair cut.

Exercise: Re-write the following sentences using modals so that they have the same
meaning.
1. I suggest that you get a good lawyer!
You should get a lawyer.

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2. A university degree isn’t necessary for that job.
You ___________________________________________
3. Perhaps my father will pick you up.
My father _______________________________________
4. Eating is forbidden in class!
You ___________________________________________
5. Look at his dirty clothes! I’m sure he is a poor person.
He ____________________________________________
Exercise: Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
1. My son ___ be home by now. Where can he be?
a. Have to b. would c. should d. could
2. I think your thumb is broken. You ___ go to the emergency room.
a. Might b. could c. ought to d. can
3. If you are interested in losing weight, you ______ 3. try this new diet.
a. Could b. mustn’t c. don’t have to d. had to
4. John’s fallen down the stairs! I ________ call an ambulance!
a. Will b. might c. may d. ought to
5. You _______ come too early. We won’t leave until 9 o’clock.
a. has to b. must c. needn’t d. can’t
6. Children ________ be accompanied by an adult at the zoo.
a. Ought to b. must c. would d. mustn’t
7. You _________ talk during tests. It’s forbidden!
a. don’t have to b. mustn’t c. couldn’t d. ought to
8. I can feel the heat. We _________ 8. be near the fire.
a. can b. would c. must d. have to
9. They ________ hear him because he was whispering.
a. wouldn’t b. mustn’t c. shouldn’t d. couldn’t
10. You’ve never heard of Britney Spears? You ________ be serious!
a. Must b. had to c. can’t d. shouldn’t

2.3. Speaking
2.3.1. Using so and neither

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 2.3.2. Apologizing
Groups Phrases
a. Honestly, it’s fine.
b. I’m so sorry.
1. Apologising ……………………………… c. It was my fault and I’m sorry.
d. sorry, I didn’t mean to ….
e. I apologize for …..
f. I am sorry but …..
g. I am sorry for the misunderstanding…
h. I seem to have made a mistake. I am sorry..
a. That’s all right.
2. Accepting an apology ………………… b. Don’t worry about it.
c. That’s OK.
d. I’m really sorry.
e. I want to apologize.

Exercise: Complete the following dialogue by supplying appropriate expression.

oK really so sorry right
about fine fault too

John: Lemma! I am (1)………………………………! Are you (2)………………………………?

Lemma: I think so. That was lucky.
John: I’m (3)……………………………… sorry! I didn’t see you!

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Lemma: That’s all (4)………………………………. I shouldn’t have been running.
John: Still, it was my (5)……………………………… and I’m sorry.
Lemma: I’m sorry (6)………………………………. It was both of us. Honestly, it’s
(7)…………………………. Don’t worry (8)……………………………… it.

Exercise: Put the words and phrases in correct order to make sentences.
1. so I am sorry !
2. all . right That’s
3. my I’m sorry was It . fault and
4. I’m . too sorry
5. about . worry Don’t it
6. fine it’s . Honestly,

2.4. Reading Comprehension -A Difficult situation

23
24
2.5. Writing -Warnings

25
Put your answers in complete sentences.

26
 UNIT THREE: EDUCATION

3.1. Listening Skills - The Education System in Ethiopia - Listening for details
3.2. Grammar
3.2.1. Degrees of Comparison: Positive, comparative and superlative forms
Adjectives are of three degrees. (1) Positive (2) Comparative (3) Superlative Comparison can
be made using the three forms of the adjective. Adjective is a word and it qualifies a noun. It
gives more information about the noun.

For example:
The lion is a strong animal.
Rita is a beautiful girl.
David is a rich man.

Positive: No other metal is as precious as gold.

Comparative: Gold is more precious than any other metal.
Superlative: Gold is the most precious of all metals.

Positive: No other democracy in the world is as large as India.
Comparative: India is larger than any other democracy in the world.
Superlative: India is the largest democracy in the world.

1. Positive Degree:
a. An adjective used without any comparison is said to be in the positive degree.
b. It is used when no comparison is made.
c. When we compare positive degree, we take
“As…………..As”(or) “So……………As”
Example: 1. Romay is a clever boy. 2.Romay is as clever as kaleb.

2. Comparative Degree:
a. The comparison between two persons or two things is called “comparative degree”.
b. We make comparative degree by adding “-er” to the positive degrees of adjectives using
than immediately after the comparative adjectives.
Example: Roman is cleverer than Senait.
c. We can identify the comparative degree in “-er” at most.
d. In long adjectives don’t add “-er” but use “more” before the adjectives.
e. The comparative degree of an adjectives denotes a higher degree of the quality than
positive degree and is used when two things are compared.

3. Superlative Degree:
a. An adjective used to compare more than “two persons or things”.
b. It expresses the highest or the least degree of quality that exist in a person or thing.
c. The is used in superlative degree, we also add “-est” to the positive degree.
d. Superlative degree identified by “-est” at most.
e. For long adjectives don’t add “-est”, but use “most” before the adjectives.
f. In the situation of prepositions “of” or “among” will come often.
Example: Solomon is the tallest of all boys in the class.

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Most adjectives form the comparative by adding “-er” and the superlative by adding “-est”
to positive degree.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Tall Taller Tallest
Small Smaller Smallest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Long Longer Longest
Young Younger Youngest
Great Greater Greatest
Deep Deeper Deepest
Thick Thicker Thickest
Bold Bolder Boldest
High Higher Highest

For long adjectives, we add “more” for the comparative degree instead of “-er” and “most”
for the superlative degree for instead of “-est”.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Difficult More difficult Most difficult
Famous More famous Most famous
Popular More popular Most popular
Useful More useful Most useful
Brilliant More brilliant Most brilliant

Some adjectives are “irregular”.

Positive Comparative Superlative
Good, well Better Best
Bad, evil, ill Worse Worst
Much More Most
Far Farther/Further Farthest/Furthest
Old (relations) Elder Eldest
Little less, lesser Least
Late Later, latter Latest last.

Exercise: Change the adjectives in brackets into correct form.

1. My brother‘s handwriting is …………………….. (bad) mine.
2. Health is …………………….. wealth. (important)
3. Blood is …………………… water. (thick)
4. Everest is …………………….. peak in the world. (high)
5. This is ……………………. play I have ever heard on the radio. (interesting)
6. Susie is …………………………. of all the four sisters. (beautiful)
7. The planet Mars is ……………………. from the earth than the satellite Moon. (far)
8. The elephant is ………………….. animal in the world. (large)
9. An ocean is certainly ……………………… a sea. (big)
10. I am …………………… in cricket than in football. (interested)

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 3.2.2. Relative clauses
There are two types of relative clauses: Defining relative clauses and Non-defining relative
clauses.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

These describe the preceding noun in such a way to distinguish it from other nouns of the
same class. A clause of this kind is essential to clear understanding of the noun.
Example: The boy who was playing is my brother.

Defining Relative Pronouns

More Examples:
The man who robbed you has been arrested.
Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
The man whom I saw told me to come back today.
The man who I saw told me to come back today.
The man that I saw told me to come back today.
The man I saw told me to come back today.
People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.
The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.
The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip.

NOTE: Relative adverbs: when, where, why

 Note that when can replace in/on which (used of time):
the year when (= in which) he was born
the day when (= in which) they arrived
 Where can replace in/at which (used of place):
the hotel where (= in/at which) they were staying
 Why can replace for which:
the reason why he refused is…

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite already. They do not
therefore define the noun. But merely add something to it by giving some more information
about it. They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing
confusion. They are separated from their noun by commas. The pronoun can never be
omitted in a non-defining relative clause.

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Non-Defining Relative Pronouns

Examples: My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.
Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent.
This is George, whose class you will be taking.
The block, which cost 5 million to build, has been empty for years.

Exercise: Write sentences to describe people in box A using the information in box B.

a. A thief is a person who steals things.

b. A butcher is a person, who ___________________________________________________
c. A musician is a person _______________________________________________________
d. A patient _________________________________________________________________
e. _________________________________________________________________________
f. _________________________________________________________________________
g. _________________________________________________________________________
h. _________________________________________________________________________
i. __________________________________________________________________________

Exercise: Write who/that/which in the blanks.

a. I met a woman, who can speak six languages.
b. What’s the name of the man _____________ lives next door?
c. What’s the name of the river, _____________ goes through the town?
d. Everybody, _____________ went to the party, enjoyed it very much.
e. Do you know anybody _____________ wants to buy a car?
f. Where is the picture _____________ was on the wall?

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 3.2.3. Adverbs -Frequency, Manner, Time, Degree

Type of
Adverb Description Examples

slowly, beautifully,
Manner Describes how an action is performed brilliantly

Time Describes when an action took place now, never, already

Place Describes where an action took place here, there, everywhere

Describes how often an action takes

Frequency place always, sometimes, rarely

Describes the extent or intensity of an

Degree action very, quite, completely

Adverb of Time
An adverb of time tells us when an action happened. Examples: yesterday, now, today,
tonight, soon.

Adverb of Time Example

Now I am eating now.

Today I will see you today.

Tonight I have plans for tonight.

Yesterday I visited my grandparents yesterday.

Tomorrow I have a meeting tomorrow.

Soon I will be there soon.

Later Let’s catch up later.

Previously I previously worked at that company.

Currently I am currently reading a book.

Finally Finally, it’s the weekend!

Yet I haven’t finished my work yet.

Adverb of Frequency
An adverb of frequency tells us how often an action happens. Examples: always, often,
never, rarely, sometimes.

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 Adverb of Frequency Example

Often I often play basketball on weekends.

Sometimes Sometimes I like to watch movies.

Rarely I rarely go to the library.

Usually I usually have breakfast at 7 am.

Never I never eat junk food.

Every day I exercise every day.

Every week I visit my grandparents every week.

Once a year I take a vacation once a year.

Twice a month I go to the movies twice a month.

Adverb of Place
An adverb of place tells us where an action happened. Several adverbs of place can also
serve as prepositions and must be followed by a noun when used as a preposition.
Examples: here, there, everywhere, inside, outside.

Adverb of Place Example

Here Here is my pen.

There There is a bird on the tree.

Everywhere I looked everywhere for my keys.

Anywhere Can we go anywhere for lunch?

Nowhere I can’t find my wallet, it’s nowhere to be seen.

Up I need to go up to my room to get my book.

Down Let’s go down to the park.

In The cat is in the box.

Out We’re going out for dinner tonight.

On The book is on the table.

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Adverb of Manner
An adverb of manner tells us how something was done or describe the way in which an
action is performed. They often end in -ly, but not always. Examples: happily, loudly, quickly,
carefully, beautifully.

Adverb of Manner Example

Quickly She ran quickly.

Slowly He spoke slowly.

Loudly The band played loudly.

Softly She whispered softly.

Beautifully The sunset was beautifully colored.

Gracefully She danced gracefully.

Carefully He handled the glass carefully.

Clearly She explained the situation clearly.

Happily They laughed happily.

Sadly She spoke sadly about her loss.

Adverb of Degree
An adverb of degree tells us the level or extent of something. Examples: very, completely,
almost, quite, extremely.

Adverb of Degree Example

Absolutely She absolutely refuses to go.
Completely I completely agree with you.
Entirely He was entirely to blame.
Totally The party was totally awesome!
Wholly The project was a wholly new experience.
Extremely It was extremely cold today.
Fully I fully understand what you mean.
Really That was really helpful.
Partly The decision was partly influenced by her parents.
Mostly The movie was mostly fiction.

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EXERCISE: Read the sentences. Circle the adverb in each sentence. Write the type of
adverb it is on the first blank line and the question it answers on the second blank line.
The first one has been done for you.
1. I work out daily.
Adverb of: frequency
How often do you work out?
2. Exercising is extremely helpful to my physical and mental health.
Adverb of:_______________________
________________________________
3. Even when I’m running quickly, I feel relaxed.
Adverb of:_______________________
________________________________
4. Last year, I wasn’t working out at all.
Adverb of:_______________________
________________________________
5. Going anywhere was a challenge because I was out of breath.
Adverb of:_______________________
________________________________
6. I decided to start exercising slowly by walking.
Adverb of:_______________________
________________________________

EXERCISE: In the following sentences underline the adverbs and state their kind.
1. The girl sang sweetly. ______________________
2. What is he doing outside? ______________________
3. He practices cricket every day. ______________________
4. I look forward to hearing from you soon. _________________
5. The old woman was walking slowly. ______________________
6. The kittens are playing there. ______________________
7. Children usually rush about. ______________________
8. The girls danced gracefully. ______________________
9. She has travelled everywhere. ______________________

3.2.4. Adjectives and prepositions

ADJECTIVES + OF
- nice, kind, good, generous, mean, stupid, silly, intelligent, clever, sensible, (im)polite, rude,
unreasonable OF someone to do something
Example: It was stupid of me to go out so late at night.
Thank you. It was nice/kind/polite of you to help me.

- afraid, frightened, terrified, scared OF someone / something

Example: Are you afraid of dogs?

- ashamed, proud, aware, (in)capable, conscious, fond , full, , jealous, envious, suspicious,
short, tired OF sb/sth.
Example: I´m ashamed of what I did.
I´m short of money. Can you lend me some?

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 I´m tired of waiting.
She was jealous of his secretary.

ADJECTIVES + TO
- nice, kind, good, generous, mean, (im)polite, rude, (un)pleasant, (un)friendly, cruel TO
someone
Example: They have always been nice to me.
She is always rude to Ann.

- married, engaged TO someone

Example: Susan is married to an Ethiopian.

- addicted, allergic, attentive, grateful, immune, indifferent, liable (likely to suffer from) TO
something
Example: He has become addicted to drugs very early.

ADJECTIVES + WITH
- delighted, pleased, satisfied, disappointed, bored, fed up, connected, happy, obsessed,
preoccupied, crowded WITH someone/something
Example: I was disappointed with the gift.

ADJECTIVES + WITH / ABOUT

- angry, annoyed, furious WITH someone FOR doing something
- angry, annoyed, furious ABOUT something
Example: What are you so angry about?
I´m furious with her for not inviting me to her party.

ADJECTIVES + ABOUT
- excited, worried, upset, sorry, anxious, certain, right, wrong ABOUT something
Example: I´m sorry about the noise last night.
I was right about the results.
ADJECTIVES + AT
- good, bad, excellent, brilliant, hopeless AT something
Example: I´m hopeless at repairing things.

ADJECTIVES + AT/BY
- surprised, shocked, amazed, astonished AT/BY something
Example: Everybody was shocked at/by the news.

ADJECTIVES + FOR
- famous, sorry, late, ready, responsible FOR something
Example: I´m sorry for shouting at you.
She is responsible for everything.

ADJECTIVES + IN
- interested, experienced IN something
Example: Are you interested in art?

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Exercise: Put in the correct preposition.
1. England is famous ________ its rainy weather.
2. I'm very proud ________ my daughter. She worked very hard.
3. He isn't really interested ________ getting married.
4. Luke is very pleased ________ his exam results.
5. Unfortunately, I'm very bad ________ music.
6. I've been married ________ my husband for 10 years.
7. She's very excited ________ the party.
8. Julie is very different ________ her sister.
9. My niece is afraid ________ dogs.
10. A ball gown is similar ________ an evening dress.
11. What is your town famous ________?
12. It's great you got that job! You should be proud ________ yourself.
13. I'm very excited ________ buying a new computer.
14. That bike is similar ________ yours.
15. She is interested ________ jazz.
16. Are you pleased ________ your new house?
17. Lucy is extremely good ________ languages.
18. Who is James married ________?
19. English cheese is very different ________ French cheese.
20. He isn't afraid ________ anything.

Exercise: Match both parts to make complete sentences.

36
 3.2.5. Reported Speech
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and indirect. In direct speech
we repeat the original speaker’s exact words: He said, “I have lost my umbrella.” In indirect
speech, we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the
speaker’s exact words: He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.

PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: CHANGES NECESSARY

First and second person pronouns and possessive adjectives normally change to the third
person except when the speaker is reporting his own words. (I = he, she; me = him, her; my
= his, her; mine = his, hers; we = they...)

She said, “he’s my son”. She said that he was her son.
“I’m ill”, she said. She said that she was ill.

EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND PLACE IN INDIRECT SPEECH

“I saw her the day before yesterday”, he said. He said he’d seen her two days before.
“I’ll do it tomorrow”, he promised. He promised that he would do it the next day.

STATEMENTS IN INDIRECT SPEECH: TENSE CHANGES NECESSARY

37
QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
He said, “Where is she going?” He asked where she was going.
COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE IN INDIRECT SPEECH
He said, “Lie down, Tom”. He told Tom to lie down.
EXCLAMATIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Exclamations usually become statements in indirect speech. The exclamation mark
disappears. Exclamations beginning What (a) ... or How ... can be reported by: - exclaim/say
that:
He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How dreadful!”
He exclaimed that it was a dreadful idea/was dreadful.
Some more examples:
He said, “Thank you!” He thanked me.
He said, “Good luck!” He wished me luck.
He said, “Happy Christmas!” He wished me a happy Christmas.
He said, “Congratulations!” He congratulated me.

YES AND NO IN INDIRECT SPEECH

Yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb.
Direct: He said, “Can you swim?” and I said “No”
In Direct: He asked (me) if I could swim and I said I couldn’t.
Direct: He said, “Will you have time to do it?” and I said “Yes”
In Direct: He asked if I would have time to do it and I said that I would.

REPORTED SPEECH: OTHER POINTS

MUST: after a past reporting verb, ‘must’ does not usually change:
Direct: He said, “It must be pretty late, I really must go”.
In Direct: He said that it must be pretty late and he really must go.
MODAL VERBS: Past modal verbs (could, might, ought to, should, used to, etc. ) do not
normally change in reported speech.
He said, “I might come”. He said that he might come.
He said, “I would help him if I could”. He said that he would help him if he could.
He said, “You needn’t wait”. He said that I needn’t wait.
Exercise: Report the following sentences.
a. “Mary works in a bank”, Jane said.
____________________________________________________
b. “I’m staying with some friends”, Jim said.
_______________________________________________
c. “I’ve never been to Russia”, Mike said.
_________________________________________________
d. “Tom can’t use a computer”, Ella said.
_________________________________________________
e. “Everybody must try to do their best”, Jill said.
______________________________________
f. “I’ll stay at home on Sunday”, Bill said.
________________________________________________

38
3.3. READING: Two Ethiopian Children

39
Exercise: Make a list of similarities and differences between the two stories.

Similarities:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Differences:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3.4. LETTER WRTING

Letter-writing is a skill that has to be developed. In this chapter, we will see informal letters.
Given below is the format of the informal letter. Your address (but not your name) usually
goes in the top right-hand corner, but may go on the left too. The name and/or job title (if
you know them) and the address of the person you are writing to goes on the left. To
address someone whose name you do not know you can write: Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear
Sirs, Dear Sir/Madam. To address someone by name, use their title and surname e.g. Dear
Dr Balakrishnan. To end a letter, use ‘Yours sincerely’, if you have addressed the person by
name; ‘Yours faithfully’, if you have begun the letter with ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Madam’, etc.

The following is the common format of informal letter.

40
Exercise: following the above format, write a letter to your friend telling your
experiences in study practices.

41
 UNIT FOUR: WATER
4.1. LISTENING SKILLS - The Water Cycle - Listening for details -Extracting main ideas
4.2. READING COMPREHENSION - The Tale of a Tap

42
43
4.3. SPEAKING
Expressing regrets (Wish)

44
More on expressing regrets

45
4.4. GRAMMAR
4.2.1. Like and as
‘Like’ and ‘as’ can be used as prepositions or conjunctions to compare and connect things.
To talk about similarities, we use ‘like’. To talk about a role or purpose, we use ‘as’.

‘Like’ has many meanings. Here we will focus on its use as a preposition or conjunction. We
can use like as a preposition meaning ‘similar too’ - (like + noun/pronoun)
• She looks like her mother.
• When it snows it feels like Christmas.
• This tea tastes like cinnamon.

We can sometimes use like as a conjunction. It can take the place of ‘as’ in an informal way.
- (like + clause)
• Nobody can play the piano like she can. (Inf.)
• Nobody can play the piano as she can. (F.)

We can only use ‘like’ with the following verbs: seem, taste, feel, look, smell and sound.
• These biscuits taste like raspberry jam.
• That woman looks like a famous actress.

‘As’ can be used as a preposition or a conjunction. We can use as (preposition) to discuss a

role or purpose. - (as + noun)
• She works as a teacher
• I was hired as a graphic designer.
• You can use your phone as a calculator if you need to.

We can use as (conjunction) to discuss an event that is happening while another event is in
progress.
• I arrived to the party just as my friend was leaving.
• I sat down in my chair as the class began.

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 4.2.2. Quantifiers
Some and Any are used before plural nouns and uncountable nouns to talk about an
indefinite quantity:
EXAMPLE: Some letters any letters
Some money any money
Some is used in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLE: - There are some letters for you.
- I’ve got some money.
Some is used in questions when we want to encourage people to say ‘yes’; for example in
requests and offers.
EXAMPLE: - Can you let me have some paper?
- Would you like some more tea?
- Have you got some paper I could have, Please?
Any is used in negative and question form.
EXAMPLE: - Are there any new stories in your store.
- Is there any tea in the cupboard?
- I don’t have any new stories for you.
- There isn’t any tea in the cupboard.
Any is used after words with negative meaning such as without, never, seldom, rarely,
hardly.
EXAMPLE: - I found a taxi without any trouble.
- You never do any homework.
- There are hardly any eggs left.

We use much and many mostly in question and negative. Much is used with uncountable
nouns, and many is used with countable plural nouns.
EXAMPLE: - Is there much rice left?
- We haven’t got much rice left.
- Has he got many books?
- He hasn’t got many books.
Note: We often use much and many in affirmative sentences after too, as, so and very.
EXAMPLE: - Take as much milk as you want.
- I’ve got so many jobs to do today.
- We enjoy the party very much.
- We’ve got too much milk.

In affirmative sentences, we normally use a lot (of), lots (of) and plenty (of), not much and
many. We use a lot (of), lots (of) and plenty (of) with both uncountable nouns and plural
nouns.
EXAMPLE: - We’ve got a lot of milk. (Not: We’ve got much milk.)
- He’s got a lot of / plenty of books. (Not normally: He’s got many books.)

Little and few without a are more negative ideas. Little means “not much” or “almost no”.
Few means “not many” or “almost no”.
EXAMPLES: There is little work to do.
The exam is difficult, and few students passed it. (almost no student)

47
We use a little to express positive ideas with uncountable nouns. It means “a small amount,
but some”.
EXAMPLES: There is still a little work to do.
I have a little sugar in the jar.

We use a few to express positive ideas with plural nouns. It means “a small number, but
some”.
EXAMPLE: A few students passed the entrance exam.
There are a few people in the meeting hall.

EXERCISE: Circle the correct answers.

1. There aren’t some / any help.
2. Do you know some / any Americans?
3. We need some / any more coffee.
4. She’s got some / any interesting friends.
5. I didn’t have some / any breakfast today.
6. He hasn’t done some / any work for ten years.
7. Have you got some / any brothers and sisters?
8. I’m having some / any problems with my car.
9. Are there some / any restaurants near here?

EXERCISE: Choose the correct item.

1. Have got _______ friends?
A) many B) much C) a lot of
2. There are _______ people in the room.
A) much B) a little C) a lot of
3. Can I have _______ sugar, please?
A) a few B) a little C) little
4. How _______ oranges are on the table?
A) many B) a few C) much
5 How _______ money has Fred got?
A) many B) little C) much
6. There are _______ monkeys at the zoo.
A) much B) a few C) a little.

4.2.3. Articles -a, the, an

There are three articles in the English language: a, an, and the. They are placed before
nouns and show whether a given noun is general or specific.

Examples of Articles:
I want a cheeseburger. (It could be any cheeseburger.)
I could use an apple. (It could be any apple.)
I need the notes that I wrote in class! (The speaker is talking about specific notes.)

48
Using Indefinite Articles
When you want to speak generally about a singular noun, use a or an before it. In each of
the following examples, there is not one specific kind of bird, rock, or apple that the speaker
is thinking of, so the article a or an is placed before the italicized noun.

To decide between when to use a and when to use an, think about the initial sound of the
noun that follows the article. Use a when the noun begins with a consonant sound (a map);
use an when the noun begins with a vowel sound (an otter). Consider the following
examples.

I would love to have a pet bird. (It doesn’t matter what kind of bird.)
I feel like grabbing a rock and throwing it into the ocean. (It could be any rock.)
You look like you could use an apple. (It could be any apple.)

Using the Definite Article

While a and an are used for nouns that are general, the is used for nouns that are known by
you and the person you are speaking to. In the following examples, you will notice that the
is used regardless of whether or not the noun is plural or uncountable (unlike a or an).

I have an apple in my bag. The apple is red.

Can you please give me some water? Thanks for giving me the water.
You know the Spanish textbook I gave you the other day? Can I please have it back?

EXERCISE: Introduce the following nouns with a, an, the, or no article.

1. I could really use __ sandwich right now.
2. I always add __ sugar and __ milk.
3. If I add __ sugar and __ milk, then I have __ best cup of coffee I could ask for.
4. I have __ pencil in my hand, and __ pencil is blue.
5. I go to __ school in San José. __ school is San José State University.
6. I am taking __ exam right now. __ exam is quizzing me on articles.
7. There are three articles in English. __ articles are a, an, and the.

EXERCISE: Introduce the following nouns using a, an, or no article.

1. I have __ pet beetle. His name is Bubba.
2. I am really craving __ milk right now.
3. I made __ new friend today.
4.__ Debre Berhan University is great!

4.2.4. Linking words

A conjunction is a word that connects elements of a sentence, such as words, phrases, or
clauses. The three types of conjunctions are: subordinating conjunctions, coordinating
conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Subordinating conjunctions break sentences into word clusters called dependent (or
subordinate) clauses. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone and must be connected to an

49
independent clause to make a complex sentence. Subordinating conjunctions connect the
dependent clause to the independent clause. The following are Common Subordinating
conjunctions.

After If only Unless

Although In order that Until
As Now that When
As if Once Whenever
As long as Provided Where
As though Rather than Whereas
Because Since Wherever
Before So that Whether
Even if That While
Even though Though Within
If Without Besides
EXAMPLES:
We can go to the beach when it opens in June.
The baby always cries whenever his mother leaves the room.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjunctions are single words that connect similar parts of a sentence, such as
adjectives, nouns, and clauses. The acronym FANBOYS is often used to refer to coordinating
conjunctions. For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

EXAMPLES:
Martha does not want an orange nor a banana.
John could not find her notes, so she could not study for her test.
Her dress was blue and purple.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Correlative conjunctions connect similar parts of a sentence, such as adjectives, nouns, and
clauses. However, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are
combinations of coordinating conjunctions, not only a single word. They always come in
pairs and link grammatically equivalent items.

As…as Both…and Either…or

Neither…nor Not only…but also Not…but
Whether…or

EXAMPLES:
Both the teacher and the students attended the meeting.
Nardos wants to go to either Debre Berhan University or Addis Ababa University.

EXERCISE: Use the following conjunctions to complete the sentences.

(and, but, or, yet, therefore, otherwise, either .... or, neither .... nor, not only .... but also,
so ... that, as .... as, both .... and, as if, while, as soon as, before, though, although, after,
when, where, why, how, still, till, unless, until, if, because, since)

50
1. ______ he is a busy, he spends time with his family.
2. She is ______ intelligent ______ hard working.
3. Rahel will play today ______ he gets a chance.
4. You can't succeed ______ you work hard.
5. We must reach there _______ anyone else.
6. Sam is ______ a fool _____ a stupid.
7. I fell asleep _______ I was watching TV.
8. He is ______ intelligent ______ hard working.
9. Samuel was eating food ______ the postman arrived.
10. I was very angry, ______ I didn't argue.
11. She was unhappy, ______ she was rich.
12. I like him very much ______ he is my best friend.
13. I can't believe you ______ you speak the truth.
14. Lemma is _____ tall _____ Sweaty.
15. We don't know ______ Suma failed in the examination.
16. Suresh is clever _______ proud.
17. I can't attend the meeting ______ I am suffering from fever.
18. This is the village ______ I lived in my childhood.
19. Nardos is _____ kind ______ humble.
20. You better keep quiet _______ you will be sent outside.

4.5. WRITING - Saving Water in Ethiopia (Paragraph writing)

51
 UNIT FIVE: FAMILY LIFE
5.1. LISTENING SKILLS - A Father’s Voice - Listening for details - Note Taking –
Vocabulary in context
5.2. GRAMMAR
5.2.1. Talking about the future; Going to (future form)
USE
We use going to when we talk about our plans for future.
 I am going to visit my parents tomorrow.
We also use going to when we want to make prediction based on an evidence we can see
now.
 Look at the clouds. It is going to rain.
STRUCTURE:
Affirmative: (pro) noun + am, is, are + going to + verb
o It is going to rain.
Negative: (pro) noun + am, is, are + not + going to + verb
o It isn't going to rain.
Question: Am, is, are + (pro) noun + going to + verb
o Is it going to rain?
Short answers.
o Yes, it is. Or, No, it isn't.

The structure of using going to in future tense is: subject + form of “to be” (am/is/are) +
going to + base of a verb. I am going to travel to Ireland for vacation next month. He is going
to feel sad if you don't invite him to the party. They are going to go to his parents' house.
We're going to go to Paris = “We're going to go to Paris.” You can also use will to talk about
definite plans that will happen in the future. “Next year we will stay at home rather than go
on holiday.”

Future plans
Use ‘going to’ to talk about your plans for the future — things you have decided to do:
What are you going to do on Saturday? (= What are you planning to do on Saturday?)
You can use “I’m going to go to…” — or simplify it to “I’m going to…”.
 I’m going to do these exercises

Degrees of probability
1. EASY
Probability
You can also use will to talk about probability. It’s often used with the phrases “I’ll
definitely…, “I’m sure I’ll…”, “I’ll probably…”, “I think I’ll…”, “Maybe I’ll…”:
I’ll probably go to the cinema tomorrow night.
2. MEDIUM
Remember
Use “going to” to talk about future plans.
 I’m going to have a party to celebrate my fortieth birthday.
Use the present continuous to talk about future arrangements.
 I’m having a big party, so I should book the restaurant and send out invitations soon.

52
”Use “will” for spontaneous decisions and to show probability.
 “I think I’ll have a party at my local Italian restaurant.”

Emphasize Future Intentions and Plans

You can use the future continuous verb tense to talk about future intentions and plans.
 I will be going to Europe this summer. They will be visiting us next month.

Future Continuous Tense Usage; Interrupted Future Actions

You can use the future continuous verb tense to describe future actions that will be
interrupted.
 When they get her next week, we will be cleaning the house.
 By the time Susie arrives this afternoon, we will be preparing lunch.
 When we arrive in the USA, we will be taking a road trip.

Actions in Progress at a Specific Time in the Future

You can use the future continuous tense to describe actions that you are in the process of
doing at specific times in the future.
 At 6 pm tonight, we will be having Christmas dinner.
 In January, he will be starting a new workout regime.
 Tomorrow, they will be visiting us.

Current Actions that will continue in the Future

You can use the future continuous to talk about things that you are in the process of doing
right now and plan to continue doing in the future.
 Don’t worry, we will still be playing video games by the time you get back.
 They will be studying all day.
 We will be learning about that subject all year in class.

To Politely Ask About the Future

You can use the future continuous tense to ask polite questions about the future.
 Will you be helping us with the cleaning?
 Will they be coming to the party with us?
 Will she be cleaning the dishes?

Emphasize Future Intentions and Plans

You can use the future continuous verb tense to talk about future intentions and plans.
 I will be going to Europe this summer.
 They will be visiting us next month.
 Frank will be helping us tomorrow with the move.

Describe the Atmosphere in the Future

You can use the future continuous to describe the situation and atmosphere of a situation in
the future.
 When we get to the library, everybody will be studying for finals.
 When Susie gets here, we will all be hiding in anticipation to surprise her for her
birthday.

53
  When they get here, we will be celebrating graduation from university.

How do you talk about future in present continuous?

 We can use the present continuous to talk about future arrangements.
 I'm visiting my friend tomorrow.
 We aren't going to school today. ...
 I'm having a party for my birthday.
 My brother is staying home tonight. ...
 Are you playing badminton tomorrow?

Structure of future continuous tense

Like the present continuous tense and the past continuous tense, the future continuous
tense consists of two helping verbs – 'will' and 'be' followed by the past participle form of
the main verb. The past participle of the main verb can be formed by adding an 'ing' to the
end of the verb.

Simple future tense, also known as the future tense with will, is one of the ways to talk
about future events in the English language.
 We will travel to Argentina next month. Will travel is the verb travel put in the simple
future tense.
Will + Infinitive – Simple Future in English Grammar

Construction and Conjunction

Rule 1: To form simple future tense with will, we follow the structure will + infinitive form of
the verb. The conjugation of the future simple with will is the same for all forms.
Here's an overview of the positive, negative and interrogative conjugation of the future
simple tense in English:
Positive I will sing
Negative You will not sing
Question Will they sing? all forms are the same for both singular and plural

Note: In spoken and informal written English, we can use contractions in simple future -
short forms of pronouns or verbs with the word not. Here's how to create them:
Long Form; will and will not
Contraction: 'll and 'll / won't
Example; they'll and they'll not / they won't
Usage
Rule 2: We can use the simple future tense with will to express a spontaneous decision.
Example
 Let's go, I will show you the best viewing point in the city. Here, simple future tense
with will is used to express a spontaneous decision to go somewhere.
Rule 3: We can use the simple future tense with will to express an opinion, hope,
uncertainty, or assumption regarding the future.
 You won't finish this essay in one day.
The simple future tense with will is used to express an assumption.
Rule 4: We can use the simple future tense with will to express a promise.
 I will finish this essay till tomorrow morning.

54
The simple future tense with will is used to express a promise.
Rule 5: We can use the simple future tense with will to express an offer or request.
 Will you help me with cooking?
The simple future tense with will is used to express a request.
We use the simple future tense with will to form the first conditional.
 If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel our picnic.

FUTURE PLANS USING ‘BE GOING TO’

EXERCISE: Construct sentences based on the information in the table.

55
Example: What is Biruk going to do on Sunday morning?
He’s going to visit her grandmother.
1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.2.2. Sentence Types and Functions
Choosing what types of sentences to use in an essay can be challenging for several reasons.
The writer must consider the following questions: Are my ideas simple or complex? Do my
ideas require shorter statements or longer explanations? How do I express my ideas clearly?

What Is a Sentence?
A sentence is a complete set of words that conveys meaning. A sentence is composed of one
or more clauses. A clause contains a subject and verb. A sentence can communicate
 A statement (I am studying.)
 A command (Go away.)
 An exclamation (I’m so excited!)
 A question (What time is it?)

Independent and Dependent Clauses

There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and dependent clauses. A sentence
contains at least one independent clause and may contain one or more dependent clauses.
An independent clause (or main clause)
 Is a complete thought.
 Can stand by itself.
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause)
 Is an incomplete thought.
 Cannot stand by itself.
You can spot a dependent clause by identifying the subordinating conjunction. A
subordinating conjunction creates a dependent clause that relies on the rest of the sentence
for meaning. The following list provides some examples of subordinating conjunction
After, as, before, if, though, while, unless, although, because, even though, since, when,
until, whereas.

Examples on Independent and Dependent Clauses

Independent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy popcorn.
Dependent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy popcorn.
Independent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare me.
Dependent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare me.
Different Types of Sentences

Sentences are divided into four categories: simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.

56
  Johnny rode his bike to school.
 Who is your best friend?
 She ate her lunch, took a walk, and went back to work.

Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. A coordinating conjunction (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so) often links the two independent clauses and is preceded by a
comma.
 She wanted to go on vacation, so she saved up her money.
 I like apples, but my sister loves bananas.
 Tim loves to read, and he also loves to hike.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A complex sentence will include at least one subordinating conjunction.
 She went to class even though she was sick.
 As John was arriving to work, he realized he forgot his lunch.
 While I enjoy classical music, I prefer rock and roll because I play the drums.

Compound-Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence combines complex sentence and compound sentence
forms. A compound-complex sentence contains one or more independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses.
 Although she felt guilty for missing her friend’s birthday, she took her out to dinner
the next day, and they had a great time.
 I try to eat healthy food, but because fast food is so convenient, I cannot maintain a
healthy diet.
 If he got the job, he would have to commute 50 miles to work, so he decided the job
was not worth it.

Functional Purposes of each Type of Sentence

Because each type of sentence can serve various functions, the writer should use the type of
sentence that best communicates the purpose of his or her idea.
Choose the sentence type that will most clearly and accurately convey the logic of your idea.

Functions of Simple Sentences

Use simple sentences when presenting a limited amount of information. Although simple
sentences may be shorter, they are not any less academic than other sentence types.
 To declare a direct statement
 First, I will give background information about my project. This conclusion is
supported by extensive evidence.
 To display a simple list
 The researchers created their hypothesis, conducted some tests, and drew their
conclusions.
 My evidence comes from journal articles, periodicals, and books.

57
  To give concise directions
 Please consider my application for the internship.
 Turn to Table 1 in the appendix. To ask a question
 What is the true meaning of the poem?
 What will this study mean to medical research in a decade?

Functions of Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences

Compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences can serve similar purposes. The
writer can tailor the amount of information he or she provides by adding independent and
dependent clauses to simple sentences.
 To combine similar ideas
Compound: Recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, and everyone should
recycle at home.
Complex: Since recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, everyone should
recycle at home.
Compound-Complex: Since recycling is an effective way of helping the environment,
everyone should recycle at home; we can all work together to protect our planet.
 To compare or contrast ideas
Compound: Van Gogh was a talented and successful artist, but he had intense personal
issues. Complex: Although he was a talented and successful artist, Van Gogh had intense
personal issues.
Compound-Complex: Although he was a talented and successful artist, Van Gogh had
intense personal issues; indeed, many say his inner turmoil contributed to his beautiful art.
 To convey cause and effect or chain of events
Compound: The researchers did not come to the correct conclusion, so they restructured
their hypothesis.
Complex: Since the researchers did not come to the correct conclusion, they restructured
their hypothesis.
Compound-Complex: Since the researchers did not come to the correct conclusion, they
restructured their hypothesis, and they will attempt the experiment again.
 To elaborate on a claim or extend reasoning
Compound: Cell phones should not be permitted in class, for they distract students and
teachers.
Complex: Since cell phones distract students and teachers, they should not be used in class.
Compound-Complex: Since cell phones distract students and teachers, they should not be
used in class, and I encourage faculty to forbid their use.

EXERCISE 1
Identify the sentence type. Circle any coordinating or subordinating conjunctions.
Underline independent clauses once and dependent clauses twice. Then, explain what
function the sentence is performing.

1. Harry Potter was rejected from many publishers before J.K. Rowling found success.
Sentence type: _____________________________________________________________
Function: __________________________________________________________________

58
2. Even though the patients showed various symptoms, the clinical study found that lack of
sleep contributes to the inability to focus, irritability, and poorer health.
Sentence type: ____________________________________________________________
Function: __________________________________________________________________
3. More and more students are relying on online databases to find sources.
Sentence type: _____________________________________________________________
Function: ___________________________________________________________________
4. The business analysts proposed higher numbers for next quarter, and they expect to
exceed those numbers the following quarter.
Sentence type: ______________________________________________________________
Function: ___________________________________________________________________
5. Homeless teens face intense obstacles, but when it comes to schooling, they do have the
chance to receive an education if they enroll in a special program.
Sentence type: ______________________________________________________________
Function:___________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 2
Practice composing your own sentences given the information provided. Consider
what sentence type will be best to express the information.

1. You are telling the reader about three important qualities of a character in a book.
Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________
2. You are showing both sides of an argument.
Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________
3. You are wondering about the types of resources available to students at SJSU.
Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________
4. You are describing a sequence of events.
Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________
5. You are providing extensive detail about a particular event.
Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________

5.2.3. Verb patterns -verbs followed by gerund and infinitives

In English, if you want to follow a verb with another action, you must use a gerund or
infinitive.
EXAMPLE: We resumed talking. (gerund – verb + ing)
I want to see a movie. (infinitive – to + base verb)

There are verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with a change in meaning. Consider the
following examples.

59
forget
I forgot to meet him.
(I didn’t meet him because I forgot to do it.)
I forgot meeting him.
(I don’t have the memory of meeting him before.)

go on
He went on to learn English and French.
(He ended one period of time before this.)
He went on learning English and French.
(He continued learning the languages.)

quit
She quit to work here.
(She quit another job in order to work here.)
She quit working here.
(She quit her job here. She doesn’t work here anymore.)

regret
I regret promising to help you.
(I’m sorry that I made the promise.)
I regret to tell you that we can’t hire you.
(I’m telling you now, and I’m sorry.)

remember
She remembered to visit her grandmother.
(She didn’t forget to visit.)
She remembered visiting her grandmother.
(She had memories of this time.)

stop
I stopped to call you.
(I interrupted another action in order to call you.)
I stopped calling you.
(I stopped this activity. Maybe we had a fight.)

try
I tried to open the window.
(I attempted this action but didn’t succeed.)
I tried opening the window.
(This was one option I sampled. Maybe the room was hot.)

60
The following table shows the distribution of some verbs followed by gerund or infinitive.

61
EXERCISE 1: Fill in the correct form of the verb in bracket.
1. I can’t imagine __________________ at home. (work)
2. We have decided against __________________ a new car. (buy)
3. She seems __________________ her new job. (like)
4. The students hope __________________ the exam. (pass)
5. He won’t go by plane. He is afraid of __________________ . (fly)
6. I am lazy. I don’t feel like __________________ any work. (do)
7. Remember ________________ the letter. Otherwise they won’t get it by Saturday. (post)
8. Have you ever learned how __________________ such a plane? (fly)
9. They were too lazy __________________ out with us. (go)
10. I always enjoy ______________to my grandfather. He always tells me great stories.(talk)
11. I’m very interested in __________________ French. (learn)
12. My pen friend is coming next Friday. I’m really looking forward _________her.(meet)
13. Don’t you mind __________________ away from your family for such a long time? (be)
14. The children promised __________________ back by nine. (be)
15. I wanted to go alone but Joe insisted on __________________ with me. (come)
16. Tom offered __________________ me home. (bring)
17. Why not __________________ a weekend in Scotland? (spend)
18. I’m sorry I can’t come to your party but thank you for __________________ me. (invite)
19. Our neighbours apologized for __________________ such noise. (make)
20. Paris is always worth __________________ to. (travel)
21. I’m sure I gave him back the money. I remember _____________ it back to him.(give)
22. She eventually managed __________________ her bike. (repair)
23. Would you like __________________ a cup of coffee? (drink)
24. There’s no point in __________ the matter. He has already made his decision.(discuss)
25. I prefer __________________ to skiing. (snowboard)
26. Do you mind __________________ Anita to the doctor? (bring)
27. It is difficult __________________ him. (understand)
28. We had difficulties __________________ your house. (find)
29. They decided __________________ Tennis in the afternoon. (play)
30. We expect him __________________ us on Sunday. (join)

EXERCISE 2: Circle the correct option to complete these sentences.

1. I'm really looking forward to seeing you / to see you at the weekend.
2. I promise not to tell anyone / telling anyone.
3. I must remember to call Dad / calling Dad on his birthday.
4. The thing I most enjoy to do / doing at the weekend is sleeping.
5. Do you remember to come here / coming here when you were two?
6. You can't pretend to be eighteen / being eighteen – you only look twelve!
7. What do you want to give Mum / giving Mum for her birthday?
8. I need to stop doing my homework / to do my homework late at night; I keep making
terrible mistakes!

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5.3 . READING COMPREHENSION - My Family - A Childhood Memory

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5.4. SPEAKING - Expressing Opinion
Agreeing and Disagreeing - A Happy Family Life

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5.5. WRITING - Memories - A Formal Letter

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 UNIT SIX: UNITED NATIONS
6.1. LISTENING SKILLS - A Lecture on the UN - Listening for details
6.2. SPEAKING – Pronunciation-contractions

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6.3. READING COMPREHENSION - The United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child

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 Vocabulary - adjectives to describe leaders

6.4. Grammar
6.4.1. Expressing Purpose -with to, so as to, in order to, for, so that
TO
We use "to" to say why we do something. 'to + verb'
EXAMPLE: I'm going there to see my sister.
We left early to catch the 6.30 train.
FOR (for + ing or for + object)
We use "for" to talk about a purpose or a reason for sth:
EXAMPLE: I’m going for some breakfast. I’m really hungry.
I wear these old trousers for painting.
The red button is for turning the machine off.
IN ORDER TO
We use "in order to" with an infinitive form of a verb to express the purpose of something.
EXAMPLE: John trained every day in order to improve his performance.
He came home early in order to see the kids before they went to bed.
To form the negative, we prefer “in order not to” rather than “not to”.
EXAMPLE: In order not to oversleep, I set the alarm for seven o’clock.
SO AS TO
We also use "so as to" with an infinitive form of a verb to express the purpose of something.
"So as to" is more formal than in order to.
EXAMPLE: I always keep fruit in the fridge so as to keep flies off it.
He did not switch on the light so as not to disturb her.
SO THAT/IN ORDER THAT
We use "so that" and "in order that" to talk about purpose. We often use them with modal
verbs (can, would, will, etc.). "So that" is far more common than "in order that", and "in
order that" is more formal.
EXAMPLE: I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
Regular checks are required in order that safety standards are maintained.

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IN ORDER FOR
We use in order for before a noun or pronoun. It means to make it possible for someone or
something to be or do something.
EXAMPLE: In order for us to win, we’ll all have to try a little harder.
These job cuts are necessary in order for the company to remain competitive.

EXERCISE: Choose 'for + verb ing or to+ infinitive' or 'for + noun'.

1. Matches are ___________________ (light) fires.
2. He went to the park ___________________ (relax).
3. This knife is ___________________ (cut) grapefruit.
4. We stopped at the shop ___________________ (bread).
5. The speakers are ___________________ (play) music.
6. I made a cake ___________________ (practise) baking.
7. I want ___________________ (go) out tonight.
8. She went to a restaurant ___________________ (lunch).
9. He thanked everyone ___________________ (come).
10. She went home ___________________ (study).
11. They apologised ___________________ (be) late.
12. Nails are ___________________ (build) things.
13. She came here ___________________ (read).
14. We rewarded the children ___________________ (study) hard.
15. The children came to the kitchen ___________________ (biscuits).
16. He promised ___________________ (help).
17. Lucy went to the café ___________________ (coffee).
18. They went to Paris ___________________ (learn) French.
19. The pen is ___________________ (write).
20. I went to the library ___________________ (the book about London).

6.4.2. Expressing Probability and Certainty -Can - could, may -might, must

MAY, MIGHT, and COULD

MIGHT and MAY indicate rather probability than possibility: The speaker wishes to express
that something is likely. COULD often means that something is possible but unlikely.
Consider the following examples.

Someone's knocked the door. It may /might be the postman.

(= Perhaps it's the postman.)
We may / might go out tomorrow night.
(= Perhaps we'll go out.)
It could be true, I suppose.
(= Possibly it's not a lie.)
You could win a million quid!
(= It is possible for you to win that money.)

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MAY, MIGHT, and COULD in the Negative
MIGHT NOT and COULD NOT may be contracted, but this is never done with MAY NOT.
MIGHT NOT and MAY NOT mean that it is possible that something is not the case, while
COULD NOT means that something is impossible. Consider the following examples.

Dave may not get the job.

(= It is possible that he won't get the job.)
We still might not lose the match.
(= It's unlikely but possible for us to win.)
John is afraid of heights – she couldn't climb the roof.
(= It's impossible for her...)
I'm totally unfit – I couldn't run a marathon.
(= It's impossible for me...)
MUST and CAN'T
MUST and CAN'T are opposites. Both indicate certainty, but while MUST means that we are
certain that something is true, CAN'T expresses our conviction that something is impossible.
Consider the following examples.
She isn't answering the phone – she must be out.
(= I'm certain she is out.)
You've had a long journey – you must be tired.
(= I'm certain you're tired.)
Nahom can't be in Addis Ababa – I saw him this morning.
(= It's impossible for him to be there.)
Life can't be easy if you have to spend it in a wheelchair.
(= It's impossible for life to be easy...)

EXERCISE:
Fill in the gaps with the correct modal of possibility and certainty, using the verb in
brackets. Sometimes, you may have to use the continuous, and some gaps permit
more than one solution.
1. A: Where's Nardos? I haven't seen her all day.
B: She might be (BE) in the music room. She may be practising (PRACTISE) for the
concert tomorrow.
A: No, she can't be (BE) – we'd hear her, wouldn't we?
B: Well, so she must be (BE) at the conservatory already.
A: Yeah, I guess.
2. I'm not sure, but it __________________ (RAIN) later on.
3. What are you saying? You __________________ (BE) serious about that!
4. It __________________ (BE) wonderful to be gliding down to earth on a parachute.
5. Dave __________________ (WORK) as a taxi driver – he can't drive.
6. Dan just __________________ (WIN) the match – he's really good at chess.
7. Jenny __________________ (BE) in the office – I can't reach her at home.
8. A: What are you doing tonight?
B: I'm not sure, but I __________________ (GO) to the cinema with Jim.
9. How can you work with that noise? If I were you, I ___________ (CONCENTRATE) like this!
10. We'll have to get more glasses for the party – we __________________ (HAVE) enough.
11. We __________________ (GO) to Egypt in summer, but we're not sure yet.

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6.5. WRITING - Writing a report

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